{"collection":"myth-cosmogony","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_65910/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_65910","id":"gutenberg_65910","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/65910","summary":null,"tags":["Category: History - Other","Category: Mythology, Legends & Folklore","Mythology, Norse","Northmen -- Religion","Old Norse literature","Tales, Medieval"],"text":"NORSE MYTHOLOGY\n\n\n\n\n[Illustration: Thor Fighting The Giants.]\n\n\n\n\n                            NORSE MYTHOLOGY;\n\n                                  OR,\n\n                    THE RELIGION OF OUR FOREFATHERS,\n\n                           CONTAINING ALL THE\n\n                          MYTHS OF THE EDDAS,\n\n                     SYSTEMATIZED AND INTERPRETED.\n\n                                  WITH\n\n                 AN INTRODUCTION, VOCABULARY AND INDEX.\n\n                                   BY\n\n                         R. B. ANDERSON, A.M.,\n\n      PROFESSOR OF THE SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES IN THE UNIVERSITY OF\n            WISCONSIN, AUTHOR OF \u201cAMERICA NOT DISCOVERED BY\n                 COLUMBUS,\u201d \u201cDEN NORSKE MAALSAG,\u201d ETC.\n\n                            SECOND EDITION.\n\n                                CHICAGO:\n                       S. C. GRIGGS AND COMPANY.\n                          LONDON TR\u00dcBNER & CO.\n                                 1876.\n\n\n\n\nCOPYRIGHT 1875.\n\nBY S. C. GRIGGS AND COMPANY.\n\nELECTROTYPED BY ZEESE & CO.\n\n\n\n\n                                   TO\n\n                      HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW,\n\n                           THE AMERICAN POET,\n\n   WHO HAS NOT ONLY REFRESHED HIMSELF AT THE CASTALIAN FOUNTAIN, BUT\n           ALSO COMMUNED WITH BRAGE, AND TAKEN DEEP DRAUGHTS\n                    FROM THE WELLS OF URD AND MIMER,\n\n                       THIS VOLUME IS DEDICATED,\n\n                     WITH THE GRATEFUL REVERENCE OF\n\n                              THE AUTHOR.\n\n\n\n\nI think Scandinavian Paganism, to us here, is more interesting than any\nother. It is, for one thing, the latest; it continued in these regions\nof Europe till the eleventh century: eight hundred years ago the\nNorwegians were still worshipers of Odin. It is interesting also as the\ncreed of our fathers; the men whose blood still runs in our veins, whom\ndoubtless we still resemble in so many ways. Strange: they did believe\nthat, while we believe so differently. Let us look a little at this poor\nNorse creed, for many reasons. We have tolerable means to do it; for\nthere is another point of interest in these Scandinavian mythologies:\nthat they have been preserved so well.\n\nNeither is there no use in _knowing_ something about this old Paganism\nof our fathers. Unconsciously, and combined with higher things, it is in\n_us_ yet, that old faith withal. To know it consciously brings us into\ncloser and clearer relations with the past,\u2014with our own possessions in\nthe past. For the whole past, as I keep repeating, is the possession of\nthe present. The past had always something _true_, and is a precious\npossession. In a different time, in a different place, it is always some\nother _side_ of our common human nature that has been developing itself.\n\n\u2014_Thomas Carlyle._\n\n\n\n\n                                PREFACE.\n\n\nAMERICA NOT DISCOVERED BY COLUMBUS having been so favorably received by\nthe press generally, as well as by many distinguished scholars, who have\nexpressed themselves in very flattering terms of our recent _d\u00e9but_ in\nEnglish, we venture to appear again; and, although the subject is\nsomewhat different, it still (as did the first) has its fountain head in\nthe literature of the North.\n\nWe come, this time, encouraged by all your kind words, with higher\naspirations, and perhaps, too, with less timidity and modesty. We come\nto ask your opinion of Norse mythology. We come to ask whether Norse\nmythology is not equally as worthy of your attention as the Greek. Nay,\nwe come to ask whether you will not give the Norse the _preference_. We\npropose to call your attention earnestly, in this volume, to the merits\nof our common Gothic or Teutonic inheritance, and to chat a few hours\nwith you about the imaginative, poetic and prophetic period of our\nGothic history.\n\nWe are well aware that we are here giving you a book full of\nimperfections so far as style, originality, arrangement and external\nadornment of the subject is concerned, and we shall not take it much to\nheart, even if we are severely criticised in these respects; we shall\nrather take it as an earnest admonition to study and improve in language\nand composition for the future.\n\nBut, if the spirit of the book, that is, the cause which we have\nundertaken to plead therein,\u2014if that be frowned down, or rejected, or\nlaughed at, we shall be the recipient of a most bitter disappointment,\nand yet we shall not wholly despair. The time must come, when our common\nGothic inheritance will be loved and respected. There will come men\u2014ay,\nthere are already men in our midst who will advocate and defend its\nrights on American soil with sharper steel than ours. And, though we may\nfind but few roses and many thorns on our pathway, we shall not suffer\nour ardor in our chosen field of labor to be diminished. We are\ndetermined not to be discouraged.\n\nWhat we claim for this work is, that it is the _first complete and\nsystematic presentation of the Norse mythology in the English language_;\nand this we think is a sufficient reason for our asking a humble place\nupon your book-shelves. And, while we make this claim, we fully\nappreciate the value of the many excellent treatises and translations\nthat have appeared on this subject in England. We do not undervalue the\nlabors of Dasent, Thorpe, Pigott, Carlyle, etc., but none of these give\na comprehensive account of all the deities and the myths in full. There\nis, indeed, no work outside of Scandinavia that covers the whole ground.\nSo far as America is concerned, the only work on Norse mythology that\nhas hitherto been published in this country is BARCLAY PENNOCK\u2019S\ntranslation of the Norse Professor Rudolph Keyser\u2019s _Religion of the\nNorthmen_. This is indeed an excellent and scholarly work, and a\nvaluable contribution to knowledge; but, instead of _presenting_ the\nmythology of the Norsemen, it _interprets_ it; and Professor Keyser is\nyet one of the most eminent authorities in the exposition of the Asa\ndoctrine. Pennock\u2019s translation of Keyser is a book of three hundred and\nforty-six pages, and of these only _sixteen_ are devoted to a synopsis\nof the mythology; and it is, as the reader may judge, nothing but a very\nbrief synopsis. The remaining three hundred and thirty pages contain a\nhistory of Old Norse literature, an interpretation of the Odinic\nreligion, and an exhibition of the manner of _worship_ among the heathen\nNorsemen. In a word, Pennock\u2019s book _presupposes_ a knowledge of the\nsubject; and for one who has this, we would recommend _Pennock\u2019s_ KEYSER\nas the best work _extant_ in English. We are indebted to it for many\nvaluable paragraphs in this volume.\n\nThis subject has, then, been investigated by many able writers; and, in\npreparing this volume, we have borrowed from their works all the light\nthey could shed upon our pathway. The authors we have chiefly consulted\nare named in the accompanying list. While we have used their very phrase\nwhenever it was convenient, we have not followed them in a slavish\nmanner. We have made such changes as in our judgment seemed necessary to\ngive our work harmony and symmetry throughout. We at first felt disposed\nto give the reader a mere translation either of N. M. Petersen, or of\nGrundtvig, or of P. A. Munch; but upon further reflection we came to the\nconclusion that we could treat the subject more satisfactorily to\nourselves, and fully as acceptably to our readers, by sketching out a\nplan of our own, and making free use of all the best writers upon this\nsubject. And as we now review our pages, we find that N. M. Petersen has\nserved us the most. Much of his work has been appropriated in an almost\nunchanged form.\n\nAlthough many of the ideas set forth in this work may seem new to\nAmerican readers, yet they are by no means wholly original. Many of them\nhave for many years been successfully advocated in Scandinavian\ncountries, and to some extent, also, in Germany and England. Our aim has\nnot at present been so much to make original investigations, as\u2014that\nwhich is far more needed and to the purpose\u2014to give the fruits of the\nlabors performed in the North, and call the attention of the American\npublic earnestly to the wealth stored up in the Eddas and Sagas of\nIceland. No one can doubt the correctness of our position in this\nmatter, when he reflects that we now drawing near the close of the\n_nineteenth_ century, and have not yet had a complete Norse mythology in\nthe English language, while the number of Greek and Roman mythologies is\nlegion. Bayard Taylor said to us, recently, that the Scandinavian\nlanguages, in view of their rich literature, in view of the light which\nthis literature throws upon early English history, and in view of the\nimportance of Icelandic in a successful study of English and\nAnglo-Saxon, ought to be taught in every college in Vinland; and that is\nthe very pith of what we have to say in this preface.\n\nWe have had excellent aid from Dr. S. H. Carpenter, who combines broad\ngeneral culture with a thorough knowledge of Old English and\nAnglo-Saxon. He has read every page of this work, and we hereby thank\nhim for the generous sympathy and advice which he has invariably given\nus. To President John Bascom we are under obligations for kind words and\nvaluable suggestions. We hereby extend heartfelt thanks to Professor\nWillard Fiske, of Cornell University, for aid and encouragement; to Mrs.\nOle Bull, for free use of her excellent library; and to the poet, H. W.\nLongfellow, for permitting us to make extracts from his works, and to\ninscribe this volume to him as the Nestor among American writers on\nScandinavian themes. May the persons here named find that this our work,\nin spite of its faults, advances, somewhat, the interest in the studies\nof Northern literature in this country.\n\nWhile Mallet\u2019s _Northern Antiquities_ is a very valuable work, we cannot\nbut make known our regrets that Blackwell\u2019s edition of it ever was\npublished. Mr. Blackwell has in many ways injured the cause which he\nevidently intended to promote. While we, therefore, urge caution in the\nuse of Mallet\u2019s _Northern Antiquities_ by Blackwell, we can with all our\nheart recommend such writers upon the North as Dasent, Laing, Thorpe,\nGosse, Pennock, Boyesen, Marsh, Fiske, the Howitts, Pigott, Lord\nDufferin, Maurer, M\u00f6bius, Morris, Magn\u00fasson, Vigfusson, Hjaltalin, and\nseveral others.\n\nIt is sincerely hoped that by this our effort we may, at least for the\npresent, fill a gap in English literature, and accomplish something in\nawakening among students some interest in Norse mythology, history,\nliterature and institutions. Let it be remembered, that Carlyle, and\nmany others of our best scholars, claim that it is from the Norsemen we\nhave derived our vital energy, our freedom of thought, and, in a measure\nthat we do not yet suspect, our strength of speech.\n\nWe are conscious that our work contains many imperfections, and that\nothers might have performed the task better; and thus we commend this\nvolume to the kind indulgence of the critic and the reader.\n\nR. B. ANDERSON.\n\n_University of Wisconsin, May 15, 1875._\n\n\n\n\n                        LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED.\n\n\nThe following authors have been consulted in preparing this work, and to\nthem the reader is referred, if he wishes to make special study of the\nsubject of Norse mythology.\n\nOf the Elder Edda we have used Benjamin Thorpe\u2019s translation and Sophus\nBugge\u2019s edition of the original. It has been found necessary to make a\nfew alterations in Thorpe\u2019s translation. Of the Younger Edda we have\nused Dasent\u2019s translation and Sveinbjorn Egilsson\u2019s edition of the\noriginal. Of modern Scandinavian writers we have confined ourselves\nmainly to N. M. Petersen, N. F. S. Grundtvig, P. A. Munch, Rudolph\nKeyser, Finn Magn\u00fasson, and Christian Winther. Other authors borrowed\nfrom more or less are: H. W. Longfellow, H. G. M\u00f6ller, R. Nyerup, E. G.\nGeier, M. Hammerich, F. J. Mone, Jacob Grimm, Thomas Keightly, Thomas\nCarlyle, Max M\u00fcller, and Geo. W. Cox.\n\nThe recent excellent work of Alexander Murray has been referred to on\nthe subject of Greek mythology. It claims on its title-page to give an\naccount of Norse mythology; but we were surprised to find that the\nauthor dismisses the subject with fifteen pages and a few wood-cuts of\nquestionable value.\n\nThe philological notes are chiefly based upon the Icelandic Dictionary\nrecently published by Macmillan & Co., and edited by Gudbrand Vigfusson,\nof Oxford University, England. We object to the price of it, which is\nthirty-two dollars, but it is indeed a scholarly work, and marks a new\nepoch in the study of the Icelandic language.\n\nFor the engraving opposite the title-page we are indebted to Mr. James\nR. Stuart, who has devoted many years in America and Europe to the study\nof his art. The painting, from which the engraving is made, is wholly\noriginal, and was made expressly for this work. We hereby extend our\nthanks to Mr. Stuart, and hope some day to see more of Norse mythology\ntreated by his brush.\n\n\n\n\n                           TABLE OF CONTENTS.\n\n\nINTRODUCTION.\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\nWHAT IS MYTHOLOGY, AND WHAT IS NORSE MYTHOLOGY?\n\nThe myth the oldest form of truth\u2014The Unknown God\u2014Ingemund the\nOld\u2014Thorkel Maane\u2014Harald Fairfax\u2014Every cause in nature a divinity\u2014Thor\nthe thunder-storm\u2014Prominent faculties impersonated\u2014These gods worthy of\nreverence\u2014Church ceremonies\u2014Different religions\u2014Hints to preachers\u2014The\nmythology of _our_ ancestors\u2014In its oldest form it is Teutonic\u2014What\nDasent says\u2014Thomas Carlyle, 23\n\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\nWHY CALL THIS MYTHOLOGY NORSE? OUGHT IT NOT RATHER TO BE CALLED GOTHIC\nOR TEUTONIC?\n\nIntroduction of Christianity\u2014The Catholic priests\u2014The Eddas\u2014Mythology in\nits Germanic form\u2014Thor not the same in Norway and Denmark\u2014Norse\nmythology\u2014Max M\u00fcller, 41\n\n\nCHAPTER III.\n\nNORSE MYTHOLOGY COMPARED WITH GREEK.\n\nNorse and Greek mythology differ\u2014Balder and Adonis\u2014Greek gods free from\ndecay\u2014The Deluge\u2014Not the same but a similar tradition\u2014The hand stone\nweeps tears\u2014The separate groups exquisite\u2014Greek mythology an epic\npoem\u2014Theoktony\u2014The Norse yields the prize to the Greek\u2014Depth of Norse\nand Christian thought\u2014Naastrand\u2014Outward nature influences the\nmythology\u2014Visit Norseland\u2014Norse scenery\u2014Simple and martial\nreligion\u2014Sincerity and grace\u2014Norse and Greek mythology, 51\n\n\nCHAPTER IV.\n\nROMAN MYTHOLOGY.\n\nOxford and Cambridge\u2014The Romans were robbers\u2014We must not throw Latin\nwholly overboard\u2014We must study English and Anglo-Saxon\u2014English more\nterse than Latin\u2014Greek preferable to Hebrew or Latin\u2014Shakespeare\u2014He who\nis not a son of Thor, 71\n\n\nCHAPTER V.\n\nINTERPRETATION OF NORSE MYTHOLOGY.\n\nAberration from the true religion\u2014Historical interpretation\u2014Ethical\ninterpretation\u2014Physical interpretation\u2014Odin, Thor, Argos, Io\u2014Our\nancestors not prosaic\u2014The Romans again\u2014Physical interpretation\ninsufficient\u2014Natural science\u2014Historical prophecy\u2014A complete mythology,\n80\n\n\nCHAPTER VI.\n\nTHE NORSE MYTHOLOGY FURNISHES ABUNDANT AND EXCELLENT MATERIAL FOR THE\nUSE OF POETS, SCULPTORS AND PAINTERS.\n\nHow to educate the child\u2014Ole Bull\u2014Men frequently act like\nants\u2014Oelenschl\u00e6ger\u2014Thor\u2019s fishing\u2014The dwarfs\u2014Ten stanzas in Danish\u2014The\nbrush and the chisel\u2014Nude art\u2014The germ of the faith\u2014We Goths are a\nchaste race\u2014Dr. John Bascom\u2014We are growing too prosaic and ungodly, 94\n\n\nCHAPTER VII.\n\nTHE SOURCES OF NORSE MYTHOLOGY AND INFLUENCE OF THE ASA-FAITH.\n\nThe Elder Edda\u2014Icelandic poetry\u2014Beowulf\u2019s Drapa and\nNiebelungen-Lied\u2014Influence of the Norse mythology\u2014Influence of the\nAsa-faith\u2014Samuel Laing\u2014Odinic rules of life\u2014H\u00e1vam\u00e1l\u2014The lay of\nSigdrifa\u2014Rudolph Keyser\u2014The days of the week, 116\n\n\nPART I.\n\nTHE CREATION AND PRESERVATION OF THE WORLD.\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\nTHE CREATION.\n\nSection i. The original condition of the world\u2014Ginungagap. Section ii.\nThe origin of the giants\u2014Ymer. Section iii. The origin of the crow\nAudhumbla and the birth of the gods\u2014Odin, Vile and Ve. Section iv. The\nNorse deluge and the origin of heaven and earth. Section v. The heavenly\nbodies, time, the wind, the rainbow\u2014The sun and moon\u2014Hrimfaxe and\nSkinfaxe\u2014The seasons\u2014The Elder Edda\u2014Bil and Hjuke. Section vi. The\nGolden Age\u2014The origin of the dwarfs\u2014The creation of the first man and\nwoman\u2014The Elder Edda. Section vii. The gods and their abodes. Section\nviii. The divisions of the world, 171\n\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\nTHE PRESERVATION.\n\nThe ash Ygdrasil\u2014Mimer\u2019s fountain\u2014Urd\u2019s fountain\u2014The norns or\nfates\u2014Mimer and the Urdar-fountain\u2014The norns, 188\n\n\nCHAPTER III.\n\nEXEGETICAL REMARKS UPON THE CREATION AND PRESERVATION OF THE WORLD.\n\nPondus iners\u2014The supreme god\u2014The cow Audhumbla\u2014Trinity\u2014The Golden\nAge\u2014Creation of man\u2014The giants\u2014The gods kill or marry the giants\u2014Elves\nand hulders\u2014Trolls\u2014Nisses and necks\u2014Merman and mermaid\u2014Ygdrasil\u2014Mimer\u2019s\nfountain\u2014The norns, 192\n\n\nPART II.\n\nTHE LIFE AND EXPLOITS OF THE GODS.\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\nODIN.\n\nSection i. Odin. Section ii. Odin\u2019s names. Section iii. Odin\u2019s outward\nappearance. Section iv. Odin\u2019s attributes. Section v. Odin\u2019s journeys.\nSection vi. Odin and Mimer. Section vii. Hlidskjalf. Section viii. The\nhistorical Odin. Section ix. Odin\u2019s wives. Section x. Frigg\u2019s\nmaid-servants. Section xi. Gefjun\u2014Eir. Section xii. Rind. Section xiii.\nGunlad\u2014The origin of poetry. Section xiv. Saga. Section xv. Odin as the\ninventor of runes. Section xvi. Valhal. Section xvii. The valkyries, 215\n\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\nHERMOD, TYR, HEIMDAL, BRAGE AND IDUN.\n\nSection i. Hermod. Section ii. Tyr. Section iii. Heimdal. Section iv.\nBrage and Idun. Section v. Idun and her apples, 270\n\n\nCHAPTER III.\n\nBALDER AND NANNA, HODER, VALE AND FORSETE.\n\nSection i. Balder. Section ii. The death of Balder the Good. Section\niii. Forsete, 279\n\n\nCHAPTER IV.\n\nTHOR, HIS WIFE SIF AND SON ULLER.\n\nSection i. General synopsis\u2014Thor, Sit and Uller. Section ii. Thor and\nHrungner. Section iii. Thor and Geirrod. Section iv. Thor and Skrymer.\nSection v. Thor and the Midgard-serpent (Thor and Hymer). Section vi.\nThor and Thrym, 298\n\n\nCHAPTER V.\n\nVIDAR, 337\n\n\nCHAPTER VI.\n\nTHE VANS.\n\nSection i. Njord and Skade. Section ii. \u00c6ger and Ran. Section iii. Frey.\nSection iv. Frey and Gerd. Section v. Worship of Frey. Section vi.\nFreyja. Section vii. A brief review, 341\n\n\nCHAPTER VII.\n\nTHE DEVELOPMENT OF EVIL, LOKE AND HIS OFFSPRING.\n\nSection i. Loke. Section ii. Loke\u2019s children\u2014The Fenriswolf. Section\niii. Jormungander or the Midgard-serpent. Section iv. Hel. Section v.\nThe Norsemen\u2019s idea of death. Section vi. Loke\u2019s punishment. Section\nvii. The iron post. Section viii. A brief review, 371\n\n\nPART III.\n\nRAGNAROK AND REGENERATION.\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\nRAGNAROK, 413\n\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\nREGENERATION, 428\n\nVocabulary, 439\n\nIndex, 462\n\n                             INTRODUCTION.\n\n\n\n\n                               CHAPTER I.\n             WHAT IS MYTHOLOGY AND WHAT IS NORSE MYTHOLOGY?\n\n\nThe word mythology (\u03bc\u03c5\u03b8\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03cc\u03b1, from \u03bc\u1fe6\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2, word, tale, fable, and \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bfc,\nspeech, discourse,) is of Greek origin, and our vernacular tongue has\nbecome so adulterated with Latin and Greek words; we have studied Latin\nand Greek in place of English, Anglo-Saxon, Norse and Gothic so long\nthat we are always in a quandary (_qu\u2019en dirai-je?_), always tongue-tied\nwhen we attempt to speak of something outside or above the daily\nreturning cares of life. Our own good old English words have been\ncrowded out by foreign ones; this is our besetting sin. But, as the\nvenerable Professor George Stephens remarks in his elaborate work on\nRunic Monuments, we have watered our mother tongue long enough with\nbastard Latin; let us now brace and steel it with the life-water of our\nown sweet and soft and rich and shining and clear-ringing and manly and\nworld-ranging, ever-dearest ENGLISH.\n\nMythology is a system of myths; a collection of popular legends, fables,\ntales, or stories, relating to the gods, heroes, demons or other beings\nwhose names have been preserved in popular belief. Such tales are not\nfound in the traditions of the ancient Greeks, Hindoos and Egyptians,\nonly, but every nation has had its system of mythology; and that of the\nancient Norsemen is more simple, earnest, miraculous, stupendous and\ndivine than any other mythological system of which we have record.\n\nThe myth is the oldest form of truth; and mythology is the knowledge\nwhich the ancients had of the Divine. The object of mythology is to find\nGod and come to him. Without a written revelation this may be done in\ntwo ways: either by studying the intellectual, moral and physical nature\nof man, for evidence of the existence of God may be found in the proper\nstudy of man; or by studying nature in the outward world in its general\nstructure, adaptations and dependencies; and truthfully it may be said\nthat God manifests himself in nature.\n\nOur Norse forefathers (for it is their religion we are to present in\nthis volume) had no clearly-defined knowledge of any god outside of\nthemselves and nature. Like the ancient Greeks, they had only a somewhat\nvague idea about a supreme God, whom the rhapsodist or skald in the\nElder Edda (Hyndlulj\u00f3\u00f0 43, 44) dare not name, and whom few, it is said,\never look far enough to see. In the language of the Elder Edda:\n\n                        Then one is born\n                        Greater than all;\n                        He becomes strong\n                        With the strengths of earth;\n                        The mightiest king\n                        Men call him,\n                        Fast knit in peace\n                        With all powers.\n\n                        Then comes another\n                        Yet more mighty;\n                        _But him dare I not\n                        Venture to name._\n                        Few further may look\n                        Than to where Odin\n                        To meet the wolf goes.\n\nOdin goes to meet the Fenriswolf in Ragnarok (the twilight of the gods;\nthat is, the final conflict between all good and evil powers); but now\nlet the reader compare the above passage from the Elder Edda with the\nfollowing passage from the seventeenth chapter of the Acts of the\nApostles:\n\n    Then Paul stood in the midst of Mars\u2019 Hill and said: Ye men of\n    Athens, I perceive that in all things ye are too superstitious; for\n    as I passed by and beheld your devotions, I found an altar with this\n    inscription: TO THE UNKNOWN GOD. Whom therefore ye ignorantly\n    worship, him declare I unto you.\n\nIt was of this same _unknown God_ that one of the ancient Greek poets\nhad said, that in him we live and move and have our being. Thus did the\nGreeks find Jehovah in the labyrinth of their heathen deities; and when\nwe claim that the Norse mythology is more _divine_ than any other system\nof mythology known, we mean by this assertion, that the supreme God is\nmentioned and referred to oftener, and stands out in bolder relief in\nthe Norseman\u2019s heathen belief, than in any other.\n\nIt is a noticeable fact that long before Christianity was introduced or\nhad even been heard of in Iceland, it is recorded that Ingemund the Old,\na heathen Norseman, bleeding and dying, prayed God to forgive Rolleif,\nhis murderer.\n\nAnother man of the heathen times, Thorkel Maane, a supreme judge of\nIceland, a man of unblemished life and distinguished among the wisest\nmagistrates of that island during the time of the republic, avowed that\nhe would worship no other God but him who had created the sun; and in\nhis dying hour he prayed the Father of Light to illuminate his soul in\nthe darkness of death. Arngrim Jonsson tells us that when Thorkel Maane\nhad arrived at the age of maturity and reflection, he disdained a blind\nobedience to traditionary custom, and employed much of his time in\nweighing the established tenets of his countrymen by the standard of\nreason. He divested his mind of all prejudice; he pondered on the\nsublimity of nature, and guided himself by maxims founded on truth and\nreason. By these means he soon discovered not only the fallacy of that\nfaith which governed his countrymen, but became a convert to the\nexistence of a supreme power more mighty than Thor or Odin. In his maker\nhe acknowledged his God, and to him alone directed his homage from a\nconviction that none other was worthy to be honored and worshiped. On\nperceiving the approach of death, this pious and sensible man requested\nto be conveyed into the open air, in order that, as he said, he might in\nhis last moments contemplate the glories of Almighty God, who has\ncreated the heavens and the earth and all that in them is.\n\nHarald Fairfax (Haarfager), the first sovereign of Norway, the king that\nunited Norway under his scepter in the year 872, is another remarkable\nexample in this respect. He was accustomed to assist at the public\nofferings made by his people in honor of their gods. As no better or\nmore pure religion was known in those days, he acted with prudence in\nnot betraying either contempt or disregard for the prevailing worship of\nthe country, lest his subjects, stimulated by such example, might become\nindifferent, not only to their sacred, but also to their political,\nduties. Yet he rejected from his heart these profane ceremonies, and\nbelieved in the existence of a more powerful god, whom he secretly\nadored. I swear, he once said, never to make my offerings to an idol,\nbut to that God alone whose omnipotence has formed the world and stamped\nman with his own image. It would be an act of folly in me to expect help\nfrom him whose power and empire arises from the accidental hollow of a\ntree or the peculiar form of a stone.\n\nSuch examples illustrate how near the educated and reflecting Norse\nheathen was in sympathy with Christianity, and also go far toward\nproving that the object of mythology is to find God and come to him.\n\nStill we must admit that of this supreme God our forefathers had only a\nsomewhat vague conception; and to many of them he was almost wholly\nunknown. Their god was a natural human god, a person. There can be no\ngenuine poetry without impersonation, and a perfect system of mythology\nis a finished poem. Mythology is, in fact, religious truth expressed in\npoetical language. It ascribes all events and phenomena in the outward\nworld to a personal cause. Each cause is some divinity or other\u2014some god\nor demon. In this manner, when the ancients heard the echo from the\nwoods or mountains, they did not think, as we now do, that the waves of\nsound were reflected, but that there stood a dwarf, a personal being,\nwho repeated the words spoken by themselves. This dwarf had to have a\nhistory, a biography, and this gave rise to a myth. To our poetic\nancestors the forces of nature were not veiled under scientific names.\nAs Carlyle truthfully remarks, they had not yet learned to reduce to\ntheir fundamental elements and lecture learnedly about this beautiful,\ngreen, rock-built, flowery earth, with its trees, mountains and\nmany-sounding waters; about the great deep sea of azure that swims over\nour heads, and about the various winds that sweep through it. When they\nsaw the black clouds gathering and shutting out the king of day, and\nwitnessed them pouring out rain and ice and fire, and heard the thunder\nroll, they did not think, as we now do, of accumulated electricity\ndischarged from the clouds to the earth, and show in the lecture room\nhow something like these powerful shafts of lightning could be ground\nout of glass or silk, but they ascribed the phenomenon to a mighty\ndivinity\u2014Thor\u2014who in his thunder-chariot rides through the clouds and\nstrikes with his huge hammer, Mjolner. The theory of our forefathers\nfurnishes food for the imagination, for our poetical nature, while the\nreflection of the waves of sound and the discharge of electricity is\nmerely dry reasoning\u2014mathematics and physics. To our ancestors Nature\npresented herself in her naked, beautiful and awful majesty; while to us\nin this age of Newtons, Millers, Oersteds, Berzeliuses and Tyndalls, she\nis enwrapped in a multitude of profound scientific phrases. These\nphrases make us flatter ourselves that we have fathomed her mysteries\nand revealed her secret workings, while in point of fact we are as far\nfrom the real bottom as our ancestors were. But we have robbed ourselves\nto a sad extent of the poetry of nature. Well might Barry Cornwall\ncomplain:\n\n              O ye delicious fables! where the wave\n            And the woods were peopled, and the air, with things\n              So lovely! Why, ah! why has science grave\n            Scattered afar your sweet imaginings?\n\nThe old Norsemen said: The mischief-maker Loke cuts for mere sport the\nhair of the goddess Sif, but the gods compel him to furnish her new\nhair, Loke gets dwarfs to forge for her golden hair, which grows almost\nspontaneously. We, their prosaic descendants, say: The heat (Loke)\nscorches the grass (Sif\u2019s hair), but the same physical agent (heat) sets\nthe forces of nature to work again, and new grass with golden (that is\nto say bright) color springs up again.\n\nThus our ancestors spoke of all the workings of nature as though they\nwere caused by personal agents; and instead of saying, as we now do,\nthat winter follows summer, and explaining how the annual revolutions of\nthe earth produce the changes that are called seasons of the year, they\ntook a more poetical view of the phenomenon, and said that the blind god\nHoder (winter) was instigated by Loke (heat) to slay Balder (the summer\ngod).\n\nThis idea of personifying the visible workings of nature was so\ncompletely developed that prominent faculties or attributes of the gods\nalso were subject to impersonation. Odin, it was said, had two ravens,\nHugin and Munin; that is, reflection and memory. They sit upon his\nshoulders, and whisper into his ears. Thor\u2019s strength was redoubled\nwhenever he girded himself with Megingjarder, his belt of strength; his\nsteel gloves, with which he wielded his hammer, produced the same\neffect. Nay, strength was so eminent a characteristic with Thor that it\neven stands out apart from him as an independent person, and is\nrepresented by his son Magne (strength), who accompanies him on his\njourneys against the frost-giants.\n\nIn this manner a series of myths were formed and combined into a system\nwhich we now call mythology; a system which gave to our fathers gods\nwhom they worshiped, and in whom they trusted, and which gives to us a\nmirror in which is reflected the popular life, the intellectual and\nmoral characteristics of our ancestors. And these gods were indeed\nworthy of reverence; they were the embodiments of the noblest thoughts\nand purest feelings, but these thoughts and feelings could not be\nawakened without a personified image. As soon as the divine idea was\nborn, it assumed a bodily form, and, in order to give the mind a more\ndefinite comprehension of it, it was frequently drawn down from heaven\nand sculptured in wood or stone. The object was by images to make\nmanifest unto the senses the attributes of the gods, and thus the more\neasily secure the devotion of the people. The heathen had to see the\nimage of God, the image of the infinite thought embodied in the god, or\nhe would not kneel down and worship. This idea of wanting something\nconcrete, something within the reach of the senses, we find deeply\nrooted in human nature. Man does not want an abstract god, but a\n_personal_, visible god, at least a visible sign of his presence. And we\nwho live in the broad daylight of revealed religion and science ought\nnot to be so prone to blame our forefathers for paying divine honors to\nimages, statues and other representations or symbols of their gods, for\nthe images were, as the words imply, not the gods themselves to whom the\nheathen addressed his prayers and supplications, but merely the symbols\nof these gods; and every religion, Christianity included, is mythical in\nits development. The tendency is to draw the divine down to earth, in\norder to rise with it again to heaven. When God suffers with us, it\nbecomes easier for us to suffer; when he redeems us, our salvation\nbecomes certain. God is in all systems of religion seen, as it were,\nthrough a glass\u2014never face to face. No one can see Jehovah and live.\n\nEven as in our present condition our immortal soul cannot do without the\nvisible body, and cannot without this reveal itself to its\nfellow-beings, so our faith requires a visible church, our religion must\nassume some form in which it can be apprehended by the senses. Our faith\nis made stronger by the visible church in the same manner as the mind\ngains knowledge of the things about us by means of the bodily organs.\nThe outward rite or external form and ceremonial ornament, which are so\nconspicuous in the Roman and Greek Catholic churches, for instance,\nserve to awaken, edify and strengthen the soul and assist the memory in\nrecalling the religious truths and the events in the life of Christ and\nof the saints more vividly and forcibly to the mind; besides, pictures\nand images are to the unlettered what books are to those educated in the\nart of reading. Did not Christ himself combine things supersensual with\nthings within the reach of the senses? The purification and\nsanctification of the soul he combined with the idea of cleansing the\nbody in the sacrament of baptism. The remembrance of him and of his\nlove, how he gave his body and blood for the redemption of fallen man,\nhe combined with the eating of bread and drinking of wine in the\nsacrament of the Lord\u2019s Supper. He gave his religion an outward, visible\nform; and, just as the soul is mirrored in the eyes, in the expression\nof the countenance, in the gestures and manners of the body, so our\nfaith is reflected in the church. This is what is meant by mythical\ndevelopment; and when we discover this tendency to cling to visible\nsigns and ceremonies manifesting itself so extensively even in the\nChristian church of our own time, it should teach us to be less severe\nin judging and blaming the heathen for their idol-worship.\n\nAs long as the nations have inhabited the earth, there have been\ndifferent religions among men; and how could this be otherwise? The\ncountries which they have inhabited; the skies which they have looked\nupon; their laws, customs and social institutions; their habits,\nlanguage and knowledge; have differed so widely that it would be absurd\nto look for uniformity in the manner in which they have found,\ncomprehended and worshiped God. Nay, this is not all. Even among\nChristians, and, if we give the subject a careful examination, even\namong those who confess one and the same faith and are members of one\nand the same church, we find that the religion of one man is never\nperfectly like that of another. They may use the same prayers, learn and\nsubscribe to the same confession, hear the same preacher and take part\nin the same ceremonies, but still the prayer, faith and worship of the\none will differ from the prayer, faith and worship of the other. Two\npersons are never precisely alike, and every one will interpret the\nwords which he hears and the ceremonies in which he takes part according\nto the depth and breadth of his mind and heart\u2014according to the extent\nand kind of his knowledge and experience, and according to other\npersonal peculiarities and characteristics. Even this is not all. Every\nperson changes his religious views as he grows older, as his knowledge\nand experience increase, so that the faith of the youth is not that of\nthe child, nor does the man with silvery locks approach the altar with\nprecisely the same faith as when he knelt there a youth. For it is not\nthe words and ceremonies, but the thoughts and feelings, that we combine\nwith these symbols, that constitute our religion; it is not the\nconfession which we learned at school, but the ideas that are suggested\nby it in our minds, and the emotions awakened by it in our hearts, that\nconstitute our faith.\n\nIf the preachers of the Christian religion realized these truths more\nthan they generally seem to do, they would perhaps speak with more\ncharity and less scorn and contempt of people who differ from them in\ntheir religious views. They would recognize in the faith of others the\nsame connecting link between God and man for them, as their own faith is\nfor themselves. They would not hate the Jew because he, in accordance\nwith the Mosaic commandment, offers his prayers in the synagogue to the\nGod of his fathers; nor despise the heathen because _he_, in want of\nbetter knowledge, in childlike simplicity lifts his hands in prayer to\nan image of wood or stone; for, although this be perishable dust, he\nstill addresses the prayer of his inmost soul to the supreme God, even\nas the child, that kisses the picture of his absent mother, actually\nthinks of her.\n\nThe old mythological stories of the Norsemen abound in poetry of the\ntruest and most touching character. These stories tell us in sublime and\nwonderful speech of the workings of external nature, and may make us\ncheerful or sad, happy or mournful, gay or grave, just as we night feel,\nif from the pinnacle of Gausta Fjeld we were to watch the passing\nglories of morning and evening tide. There is nothing in these stories\nthat can tend to make us less upright and simple, while they contain\nmany thoughts and suggestions that we may be the better and happier for\nknowing. All the so-called disagreeable features of mythology are\nnothing but distortions, brought out either by ill-will or by a\nsuperficial knowledge of the subject; and, when these distortions are\nremoved, we shall find only things beautiful, lovely and of good report.\nWe shall find the simple thoughts of our childlike, imaginative, poetic\nand prophetic forefathers upon the wonderful works of their maker, and\nnothing that we may laugh at, or despise, or _pity_. These words of our\nfathers, if read in the right spirit, will make us feel as we ought to\nfeel when we contemplate the glory and beauty of the heavens and the\nearth, and observe how wonderfully all things are adapted to each other\nand to the wants of man, that the thoughts of him who stands at the helm\nof this ship of the universe (Skidbladner) must be very deep, and that\nwe are sensible to the same joys and sufferings, are actuated by the\nsame fears and hopes and passions, that were felt by the men and women\nwho lived in the dawn of our Gothic history. We will begin to realize\nhow the great and wise Creator has led our race on\u2014slowly, perhaps, but\nnevertheless surely\u2014to the consciousness that he is a loving and\nrighteous Father, and that he has made the sun and moon and stars, the\nearth, and all that in them is, in their season.\n\nThe Norse mythology reflects, then, the religious, moral, intellectual\nand social development of our ancestors in the earliest period of their\nexistence. We say _our_ ancestors, for we must bear in mind that in its\nmost original form this mythology was common to all the Teutonic\nnations, to the ancestors of the Americans and the English, as well as\nto those of the Norsemen, Swedes and Danes. Geographically it extended\nnot only over the whole of Scandinavia, including Iceland, but also over\nEngland and a considerable portion of France and Germany. But it is only\nin Iceland, that weird island of the icy sea, with the snow-clad volcano\nMt. Hecla for its hearth, encircled by a wall of glaciers, and with the\nroaring North Sea for its grave,\u2014it is only in Iceland that anything\nlike a complete record of this ancient Teutonic mythology was put in\nwriting and preserved; and this fact alone ought to be quite sufficient\nto lead us to cultivate a better acquaintance with the literature of\nScandinavia. To use the words of that excellent Icelandic scholar, the\nEnglishman George Webbe Dasent: It is well known, says he, that the\nIcelandic language, which has been preserved almost incorrupt in that\nremarkable island, has remained for many centuries the depository of\nliterary treasures, the common property of all the Scandinavian and\nTeutonic races, which would otherwise have perished, as they have\nperished in Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Germany and England. There was a\ntime when all these countries had a common mythology, when the royal\nrace each of them traced its descent in varying genealogies up to Odin\nand the gods of Asgard. Of that mythology, _which may hold its own\nagainst any other that the world has seen_, all memory, as a systematic\nwhole, has vanished from the medi\u00e6val literature of Teutonic Europe.\nWith the introduction of Christianity, the ancient gods had been deposed\nand their places assigned to devils and witches. Here and there a\ntradition, a popular tale or a superstition bore testimony to what had\nbeen lost; and, though in this century the skill and wisdom of the\nGrimms and their school have shown the world what power of restoration\nand reconstruction abides in intelligent scholarship and laborious\nresearch, _even the genius of the great master of that school of\ncriticism would have lost nine-tenths of its power had not faithful\nIceland preserved through the dark ages the two Eddas, which present to\nus, in features that cannot be mistaken, and in words which cannot die,\nthe very form and fashion of that wondrous edifice of mythology which\nour forefathers in the dawn of time imagined to themselves as the temple\nat once of their gods and of the worship due to them from all mankind on\nthis middle earth_. For man, according to their system of belief, could\nhave no existence but for those gods and stalwart divinities, who, from\ntheir abode in Asgard, were ever watchful to protect him and crush the\ncommon foes of both, the earthly race of giants, or, in other words, the\nchaotic natural powers. Any one, therefore, that desires to see what\nmanner of men his forefathers were in their relation to the gods, how\nthey conceived their theogony, how they imagined and constructed their\ncosmogony, must betake himself to the Eddas, as illustrated by the\nSagas, and he will there find ample details on all these points; while\nthe Anglo-Saxon and Teutonic literatures only throw out vague hints and\nallusions. As we read Beowulf and the Traveler\u2019s Song, for instance, we\nmeet at every step references to mythological stories and mythical\nevents, which would be utterly unintelligible were it not for the full\nlight thrown upon them by the Icelandic literature. Thus far Dasent\u2019s\nopinion.\n\nThe Norse mythology, we say, then, shows what the religion of our\nancestors was; and their religion is the main fact that we care to know\nabout them. Knowing this well, we can easily account for the rest. Their\nreligion is the soul of their history. Their religion tells us what they\nfelt; their feelings produced their thoughts, and their thoughts were\nthe parents of their acts. When we study their religion, we discover the\nunseen and spiritual fountain from which all their outward acts welled\nforth, and by which the character of these was determined.\n\nThe mythology is neither the history nor the poetry nor the natural\nphilosophy of our ancestors; but it is the germ and nucleus of them all.\nIt _is_ history, for it treats of events; but it is _not_ history in the\nordinary acceptance of that word, for the persons figuring therein have\nnever existed. It _is_ natural philosophy, for it investigates the\norigin of nature; but it is _not_ natural philosophy according to modern\nideas, for it personifies and deifies nature. It _is_ metaphysics, for\nit studies the science and the laws of being; but it is _not_\nmetaphysics in our sense of the word, for it rapidly overleaps all\ncategories. It is poetry in its very essence; but its pictures are\nstreams that flow together. Thus the Norse mythology is history, but\nlimited to neither time nor place; poetry, but independent of arses or\ntheses; philosophy, but without abstractions or syllogisms.\n\nWe close this chapter with the following extract from Thomas Carlyle\u2019s\nessays on Heroes and Hero-worship; an extract that undoubtedly will be\nread with interest and pleasure:\n\n    In that strange island\u2014Iceland\u2014burst up, the geologists say, by\n    fire, from the bottom of the sea; a wild land of barrenness and\n    lava; swallowed, many months of the year, in black tempests, yet\n    with a wild, gleaming beauty in summer-time; towering up there,\n    stern and grim, in the North Ocean; with its snow-j\u00f6kuls, roaring\n    geysers, sulphur pools and horrid volcanic chasms, like the waste,\n    chaotic battle-field of frost and fire\u2014where of all places we least\n    looked for literature or written memorials; the record of these\n    things was written down. On the seaboard of this wild land is a rim\n    of grassy country, where cattle can subsist, and men, by means of\n    them and of what the sea yields; and it seems they were poetic men,\n    these\u2014men who had deep thoughts in them, and uttered musically their\n    thoughts. Much would be lost had Iceland not been burst up from the\n    sea\u2014not been discovered by the Northmen! The old Norse poets were\n    many of them natives of Iceland.\n\n    S\u00e6mund, one of the early Christian priests there, who perhaps had a\n    lingering fondness for paganism, collected certain of their old\n    pagan song, just about becoming obsolete then\u2014poems or chants, of a\n    mythic, prophetic, mostly all of a religious, character: this is\n    what Norse critics call the _Elder_ or Poetic _Edda_. _Edda_, a word\n    of uncertain etymology, is thought to signify _Ancestress_. Snorre\n    Sturleson, an Iceland gentleman, an extremely notable personage,\n    educated by this S\u00e6mund\u2019s grandson, took in hand next, near a\n    century afterwards, to put together, among several other books he\n    wrote, a kind of prose synopsis of the whole mythology, elucidated\n    by new fragments of traditionary verse; a work constructed really\n    with great ingenuity, native talent, what one might call unconscious\n    art; altogether a perspicuous, clear work\u2014pleasant reading still.\n    This is the _Younger_ or Prose _Edda_. By these and the numerous\n    other _Sagas_, mostly Icelandic, with the commentaries, Icelandic or\n    not, which go on zealously in the North to this day, it is possible\n    to gain some direct insight even yet, and see that old system of\n    belief, as it were, face to face. Let as forget that it is erroneous\n    religion: let us look at it as old thought, and try if we cannot\n    sympathize with it somewhat.\n\n    The primary characteristic of this old Northland mythology I find to\n    be impersonation of the visible workings of nature\u2014earnest, simple\n    recognition of the workings of physical nature, as a thing wholly\n    miraculous, stupendous and divine. What we now lecture of as\n    science, they wondered at, and fell down in awe before, as religion.\n    The dark, hostile powers of nature they figured to themselves as\n    _J\u00f6tuns_ (giants), huge, shaggy beings, of a demoniac character.\n    Frost, Fire, Sea, Tempest, these are _J\u00f6tuns_. The friendly powers,\n    again, as Summer-heat, the Sun, are gods. The Empire of this\n    Universe is divided between these two; they dwell apart in perennial\n    internecine feud. The gods dwell above in _Asgard_, the Garden of\n    the _Asas_, or Divinities; _J\u00f6tunheim_, a distant, dark, chaotic\n    land, is the home of the J\u00f6tuns.\n\n    Curious, all this; and not idle or inane if we will look at the\n    foundation of it. The power of _Fire_ or _Flame_, for instance,\n    which we designate by some trivial chemical name, thereby hiding\n    from ourselves the essential character of wonder that dwells in it,\n    as in all things, is, with these old Northmen, _Loge_, a most swift,\n    subtle demon, of the brood of the J\u00f6tuns. The savages of the\n    Ladrones Islands, too (say some Spanish voyagers), thought Fire,\n    which they had never seen before, was a devil, or god, that bit you\n    sharply when you touched it, and lived there upon dry wood. From us,\n    too, no chemistry, if it had not stupidity to help it, would hide\n    that flame is a wonder. What is flame? Frost the old Norse seer\n    discerns to be a monstrous, hoary J\u00f6tun, the giant _Thrym_, _Hrym_,\n    or _Rime_, the old word, now nearly obsolete here, but still used is\n    Scotland to signify hoar-frost. _Rime_ was not then, as now, a dead\n    chemical thing, but a living J\u00f6tun, or Devil; the monstrous J\u00f6tun\n    _Rime_ drove home his horses at night, sat combing their\n    manes;\u2014which horses were _Hail-clouds_, or fleet _Frost-winds_. His\n    cows\u2014no, not his, but a kinsman\u2019s, the giant Hymer\u2019s cows\u2014are\n    _Icebergs_. This Hymer looks at the rocks with his devil-eye, and\n    they _split_ in the glance of it.\n\n    Thunder was then not mere electricity, vitreous or resinous; it was\n    the god Donner (Thunder), or Thor,\u2014god, also, of the beneficent\n    Summer-heat. The thunder was his wrath; the gathering of the black\n    clouds is the drawing down of Thor\u2019s angry brows; the fire-bolt\n    bursting out of heaven is the all-rending hammer flung from the hand\n    of Thor. He urges his loud chariot over the mountain tops\u2014that is\n    the peal; wrathful he blows in his red beard\u2014that is the rustling\n    storm-blast before the thunder begins. Balder, again, the White God,\n    the beautiful, the just and benignant, (whom the early Christian\n    missionaries found to resemble Christ,) is the sun\u2014beautifulest of\n    visible things: wondrous, too, and divine still, after all our\n    astronomies and almanacs! But perhaps the notablest god we hear tell\n    of is one of whom Grimm, the German etymologist, finds trace: the\n    god W\u00fcnsch, or Wish. The god _Wish_, who could give us all that we\n    _wished_! Is not this the sincerest and yet the rudest voice of the\n    spirit of man? The _rudest_ ideal that man ever formed, which still\n    shows itself in the latest forms of our spiritual culture. Higher\n    considerations have to teach us that the god _Wish_ is not the true\n    God.\n\n    Of the other gods or J\u00f6tuns, I will mention, only for etymology\u2019s\n    sake, that Sea-tempest is the J\u00f6tun _\u00c6gir_, a very dangerous J\u00f6tun;\n    and now to this day, on our river Trent, as I learn, the Nottingham\n    bargemen, when the river is in a certain flooded state (a kind of\n    back-water or eddying swirl it has, very dangerous to them), call it\n    _Eager_. They cry out, Have a care! there is the _Eager_ coming!\n    Curious, that word surviving, like the peak of a submerged world!\n    The _oldest_ Nottingham barge-men had believed in the god \u00c6gir.\n    Indeed, our English blood, too, in good part, is Danish, Norse,\u2014or\n    rather, at the bottom, Danish and Norse and Saxon have no\n    distinction except a superficial one\u2014as of Heathen and Christian, or\n    the like. But all over our island we are mingled largely with Danes\n    proper\u2014from the incessant invasions there were; and this, of course,\n    in a greater proportion along the east coast; and greatest of all,\n    as I find, in the north country. From the Humber upward, all over\n    Scotland, the speech of the common people is still in singular\n    degree Icelandic; its Germanism has still a peculiar Norse tinge.\n    They, too, are Normans, Northmen\u2014if that be any great beauty!\n\n    Of the chief god, Odin, we shall speak by-and-by. Mark, at present,\n    so much: what the essence of Scandinavian, and, indeed, of all\n    paganism, is: a recognition of the forces of nature as godlike,\n    stupendous, personal agencies\u2014as gods and demons. Not inconceivable\n    to us. It is the infant thought of man opening itself with awe and\n    wonder on this ever stupendous universe. It is strange, after our\n    beautiful Apollo statues and clear smiling mythuses, to come down\n    upon the Norse gods brewing ale to hold their feast with Aegir, the\n    Sea-J\u00f6tun; sending out Thor to get the caldron for them in the J\u00f6tun\n    country; Thor, after many adventures, clapping the pot on his head,\n    like a huge hat, and walking off with it\u2014quite lost in it, the ear\n    of the pot reaching down to his heels! A kind of vacant hugeness,\n    large, awkward gianthood, characterizes that Norse system; enormous\n    force, as yet altogether untutored, stalking helpless, with large,\n    uncertain strides. Consider only their primary mythus of the\n    Creation. The gods having got the giant Ymer slain\u2014a giant made by\n    warm winds and much confused work out of the conflict of Frost and\n    Fire\u2014determined on constructing a world with him. His blood made the\n    sea; his flesh was the Land; the Rocks, his bones; of his eyebrows\n    they formed Asgard, their gods\u2019 dwelling; his skull was the great\n    blue vault of Immensity, and the brains of it became the Clouds.\n    What a Hyper-Brobdignagian business! Untamed thought; great,\n    giantlike, enormous; to be tamed, in due time, into the compact\n    greatness, not giantlike, but godlike, and stronger than gianthood\n    of the Shakespeares, the Goethes! Spiritually, as well as bodily,\n    these men are our progenitors.\n\n\n\n\n                              CHAPTER II.\n WHY CALL THIS MYTHOLOGY NORSE? OUGHT IT NOT RATHER TO BE CALLED GOTHIC\n                              OR TEUTONIC?\n\n\nIn its original form, the mythology, which is to be presented in this\nvolume, was common to all the Teutonic nations; and it spread itself\ngeographically over England, the most of France and Germany, as well as\nover Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Iceland. But when the Teutonic nations\nparted, took possession of their respective countries, and began to\ndiffer one nation from the other, in language, customs and social and\npolitical institutions, and were influenced by the peculiar features of\nthe countries which they respectively inhabited, then the germ of\nmythology which each nation brought with it into its changed conditions\nof life, would also be subject to changes and developments in harmony\nand keeping with the various conditions of climate, language, customs,\nsocial and political institutions, and other influences that nourished\nit, while the fundamental myths remained common to all the Teutonic\nnations. Hence we might in one sense speak of a Teutonic mythology. That\nwould then be the mythology of the Teutonic peoples, as it was known to\nthem while they all lived together, some four or five hundred years\nbefore the birth of Christ, in the south-eastern part of Russia, without\nany of the peculiar features that have been added later by any of the\nseveral branches of that race. But from this time we have no Teutonic\nliterature. In another sense, we must recognize a distinct German\nmythology, a distinct English mythology, and even make distinction\nbetween the mythologies of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway.\n\nThat it is only of the Norse mythology we have anything like a complete\nrecord, was alluded to in the first chapter; but we will now make a more\nthorough examination of this fact.\n\nThe different branches of the Teutonic mythology died out and\ndisappeared as Christianity gradually became introduced, first in\nFrance, about five hundred years after the birth of Christ; then in\nEngland, one or two hundred years later; still later, in Germany, where\nthe Saxons, Christianized by Charlemagne about A.D. 800, were the last\nheathen people.\n\nBut in Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Iceland, the original Gothic\nheathenism lived longer and more independently than elsewhere, and had\nmore favorable opportunities to grow and mature. The ancient\nmythological or pagan religion flourished here until about the middle of\nthe eleventh century; or, to speak more accurately, Christianity was not\ncompletely introduced in Iceland before the beginning of the eleventh\ncentury; in Denmark and Norway, some twenty to thirty years later; while\nin Sweden, paganism was not wholly eradicated before 1150.\n\nYet neither Norway, Sweden nor Denmark give us any mythological\nliterature. This is furnished us only by the Norsemen, who had settled\nin Iceland. Shortly after the introduction of Christianity, which gave\nthe Norsemen the so-called Roman alphabetical system instead of their\nfamous Runic _futhorc_, there was put in writing in Iceland a colossal\nmythological and historical literature, which is the full-blown flower\nof Gothic paganism. In the other countries inhabited by Gothic\n(Scandinavian, Low Dutch and English) and Germanic (High German) races,\nscarcely any mythological literature was produced. The German\n_Niebelungen-Lied_ and the Anglo-Saxon _Beowulf\u2019s Drapa_ are at best\nonly semi-mythological. The overthrow of heathendom was too abrupt and\nviolent. Its eradication was so complete that the heathen religion was\nalmost wholly obliterated from the memory of the people. Occasionally\nthere are found authors who refer to it, but their allusions are very\nvague and defective, besides giving unmistakable evidence of being\nwritten with prejudice and contempt. Nor do we find among the early\nGermans that spirit of veneration for the memories of the past, and\ndesire to perpetuate them in a vernacular literature; or if they did\nexist, they were smothered by the Catholic priesthood. When the Catholic\npriests gained the ascendancy, they adopted the Latin language and used\nthat exclusively for recording events, and they pronounced it a sin even\nto mention by name the old pagan gods oftener than necessity compelled\nthem to do so.\n\nAmong the Norsemen, on the other hand, and to a considerable extent\namong the English, too, the old religion flourished longer; the people\ncherished their traditions; they loved to recite the songs and Sagas, in\nwhich were recorded the religious faith and brave deeds of their\nancestors, and cultivated their native speech in spite of the priests.\nIn Iceland at least, the priests did not succeed in rooting out\npaganism, if you please, before it had developed sufficiently to produce\nthose beautiful blossoms, the Elder and Younger Eddas. The chief reason\nof this was, that the people continued to use their mother-tongue, in\nwriting as well as in speaking, so that Latin, the language of the\nchurch, never got a foothold. It was useless for the monks to try to\ntell Sagas in Latin, for they found but few readers in that tongue. An\nimportant result of this was, that the Saga became the property of the\npeople, and not of the favored few. In the next place, our Norse\nIcelandic ancestors took a profound delight in poetry and song. The\nskald sung in the mother-speech, and taking the most of the material for\nhis songs and poems from the old mythological tales, it was necessary to\nstudy and become familiar with these, in order that he might be able, on\nthe one hand, to understand the productions of others, and, on the\nother, to compose songs himself. Among the numerous examples which\nillustrate how tenaciously the Norsemen clung to their ancient\ndivinities, we may mention the skald Hallfred, who, when he was baptized\nby the king Olaf Tryggvesson, declared bravely to the king, that he\nwould neither speak ill of the old gods, nor refrain from mentioning\nthem in his songs.\n\nThe reason, then, why we cannot present a complete and thoroughly\nsystematic Teutonic or German or English or Danish or Swedish Mythology,\nis not that these did not at some time exist, but because their records\nare so defective. Outside of Norway and Iceland, Christianity, together\nwith disregard of past memories, has swept most of the resources, with\nwhich to construct them, away from the surface, and there remain only\ndeeply buried ruins, which it is difficult to dig up and still more\ndifficult to polish and adjust into their original symmetrical and\ncomprehensive form after they have been brought to the surface. It is\ndifficult to gather all the scattered and partially decayed bones of the\nmythological system, and with the breath of human intellect reproduce a\nliving vocal organism. Few have attempted to do this with greater\nsuccess than the brothers Grimm.\n\nFor the elucidation of our mythology in its Germanic form, for instance,\nthe materials, although they are not wholly wanting, are yet difficult\nto make use of, since they are widely scattered, and must be sought\npartly in quite corrupted popular legends, partly in writings of the\nmiddle ages, where they are sometimes found interpolated, and where we\noften least should expect to find them. But in its Norse form we have\nample material for studying the Asa-mythology. Here we have as our guide\nnot only a large number of skaldic lays, composed while the mythology\nstill flourished, but even a complete religious system, written down, it\nis true, after Christianity had been introduced in Iceland, still,\naccording to all evidence, without the Christian ideas having had any\nspecial influence upon its delineation, or having materially corrupted\nit. These lays, manuscripts, etc., which form the source of Norse\nmythology, will be more fully discussed in another chapter of this\nIntroduction.\n\nWe may add further, that if we had, in a complete system, the mythology\nof the Germans, the English, etc., we should find, in comparing them\nwith the Norse, the same correspondence and identity as see find\nexisting between the different branches of the Teutonic family of\nlanguages. We should find in its essence the same mythology in all the\nTeutonic countries, we should find this again dividing itself into two\ngroups, the Germanic and the Gothic, and the latter group, that is, the\nGothic, would include the ancient religion of the Scandinavians,\nEnglish, and Low Dutch. If we had sufficient means for making a\ncomparison, we should find that any single myth may have become more\nprominent, may have become more perfectly developed by one branch of the\nrace than by another; one branch of the great Teutonic family may have\nbecome more attached to a certain myth than another, while the myth\nitself would remain identical everywhere. Local myths, that is, myths\nproduced by the contemplation of the visible workings of external\nnature, are colored by the atmosphere of the people and country where\nthey are fostered. The god Frey received especial attention by the\nAsa-worshipers in Sweden, but the Norse and Danish Frey are still in\nreality the same god. Thunder produces not the same effect upon the\npeople among the towering and precipitous mountains of Norway and the\nlevel plains of Denmark, but the Thor of Norway and of Denmark are still\nthe same god; although in Norway he is tall a mountain, his beard is\nbriers, and he rushes upon his heroic deeds with the strength and frenzy\nof a berserk, while in Denmark he wanders along the sea-shore, a youth,\nwith golden looks and downy beard.\n\nIt is the Asa-mythology, as it was conceived and cherished by the\nNorsemen of Norway and Iceland, which the Old Norse literature properly\npresents to us, and hence the myths will in this volume be presented in\ntheir Norse dress, and hence its name, _Norse Mythology_. From what has\nalready been said, there is no reason to doubt that the Swedes and Danes\nprofessed in the main the same faith, followed the same religious\ncustoms, and had the same religious institutions; and upon this\nsupposition other English writers upon this subject, as for instance\nBenjamin Thorpe, have entitled their books _Scandinavian Mythology_. But\nwe do not know the details of the religious faith, customs and\ninstitutions of Sweden and Denmark, for all reliable inland sources of\ninformation are wanting, and all the highest authorities on this subject\nof investigation, such as Rudolph Keyser, P. A. Munch, Ernst Sars, N. M.\nPetersen and others, unanimously declare, that although the ancient\nNorse-Icelandic writings not unfrequently treat of heathen religious\naffairs in Sweden and Denmark, yet, when they do, it is always in such a\nmanner that the conception is clearly _Norse_, and the delineation is\nthroughout adapted to institutions as they existed in Norway. We are\naware that there are those who will feel inclined to criticise us for\nnot calling this mythology Scandinavian or Northern (a more elastic\nterm), but we would earnestly recommend them to examine carefully the\nwritings of the above named writers before waxing too zealous on the\nsubject.\n\nAs we closed the previous chapter, with an extract from Thomas Carlyle,\nso we will close this chapter with a brief quotation frown an equally\neminent scholar, the author of _Chips from a German Workshop_. In the\nsecond volume of that work Max M\u00fcller says:[1]\n\n    There is, after Anglo-Saxon, no language, no literature, no\n    mythology so full of interest for the elucidation of the earliest\n    history of the race which now inhabits these British isles as the\n    Icelandic. Nay, in one respect Icelandic beats every other dialect\n    of the great Teutonic family of speech, not excepting Anglo-Saxon\n    and Old High German and Gothic. It is in Icelandic alone that we\n    find complete remains of genuine Teutonic heathendom. Gothic as _a\n    language_, is more ancient than Icelandic; but the only literary\n    work which we we possess in Gothic is a translation of the Bible.\n    The Anglo-Saxon literature, with the exception of the Beowulf, is\n    Christian. The old heroes of the Niebelunge, such as we find them\n    represented in the Suabian epic, have been converted into\n    church-going knights; whereas, in the ballads of the Elder Edda,\n    Sigurd and Brynhild appear before us in their full pagan grandeur,\n    holding nothing sacred but their love, and defying all laws, human\n    and divine, in the name of that one almighty passion. The Icelandic\n    contains the key to many a riddle in the English language and to\n    many a mystery in the English character. Though the Old Norse is but\n    a dialect of the same language which the Angles and Saxons brought\n    to Britain, though the Norman blood is the same blood that floods\n    and ebbs in every German heart, yet there is an accent of defiance\n    in that rugged northern speech, and a spring of daring madness in\n    that throbbing northern heart, which marks the Northman wherever he\n    appears, whether in Iceland or in Sicily, whether on the Seine or on\n    the Thames. At the beginning of the ninth century, when the great\n    northern exodus began, Europe, as Dr. Dasent remarks, was in danger\n    of becoming too comfortable. The two nations destined to run\n    neck-and-neck in the great race of civilization, Frank and\n    Anglo-Saxon, had a tendency to become dull and lazy, and neither\n    could arrive at perfection till it had been chastised by the\n    Norsemen, and finally forced to admit an infusion of northern blood\n    into its sluggish veins. The vigor of the various branches of the\n    Teutonic stock may be measured by the proportion of Norman blood\n    which they received; and the national character of England owes more\n    to the descendants of Hrolf Ganger[2] than to the followers of\n    Hengist and Horsa.\n\n    But what is known of the early history of the Norsemen? Theirs was\n    the life of reckless freebooters, and they had no time to dream and\n    ponder on the past, which they had left behind in Norway. Where they\n    settled as colonists or as rulers, their own traditions, their very\n    language, were soon forgotten. Their language has nowhere struck\n    root on foreign ground, even where, as in Normandy, they became\n    earls of Rouen, or, as in these isles, kings of England. There is\n    but one exception\u2014Iceland. Iceland was discovered, peopled and\n    civilized by Norsemen in the ninth century; and in the nineteenth\n    century the language spoken there is still the dialect of Harald\n    Fairhair, and the stories told there are still the stories of the\n    Edda, or the Venerable Grandmother. Dr. Dasent gives us a rapid\n    sketch of the first landings of the Norse refugees on the fells and\n    forths of Iceland. He describes how love of freedom drove the\n    subjects of Harald Fairhair forth from their home; how the Teutonic\n    tribes, though they loved their kings, the sons of Odin, and\n    sovereigns by the grace of God, detested the dictatorship of Harald.\n    He was a mighty warrior, so says the ancient Saga, and laid Norway\n    under him, and put out of the way some of those who held districts,\n    and some of them he drove out of the land; and besides, many men\n    escaped out of Norway because of the overbearing of Harald Fairhair,\n    for they would not stay to be subjects to him. These early emigrants\n    were pagans, and it was not till the end of the tenth century that\n    Christianity reached the Ultima Thule of Europe. The missionaries,\n    however, who converted the freemen of Iceland, were freemen\n    themselves. They did not come with the pomp and the pretensions of\n    the church of Rome. They preached Christ rather than the Pope; they\n    taught religion rather than theology. Nor were they afraid of the\n    old heathen gods, or angry with every custom that was not of\n    Christian growth. Sometimes this tolerance may have been carried too\n    far, for we read of kings, like Helge, who mixed in their faith, who\n    trusted in Christ, but at the same time invoked Thor\u2019s aid whenever\n    they went to sea or got into any difficulty. But on the whole, the\n    kindly feeling of the Icelandic priesthood toward the national\n    traditions and customs and prejudices of their converts must have\n    been beneficial. Sons and daughters were not forced to call the gods\n    whom their fathers and mothers had worshiped, devils; and they were\n    allowed to use the name of Allfadir, whom they had invoked in the\n    prayers of their childhood, when praying to Him who is our Father in\n    Heaven.\n\n    The Icelandic missionaries had peculiar advantages in their relation\n    to the system of paganism which they came to combat. Nowhere else,\n    perhaps, in the whole history of Christianity, has the missionary\n    been brought face to face with a race of gods who were believed by\n    their own worshipers to be doomed to death. The missionaries had\n    only to proclaim that Balder was dead, that the mighty Odin and Thor\n    were dead. The people knew that these gods were to die, and the\n    message of the One Everliving God must have touched their ears and\n    their hearts with comfort and joy. Thus, while in Germany the\n    priests were occupied for a long time in destroying every trace of\n    heathenism, in condemning every ancient lay as the work of the\n    devil, in felling sacred trees and abolishing national customs, the\n    missionaries of Iceland were able to take a more charitable view of\n    the past, and they became the keepers of those very poems and laws\n    and proverbs and Runic inscriptions which on the continent had to be\n    put down with inquisitorial cruelty. The men to whom the collection\n    of the ancient pagan poetry of Iceland is commonly ascribed were men\n    of Christian learning: the one,[3] the founder of a public school;\n    the other,[4] famous as the author of a history of the North, the\n    Heimskringla (the Home-Circle\u2014the World). It is owing to their\n    labors that we know anything of the ancient religion, the\n    traditions, the maxims, the habits of the Norsemen. Dr. Dasent\n    dwells most fully on the religious system of Iceland, which is the\n    same, at least in its general outline, as that believed in by all\n    the members of the Teutonic family, and may truly be called one of\n    the various dialects of the primitive religious and mythological\n    language of the Aryan race. There is nothing more interesting than\n    religion in the whole history of man. By its side, poetry and art,\n    science and law, sink into comparative insignificance.\n\nFootnote 1:\n\n  Max M\u00fcller\u2019s Review of Dr. Dasent\u2019s _The Norseman in Iceland_.\n\nFootnote 2:\n\n  The founder of Normandy in France.\n\nFootnote 3:\n\n  S\u00e6mund the Wise.\n\nFootnote 4:\n\n  Snorre Sturleson.\n\n\n\n\n                              CHAPTER III.\n                NORSE MYTHOLOGY COMPARED WITH THE GREEK.\n\n\nDr. Dasent says the Norse mythology may hold its own against any other\nin the world. The fact that it is the religion of our forefathers ought\nto be enough to commend it to our attention; but it may be pardonable in\nus to harbor even a sense of pride, if we find, for instance, that the\nmythology of our Gothic ancestors suffers nothing, but rather is the\ngainer in many respects by a comparison with that world-famed paganism\nof the ancient Greeks. We would therefore invite the attention of the\nreader to a brief comparison between the Norse and Greek systems of\nmythology.\n\nA comparison between the two systems is both interesting and important.\nThey are the two grandest systems of cosmogony and theogony of which we\nhave record, but the reader will generously pardon the writer if he\nventures the statement already at the outset, that of the two the Norse\nsystem is the grander. These two, the Greek and the Norse, have, to a\ngreater extent than all other systems of mythology combined, influenced\nthe civilization, determined the destinies, socially and politically, of\nthe European nations, and shaped their polite literature. In literature\nit might indeed seem that the Greek mythology has played a more\nimportant part. We admit that it has acted a more _conspicuous_ part,\nbut we imagine that there exists a wonderful blindness, among many\nwriters, to the transcendent influence of the blood and spirit of\nancient Norseland on North European, including English and American,\ncharacter, which character has in turn stamped itself upon our\nliterature (as, for instance, in the case of Shakespeare, the Thor among\nall Teutonic writers); and, furthermore, we rejoice in the absolute\ncertainty to which we have arrived by studying the signs of the times,\nthat the comparative ignorance, which has prevailed in this country and\nin England, of the history, literature, ancient religion and\ninstitutions of a people so closely allied to us by race, national\ncharacteristics, and tone of mind as the Norsemen, will sooner or later\nbe removed; that a school of Norse philology and antiquities will ere\nlong flourish on the soil of the Vinland of our ancestors, and that\nthere is a grand future, not far hence, when Norse mythology will be\ncopiously reflected in our elegant literature, and in our fine arts,\npainting, sculpturing and music.\n\nThe Norse mythology differs widely from the Greek. They are the same in\nessence; that is to say, both are a recognition of the forces and\nphenomena of nature as gods and demons; but all mythologies are the same\nin this respect, and the differences, between the various mythological\nsystems, consist in the different ways in which nature has impressed\ndifferent peoples, and in the different manner in which they have\ncomprehended the universe, and personified or deified the various forces\nand phenomena of nature. In other words, it is in the ethical clothing\nand elaboration of the myths, that the different systems of mythology\ndiffer one from the other. In the Vedic and Homeric poets the germs of\nmythology are the same as in the Eddas of Norseland, but this common\nstock of materials, that is, the forces and phenomena of nature, has\nbeen moulded into an infinite variety of shapes by the story-tellers of\nthe Hindoos, Greeks and Norsemen.\n\nMemory among the Greeks is _Mnemosyne_, the mother of the muses, while\namong the Norsemen it is represented by Munin, one of the ravens perched\nupon Odin\u2019s shoulders. The masculine Heimdal, god of the rainbow among\nthe Norsemen, we find in Greece as the feminine Iris, who charged the\nclouds with water from the lakes and rivers, in order that it might fall\nagain upon the earth in gentle fertilizing showers. She was daughter of\nThaumas and Elektra, granddaughter of Okeanos, and the swift-footed\ngold-winged messenger of the gods. The Norse Balder is the Greek Adonis.\nFrigg, the mother of Balder, mourns the death of her son, while\nAphrodite sorrows for her special favorite, the young rosy shepherd,\nAdonis. Her grief at his death, which was caused by a wild boar, was so\ngreat that she would not allow the lifeless body to be taken from her\narms until the gods consoled her by decreeing that her lover might\ncontinue to live half the year, during the spring and summer, on the\nearth, while she might spend the other half with him in the lower world.\nThus Balder and Adonis are both summer gods, and Frigg and Aphrodite are\ngoddesses of gardens and flowers. The Norse god of Thunder, Thor\n(Thursday), who, among the Norsemen, is only the protector of heaven and\nearth, is the Greek Zeus, the father of gods and men. The gods of the\nGreeks are essentially free from decay and death. They live forever on\nOlympos, eating ambrosial food and drinking the nectar of immortality,\nwhile in their veins flows not immortal blood, but the imperishable\nichor. In the Norse mythology, on the other hand, Odin himself dies, and\nis swallowed by the Fenriswolf; Thor conquers the Midgard-serpent, but\nretreats only nine paces and falls poisoned by the serpent\u2019s breath; and\nthe body of the good and beautiful Balder is consumed in the flames of\nhis funeral pile. The Greek dwelt in bright and sunny lands, where the\nchange from summer to winter brought with it no feelings of overpowering\ngloom. The outward nature exercised a cheering influence upon him,\nmaking him happy, and this happiness he exhibited in his mythology. The\nGreek cared less to commune with the silent mountains, moaning winds,\nand heaving sea; he spent his life to a great extent in the cities,\nwhere his mind would become more interested in human affairs, and where\nhe could share his joys and sorrows with his kinsmen. While the Greek\nthus was brought up to the artificial society of the town, the hardy\nNorseman was inured to the rugged independence of the country. While the\nlife and the nature surrounding it, in the South, would naturally have a\ntendency to make the Greek more human, or rather to deify that which is\nhuman, the popular life and nature in the North would have a tendency to\nform in the minds of the Norsemen a sublimer and profounder conception\nof the universe. The Greek clings with tenacity to the beautiful earth;\nthe earth is his mother. Zeus, surrounded by his gods and goddesses,\nsits on his golden throne, on Olympos, on the top of the mountain, in\nthe cloud. But that is not lofty enough for the spirit of the Norsemen.\nOdin\u2019s Valhal is in heaven; nay, Odin himself is not the highest god;\nMuspelheim is situated above Asaheim, and in Muspelheim is Gimle, where\nreigns a god, who is mightier than Odin, the god whom Hyndla ventures\nnot to name.\n\nIn _Heroes and Hero Worship_, Thomas Carlyle makes the following\nstriking comparison between Norse and Greek mythology: To me, he says,\nthere is in the Norse system something very genuine, very great and\nmanlike. A broad simplicity, rusticity, so very different from the light\ngracefulness of the old Greek paganism, distinguishes this Norse system.\nIt is _thought_, the genuine thought of deep, rude, earnest minds,\nfairly opened to the things about them, a face-to-face and\nheart-to-heart inspection of things\u2014the first characteristic of all good\nthought in all times. Not graceful lightness, half sport, as in the\nGreek paganism; a certain homely truthfulness and rustic strength, a\ngreat rude sincerity, discloses itself here. Thus Carlyle.\n\nAs the visible workings of nature are in the great and main features the\nsame everywhere; in all climes we find the vaulted sky with its sun,\nmoon, myriad stars and flitting clouds; the sea with its surging\nbillows; the land with its manifold species of plants and animals, its\nelevations and depressions; we find cold, heat, rain, winds, etc.,\nalthough all these may vary widely in color, brilliancy, depth, height,\ndegree, and other qualities; and as the minds and hearts of men cherish\nhope, fear, anxiety, passion, etc., although they may be influenced and\nactuated by them in various ways and to various extents; and as\nmythology is the impersonation of nature\u2019s forces and phenomena as\ncontemplated by the human mind and _heart_, so all mythologies, no\nmatter in what clime they originated and were fostered, must of\nnecessity have their stock of materials, their ground-work or foundation\nand frame in common, while they may differ widely from each other in\nrespect to peculiar characteristics, both in the ethical elaboration of\nthe myth and in the architectural effect of the _tout ensemble_. Thus we\nhave a tradition about a deluge, for instance, in nearly every country\non the globe, but no two nations tell it alike. In Genesis we read of\nNoah and his ark, and how the waters increased greatly upon the earth,\ndestroying all flesh that moved upon the earth excepting those who were\nwith him in the ark. In Greece, Deukalion and his wife Pyrrha become the\nfounders of a new race of men. According to the Greek story, a great\nflood had swept away the whole human race, except one pair, Deukalion\nand Pyrrha, who, as the flood abated, landed on Mt. Parnassos, and\nthence descending, picked up stones and cast them round about, as Zeus\nhad commanded. From these stones sprung a new race\u2014men from those cast\nby Deukalion, and women from those cast by his wife. In Norseland, Odin\nand his two brothers, Vile and Ve, slew the giant Ymer, and when he\nfell, so much blood flowed from his wounds, that the whole race of\nfrost-giants was drowned, except a single giant, who saved himself with\nhis household in a skiff (ark), and from him descended a new race of\nfrost-giants. Now this is not a tradition carried from one place to the\nother; it is a natural expression of the same thought; it is a similar\neffort to account for the origin of the land and the race of man. A\npeople develops its mythology in the same manner as it develops its\nlanguage. The Norse mythology is related to the Greek mythology to the\nsame extent that the Norse language is related to the Greek language,\nand no more; and comparative mythology, when the scholar wields the pen,\nis as interesting as comparative philology.\n\nThe Greeks have their chaos, the all-embracing space, the Norsemen have\nGinungagap, the yawning abyss between Niflheim (the nebulous world) and\nMuspelheim (the world of fire). The Greeks have their titans,\ncorresponding in many respects to the Norse giants. The Greeks tell of\nthe Melian nymphs; the Norsemen of the elves, etc.; but these\ncomparisons are chiefly interesting for the purpose of studying the\ndifferences between the Norse and Greek _mind_, which reflects itself in\nthe expression of the thought.\n\nThe hard stone weeps tears, both in Greece and in Norseland; but let us\nnotice how differently it is expressed. In Greece, Niobe, robbed of her\nchildren, was transformed into a rugged rock, down which tears trickled\nsilently. She becomes a stone and still continues her weeping\u2014\n\n                    Et lacrymas etiamnum marmora manant,\n\nas the poet somewhere has it. In Norseland all nature laments the sad\ndeath of Balder, even the stones weep for him (gr\u00e1ta Baldr).\n\nLet us take another idea, and notice how differently the words symbolize\nthe same truth or thought in the Bible, in Greece, and in Norseland. In\nthe Bible:\n\n    And Jesus sat over against the treasury, and beheld how people cast\n    money into the treasury: and many that were rich cast in much. And\n    there came a certain poor widow, and she threw in two mites, which\n    make a farthing. And he called unto him his disciples and said unto\n    them, Verily I say unto you, that this poor widow hath cast more in,\n    than all they which have cast into the treasury: for all they did\n    cast in of their abundance; but she of her want did cast in all that\n    she had, even all her living.\n\nIn Greece:\n\n    A rich Thessalian offered to the temple at Delphi one hundred oxen\n    with golden horns. A poor citizen from Hermion took as much meal\n    from his sack as he could hold between two fingers, and he threw it\n    into the fire that burned on the altar. Pythia said, that the gift\n    of the poor man was more pleasing to the gods than that of the rich\n    Thessalian.\n\nIn Norseland the Elder Edda has it:\n\n                         Knowest thou how to pray?\n                         Knowest thou how to offer?\n                         Better not pray at all\n                         Than to offer too much,\n                         Better is nothing sent\n                         Than too much consumed.\n\nIn these few and simple words are couched the same thought as in the\nJewish and Greek accounts just given. It is this identity in thought,\nwith diversity of depth, breadth, beauty, simplicity, etc., in the\nexpression or symbol that characterizes the differences between all\nmythological systems. Each has its own peculiarities stamped upon it,\nand in these peculiarities the spirit of the people, their tendency to\nthorough investigation or superficiality, their strength or weakness,\ntheir profoundness or frivolity, are reflected as in a mirror.\n\nThe beauty of the Greek mythology consists not so much in the system,\nconsidered as a whole, as in the separate single groups of myths. Each\ngroup has its own center around which it revolves, each group moves in\nits own sphere, and there develops its own charming perfection, without\nregard to the effect upon the system of mythology considered as a whole.\nEach group is exquisite, and furnishes an inexhaustible fountain of\nlegendary narrative, but the central thought that should bind all these\nbeautiful groups into one grand whole is weak. Nay, the complex\nmultiplicity into which it constantly kept developing, as long as the\nGreek mind was in vigorous activity, was the cause that finally\nshattered it. Is not this the same spirit, which we find so distinctly\ndeveloped in the Greek mythology, this want of a centralizing thought,\nmost wonderfully and perfectly reflected in the social and political\ncharacteristics of the Greek states, and in all the more recent Romance\nnations? Each Greek state developed a peculiar beauty and perfection of\nits own; but between the different states (Sparta, Athens, etc.,) there\nwas no strong bond of union which could keep them together, and hence\nall the feuds and civil wars and final dissolution. In the Norse\nmythology, on the other hand, the centralizing idea or thought is its\npeculiar feature; in it lies its strength and beauty. In the Norse\nmythology, the one myth and the one divinity is inextricably in\ncommunion with the other; and thus, also, the idea of unity,\ncentralization, is a prominent feature, and one of the chief\ncharacteristics of the Teutonic nations. While the Greek mythology\nforeshadowed all the petty states of Greece, as well as those of South\nEurope and South America, the Norse mythology foreshadowed the political\nand social destinies of _united_ Scandinavia, _united_ Great Britain,\n_united_ Germany, and the _United_ States of North America. When the\nGreeks unite, they _fall_. We Northerners live only to be _united_.\n\nAs we would be led to suppose, from a study of the physical and\nclimatical peculiarities of Greece and Norseland, we find that the Greek\nmythology forms an epic poem, and that the Norse is a tragedy. Not only\nthe mythology, considered as a whole, but even the character of its\nspeech, and of its very words and phrases, must necessarily be suggested\nand modified by the external features of the country. Thus in Greece,\nwhere the sun\u2019s rays never scorch, and where the northern winds never\npierce, we naturally find in the speech of the people, brilliancy rather\nthan gloom, life rather than decay, and constant renovation rather than\nprolonged lethargy. But in the frozen-bound regions of the North, where\nthe long arms of the glaciers clutch the valleys in their cold embrace,\nand the death-portending avalanches cut their way down the\nmountain-sides, the tongue of the people would, with a peculiar\nintensity of feeling, dwell upon the tragedy of nature.\n\nThe Danish poet Grundtvig expressed a similar idea more than sixty years\nago, when he said that the Asa-Faith unfolds in five acts the most\nglorious drama of victory that ever has been composed, or ever could be\ncomposed, by any mortal poet. And Hauch defines these five acts as\nfollows:\n\n    Act I. The Creation.\n\n    Act II. The time preceding the death of Balder.\n\n    Act III. The death of Balder.\n\n    Act IV. The time immediately succeeding the death of Balder.\n\n    Act V. Ragnarok, the Twilight of the gods, that is, the decline and\n    fall immediately followed by the regeneration of the world.\n\nIt is an inestimable peculiarity of the Norse mythology, that it, in\naddition to beginning with a theogony (birth of the gods), also ends\nwith a theoktony (death of the gods). In the Greek mythology, the drama\nlacks the fifth or final act, and we have only a prosaic account of how\nthe people at length grew tired of their gods, and left them when they\nbecame old and feeble. But the Eddas have a theoktonic myth, in which\nthe heroic death of the gods is sung with the same poetic spirit as\ntheir youthful exploits and victories. As the shades of night flee\nbefore the morning dawn, thus Valhal\u2019s gods had to sink into the earth,\nwhen the idea, that an idol is of no consequence in this world, first\nburst upon the minds of the idol-worshipers. This idea spontaneously\ncreated the myth of Ragnarok. All the elements of its mythical form were\nforeshadowed in the older group of Norse conceptions. The idea of\nRagnarok was suggested already in the Creation; for the gods are there\nrepresented as proceeding from giants, that is, from an evil, chaotic\nsource, and, moreover, that which can be born must die. The Greeks did\nnot release the titans from their prisons in Tartaros and bring them up\nto enter the last struggle with the gods. Signs of such a contest\nflitted about like clouds in the deep-blue southern sky, but they did\nnot gather into a deluging thunder-storm. The ideas were too broken and\nscattered to be united into one grand picture. The Greek was so much\nallured by the pleasures of life, that he could find no time to fathom\nits depths or rise above it. And hence, when the glories of this life\nhad vanished, there remained nothing but a vain shadow, a lower world,\nwhere the pale ghosts of the dead knew no greater happiness than to\nreceive tidings from this busy world.\n\nThe Norseman willingly yields the prize to the Greek when the question\nis of precision in details and external adornment of the figures; but\nwhen we speak of deep significance and intrinsic power, the Norseman\npoints quietly at Ragnarok, the Twilight of the gods, and the Greek is\nsilent.\n\nThe Goth, as has before been indicated, concentrated life; the Greek\ndivided it into parcels. Thus the Greek mythology is frivolous, the\nNorse is profound. The frivolous mind lives but to enjoy the passing\nmoment; the profound mind reflects, considers the past and the future.\nThe Greek abandoned himself wholly to the pleasures of this life,\nregardless of the past or future. The Norseman accepted life as a good\ngift, but he knew that he was merely its transient possessor. Over every\nmoment of life hangs a threatening sword, which may in the next moment\nprove fatal. Life possesses no hour of the future. And this is the\npeculiar characteristic of the heroic life in the North, that our\nancestors were powerfully impressed with the uncertainty of life. They\nconstantly witnessed the interchange of life and death, and this\nnourished in them the thought that life is not worth keeping, for no one\nknows how soon it may end. Life itself has no value, but the object\nconstantly to be held in view is to die an honorable death. While we are\npermitted to live, let us strive to die with honor, it is said in\nBjarkemaal; and in the lay of Hamder of the Elder Edda we read:\n\n                   Well have we fought;\n                   On slaughtered Goths we stand,\n                   On those fallen by the sword,\n                   Like eagles on a branch.\n                   Great glory we have gained;\n                   Though now or to-morrow we shall die,\u2014\n                   No one lives till eve\n                   Against the norns\u2019 decree.\n\nIt is this same conception of the problem of life that in the Christian\nreligion has assumed a diviner form. Though his ideas were clothed in a\nruder form, the Norseman still reached the same depth of thought as when\nthe Christian says: I am ready to lay down my life, if I may but die\nhappy, die a child of God; for what is a man profited if he shall gain\nthe whole world, and lose his own soul?\n\nThe Norseman always concentrated his ideas as much as possible. For this\nreason he knew but three sins\u2014perjury, murder, and adultery; that is,\nsin against God, sin against the state, and sin against fellow-man; and\nall these are in fact but one sin\u2014deceitfulness. In the same manner the\nNorseman concentrated his ideas in regard to the punishment of sin. When\nthe Eddas tell us about the punishment of the wicked, they sum it all up\nin Naastrand (the strand of corpses), that place far from the sun, that\nlarge and terrible cave, the doors of which open to the north. This cave\nis built of serpents wattled together, and the heads of all the serpents\nturn into the cave, filling it with streams of poison, in which\nperjurers, murderers and adulterers have to wade. The suffering is\nterrible; gory hearts hang outside of their breasts; their faces are\ndyed in blood; strong venom-dragons fiercely run through their hearts;\ntheir hands are riveted together with ever-burning stones; their clothes\na wrapped in flames; remorseless ravens tear their eyes from their\nheads:\n\n                        But all the horrors\n                        You cannot know,\n                        That Hel\u2019s condemned endure;\n                        Sweet sins there\n                        Bitterly are punished,\n                        False pleasures\n                        Reap true pain.\n\nThe point to be observed is, that all the punishment here described is\nthe same for all the wicked.\n\nBut with this, the versatile Greek is not content. He multiplies the\nsins and the punishments. Tartaros is full of despair and tears, and the\nwicked there suffer a variety of tortures. Enormous vultures continually\ngnaw the liver of Tityos, but it always grows again. Ixion is lashed\nwith serpents to a wheel, which a strong wind drives continually round\nand round. Tantalos suffers from an unceasing dread of being crushed by\na great rock that hangs over his head; he stands in a stream of water\nthat flows up to his throat, and he almost perishes from thirst;\nwhenever he bends his head to drink the water recedes; delicious fruits\nhang over his head, whenever he stretches out his hand they evade his\ngrasp. Thus it is to be _tantalized_. The Dana\u00efdes must fill a cistern\nthat has holes in the bottom; all the water they pour in runs out\nequally fast. Sisyphos, sweating and all out of breath, rolls his huge\nstone up the mountain side; when he reaches the summit, the stone rolls\ndown again.\n\nThe fundamental idea is always the same. It is always punishment for\nsin; but it is expressed and illustrated in many different ways. The\nvariety enhances the beauty. The Greek mythology is rich, for\nprofuseness of illustration is wealth. The Norse mythology is poor,\nbecause it is so strong; it consumes all its strength in the\nprofoundness of its thought. The Norse mythology excels in the\nconcentratedness and strength of the whole system; the Greek excels in\nthe beauty of the separate groups of myths. The one is a religion of\n_strength_, the other of _beauty_.\n\nThe influence that the outward features of a country exercise upon the\nthoughts and feelings of men, especially during the vigorous,\nimaginative, poetic and prophetic childhood of a nation, can hardly be\noverestimated. Necessarily, therefore, do we find this influence\naffecting and modifying a nation\u2019s mythology, which is a child-like\npeople\u2019s thoughts and feelings, contemplating nature reflected in a\nsystem of religion. Hence, it is eminently fitting, in comparing the\nNorse mythology with the Greek, to take a look at the home of the\nNorsemen. We, therefore, cordially invite the traveler from the\nsmooth-beaten tracks of southern Europe to the mountains, lakes, valleys\nand fjords of Norseland. You may come in midsummer, when Balder (the\nsummer sunlight) rules supreme, when the radiant dawn and glowing sunset\nkiss each other and go hand in hand on the mountain tops; but we would\nalso invite you to tarry until Balder is slain, when the wintry gloom,\nwith its long nights, sits brooding over the country, and Loke (Thok,\nfire) weeps his arid tears (sparks) over the desolation he has wrought.\n\nNorway is dark, cloudy, severe, grand, and majestic. Greece is light,\nvariegated, mild, and beautiful. No one can long more deeply for the\nlight of summer, with its mild and gentle breezes from the south, than\nthe Norseman. When he has pondered on his own thoughts during the long\nwinter, when the sun entirely or nearly disappeared from above the\nhorizon, and nothing but northern lights flickered and painted the\ncolors of the rainbow over his head, he welcomes the spring sun with\nenthusiastic delight. It was this deep longing for Balder that drove\nswarms of Norsemen on viking expeditions to France, Spain, and England;\nthrough the pillars of Hercules to Italy, Greece, Constantinople and\nPalestine, and over the surging main to Iceland, Greenland and Vinland.\nIt is this deep longing for Balder that every year brings thousands of\nNorsemen to alight upon our shores and scatter themselves to their\nnumberless settlements in these United States. Still every Norse\nemigrant, if he has aught in him worthy of his race, thinks he shall\nonce more see those weird, gigantic, snow-capped mountains, that\nstretched their tall heads far above the clouds and seemed to look half\nanxiously, half angrily after him as his bark was floating across the\ndeep sea.\n\nThere is something in the natural scenery of Norway\u2014a peculiar blending\nof the grand, the picturesque, the gigantic, bewildering and majestic.\nThere is something that leaves you in bewildering amazement, when you\nhave seen it, and makes you ask yourself, Was it real or was it only a\ndream? Norway is in fact one huge imposing rock, and its valleys are but\ngreat clefts in it. Through these clefts the rivers, fed by vast\nglaciers upon the mountains, find their way to the sea. They come from\nthe distance, now musically and chattingly meandering their way beneath\nthe willows, now tumbling down the slopes, reeking and distorted by the\nrocks that oppose them, until they reach some awful precipice and tumble\ndown some eight hundred to a thousand feet in a single leap into the\ndepths below, where no human being ever yet set his foot. We are not\noverdrawing the picture. You cannot get to the foot of such falls as the\nVoring Force or Rjukan Force, but you may look over the precipice from\nabove and see the waters pouring like fine and fleecy wool into the\nseething caldron, where you can discern through the vapory mists shoots\nof foam at the bottom, like rockets of water, radiating in every\ndirection. You hear a low rumbling sound around you, and the very rock\nvibrates beneath your feet; and as you hang half giddy over the cliff,\nclasping your arms around some young birch-tree that tremblingly leans\nover the brink of the steep, and turn your eyes to the huge mountain\nmass that breasts you,\u2014its black, melancholy sides seemingly within a\nstone\u2019s throw, and its snow-white head far in the clouds above,\u2014your\nthoughts involuntarily turn to _him_, the God, whom the skald dare not\nname, to _him_ at whose bidding Gausta Fjeld and Reeking Force sprang\nfrom Ginungagap, from the body of the giant Ymer, from chaos. You look\nlonger upon this wonderful scene, and you begin to think of Ragnarok, of\nthe Twilight of the gods. Once seen, and the grand picture, which defies\nthe brush of the painter, will forever afterwards float before your mind\nlike a dream.\n\nMake a journey by steamer on some of those noble and magnificent fjords\non the west coast of Norseland. The whole scenery looks like a moving\npanorama of the finest description. The dark mountains rise almost\nperpendicularly from the water\u2019s edge to an enormous height; their\nsummits, crowned with ice and snow, stand out sharp and clear against\nthe bright blue sky; and the ravines on the mountain tops are filled\nwith huge glaciers, that clasp their frosty arms around the valley, and\nsend down, like streams of tears along the weather-beaten cheeks of the\nmountains, numerous waterfalls and cascades, falling in an endless\nvariety of graceful shapes from various altitudes into the fjord below.\nSometimes a solitary peak lifts its lordly head a thousand feet clear\nabove the surrounding mountains, and towering like a monarch over all,\nit defiantly refuses to hold communion with any living thing save the\neagle. Here and there a force appears, like a strip of silvery fleecy\ncloud, suspended from the brow of the mountain, and dashing down more\nthan two thousand feet in one leap; and all this marvelously grand\nscenery, from base to peak, stands reflected, as deep as it is lofty, in\nthe calm, clear, sea-green water of the fjord, perfect as in a mirror.\n\nThere is no storm; the deep water of the fjord is silent and at rest.\nNot even the flight of a single bird ruffles its glassy surface. As the\nsteamer glides gently along between the rocky walls, you hear no sound\nsave the monotonous throbbing of the screw and the consequent splashing\nof the water. All else is still as death. The forces hang in silence all\naround, occasionally overarched by rainbows suspended in the rising\nmist. The naked mountains have a sombre look, that would make you\nmelancholy were it not for the overpowering grandeur. Sunshine reaches\nthe water only when the sun\u2019s rays fall nearly vertically, in\nconsequence of the immense height of the mountains\u2019 sides, whose\nenormous shadows almost perpetually overshade the narrow fjord. The\nnoonday sun paints a streak of delicate palish green on one side,\nforming a striking contrast to the other dark overshadowed side of the\nprofound fjord. It is awe-inspiring. It is stupendous. It is solemnly\ngrand. You can but fancy yourself in a fairy land, with elves and\nsprites and neckens and trolls dancing in sportive glee all around you.\n\nWords can paint no adequate picture of the stupendousness, majesty and\ngrandeur of Norse scenery; but can the reader wonder any longer that\nthis country has given to the world such marvelous productions in\npoetry, music and the fine arts? Nay, what is more to our purpose at\npresent, would you not look for a grand and marvelous mythological\nsystem from the poetic and imaginative childhood of the nation that\ninhabits this land? Knock, and it shall be opened unto you! and entering\nthe solemn halls and palaces of the gods, where all is cordiality and\npurity, you will find there perfectly reflected the wild and tumultuous\nconflict of the elements, strong rustic pictures, full of earnest and\ndeep thought, awe-inspiring and wonderful. You will find that simple and\nmartial religion which inspired the early Norsemen and developed them\nlike a tree full of vigor extending long branches over all Europe. You\nwill find that simple and martial religion which gave the Norsemen that\nrestless unconquerable spirit, apt to take fire at the very mention of\nsubjection and constraint; that religion which forged the instruments\nthat broke the fetters manufactured by the Roman emperors, destroyed\ntyrants and slaves, and taught men that nature having made all free and\nequal, no other reason but their mutual happiness could be assigned for\nmaking them dependent. You will find that simple and martial religion\nwhich was cherished by those vast multitudes which, as Milton says, the\npopulous North\n\n                \u2014\u2014poured from her frozen loins to pass\n                Rhene or the Danaw, when her barbarous sons\n                Came like a deluge on the South and spread\n                Beneath Gibraltar and the Libyan sands.\n\nBut it may be necessary for the reader to refresh himself with a few\ndraughts of that excellent beverage kept in Minter\u2019s gushing fountain,\nand drink with _his_ glittering horn, before he will be willing to\naccept these and many more such statements that we will make in thee\ncourse of this introduction.\n\nTo return to our theme. The gods of Norseland are stern and\nawe-inspiring; those of Greece are gentle and lovely. In the Norse\nmythology we find deep devotion, but seldom tears. In the Greek, there\nare violent emotions and the fears flow copiously. In Norseland, there\nis plenty of imagination; but it is not of that light, variegated,\nbutterfly, soap-bubble nature as in Greece. In the Norse mythology there\nis plenty of cordiality and sincerity, and the gods treat you hospitably\nto flesh of the boar, S\u00e6hrimner; and the valkyries will give you deep\ndraughts from bowls flowing with ale. In Greece there is gracefulness, a\nperfect etiquette, and you dine on ambrosia and nectar; there Eros and\nPsyche, the graces and muses, hover about you like heavenly cherubs.\nGraces and muses are wanting in Norseland. The Norse mythology is\ncharacterized throughout by a deep and genuine sincerity; the Greek, on\nthe other hand, by a sublime gracefulness; but, with Carlyle, we think\nthat sincerity is better than grace.\n\nBut the comparison between Norse and Greek mythology is too vast a field\nfor us to attempt to do justice to it in this volume. It would be an\ninteresting work to show how Norse and Greek mythologies respectively\nhave colored the religious, social, political and literary character of\nGreek and Romance peoples on the one hand, and Norsemen and Teutons on\nthe other. Somebody will undoubtedly in due time be inspired to\nundertake such a task. We must study both, and when they are\nharmoniously blended in our nature, we must let them together shape our\npolitical, social and literary destinies, and, tempered by the\nMosaic-Christian religion, they may be entitled to some consideration\neven in our religious life.\n\n\n\n\n                              CHAPTER IV.\n                            ROMAN MYTHOLOGY.\n\n\nIn all that has been said up to this time Roman mythology has not once\nbeen mentioned. Why not? Properly speaking, there is no such thing. It\nis an historical fact, that nearly the whole Roman literature,\nespecially that part of it which may be called _belles-lettres_, is\nscarcely anything but imitation. It did not, like the Greek and Old\nNorse, spring from the popular mind, by which it was cherished through\ncenturies; but at least a large portion of it was produced for pay and\nfor ornament, mostly in the time of the tyrant Augustus, to tickle his\near and gild those chains that were artfully forged to fetter the\npeoples of southern Europe. This is a dry but stubborn truth, and it is\nwonderful with what tenacity the schools in all civilized lands have\nclung to the Roman or Latin language, after it had become nothing but a\ncorpse; as though it could be expected that any genuine culture could be\nderived from this dead monster.\n\nIt is, however, an encouraging fact that the Teutonic races are\nindicating a tendency to emancipate themselves from the fetters of Roman\nbondage, and happy should we be if our English words were emancipated\ntherefrom. We should then use neither _emancipate_, nor _tendency_, nor\n_indicate_, but would have enough of Gothic words to use in place of\nthem. Ay, the signs of the times are encouraging. Look at what is being\ndone at Oxford and Cambridge, in London and in Edinburgh. Behold what\nhas been done during these later years by Dasent, Samuel Laing, Thorpe,\nCarlyle, Max M\u00fcller, Cleasby, Vigfusson, Magn\u00fasson, Morris, Hjaltalin,\nand others. And look at the publications of the Clarendon press, which\nis now publishing Icelandic Sagas in the original text. This is right.\nEvery scrap of Icelandic and Anglo-Saxon literature must be published,\nfor we must see what those old heroes, who crushed Rome and instituted a\nnew order of things, thought in every direction. We must find out what\ntheir aspirations were. To the credit of the Scandinavians it must here\nbe said, that they began to appreciate their old Icelandic literature\nmuch sooner than the rich Englishman realized the value of the\nAnglo-Saxon, and that the English are indebted to Rasmus Rask, the\nDanish scholar, for the most valuable contribution to Anglo-Saxon\nstudies; but it must also be admitted, in the first place, that the\nScandinavians have done far too little for Icelandic, and, in the next\nplace, that without a preparation in Icelandic, but little progress\ncould be made in the study of Anglo-Saxon. But England, with its usual\nliberality in literary matters, is now rapidly making amends for the\npast. And well she might. In the publication of the Icelandic and\nAnglo-Saxon literature she is the greatest gainer, for it is nothing\nless than a bridge, that will unite her present and past history. Maurer\nand M\u00f6bius are watching with Argos eyes the interests of Teutonic\nstudies in Germany.\n\nGreek should be studied, for that is no imitation. It is indigenous. It\nis a crystal clear stream flowing unadulterated from the Castalian\nfountain of Parnassos. Our warfare, therefore, is not against Greek, but\nagainst Latin. We have suffered long enough with our necks under the\nponderous Roman yoke in all its venous forms; take it as fetters forged\nby the Roman emperors, as crosiers in the hands of the Roman popes, or\nas rods in the hands of the Roman school-masters. The Goths severed the\nfetters of the Roman emperors, Luther and the Germans broke the crosiers\nof the Roman popes, but all the Teutons have submissively kissed the rod\nof the Roman school-master, although this was the most dangerous of the\nthree: it was the deadly weapon concealed in the hand of the assassin.\n\nThe Romans were a people of robbers both in political and in a literary\nsense. Nay, the Roman writers themselves tell us that the divine founder\nof the city, Romulus, was a captain of _robbers_; that _Mars_, the god\nof _war_, was his father; and that a _wolf_ (_rapacity_), descending\nfrom the mountains to drink, ran at the cry of the child and fed him\nunder a fig-tree, caressing and licking him as if he had been her own\nson, the infant hanging on to her as if she had been his mother. This\nRomulus began his great exploits by _killing his own brother_. When the\nnew city seemed to want women, to insure its duration, he proclaimed a\nmagnificent feast throughout all the neighboring villages, at which\nfeast were presented, among other things, the terrible shows of\n_gladiators_. While the strangers were most intent upon the spectacle, a\nnumber of Roman youths rushed in among the Sabines, _seized_ the\nyoungest and fairest of their wives and daughters, and carried them off\nby _violence_. In vain the parents and husbands protested against this\n_breach of hospitality_. This same Romulus ended his heroic career by\nbeing _assassinated_ by his friends, or, as others say, _torn in pieces_\nin the senate-house. Certain it is that the Romans _murdered_ him, and\nthen declared him the guardian spirit of the city; thus worshiping as a\ngod, by name Quirinus, him whom they could not bear as a king. Such\nfalsehoods as the one the senate invented, when they said that Romulus,\nwhom they had murdered, had been taken up into heaven, the Roman writers\ntell us were constantly taught to the Romans by Numa Pompilius, and by\nother Sabine and Etrurian priests; and such instruction laid the\nfoundation of their myths. The history of Romulus is, in fact, in\nminiature, the history of Rome.\n\nBut in spite of this, and much else that can in justice be said against\nRome and Latin, we cannot afford to throw the language and literature of\nthe Romans entirely overboard. Their history was too remarkable for\nthat; besides, many scribbled in Latin down through the middle ages, and\nthe Latin language has played so conspicuous a part in English\nliterature, and in the sciences, that no educated man can very well do\nwithout it. What we respectfully object to is making it the foundation\nof all education, this _bringing the scholar up_, so to speak, on Latin\nlanguage, history and literature; this nourishing and moulding the\ntender heart and mind on _Roman thought_,\u2014thus making the man,\nintellectually and morally, a slave bound in Roman chains, while we\nfree-born Goths, the descendants of Odin and Thor, ought to begin our\neducation and receive our first impressions from our own ancestors. The\ntree should draw its nourishment from its own roots; and we Americans\nare the youngest and most vigorous branch of that glorious Gothic tree,\nthe beautiful and noble Ygdrasil in the Norse cosmogony, whose three\ngrand roots strike down among the Anglo-Saxons, Scandinavians, and\nGermans. In order fully to comprehend the man, we must study the life of\nthe child; and in order to comprehend ourselves as a people, we must\nstudy our own ancient history and literature and make ourselves\nthoroughly acquainted with the imaginative and prophetic childhood of\nthe Teutonic race. We must give far more attention than we do, first, to\nEnglish and Anglo-Saxon, and we must, as we have heard Dr. S. H.\nCarpenter, of the University of Wisconsin most truthfully remark, begin\nwith the most modern English, and then follow it step by step, century\nby century, back to the most ancient Anglo-Saxon. A _living_ language\ncan be learned ten times as fast as a dead one, and we would apply Dr.\nCarpenter\u2019s[5] principle still further. We would make one of the living\nRomantic languages (French, Italian, or Spanish,) a key to the Latin;\nand above all, we would make modern Greek a preparation for old classic\nGreek. It cannot be controverted that children learn to read and write a\nlanguage much sooner and easier if they first learn to speak it, even\nthough the book-speech may differ considerably from the dialect which\nthe child learned from his mother; ample evidence of which fact may be\nfound in the different counties of England and Scotland and throughout\nthe European countries.\n\nIn the next place, that is, next after English and Anglo-Saxon, we must\nstudy German, M\u00e6so-Gothic and the Scandinavian languages, and especially\nIcelandic, which is the only _living_ key to the history of the middle\nages, and to the Old Norse literature. It is the only language now in\nuse in an almost unchanged form, through a knowledge of which we can\nread the literature of the middle ages. We must by no means forget that\nwe have Teutonic antiquities to which we stand in an entirely different\nand far closer relation than we do to Greece or Rome. And the Norsemen\nhave an old literature, which the scholar must of necessity be familiar\nwith in order to comprehend the history of the middle ages.\n\nWhen we have thus done justice to our own Teutonic race we may turn our\nattention to the ancient peoples around the Mediterranean Sea, the most\nimportant of which in literary and historical respects are the Hebrews,\nGreeks and Romans. The antiquities of these peoples will always form\nimportant departments in our colleges and universities, and it is our\nduty to study them; but they should not, as they still to a great extent\ndo, constitute the all-absorbing subject of our attention, the _summa\nsummarum_, the foundation and superstructure of our education and\nculture.\n\nIt has been argued by some that the Latin is more terse than English;\nbut did the reader ever reflect that it takes about _sixty syllables_ in\nLatin to express all that we can say in English with _forty syllables_?\nThe large number of inflectional endings have also been lauded as a\npoint of superior excellence in the Latin; but as a language _grows_ and\nmakes _progress_, it gradually emancipates itself from the thraldom of\ninflection and contents itself with the abstract, spiritual chain that\nlinks the words together into sentences; and did the reader ever run\nacross this significant truth, expressed by George P. Marsh, who says\nthat in Latin you have to be able to analyse and parse a sentence before\nyou can comprehend it, while in English you must comprehend the sentence\nbefore you can analyse or parse? _Forward_ has been and will forever be\nthe watchword of languages. They must either progress or die.\n\nWhen the question is asked, whether Hebrew, Greek or Latin should be\npreferred by the student, we answer that the choice is not a difficult\none to make, and our opinion has in fact already been given. Latin is\nthe language of a race of robbers; most of it is nothing but imitation,\nand besides it is a mere corpse, while Greek is the only one of the\nthree that is still living, and modern Greek\u2014for that is what we must\nbegin with\u2014is the key to the old Greek literature with its rich,\nbeautiful and original store of mythology, poetry, history, oratory, and\nphilosophy. As Icelandic in the extreme north of Europe is the _living_\nkey to the middle ages and to the celebrated Old Norse Eddas and Sagas,\nso modern Greek in the far south is the _living_ language, that\nintroduces us to the spirit of Homer, Herodotus, Demosthenes, and Plato;\nand thus the norns or fates, who preside over the destinies of men and\nnations, have in a most wonderful manner knit, or rather woven, us\ntogether with the Greeks, and the more we investigate the development\nand progress of nations and civilization, the more vividly the truth\nwill flash upon our minds, that the Greek and the Icelandic are two\nsilver-haired veterans, who hold in their hands two golden keys,\u2014the one\nto unlock the treasures of ancient times, the other those of the middle\nages; the one the treasures of the south and the other those of the\nnorth of Europe. But we must free ourselves from the bondage of Rome!\n\nWhen we get away from Rome, where slaves were employed as teachers, and\npay more attention to the antiquities of Greece, where it was the\nhighest honor that the greatest, noblest and most eloquent men could\nattain to, to be listened to by youths eager to learn and to be taught,\nthen the present slavery both of the teacher and of the student will\ncease, but scarcely before then.\n\nThe case of Shakespeare is an eminent example to us of what the Goth is\nable to accomplish, when he breaks the Roman chains. His works are not\nan imitation of Seneca or \u00c6schylus, nor are they the fruit of a careful\nstudy of the _Ars Poetica_ or _Gradus ad Parnassum_. No, he knew but\nlittle Latin and less Greek, but what made him the undisputed Hercules\nin English literature was the heroic spirit of Gothdom which flowed in\nhis veins, and which drove him away from the Latin school before his\nemotional nature had been flogged and tortured out of him. Shakespeare,\nand not Roman literature and scholasticism, is the lever that has raised\nEnglish literature and given it the first rank among all the Teutons. It\nis not, we repeat, the deluge of Latin words that flood it, that has\ngiven this pre\u00ebminence to English, but it is the genuine Gothic strength\nthat everywhere has tried to break down the Roman walls. The slaves of\nLatin will find it difficult enough to explain how Shakespeare, who was\nnot for an age, but for all time,\u2014he whose Latin was small and whose\nGreek was less,\u2014how he, the star of poets, the sweet swan of Avon, was\n_made_ as well as born. Ay, he was made. _He_ was also one of those who,\nto cast a living line had to sweat, and strike the second heat upon the\nMuses\u2019 anvil. It is true that Shakespeare did not arrive at a full\nappreciation of the Gothic spirit, for he did not have an opportunity to\nacquaint himself thoroughly with the Gothic myths; but then they ever\nhaunted him like the ghost of Hamlet, accusing their murderer, without\nfinding any avenger. We therefore count Shakespeare on our side of this\ngreat question.\n\nMay the time speedily come, nay, the time must come, when Greek and\nAnglo-Saxon and Old Norse and Gothic and German will shake hands over\nthe bloody chasm of Roman vandalism!\n\nWe fancy we see more than one who reads this chapter, and does not\nremember that he is a son of Thor, stretch out his hand for Mjolner,\nthat huge and mighty hammer of Thor, to swing it at us for what we have\nsaid and have not said about Rome, Roman mythology, and the Latin\nlanguage and literature; but, alas! for him, and fortunately for us, the\nRoman school-master took Thor\u2019s hammer away from him and whipped the\nstrength wherewith to wield it out of him. We only repeat that we know\nnothing of Roman mythology, but the Greek and Norse are twin sisters,\nand with the assistance of the Mosaic-Christian religion they have a\ngrand mission in the Gothic-Greek development of the world.\n\nFootnote 5:\n\n  Author of _English of the Fourteenth Century_ and of _An Introduction\n  to the Study of the Anglo-Saxon Language_.\n\n\n\n\n                               CHAPTER V.\n                   INTERPRETATION OF NORSE MYTHOLOGY.\n\n\nConsiderable has been said on this subject in the preceding pages, and\nthe interpretation which will be adhered to in this volume has been\nclearly indicated. We propose now to give a general synopsis of the more\nprominent methods of interpreting Norse mythology.\n\nIn one thing all undoubtedly agree, namely, that all mythologies embody\nreligious faith. As we, to this day, each in his own way, seek to find\nGod by philosophical speculation (natural theology), by our emotions, by\ngood deeds, or by all these at one time; and as we, when we have found\nhim, rest upon his breast, although we do not fully agree as to our\nconception of him, each one of us having his own God as each has his own\nrainbow; thus our forefathers sought God everywhere\u2014in the rocks, in the\nbabbling stream, in the heavy ear of grain, in the star-strewn sky of\nnight, and in the splendor of the sun. It was revelations of divinity\nthat they looked for. The fundamental element in their mythology was a\nreligious one, and this fact must never be lost sight of. To interpret a\nmyth, then, is not only to give its source, but also its aim and object,\ntogether with the thoughts and feelings that it awakens in the human\nbreast.\n\nSome writers (William and Mary Howitt and others) maintain that the\nNorse mythology is a degradation of, or aberration from, the _true\nreligion_, which was revealed to man in the earliest period of the\nhistory of the human race and is found pure and undefiled in the Bible;\nthat it presents sparkling waters from the original fountain of\ntradition. They point with seriousness to it as something that bears us\non toward the primal period of one tongue and one religion. In reference\nto the Elder Edda, they say that it descended through vast ages,\ngrowing, like all traditions, continually darker, and accumulating lower\nmatter and more divergent and more pagan doctrines, as the walls of old\ncastles become covered with mosses and lichens, till it finally assumed\nthe form it which it was collected from the mouths of the people, and\nput in a permanent written form. These interpreters claim that through\nall mythologies there run certain great lines, which converge toward one\ncommon center and point to an original source of a religious faith,\nwhich has grown dimmer and more disfigured, the further it has gone. The\ngeographical center, they say, from which all these systems of heathen\nbelief have proceeded is the same\u2014Central Asia; they point to the\neastern origin of the Norseman; they assert, with full confidence, that\nthe religious creed of the Norseman is the faith of Persia, India,\nGreece, and every other country, transferred to the snow-capped\nmountains of Norway and jokuls of Iceland, having only been modified\nthere, so as to give it an air of originality without destroying its\nprimeval features. They argue that Loke of the Norsemen, Pluto of the\nGreeks, Ahriman of the Persians, Siva of the Hindoos, etc., are all\noriginally the devil of the Bible, who has changed his name and more or\nless his personal form and characteristics. The biblical Trinity is\ndegenerated into the threefold trinity of Odin, Vile, and Ve; Odin,\nH\u0153ner, and Loder; and Odin, Thor, and Balder. They find in the Norse\ncosmogony, in a somewhat mutilated and interpolated condition, the\nScripture theory of the creation, preservation, destruction and\nregeneration of the world. Ygdrasil is the tree of life in the garden of\nEden; Ask and Embla, the first human pair, are Adam and Eve; the blood\nof the slain giant Ymer, in which the whole race of frost-giants was\ndrowned, (excepting one pair, who were saved, and from whom a new giant\nrace descended,) is the flood of Noah, the deluge; the citadel called\nMidgard is the tower of Babel; in the death of Balder, by Hoder, who was\ninstigated by Loke, they find the crucifixion of Christ by Judas,\ninstigated by the devil, etc.; displaying a vast amount of erudition,\nprofoundness and ingenuity, that might have been applied to some good\npurpose. We refrain from giving more of the results of their learned and\nerudite investigations, from fear of seducing ourselves or our readers\ninto the adoption of their absurdities.\n\nOther scholars (Snorre Sturleson, Saxo Grammaticus, Suhm, Rask, and\nothers,) give us what is called an _historical_ interpretation,\nasserting that Odin, Thor, Balder, and the other deities that figure in\nthe Norse mythology, are veritable ancestors of the Norsemen,\u2014men and\nwomen who have lived in the remote past; and as distance lends\nenchantment to the view, so the ordinary kings and priests of\npre-historic times have been magnified into gods. Odin and the other\ndivinities are in Snorre Sturleson\u2019s Heimskringla represented as having\ncome to Norseland from the great Svithiod, a country lying between the\nBlack Sea and the Caspian Sea. According to the historical\ninterpretation the mythical worlds are real countries that can be\npointed out on the map. This was the prevailing view taken during the\nlast two centuries, and even that sagacious scholar of the earlier part\nof this century, Professor Rasmus Rask, adheres almost exclusively to\nthe historical interpretation.\n\nIt is curious to read these old authors and observe how sincerely they\nhave looked upon Odin as an extraordinary and enterprising person who\nformerly ruled in the North and inaugurated great changes in the\ngovernment, customs and religion of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. They\nspeak of the great authority which he enjoyed, and how he even had\ndivine honors paid to him. They ingeniously connect Odin with the Roman\nCommonwealth, with Mithridates and Pompey (see p. 232). This historical\nsketch of Odin will be given in connection with the Odinic myth; suffice\nit here to say that the king of Pontus and all his barbarian allies were\nobliged to yield to the genius of Pompey. And here it is said that Odin\nwas one of the number defeated by Pompey. He was obliged to withdraw\nhimself by flight from the vengeance of the Romans! Odin came to Norway\nby way of Holstein and Jutland. On his way through Denmark he founded\nthe city Odinse, and placed his son Skjold upon the Danish throne. How\nprofound! What erudition! How much like the enthusiastic work of the\nSwede Rudbeck, who makes out the Atlantis of Plato to be Sweden, and\nshows that Japhet, son of Noah, came there and settled with his family!\nWhat profound learning (_gelahrtheit_) these men must have possessed! We\nare amazed and confounded at the vast amount of mental force that has\nbeen brought into activity, at the untiring zeal and the marvelous\ningenuity, with which these theories have been set up; but we cannot\nwitness all this without a feeling of deep regret that so much erudition\nand ingenuity, so much mental strength, was so fruitlessly thrown away.\nThey were generally profound _Latin_ scholars, and wrote the most of\ntheir books in Latin; but those ponderous tomes make their authors fools\nin folios in the light of modern historical knowledge. They studied by\nthat kind of lamp that illuminates a small spot on the table, but leaves\nthe whole room dark. A more careful and enlightened study of our early\nliterature has of course given the death-blow to so prosaic an\ninterpretation of the Norse mythology as the purely historical one is.\n\nThen we are met by the so-called _ethical_ interpretation of mythology,\nseeking its origin in man\u2019s peculiar nature, especially in a moral point\nof view. The advocates of this theory claim that mythology is a mere\nfiction created to satisfy man\u2019s spiritual, moral, and emotional nature.\nThe gods according to this interpretation represent man\u2019s virtues and\nvices, emotions, faculties of mind and muscle, etc., personified. Odin,\nthey say, is wisdom; Balder is goodness; Thor is strength; Heimdal is\ngrace, etc. Again: Thor is the impersonation of strength and courage;\nthe giants represent impotent sloth and arrogance; the conflicts between\nThor and the giants are a struggle going on in the human breast. And\nagain: the mischief-maker Loke instigated the blind Hoder to kill the\ngood Balder; Nanna, Balder\u2019s wife, took her husband\u2019s death so much to\nheart, that she died of grief; Hoder is afterwards slain by Odin\u2019s son\nVale; all nature weeps for Balder, but still he is not released from Hel\n(hell). That is, physical strength with its blind earthly desires\n(Hoder), guided by sin (Loke), unconsciously kills innocence, (Balder).\nLove (Nanna) dies broken-hearted; reflection (Vale) is aroused and\nsubdues physical strength (Hoder); but innocence (Balder) has vanished\nfrom the world to remain in Hel\u2019s regions until the earth is\nregenerated, after Ragnarok. The ethical interpretation makes the gods\nthe faculties of the spirit, and the giants the faculties of the body,\nin man; and between the two, soul and body, there is a constant struggle\nfor supremacy. This interpretation is very good, because it is very\n_poetic_, but it has more to do with the application of the myths than\nwith their primary source.\n\nFinally, an interpretation, that has frequently been alluded to in the\npreceding pages of this introduction, is the _physical_, or\ninterpretation from nature,\u2014impersonation of the visible workings of\nnature. The divinities are the forces and phenomena of nature\npersonified; and evidence of the correctness of this view can be\nabundantly presented by defining etymologically names of the several\ndivinities, their attributes, dwellings and achievements, and by showing\nhow faithfully the works of the gods correspond with the events and\nscenes of the outward world. There is no doubt that this is the true\ninterpretation of all mythologies; and that it is, so to speak, the key\nto the Norse mythology, it is hoped will be sufficiently demonstrated in\nthe second part of this book in connection with the myths themselves;\nbut the ethical, or perhaps better the spiritual, interpretation must by\nall means be added. The spiritual or ethical and the physical\ninterpretation must be combined. In other words, we can scarcely make\nthe interpretation too _anthropomorphic_. The phenomena and forces of\nnature have been personified by our forefathers into deities, but the\nmyths have been elaborated to suit and correspond with the moral,\nintellectual and emotional nature,\u2014the inner life of man. The deities\nhave been conceived in a human form, with human attributes and\naffections. The ancient Norsemen have made their mythology reflect human\nnature, and have clothed the gods with their own faculties of mind and\nbody in respect to good and evil, virtue and vice, right and wrong. As\nRudolf Keyser beautifully expresses himself:\n\n    The gods are the ordaining powers of nature clothed in personality.\n    They direct the world, which they created; but beside them stand the\n    mighty goddesses of fate and time, the great norns, who sustain the\n    world-structure, the all-embraceing tree of the world (Ygdrasil).\n    The life of the world is a struggle between the good and light gods\n    on the one side, and the offspring of chaotic matter, the giants,\n    nature\u2019s disturbing forces, on the other. This struggle extends also\n    into man\u2019s being: the spirit proceeds from the gods, the body\n    belongs to the world of the giants; they struggle with each other\n    for the supremacy. If the spirit conquers by virtue and bravery, man\n    goes to heaven after death, to fight in concert with the gods\n    against the evil powers; but if the body conquers and links the\n    spirit to itself by weakness and low desires, then man sinks after\n    death to the world of the giants in the lower regions, and joins\n    himself with the evil powers in the warfare against the gods.\n\nNature is the mother at whose breast we all are nourished. In ancient\ntimes she was the object of childlike contemplation, nay, adoration.\nNature and men were in close communion with each other, much closer than\nwe are now. They had a more delicate perception of, and more sympathy\nfor, suffering nature; and it were well if some of the purity of this\nthought could be breathed down to us, their prosaic descendants, who\nhave abandoned the offerings to give place to avarice (die Habsucht nahm\nzu, als die Opfer aufh\u00f6rten.\u2014Grimm).\n\nIt was a beautiful custom, which is still preserved in some parts of\nNorway, to fasten a bundle of grain to a long pole, which on Christmas\neve was erected somewhere in the yard, or on the top of the house or\nbarn, for the wild birds to feed upon early on Christmas-day\nmorning,\u2014(our heathen ancestors also had the Christmas or Yule-tide\nfestival). In our degenerate times we think of chickens and geese and\nturkeys, but who thinks of the innocent and a suffering little birds?\nNay, our ancestors lay nearer to nature\u2019s breast. Have we had our hearts\nhardened by the iron yoke of civilized government? We certainly need to\nask ourselves that question.\n\nThe contemplation of the heavens produced the myth about Odin, and the\nthunder-storm suggested Thor, as in the Greek mythology Argos with his\nhundred eyes represents the starry heavens, and the wandering Io, whom\nHera had set him to watch, is the wandering moon. But stopping here\nwould be too prosaic; it would be leaving out the better half; it would\nbe giving the empty shell and throwing away the kernel; it would be\ngiving the skull of the slain warrior without any ale in it; it would be\ndoing great injustice to our forefathers and robbing ourselves of more\nthan half of the intellectual pleasure that a proper study of their\nmyths afford. The old Frisians contemplated the world as a huge ship, by\nname Mannigfual (a counterpart of our ash-tree Ygdrasil); the mountains\nwere its masts; the captain must go from one place to another of the\nship, giving his orders, on horseback; the sailors go aloft as young men\nto make sail, and when they come down again their hair and beard are\nwhite. Ay, we are all sailors on board this great ship, and we all have\nenough to do, each in his own way, to climb its rope ladders and make\nand reef its sails, and ere we are aware of it our hairs are gray; but\ntake the anthropomorphic element out of this myth, and what is there\nleft of it?\n\nOur ancestors were not prosaic. They were poetic in the truest sense of\nthat word. Our life is divided between the child, the vigorous man, and\nold age,\u2014the imaginative and prophetic child, the emotional and active\nman, and the reflecting elder. So a nation, which like the ancient Greek\nand Norse, for instance, has had a natural growth and development, has\nfirst its childhood of imagination and prophecy, producing poetry (Homer\nand the Eddas); then its manhood of emotion and activity, producing\nhistory (Herodotus and the Sagas); and then its old age of mature\nreflection, producing philosophy (Socrates). Dividing the three periods\nin Greek history more definitely, we will find that imagination and\npoetry predominated during the whole time before Solon; emotion,\nactivity and history during the time between Solon and Alexander the\nGreat; and then reflection and philosophy, such as they were, from\nAlexander to the collapse of the Greek states.\n\nEven among the Romans, the most prosaic of all peoples, that nation of\nsubduers, enslavers and robbers, traces of this growth from poetic\nchildhood through historic manhood to philosophic old age can be found,\nwhich proves moreover that this is a law of human development that\ncannot be eradicated, although it may be perverted. That of the Romans\nis a most distorted growth, showing that as the twig is bent the tree is\ninclined. _Ut sementem feceris, ita metes_\u2014as you sow, so will you\nreap,\u2014to quote the Romans\u2019 own words against them. The Romans had their\npoetic and prophetic age during the reign of the seven kings; their\nemotional and historical age during the most prosperous and glorious\nepoch of the republic; and finally, their age of reflection and\nphilosophy began with the time of the elder Cato. Rome took a distorted,\nmisanthropic course from the beginning, so that her profoundest and most\npoetic myth is that of the _warlike_ Mars and the _rapacious wolf_, the\nfather and nurse of the _fratricide_ Romulus. This myth is prophetic,\nand in it the whole history of Rome is reflected as in a mirror. The\nRomans themselves claim that their Sibylline books (prophecy) belong to\nthe time of their kings. When, during the transition period from the\nemotional to the philosophic age, Rome was to have dramatic writers, she\nproduced in comedy the clumsy Plautus, whom the Romans employed in\nturning a hand-mill; and in tragedy the flat Ennius, whose works were\nlost; so that her only really poetical tragedy is the fate of her\ndramatic poets. Her other poetical works, of which the world has boasted\nso much, came later, after the death of Cicero, their most famous\norator, during the life of the crowned Augustus; they came like an Iliad\nafter Homer, and the most of them was a poor imitation of Greek\nliterature, just as this book is a poor imitation of Scandinavian\nliterature. _Ex ipso fonte dulcius bibuntur aqu\u00e6_\u2014go to the fountain\nitself if you want to drink the pure and sparkling water. The Roman\nliterature is eminently worthy of the consideration of the historical\nphilosopher, but it ought not to be canonized and used to torture the\nlife out of students with.\n\nThe Hebrews have their imaginative, poetic and prophetic age from\nGenesis to Moses; their emotional and historical age from Moses to\nSolomon, and then begins their age of reflection and philosophy.\n\nTaking a grand, colossal, general view of the history of the world, we\nwould say that the ancients belong chiefly to the poetic age, the middle\nages to the emotional and modern times to the reflecting age, of the\nhuman race. Thus the life of the individual is, in miniature, the life\nof a people or of the whole human family.\n\nThis was a digression, and we confess that it is not the first one we\nhave made; but in the world of thought, as in the world of music,\nmonotony is tedious; and the reader having perhaps refreshed his mind by\nthe interlude, we will proceed to discuss further the union of the\nethical with the physical interpretation of mythology. Physical\ninterpretation alone is the shell without the kernel. Nature gives us\nonly the source of the myth; but we want its value in the minds and\nhearts of a people in their childhood. The touching gracefulness of\nNanna, and of Idun reclining on Brage\u2019s breast, was not suggested by\nnature alone, but the pictures of these reflect corresponding natures in\nour ancestors. To explain a myth simply by the phenomenon in external\nnature (be it remembered, however, that man also constitutes a part of\nnature) that suggested it to the ancients, would be reducing mythology\nto a natural science and it is sad to witness how the beautiful and\npoetical Eddas, in the hands of some, have dwindled down into the dry\nchemistry, chronology, electro-magnetism, mathematics, astronomy, or, if\nyou please, the almanacs, of our forefathers, instead of being presented\nas the grand, prophetic drama which foreshadowed the heroic and\nenterprising destiny of the Teutonic nations. The twelve dwellings of\nthe gods, they say, represent the twelve signs of the zodiac; Balder\nthey make the constellation of the lion; Odin\u2019s twelve names, they say,\nare the twelve months of the year; his fifty-two names, which he himself\nenumerates in Grimnismaal, are the fifty-two weeks in the year; the\nthirteen valkyries are the thirteen new moons in the year. How profound!\nHow perfectly everything adapts itself to the theory! This invaluable\ndiscovery was made on the seventh of December, 1827. It ought to be a\nlegal holiday! The one ox, three measures of mead and eight salmon which\nThor, according to the Elder Edda, consumed, when he had come to\nJotunheim to fetch his hammer, they claim also represent the year\u2019s\ntwelve months, for 1 + 3 + 8 = 12. Furthermore, the three gods, Haar,\nJafnhaar, and Thride, are the three fundamental elements, sulphur,\nmercury, and salt; Odin, Vile, and Ve, are the three laws of the\nuniverse, gravity, motion, and affinity. Thor is electricity; his belt\nis an electric condenser, his gloves an electric conductor. Hrungner,\nwith whom he contends, is petrifaction; the Mokkerkalfe, whom Thjalfe\nslew, is the magnetic needle. Gunlad is oxygen, Kvaser is sugar, etc.\nBut this will do. Are not these golden keys, with which to unlock the\nsecret chambers of the Eddas!\n\nAll the deities do not represent phenomena and forces of nature, and\nthis fact gives if possible still more importance to the anthropomorphic\ninterpretation. Some myths are mere creations of the imagination, to\ngive symmetry and poetical finish to the system, or we might say to the\ndrama\u2014to complete the delineations of the characters that appear on the\nstage of action. Hermod, for instance, is no phenomenon in physical\nnature: he is the servant of Odin in the character of the latter as the\ngod of war. Odin is the god of the heavens, but it is not in this\ncapacity he sends out the valkyries to pick up the fallen heroes on the\nfield of battle.\n\nIn rejecting the _historical_ interpretation, we do by no means mean to\ndeny the influence of the mythology upon the social, religious,\npolitical and literary life of the Norsemen. But this is not an\nexplanation of the mythology itself, but of its influence upon the minds\nof the people. If we mean it in a prophetic sense, the Norse mythology\nhas also an historical interpretation. In it was mirrored the grand\nfuture of the Norse spirit; by it the Norsemen were taught to make those\ndaring expeditions to every part of the civilized world, making\nconquests and planting colonies; to cross the briny deep and open the\nway to Iceland, Greenland and America; to take possession of Normandy in\nFrance, subdue England and make inroads into Spain and Italy; to pass\nbetween the pillars of Hercules, devastate the classic fields of Greece,\nand carve their mysterious runes on the marble lion in Athens; to lay\nthe foundations of the Russian Empire, penetrate the walls of\nConstantinople and swing their two-edged battle-axes in its streets; to\nsail up the rivers Rhine, the Scheldt, the Seine, and the Loire,\nconquering Cologne and Aachen and besieging Paris; to lead the van of\nthe chivalry of Europe in rescuing the holy sepulchre and rule over\nAntioch and Tiberias under Harald; to sever the fetters forged by the\nRoman emperors, break the crosiers in the hands of the Roman popes and\ninfuse a nobler and freer spirit into the nations of the earth; and by\ntheir mythology they were taught to give to the world that germ of\nliberty that struck root in the earliest literature of France, budded in\nthe Magna Charta of England, and developed its full-blown flowers in the\nAmerican Declaration of Independence.\n\nThe principal object of the second part of this volume is to give a\nfaithful, accurate and _complete_ presentation of the myths; but\ninterpretations and reflections will be freely indulged in. The basis of\nthe interpretation will be the physical and ethical combined, the two\ntaken as a unit. The reflections will consist in pointing out\noccasionally the fulfilment of the prophecies historically, or rather\nthe application of the myths to historical philosophy. When only the\nphysical source of the myth is given, its anthropomorphic element must\nbe supplied in the mind of the reader. When Thor is given as the\nimpersonation of thunder, and Heimdal as the rainbow, clothed with\npersonality, then the reader must consider what sensations would be\nawakened in his own breast by these phenomena if he had been taught to\nregard them as persons. And when he has given them stature, gait,\nclothing, bearing, expression of the eye and countenance, and personal\ncharacter corresponding with their lofty positions in the management of\nthe affairs of the world, then he can form some idea of these deities as\ncontemplated by the ancient Norsemen.\n\n\n\n\n                              CHAPTER VI.\n THE NORSE MYTHOLOGY FURNISHES ABUNDANT AND EXCELLENT MATERIAL FOR THE\n                 USE OF POETS, SCULPTORS AND PAINTERS.\n\n\nIn a previous chapter it was claimed that the time must come when Norse\nmythology will be copiously reflected in our elegant literature and is\nour fine arts; and we insist that we who are Goths, and branches of the\nnoble ash Ygdrasil, ought to develop some fibre, leaves, buds and\nflowers with nourishment drawn from the roots of our own tree of\nexistence, and not be constantly borrowing from our neighbors. If our\npoets would but study Norse mythology, they would find in it ample\nmaterial for the most sublime poetry. The Norse mythology is itself a\nfinished poem, and has been most beautifully presented in the Elder\nEdda, but it furnishes at the same time a variety of themes that can be\ncombined and elaborated into new poems with all the advantages of modern\nart, modern civilization and enlightenment. With the spirit of\nChristianity, a touch of beauty and grandeur can be unconsciously thrown\nover the loftiness of stature, the growth of muscle, the bold masses of\nintellectual masonry, the tempestuous strength of passions, those gods\nand heroes of impetuous natures and gigantic proportions, those\noverwhelming tragedies of primitive vigor, which are to be found in the\nEddas. If our American poet would but pay a visit to Urd\u2019s fountain, to\nTime\u2019s morning in our Gothic history, and tarry there until the dawn\ntinges the horizon with crimson and scarlet and the sun breaks through\nthe clouds and sends its inspiring rays into his soul,\u2014then his poetry\nand compositions would reflect those auroral rays with intensified\neffulgence; it would shine upon and enlighten and gladden a whole\nnation. We need poets who can tell us, in words that burn, about our\nGothic ancestors, in order that we may be better able to comprehend\nourselves. It has heretofore been explained how the history of nations\ndivides itself into three periods\u2014the imaginative, the emotional, and\nreflective; poetry, history, and philosophy; and how these have their\nminiature counterparts in the life of any single person\u2014childhood,\nmanhood, and old age; and now we are prepared to present this claim,\nthat the poetic, imaginative and prophetic period of our race should be\ncompressed into the soul of the child. The poetic period of _his own_\nrace should be melted and moulded into poetry, touched by a spark of\nChristian refinement and love, and then poured, so to speak, into the\nsoul of the child. The child\u2019s mind should feed upon the mythological\nstories and the primitive folklore of his race. It should be nourished\nwith milk from its own mother\u2019s breast. Does any one doubt this? Let him\nask the Scandinavian poets: ask what kindled the imaginative fancy of\nWelhaven; ask what inspired the force and simplicity of phrase in\nOelenschl\u00e6ger\u2019s poetry; ask what produced the unadorned loveliness with\nwhich Bj\u00f6rnstjerne Bj\u00f6rnson expresses himself, and the mountain torrent\nthat rushes onward with impetuous speed in Wergeland; ask what produced\nthe refinement of phrase of Tegner, and the wild melodious abandon of\nIbsen;\u2014and they will tell him that in the deep defiles of that sea-girt\nand rock-bound land called Norseland, where the snow-crowned mountains\ntower like castle-walls, they found in a leafy summer bower a Saga-book\nfull of magic words and beautiful pictures, and, like Alexander of old,\nthey made this wonderful book their pillow. They may tell you that the\nScandinavian schools, like the American, are pretty thoroughly\nLatinized, but that they stole out of the school-room, studied this\nSaga-book, and from it they drew their inspiration.\n\nThe writer once asked the famous Norse violinist, Ole Bull, what had\ninspired his musical talent and given his music that weird, original,\ninexplicable expression and style. He said, that from childhood he had\ntaken a profound delight in the picturesque and harmonious combination\nof grandeur, majesty, and gracefulness of the flower-clad valleys, the\nsilver-crested mountains, the singing brooks, babbling streams,\nthundering rivers, sylvan shores and smiling lakes of his native land.\nHe had eagerly devoured all the folk-lore, all the stories about trolls,\nelves and sprites that came within his reach; he had especially reveled\nin all the mythological tales about Odin, Thor, Balder, Ymer, the\nMidgard-serpent, Ragnarok, etc.; and these things, he said, have made my\nmusic. Truthfully has our own poet Longfellow, who has himself taken\nmore than one draft from Mimer\u2019s fountain, and communed more than once\nwith Brage\u2014said of Ole Bull:\n\n                 He lived in that ideal world\n                 Whose language is not speech, but song;\n                 Around him evermore the throng\n                 Of elves and sprites their dances whirled;\n                 The Str\u00f6mkarl sang, the cataract hurled\n                 Its headlong waters from the height,\n                 And mingled in the wild delight\n                 The scream of sea-birds in their flight,\n                 The rumor of the forest trees,\n                 The plunge of the implacable seas,\n                 The tumult of the wind at night,\n                 Voices of eld, like trumpets blowing\n                 Old ballads and wild melodies\n                 Through mist and darkness pouring forth\n                 Like Elivagar\u2019s rivers flowing\n                 Out of the glaciers of the North.\n\nThese are the things that make poets, and musicians are poets. Then\ncontinues the same author:\n\n                   And when he played, the atmosphere\n                   Was filled with music, and the ear\n                   Caught echo of that harp of gold\n                   Whose music had so weird a sound,\n                   The heeled stag forgot to bound,\n                   The leaping rivulet backward rolled,\n                   The bird came down from bush and tree,\n                   The dead came from beneath the sea,\n                   The maiden to the harper\u2019s knee.\n\nOnly these few lines make it clear that Longfellow has not only communed\nwith Brage, but has also refreshed himself at the Castalian fountain;\nthat he has not only penetrated the mysteries of the Greek mythology,\nbut has also visited the deities of the North.\n\nIf you do not believe that the Norse mythology furnishes suitable themes\nfor poetry, then do not echo the voice of the multitude and cry the idea\ndown because it seems new. Men frequently act like ants. When a red ant\nappears among the black ones, they all attack it, for they have once for\nall made up their minds that all ants must necessarily be black; they\nhave themselves been black all their lives, and all their ancestors were\nblack, so far as they know anything about them. Thus it has become a\nfixed opinion with many, that mythology necessarily means Greek or\nRoman. We said to one of our friends: We are writing a book on Norse\nmythology. Says our learned friend: Are not those old stories about\nJupiter and Mars pretty well written up by this time? We said we thought\nthey were, too much so; but we are writing about Odin and Thor. Then our\nlearned friend shook his head in surprise and said that he never heard\nof those gentlemen before. If our reader\u2019s case is the same as that of\nour learned friend, then let him examine the subject for himself. Let\nhim read the Norse mythology through carefully. Let him then tell us\nwhat themes suggestive of sublime poetry he found in the upper, the\nmiddle and the lower worlds of the Odinic mythology; how he was\nimpressed with the regions of the gods, of the giants, and of the\ndwarfs; what he thought of the various exploits of the gods; how he was\nimpressed with the great and wise Odin, the good and shining Balder, the\nmighty Thor, the subtle and malicious Loke, the queenly Frigg, the\ngenial Frey, the lovely Idun reclining on the eloquent Brage\u2019s breast,\nand the gentle Nanna. Let him read and see whether or not he will be\ndelighted with all the magnificent scenery of Gladsheim, Valhal,\nMidgard, Niflheim, Muspelheim, and Ginungagap; with the norns Urd,\nVerdande, and Skuld; with the glorious ash Ygdrasil; with the fountain\nof Mimer (let him take a deep drink, while he is there);, with the\nheavenly bridge Bifrost (the rainbow), upon which the gods daily descend\nto the Urdar-fountain; and with the wild tempest-traversed regions of\nRan (the goddess of the sea, wife of \u00c6ger). The celebrated poet\nOelenschl\u00e6ger found in all these things inexhaustible scope for poetic\nembellishments, and he availed himself of it in his work, entitled _Gods\nof the North_, with the zeal and power of a genuine poet. He revived the\nmemories of the past. He bade the gods come forward out of the mists of\nthe centuries, and he accomplished in less than fifty years what _Latin_\nversions of the Eddas had not been able to accomplish in three\ncenturies. Two of Oelenschl\u00e6ger\u2019s poems are given translated in _Poets\nand Poetry of Europe_, and Mr. Longfellow has given us permission to\npresent them here. We will now avail ourselves of his kindness and not\ndiscuss this portion of the subject of this chapter any further, knowing\nthat the reader will find the poems _Thor\u2019s Fishing_ and _The Dwarfs_\nfar more pleasing and convincing than any additional arguments we might\nbe able to produce. Here they are:\n\n\n        THOR\u2019S FISHING.\n\n\n        On the dark bottom of the great salt lake\n        Imprisoned lay the giant snake,\n        With naught his sullen sleep to break.\n\n        Huge whales disported amorous o\u2019er his neck;\n        Little their sports the worm did reck,\n        Nor his dark, vengeful thoughts would check.\n\n        To move his iron fins he has no power,\n        Nor yet to harm the trembling shore,\n        With scaly rings he is covered o\u2019er.\n\n        His head he seeks \u2019mid coral rocks to hide,\n        Nor e\u2019er hath man his eye espied,\n        Nor could its deadly glare abide.\n\n        His eye-lids half in drowsy stupor close,\n        But short and troubled his repose,\n        As his quick heavy breathing shows.\n\n        Muscles and crabs, and all the shelly race,\n        In spacious banks still crowd for place\n        A grisly beard, around his face.\n\n        When Midgard\u2019s worm his fetters strives to break,\n        Riseth the sea, the mountains quake;\n        The fiends in Naastrand merry make\n\n        Rejoicing flames from Hecla\u2019s caldron flash,\n        Huge molten stones with deafening crash\n        Fly out,\u2014its scathed sides fire-streams wash.\n\n        The affrighted sons of Ask do feel the shock,\n        As the worm doth lie and rock,\n        And sullen waiteth Ragnarok.\n\n        To his foul craving maw naught e\u2019er came ill;\n        It never he doth cease to fill;\n        Nath\u2019 more his hungry pain can still.\n\n        Upward by chance he turns his sleepy eye,\n        And, over him suspended nigh,\n        The gory head he doth espy.\n\n        The serpent taken with his own deceit,\n        Suspecting naught the daring cheat,\n        Ravenous gulps down the bait.\n\n        His leathern jaws the barbed steel compress,\n        His ponderous head must leave the abyss;\n        Dire was Jormungander\u2019s hiss.\n\n        In giant coils he writhes his length about,\n        Poisonous streams he speweth out,\n        But his struggles help him naught.\n\n        The mighty Thor knoweth no peer in fight,\n        The loathsome worm, his strength despite,\n        Now o\u2019ermatched must yield the fight.\n\n        His grisly head Thor heaveth o\u2019er the tide,\n        No mortal eye the sight may hide,\n        The scared waves haste i\u2019 th\u2019 sands to hide.\n\n        As when accursed Naastrand yawns and burns,\n        His impious throat \u2019gainst heaven he turns\n        And with his tail the ocean spurns.\n\n        The parched sky droops, darkness enwraps the sun;\n        Now the matchless strength is shown\n        Of the god whom warriors own.\n\n        Around his loins he draws his girdle tight,\n        His eye with triumph flashes bright,\n        The frail boat splits aneath his weight;\n\n        The frail boat splits,\u2014but on the ocean\u2019s ground\n        Thor again hath footing found;\n        Within his arms the worm is bound.\n\n        Hymer, who in the strife no part had took,\n        But like a trembling aspen shook,\n        Rouseth him to avert the stroke.\n\n        In the last night, the vala hath decreed\n        Thor, in Odin\u2019s utmost need,\n        To the worm shall bow the head.\n\n        Thus, in sunk voice, the craven giant spoke,\n        Whilst from his belt a knife he took,\n        Forged by dwarfs aneath the rock.\n\n        Upon the magic belt straight \u2019gan to file;\n        Thor in bitter scorn to smile;\n        Mjolner swang in air the while.\n\n        In the worm\u2019s front full two-score leagues it fell;\n        From Gimle to the realms of hell\n        Echoed Jormungander\u2019s yell.\n\n        The ocean yawned; Thor\u2019s lightnings rent the sky;\n        Through the storm, the great sun\u2019s eye\n        Looked out on the fight from high.\n\n        Bifrost i\u2019 th\u2019 east shone forth in brightest green;\n        On its top, in snow-white sheen,\n        Heimdal at his post was seen.\n\n        On the charmed belt the dagger hath no power;\n        The star of Jotunheim \u2019gan to lour;\n        But now, in Asgard\u2019s evil hour,\n\n        When all his efforts foiled tall Hymer saw,\n        Wading to the serpent\u2019s maw,\n        On the kedge he \u2019gan to saw.\n\n        The Sun, dismayed, hastened in clouds to hide,\n        Heimdal turned his head aside;\n        Thor was humbled in his pride.\n\n        The knife prevails, far down beneath the main,\n        The serpent, spent with toil and pain,\n        To the bottom sank again.\n\n        The giant fled, his head \u2019mid rocks to save,\n        Fearfully the god did rave,\n        With his lightnings tore the wave.\n\n        To madness stung, to think his conquest vain,\n        His ire no longer could contain,\n        Dared the worm to rise again.\n\n        His radiant form to its full height he drew,\n        And Mjolner through the billows blue\n        Swifter than the fire-bolt flew.\n\n        Hoped, yet, the worm had fallen beneath the stroke;\n        But the wily child of Loke\n        Waits her turn at Ragnarok.\n\n        His hammer lost, back wends the giant-bane,\n        Wasted his strength, his prowess vain;\n        And Mjolner must with Ran remain.\n\n\n        THE DWARFS.\n\n\n        Loke sat and thought, till his dark eyes gleam\n          With joy at the deed he\u2019d done;\n        When Sif looked into the crystal stream,\n          Her courage was well-nigh gone\n\n        For never again her soft amber hair\n          Shall she braid with her hands of snow;\n        From the hateful image she turned in despair,\n          And hot tears began to flow.\n\n        In a cavern\u2019s mouth, like a crafty fox,\n          Loke sat \u2019neath the tall pine\u2019s  shade,\n        When sudden a thundering was heard in the rocks,\n          And fearfully trembled the glade.\n\n        Then he knew that the noise good boded him naught,\n          He knew that \u2019t was Thor who was coming;\n        He changed himself straight to a salmon-trout,\n          And leaped in a fright in the Glommen.[6]\n\n        But Thor changed, too, to a huge sea-gull,\n          And the salmon-trout seized in his beak;\n        He cried: Thor, traitor, I know thee well,\n          And dear shalt thou pay thy freak!\n\n        Thy caitiff\u2019s bones to a meal I\u2019ll pound,\n          As a mill-stone crusheth the grain.\n        When Loke that naught booted his magic found,\n          He took straight his own form again.\n\n        And what if thou scatter\u2019st my limbs in air?\n          He spake, will it mend thy case?\n        Will it gain back for Sif a single hair?\n          Thou\u2019lt still a bald spouse embrace.\n\n        But if now thou\u2019lt pardon my heedless joke,\u2014\n          For malice sure meant I none,\u2014\n        I swear to thee here, by root, billow and rock,\n          By the moss on the Bauta-stone,[7]\n\n        By Mimer\u2019s well, and by Odin\u2019s eye,\n          And by Mjolner, greatest of all,\n        That straight to the secret caves I\u2019ll hie,\n          To the dwarfs, my kinsmen small;\n\n        And thence for Sif new tresses I\u2019ll bring\n          Of gold ere the daylight\u2019s gone,\n        So that she will liken a field in spring,\n          With its yellow-flowered garment on.\n\n        Him answered Thor: Why, thou brazen knave,\n          To my face to mock me dost dare?\n        Thou know\u2019st well that Mjolner is now \u2019neath the wave\n          With Ran, and wilt still by it swear?\n\n        O a better hammer for thee I\u2019ll obtain;\n          And he shook like an aspen-tree,\n        For whose stroke shield, buckler and greave shall be vain,\n          And the giants with terror shall flee!\n\n        Not so! cried Thor, and his eyes flashed fire;\n          Thy base treason calls loud for blood,\n        And hither I\u2019m come with my sworn brother Frey,\n          To make thee of ravens the food.\n\n        I\u2019ll take hold of thy arms and thy coal-black hair,\n          And Frey of thy heels behind,\n        And thy lustful body to atoms we\u2019ll tear,\n          And scatter thy limbs to the wind.\n\n        O spare me, Frey, thou great-souled king!\n          And, weeping, he kissed his feet;\n        O mercy, and thee I\u2019ll a courser bring,\n          No match in the wide world shall meet.\n\n        Without whip or spur round the earth you shall ride;\n          He\u2019ll ne\u2019er weary by day nor by night;\n        He shall carry you safe o\u2019er the raging tide,\n          And his golden hair furnish you light.\n\n        Loke promised as well with his glozing tongue\n          That the asas at length let him go,\n        And he sank in the earth, the dark rocks among,\n          Near the cold-fountain, far below.\n\n        He crept on his belly, as supple as eel,\n          The cracks in the hard granite through,\n        Till he came where the dwarfs stood hammering steel,\n          By the light of a furnace blue.\n\n        I trow \u2019t was a goodly sight to see\n          The dwarfs, with their aprons on,\n        A-hammering and smelting so busily\n          Pure gold from the rough brown stone.\n\n        Rock crystals from sand and hard flint they made,\n          Which, tinged with the rosebud\u2019s dye,\n        They cast into rubies and carbuncles red,\n          And hid them in cracks hard by.\n\n        They took them fresh violets all dripping with dew,\n          Dwarf-women had plucked them, the morn,\u2014\n        And stained with their juice the clear sapphires blue,\n          King Dan in his crown since hath worn.\n\n        Then for emeralds they searched out the brightest green\n          Which the young spring meadow wears.\n        And dropped round pearls, without flaw or stain,\n          From widows\u2019 and maidens\u2019 tears.\n\n        And all around the cavern might plainly be shown\n          Where giants had once been at play;\n        For the ground was with heaps of huge muscle-shells strewn,\n          And strange fish were marked in the clay.\n\n        Here an ichthyosaurus stood out from the wall,\n          There monsters ne\u2019er told of in story,\n        Whilst hard by the Nix in the waterfall\n          Sang wildly the days of their glory.\n\n        Here bones of the mammoth and mastodon,\n          And serpents with wings and with claws;\n        The elephant\u2019s tusks from the burning zone\n          Are small to the teeth in their jaws.\n\n        When Loke to the dwarfs had his errand made known,\n          In a trice for the work they were ready;\n        Quoth Dvalin: O Lopter, it now shall be shown\n          That dwarfs in their friendship are steady.\n\n        We both trace our line from the selfsame stock;\n          What you ask shall be furnished with speed,\n        For it ne\u2019er shall be said that the sons of the rock\n          Turned their backs on a kinsman in need.\n\n        They took them the akin of a large wild-boar,\n          The largest that they could find,\n        And the bellows they blew till the furnace \u2019gan roar,\n          And the fire flamed on high for the wind.\n\n        And they struck with their sledge-hammers stroke on stroke,\n          That the sparks from the skin flew on high,\n        But never a word good or bad spake Loke,\n          Though foul malice lurked in his eye.\n\n        The thunderer far distant, with sorrow he thought\n          On all he\u2019d engaged to obtain,\n        And, as summer-breeze fickle, now anxiously sought\n          To render the dwarfs\u2019 labor vain.\n\n        Whilst the bellows plied Brok, and Sindre the hammer,\n          And Thor, that the sparks flew on high,\n        And the sides of the vaulted cave rang with the clamor,\n          Loke changed to a huge forest-fly.\n\n        And he sat him all swelling with venom and spite,\n          On Brok, the wrist just below;\n        But the dwarf\u2019s skin was thick, and he recked not the bite,\n          Nor once ceased the bellows to blow.\n\n        And now, strange to say, from the roaring fire\n          Came the golden-haired Gullinburste,\n        To serve as a charger the sun-god Frey,\n          Sure, of all wild-boars this the first.\n\n        They took them pure gold from their secret store,\n          The piece \u2019t was but small in size,\n        But ere \u2019t had been long in the furnace roar,\n          \u2019T was a jewel beyond all prize.\n\n        A broad red ring all of wroughten gold,\n          As a snake with its tail in its head,\n        And a garland of gems did the rim enfold,\n          Together with rare art laid.\n\n        \u2019T was solid and heavy, and wrought with care,\n          Thrice it passed through the white flames\u2019 glow;\n        A ring to produce, fit for Odin to wear,\n          No labor they spared, I trow.\n\n        They worked it and turned it with wondrous skill,\n          Till they gave it the virtue rare,\n        That each thrice third night from its rim there fell\n          Eight rings, as their parent fair.\n\n        \u2019T was the same with which Odin sanctified\n          God Balder\u2019s and Nanna\u2019s faith;\n        On his gentle bosom was Draupner laid,\n          When their eyes were closed in death.\n\n        Next they laid on the anvil a steel-bar cold,\n          They needed nor fire nor file;\n        But their sledge-hammers, following, like thunder rolled,\n          And Sindre sang runes the while.\n\n        When Loke now marked how the steel gat power,\n          And how warily out \u2019t was beat\n        (\u2019T was to make a new hammer for Ake-Thor),\n          He\u2019d recourse once more to deceit.\n\n        In a trice, of a hornet the semblance he took,\n          Whilst in cadence fell blow on blow,\n        In the leading dwarf\u2019s forehead his barbed sting he stuck,\n          That the blood in a stream down did flow.\n\n        Then the dwarf raised his hand to his brow for the smart,\n          Ere the iron well out was beat,\n        And they found that the haft by an inch was too short,\n          But to alter it then \u2019t was too late.\n\n        Now a small elf came running with gold on his head,\n          Which he gave a dwarf woman to spin,\n        Who the metal like flax on her spinning wheel laid,\n          Nor tarried her task to begin.\n\n        So she span and span, and the gold thread ran\n          Into hair, though Loke thought it a pity;\n        She span and sang to the sledge-hammer\u2019s clang\n          This strange, wild spinning-wheel ditty;\n\n        Henceforward her hair shall the tall Sif wear,\n          Hanging loose down her white neck behind;\n        By no envious braid shall it captive be made,\n          But in native grace float in the wind.\n\n        No swain shall it view in the clear heaven\u2019s blue,\n          But his heart in its toils shall be lost;\n        No goddess, not e\u2019en beauty\u2019s faultless queen,\n          Such long glossy ringlets shall boast.\n\n        Though they now seem dead, let them touch but her head,\n          Each hair shall the life-moisture fill;\n        Nor shall malice nor spell henceforward prevail\n          Sif\u2019s tresses to work aught of ill.\n\n        His object attained, Loke no longer remained\n          \u2019Neath the earth, but straight hied him to Thor,\n        Who owned than the hair ne\u2019er, sure, aught more fair\n          His eyes had e\u2019er looked on before.\n\n        The boar Frey bestrode, and away proudly rode,\n          And Thor took the ringlets and hammer;\n        To Valhal they hied, where the asas reside,\n          \u2019Mid of tilting and wassal the clamor.\n\n        At a full solemn ting, Thor gave Odin the ring,\n          And Loke his foul treachery pardoned;\n        But the pardon was vain, for his crimes soon again\n          Must do penance the arch-sinner hardened.\n\nFor the benefit of those who can read Danish, we will give in the\noriginal the last ten stanzas of the latter poem of Oehlenschl\u00e6ger,\nbeginning with the spinning of Sif\u2019s hair:\n\n                Nu kom med Guldet en Dv\u00e6rgeflok\n                  Og gave det til Dv\u00e6rginden;\n                Hun satte, som H\u00f6r, det paa sin Rok,\n                  Hvis Hjul hensused for Vinden.\n\n                Og spandt og spandt, mens Guldtraaden randt\n                  Til Haar for den deilige Dise;\n                Hun snurred og sang, ved Kildernes Klang,\n                  En underlig Spindevise:\n\n                Gudinden i Vaar skal b\u00e6re sit Haar\n                  Hel frit for Vinden herefter,\n                Ei flette det mer, at yndig sig ter\n                  Dets Glands med straalende Kr\u00e6fter.\n\n                Hver Svend, som det saa, fra Himmelens Blaa,\n                  Hans Hjerte skal Haarene fange.\n                Selv Lokker vist ei paa veneste Frey\n                  Nedb\u00f6lge saa bl\u00f6de, saa lange.\n\n                Skj\u00f6nt Guldet er d\u00f6dt, saasnart det har m\u00f6dt\n                  Gudindens Tinding, den h\u00f6ie,\n                Det levende blier og efter sig gier,\n                  Og lader, som H\u00f6rren, sig b\u00f6ie.\n\n                Beholder sin Glands, i Vindenes Dands,\n                  Og lader sig aldrig udrykke;\n                Som Middagens Skin, det sv\u00f6ber sig ind\n                  Bag Hjelmens ludende Skygge!\u2014\n\n                Saa sang hun og gik med ydmyge Blik\n                  For Thor, og rakte ham Haaret;\n                Paa Lokken han saa og maatte tilstaa:\n                  Saa fager var ingen baaret.\n\n                Fra Bjerget valt nu Frey paa sin Galt\n                  Og Thor med Haaret og Hammer,\n                Til Valhal de for, hvor H\u00e6rfader bor\n                  I Lysets salige Flammer.\n\n                Da satte paa Sif lig Tang paa et Rif,\n                  Sig fast Guldhaaret paa stande,\n                Og monne sig slaa i Lokker saa smaa,\n                  Trindt om den hv\u00e6lvede Pande.\n\n                Paa straalende Thing fik Odin sin Ring,\n                  Man tilgav Loke sin Br\u00f6de,\n                Men snart dog igjen Bjergtroldenes Ven\n                  Maa for sin Trol\u00f6shed b\u00f6de.\n\nThere remains now to discuss briefly whether the Norse mythology\nfurnishes subjects for painting and sculpturing. If the reader has\nbecome convinced that there is material in it worthy of the greatest\npoet, then it is not necessary to say much about painting and\nsculpturing; for we know that most things that can be said in verse can\nbe made visible on the canvas, or be chiseled in marble. We shall\ntherefore be brief on this particular point, but after the presentation\nof a few subjects for the painter or sculptor, we shall have something\nto say about nude art.\n\nCan the brush or the chisel ask for more suggestive subjects than Odin,\nBalder, Thor, Frey, Idun, Nanna, Loke, etc.? or groups like the norns at\nthe Urdar-fountain? or Urd (the past) and Verdande (the present), who\nstretch from east to west a web, which is torn to pieces by Skuld (the\nfuture); the valkyries in the heat of the battle picking up the slain;\nor when they carry the fallen Hakon Adelsten to Valhal? Cannot a\nbeautiful picture be made of \u00c6ger and Ran and their daughters, the\nwaves? of the gods holding their feast with \u00c6ger and sending out Thor to\nfetch a caldron for them from Jotunheim? or of Thor clapping the pot on\nhis head like a huge hat and walking off with it? What more touching\nscene can be perceived than the death of Balder? Only in that short poem\nHamarsheimt (fetching the hammer) there are no less than three beautiful\nsubjects: (1) Thor wakes up and misses his hammer; he feels around him\nfor it; he is surprised and hesitates; he wrinkles his brows and his\nhead trembles. Loke looks down upon him from above; the rogue is in his\neye; he would like to break out in a roar of laughter, but dare not. (2)\nAll the gods are engaged in dressing Thor in Freyja\u2019s clothes; he is a\ntall straight youth with golden hair and a fine brown beard; lightning\nflashes from his eyes; while Fulla puts on him Freyja\u2019s jewels there is\na terrible conflict going on in his breast with this humiliation of his\ndignity, which he cannot overcome. Loke stands half-ready near by as\nmaid-servant; he dresses Thor\u2019s hair and is himself half-covered by the\nbridal-veil which Thor is to wear. All take an intense interest in the\nwork, for they are so anxious to have the stratagem succeed. (3) The\ngiants have laid the hammer in the lap of the bride; Thor seizes it, and\nas he pushes aside the veil he literally grows into his majestic\ndivinity, for whenever he wields his mighty Mjolner his strength is\nredoubled. The disappointed desire of Thrym, the astounded giants, the\namused Loke; all furnish an endless variety of excellent material for\nthe brush of the painter. The plastic art can find no more exquisite\ngroup than Loke bound upon three stones, and his loving wife, Sigyn,\nleaning over him with a dish, wherein she catches the drops of venom\nthat would otherwise fall into his face and intensify his agonies. A\nvolume of themes might be presented, but it is not necessary. Suffice it\nthen to say that for poetry, painting and the plastic arts, there is in\nthe Norse mythology a fountain of delight whose waters but few have\ntasted, but which no man can drain dry.\n\nWe promised to say something about nude art. It is this: We Goths are,\nand have forever been, a _chaste_ race. We abhor the loathsome nudity of\nGreek art. We do not want nude figures, at least not unless they embody\nsome very sublime thought. The people of southern Europe differ widely\nfrom us Northerners in this respect; and this difference reaches far\nback into our respective mythologies, adding additional proof to the\nfact that the myths foreshadow the social life of a nation or race of\npeople. The Greek gods were generally conceived as nude, and hence Greek\nart would naturally be nude also. Whether the licentiousness and\nlasciviousness of the Greek communities were the primary causes of the\nun\u00e6sthetical features of their mythology or their Bacchanalian revels\nsprang from the mythology, it is difficult to determine. We undoubtedly\ncome nearest the truth when we say that the same primeval causes\nproduced both the social life and mythology of the Greeks; that there\nthenceforward was an active reciprocating influence between the religion\non the one side and the popular life on the other, an influence that we\nmay liken unto that which operates between the soul and the body; and\nthus it may be said that the mythology and the popular life combined\nproduced their nude art. To say that the popular character of the\nGreeks, taken individually or collectively, was stimulated into life by\ntheir mythology; that the virtues and the vices of the people originated\nin it _alone_; would certainly be an incorrect and one-sided view of the\nsubject. The Greeks brought with them, from their original home into\nGreece, the germs of that faith which afterwards became developed in a\ncertain direction under the influence of the popular life and the action\nof external circumstances upon that life, but which in turn reacted upon\nthe popular life with a power which increased in proportion as the\nsystem of mythology acquired by development a more decided character.\nThe same is true of the Norsemen and of the Goths in general. When it is\nfound, for instance, that the mythological representation of Odin as\nfather of the slain (Val-father), and that Valhal (the hall of the\nslain), the valkyries and einherjes, contain a strong incentive to\nwarlike deeds, then it must not be imagined that this martial spirit,\nthat displayed itself so powerfully among the Goths generally, and among\nthe Norsemen particularly, was the offspring of the mythology of our\nancestors; but we may rather conceive that the Norsemen were from the\nbeginning a race of remarkable physical power, that accidental external\ncauses, such as severe climate, mountainous country, conflicts with\nneighboring peoples, etc., brought this inherent physical force into\nactivity and thus awakened the warlike spirit; and then it may be said\nthat this martial spirit stamped itself upon their religious ideas, upon\ntheir mythology, and finally that the mythology, when it had received\nthis characteristic impress from the people, again reacted to preserve\nand even further inflame that martial spirit. And there is no\ninconsistency between this view of the subject and that which was\npresented in the third chapter.\n\nIt was said at the outset that we Goths are a chaste race, and abhor the\nloathsome nudity of Greek art. We were a chaste people before our\nfathers came under the influence of Christianity. The Elder Edda, which\nis the grand depository of the Norse mythology, may be searched through\nand through, and there will not be found a single nude myth, not an\nimpersonation of any kind that can be considered an outrage upon virtue\nor a violation of the laws of propriety; and this feature of the Odinic\nreligion deserves to be urged as an important reason why our painters\nand sculptors should look at home for something wherewith to employ\ntheir talent, before they go abroad; look in our own ancient Gothic\nhistory, before going to ancient Greece.\n\nBut the artist who is going to chisel out an Odin, a Thor, a Balder, a\nNanna, or a Loke, must not be a mere imitator. He must possess a\ncreative mind. He must not go to work at a piece of Norse art with his\nimagination full of Greek myths, much less must he attempt to apply\nGreek principles to a piece of Gothic art. He will find the Norse chisel\na somewhat more ponderous weapon to swing; and you cannot turn as\nrapidly with a railroad car as you can with a French _fiacre_ or\nAmerican gig. To try to chisel out the gods of _our_ forefathers after\nSouth European patterns would be like attempting to write English with\nthe mind full of Latin syntax. Hence we repeat, that we do not want an\nimitator, but an original genius. Greek mythology has been presented so\nmany times, and so well, that the imitation, the repetition, is\ncomparatively easy. He who would bring out Gothic art (and but little of\nit has hitherto been brought out) must himself be a poet, and what a\nmine of wealth there is open to him! Would that genuine art fever would\nattack our artists and that some of the treasures that lie hid in the\ngranite quarries of the Norse mythology might speedily be exhumed!\n\nIn his work, entitled _Science of Beauty_, Dr. John Bascom has taken\ndecided grounds against nude figures in art. We would recommend the\neighth chapter of that work to the careful consideration of the reader.\nWe are not able for want of space to give his opinion in full, but make\nthe following brief extract:\n\n    There is one direction in which art has indulged itself in a most\n    marked violation of propriety, and that too on the side of vice. I\n    refer to the frequent nudity of its figures. This is a point upon\n    which artists have been pretty unanimous, and disposed to treat the\n    opinions of others with _hauteur_ and disdain, as arising at best\n    from a virtue more itching and sensitive than wise, from instincts\n    more physical than \u00e6sthetical. This practice has been more abused in\n    painting than in sculpture, both as less needed, and hence less\n    justifiable, and as ever tending to become more loose and lustful in\n    the double symbols of color and form, than when confined to the\n    pure, stern use of the latter in stone or metal. Despite alleged\n    necessities,\u2014despite the high-toned claims and undisguised contempt\n    of artists,\u2014our convictions are strongly against the practice, as\n    alike injurious to taste and morals. Indeed, if injurious to morals,\n    it cannot be otherwise than injurious to taste, since art has no\n    more dangerous enemy than a lascivious perverted fancy.\n\nNay, in the radiant dawn of our Gothic history our poets and artists\nmay, if they would but look for them, find chaste themes to which they\nmay consecrate the whole ardor of their souls for the \u00e6sthetical\nelevation and ennoblement of our race. As a people we are growing too\nprosaic and, therefore, too ungodly; we nourish the tender minds of our\nchildren too early and too extensively on dry reasoning, mathematics and\nphilosophy, instead of strengthening, stimulating and beautifying their\nsouls with some of the poetic thoughts, some of the mythology and\nfolk-lore of our forefathers. These mythological stories, these fairy\ntales and all this folk-lore, illuminated by the genial rays of the\nChristian religion shining upon them, should be made available in our\nfamilies and schools, by our poets, painters and sculptors, and then our\nchildren would in turn get their \u00e6sthetical natures developed so as to\nbe able to beautify their own life and that of their posterity with\nstill finer productions in poetry, painting, and sculpture.\n\nFootnote 6:\n\n  A river in Norway.\n\nFootnote 7:\n\n  A stone raised over a grave.\n\n\n\n\n                              CHAPTER VII.\n     THE SOURCES OF NORSE MYTHOLOGY AND INFLUENCE OF THE ASA-FAITH.\n\n\nIn order to thoroughly comprehend the Odinic mythology it is necessary\nto make a careful study of the history, literature, languages and\ndialects of the Teutonic races and of their popular life in all its\nvarious manifestations.\n\nThe chief depositories of the Norse mythology are the Elder or S\u00e6mund\u2019s\nEdda (poetry) and the Younger or Snorre\u2019s Edda (prose). In Icelandic\n_Edda_ means _great-grandmother_, and some think this appellation refers\nto the ancient origin of the myths it contains. Others connect it with\nthe Indian _Veda_ and the Norse _vide_ (Swedish _veta_, to know).\n\n\n                           I. The Elder Edda.\n\n\nThis work was evidently collected from the mouths of the people in the\nsame manner as Homer\u2019s _Iliad_, and there is a similar uncertainty in\nregard to who put it in writing. It has generally been supposed that the\nsongs of the Elder Edda were collected by S\u00e6mund the Wise (born 1056,\ndied 1133), but Sophus Bugge and N. M. Petersen, both eminent Icelandic\nscholars, have made it seem quite probable that it was not put in\nwriting before the year 1240. This is not the place for a discussion of\nthis difficult question, and the reader is referred to Sophus Bugge\u2019s\nIntroduction to _S\u00e6mundar Edda_ and to Petersen\u2019s _History of Northern\nLiterature_, if he wishes to investigate this subject. There are\nthirty-nine poems in the Elder Edda, and we have here to look at their\ncontents. Like the most of the Icelandic poetry, these poems do not\ndistinguish themselves, as does the poetry of Greece and Rome, by a\nmetrical system based on quantity, but have an arrangement of their own\nin common with the poetry of the other old Gothic nations, the\nAnglo-Saxons, etc. This system consists chiefly in the number of _long\nsyllables_ and in _alliteration_. The songs are divided into strophes\ncommonly containing eight verses or lines. These strophes are usually\ndivided into two halves, and each of these halves again into two parts,\nwhich form a fourth part of the whole strophe, and contain two verses\nbelonging together and united by alliteration.\n\nThe alliteration (letter rhyme) is the most essential element in\nIcelandic versification. It is found in all kinds of verse and in every\nage, the Icelanders still using it; and its nature is this, that in the\ntwo lines belonging together, three words occur beginning with the same\nletter, two of which must be in the first line and the third in the\nbeginning of the second. The third and last of these is called the chief\nletter (_h\u00f6fu\u00f0stafr_, head-stave), because it is regarded as ruling over\nthe two others which depend on it and have the name sub-letters\n(_studlar_, supporters). All rhyme-letters must be found in accented\nsyllables, and no more words in the two lines should begin with the same\nletter\u2014at least no chief word, which takes the accent on the first\nsyllable. This principle is illustrated by the following first half of\nthe seventh strophe of V\u00f6lusp\u00e1, the oldest song in the Elder Edda:\n\n                           _T_efldu \u00ed _t_\u00fani,\n                           _T_eitir v\u00e1ru;\n                           _V_ar \u00feeim _v_ettugis\n                           _V_ant \u00f3r gulli.\n\nFree version in English:\n\n                   With _g_olden tablets in the _g_arden\n                     _G_lad they played,\n                   Nor _w_as there to the _v_aliant gods\n                     _W_ant of gold.\n\nThe rhyme-letters here are those in _italics_.\n\nThe poems of the Elder Edda are in no special connection one with the\nother, and they may be divided into three classes: purely mythological,\nmythological-didactic, and mythological-historical poems.\n\nThe Elder Edda presents the Norse cosmogony, the doctrines of the Odinic\nmythology, and the lives and doings of the gods. It contains also a\ncycle of poems on the demi-gods and mythic heroes and heroines of the\nsame period. It gives us as complete a view of the mythological world of\nthe North as Homer and Hesiod do of that of Greece. But (to use in part\nthe language of the Howitts) it presents this to us not as Homer does,\nworked up into one great poem, but as the rhapsodists of Greece\npresented to Homer\u2019s hands the materials for that great poem in the\nvarious hymns and ballads of the fall of Troy, which they sung all over\nGreece. No Homer ever arose in Norseland to mould all these sublime\nlyrics of the Elder Edda into one lordly epic. The story of Siegfried\nand Brynhild, which occupies the latter portion of the Elder Edda, was,\nin later times in Germany moulded into the great and beautiful\n_Niebelungen-Lied_; although it was much altered by the German poet or\nby German tradition. The poems of the Elder Edda show us what the myths\nof Greece would have been without a Homer. They remain huge, wild and\nfragmentary; full of strange gaps rent into their very vitals by the\nstrokes of rude centuries; yet like the ruin of the Colosseum or the\ntemples of P\u00e6stum, standing aloft amid the daylight of the present time,\nmagnificent testimonials of the stupendous genius of the race which\nreared them. There is nothing besides the Bible, which sits in a divine\ntranquillity of unapproachable nobility like a king of kings amongst all\nother books, and the poem of Homer itself, which can compare in all the\nelements of greatness with the Edda. There is a loftiness of stature,\nand a firmness of muscle about it which no poets of the same race have\never since reached. The only production since, that can be compared with\nthe Elder Edda in profoundness of thought, is that of Shakespeare, the\nHercules or Thor in English literature, that heroic mind of divine\nlineage which passed through the hell-gates of the Roman school-system\nunscathed. The obscurity which still hangs over some parts of the Elder\nEdda, like the deep shadows crouching amid the ruins of the past, is the\nresult of neglect, and will in due time be removed; but amid this stand\nforth the boldest masses of intellectual masonry. We are astonished at\nthe wisdom which is shaped into maxims, and at the tempestuous strength\nof passions to which all modern emotions seem puny and constrained. Amid\nthe bright sun-light of a far-off time, surrounded by the densest\nshadows of forgotten ages, we come at once into the midst of gods and\nheroes, goddesses and fair women, giants and dwarfs, moving about in a\nworld of wonderful construction, unlike any other world or creation\nwhich God has founded or man has imagined, but still beautiful beyond\nconception.\n\nThe Elder Edda opens with V\u00f6lusp\u00e1 (the vala\u2019s prophecy), and this song\nmay be regarded as one of the oldest, if not the oldest, poetic monument\nof the North. In it the mysterious vala, or prophetess, seated somewhere\nunseen in the marvelous heaven, sings an awful song of the birth of gods\nand men; of the great Ygdrasil, or Tree of Existence, whose roots and\nbranches extend through all regions of space, and concludes her\nthrilling hymn with the terrible Ragnarok, or Twilight of the gods, when\nOdin and the other gods perish in the flames that devour all creation,\nand the new heavens and new earth rise beautifully green to receive the\nreign of Balder and of milder natures.\n\nThe second song in the Elder Edda is H\u00e1vam\u00e1l (the high-song of Odin).\nOdin himself is represented as its author. It contains a pretty complete\ncode of Odinic morality and precepts of wisdom. The moral and social\naxioms that are brought together in H\u00e1vam\u00e1l will surprise the reader,\nwho has been accustomed to regard the Norsemen as a rude and half wild\nrace, hunting in the savage forests of the North, or scouring the coasts\nof Europe in quest of plunder. They contain a profound knowledge, not\nmerely of human nature, but of human nature in its various social and\ndomestic relations. They are more like the proverbs of Solomon than\nanything in human literature.\n\nThe third poem in the Elder Edda is Vafthrudnism\u00e1l (that is,\nVafthrudner\u2019s speech or song). Vafthrudner is derived from _vaf_, a web\nor weaving, and _thr\u00fa\u00f0_, strong; hence Vafthrudner is the _powerful\nweaver_, the one powerful in riddles, and it is the name of a giant, who\nin the first part of the poem propounds a series of intricate questions\nor riddles. Odin tells his wife Frigg that he desires to visit the\nall-wise giant Vafthrudner, to find out from him the secrets of the past\nand measure strength with him. Frigg advises him not to undertake this\njourney, saying that she considers Vafthrudner the strongest of all\ngiants. Odin reminds her of his many perilous adventures and\nexperiences, arguing that these are sufficient to secure him in his\ncuriosity to see Vafthrudner\u2019s halls. Frigg wishes him a prosperous\njourney and safe return, and also the necessary presence of mind at his\nmeeting with the giant. Odin then proceeds on his journey and enters the\nhalls of Vafthrudner in the guise of a mortal wayfarer, by name\nGangraad. He greets the lord of the house, and says he is come to learn\nwhether he was a wise or omniscient giant. Such an address vexes\nVafthrudner, coming as it did from a stranger, and he soon informs\nGangraad that if he is not wiser than himself he shall not leave the\nhall alive. But the giant, finding, after he had asked the stranger a\nfew questions, that he really had a worthy antagonist in his presence,\ninvites him to take a seat, and challenges him to enter into a\ndisputation, that they might measure their intellectual strength, on the\ncondition that the vanquished party\u2014the one unable to answer a question\nput to him by the other\u2014should forfeit his head. Odin accepts this\ndangerous challenge. They accordingly discuss, by question and answer,\nthe principal topics of Norse mythology. The pretended Gangraad asks the\ngiant many questions, which the latter answers correctly; but when the\nformer at length asks his adversary what Odin whispered in the ear of\nhis son Balder before he had been placed on the funeral pile\u2014a question\nby which the astonished giant becomes aware that his antagonist is Odin\nhimself, who was alone capable of answering it,\u2014the giant acknowledges\nhimself vanquished, and sees with terror that he cannot avoid the death\nwhich he in his cruel pride had intended to inflict upon an innocent\nwanderer.\n\nThe fourth song is Grimnism\u00e1l (the song of Grimner). It begins with a\npreface in prose, in which it is related that Odin, under the name of\nGrimner, visited his foster-son Geirrod, and the latter, deceived by a\nfalse representation by Frigg, takes him for a sorcerer, makes him sit\nbetween two fires and pine there without nourishment for eight days,\nuntil Agnar, the king\u2019s son, reaches him a drinking-horn. Hereupon\nGrimner sings the song which bears his name. Lamenting his confinement\nand blessing Agnar, he goes on to picture the twelve abodes of the gods\nand the splendors of Valhal, which he describes at length, and then\nspeaks of the mythological world-tree Ygdrasil, of the valkyries, of the\ngiant Ymer, of the ship Skidbladner, and adds various other cosmological\nexplanations.\n\nThe fifth song is Skirnism\u00e1l, or F\u00f6r Skirnis (the journey of Skirner).\nThis gives in the form of a dialogue the story of Frey and Gerd, of his\nlove to her, and his wooing her through the agency of his faithful\nservant Skirner, after whom the song is named.\n\nThe sixth is the Lay of Harbard. It is a dialogue between Thor and the\nferryman Harbard, who refuses to carry him over the stream. This\nfurnishes an occasion for each of them to recount his exploits. They\ncontrast their deeds and exploits. The contest is continued without\ninterruption until near the end of the poem, where Thor finally offers a\ncompromise, again requesting to be taken over the river. Harbard, who is\nin fact Odin, again refuses in decided terms. Then Thor asks him to show\nhim another way. This request Harbard seems in a manner to comply with,\nbut refers Thor to Fjorgyn, his mother. Thor asks how far it is, but\nHarbard makes enigmatical answers. Thor ends the conversation with\nthreats and Harbard with evil wishes.\n\nThe seventh poem is the Song of Hymer. The gods of Asgard are invited to\na banquet with the sea-god \u00c6ger. Thor goes to the giant Hymer for a\nlarge kettle, in which to brew ale for the occasion. When Thor has\narrived at the home of Hymer he persuades the giant to take him along on\na fishing expedition, in which Thor fishes up the Midgard-serpent, which\nhe would have killed had it not been for Hymer, who cut off the\nfish-line. Thor succeeds in carrying off the kettle, but has to slay\nHymer and other giants who pursue him.\n\nThe eighth is Lokasenna (or Loke\u2019s quarrel.) This poem has a preface in\nprose. This is also a banquet at \u00c6ger\u2019s. It takes place immediately\nafter Balder\u2019s death. Loke was present. He slew one of \u00c6ger\u2019s servants\nand had to flee to the woods, but soon returns, enters \u00c6ger\u2019s hall, and\nimmediately begins to abuse the gods in the most shameful manner: first\nBrage, then Idun, Gefjun, Odin, Frigg, Freyja, Njord, and the others,\nuntil Thor finally appears and drives him away. There is a prose\nconclusion to this poem, describing Loke\u2019s punishment A profound tragedy\ncharacterizes this poem. Although Loke is abusive, he still speaks the\ntruth, and he exposes all the faults of the gods, which foreshadow their\nfinal fall. Peace disappeared with the death of Balder, and the gods,\nconscious that Ragnarok is inevitable, are overpowered by distraction\nand sorrow.\n\nThe ninth poem is the Song of Thrym. This gives an account of the loss\nof Thor\u2019s hammer, and tells how Loke helped him to get it back from the\ngiant Thrym.\n\nThe tenth is the Song of Alvis (the all-wise). Alvis comes for Thor\u2019s\ndaughter as his bride. Thor cunningly detains him all night by asking\nhim questions concerning the various worlds he has visited. Alvis\nanswers and teaches him the names by which the most important things in\nnature are called in the respective languages of different worlds: of\nmen, of the gods, of the vans, of the giants, of the elves, of the\ndwarfs, and finally of the realms of the dead and of the supreme god.\nThe dwarf, being one of those mythical objects which cannot endure the\nlight of day, was detained till dawn without accomplishing his object.\n\nThe eleventh poem is Vegtam\u2019s Lay. Odin assumes the name Vegtam. In\norder to arrive at certainty concerning the portentous future of the\ngods, he descends to Niflheim, goes into the abodes of Hel, and calls\nthe vala up from her grave-mound, asking her about the fate of Balder.\nShe listens to him indignantly, answers his questions unwillingly, but\nat last discovers that Vegtam is the king of the gods, and angrily tells\nhim to ride home.\n\nWe will omit a synopsis of the remainder, and merely give their titles,\nas they do not enter so completely into the system of mythology as the\nfirst eleven: (12) Rigsmaal (Song of Rig), (13) The Lay of Hyndla, (14)\nThe Song of Volund, (15) The Song of Helge Hjorvardson, (16) Song of\nHelge Hundingsbane I, (17) Song of Helge Hundingsbane II, (18) Song of\nSigurd Fafnisbane I, (19) Song of Sigurd Fafnisbane II, (20) Song of\nFafner, (21) Song of Sigdrifa, (22) Song of Sigurd, (23) Song of Gudrun\nI, (24) Song of Gudrun III, (25) Brynhild\u2019s Ride to Hel, (26) Song of\nGudrun II, (27) Song of Gudrun III, (28) The Weeping of Odrun, (29) The\nSong of Atle, (30) The Speech of Atle, (31) The Challenge of Gudrun,\n(32) The Song of Hamder, (33) The Song of Grotte, (34) Extracts from the\nYounger Edda, (35) Extracts from the Volsunga Saga, (36) Song of Svipdag\nI, (37) Song of Svipdag II, (38) The Lay of the Sun, (39) Odin\u2019s\nRaven-Cry.\n\nThe antiquity of these poems cannot be fixed, but they certainly carry\nus back to the remotest period of the settlement of Norway by the Goths.\n\nIt may be added here that many of the poems of the Elder Edda, as well\nas much of the Old Norse poetry generally, are very difficult to\nunderstand, on account of the bold metaphorical language in which they\nare written. The poet did not call an object by its usual name, but\nborrowed a figure by which to present it, either from the mythology or\nfrom some other source. Thus he would call the sky _the skull of the\ngiant Ymer_; the rainbow he called _the bridge of the gods_; gold was\n_the tears of Freyja_; poetry, _the present_ or _drink of Odin_. The\nearth was called indifferently _the wife of Odin_, _the flesh of Ymer_,\n_the daughter of night_, _the vessel that floats on the ages_, or _the\nfoundation of the air_; herbs and plants were called _the hair_ or _the\nfleece of the earth_. A battle was called _a bath of blood_, _the hail\nof Odin_, _the shock of bucklers_; the sea was termed _the field of\npirates_, _the girdle of the earth_; ice, _the greatest of all bridges_;\na ship, _the horse of the waves_; the tongue, _the sword of words_, etc.\n\n\n                         II. The Younger Edda,\n\n\nwritten by Snorre Sturleson, the author of the famous _Heimskringla_\n(born 1178, died 1241) is mostly prose, and may be regarded as a sort of\ncommentary upon the Elder Edda. The prose Edda consists of two parts:\nGylfaginning (the deluding of Gylfe), and the Bragar\u00e6\u00f0ur or\nSk\u00e1ldskaparm\u00e1l (the conversations of Brage, the god of poetry, or the\ntreatise on poetry). Gylfaginning tells how the Swedish king Gylfe makes\na journey to Asgard, the abode of the gods, where Odin instructs him in\nthe old faith, and gradually relates to him the myths of the Norsemen.\nThe manner in which the whole is told reminds us of _A Thousand and One\nNights_, or of poems from a later time, as for instance Boccaccio\u2019s\n_Decameron_. It is a prose synopsis of the whole Asa faith, with here\nand there a quotation from the Elder Edda by way of elucidation. It\nshows a great deal of ingenuity and talent on the part of its author,\nand is the most perspicuous and clear presentation of the mythology that\nwe possess.\n\nBut all the material for the correct presentation of the Norse mythology\nis not found in the Eddas; or rather we do not perfectly understand the\nEddas, if we confine our studies to them alone. For a full comprehension\nof the myths, it is necessary to study carefully all the\nsemi-mythological Icelandic Sagas, which constitute a respectable\nlibrary by themselves; and in connection with these we must read the\nAnglo-Saxon _Beowulf\u2019s Drapa_, and the German _Niebelungen-Lied_. In the\nnext place, we must examine carefully all the folk-lore of the Gothic\nrace, and we must, in short, study the manifestations of the Gothic mind\nand spirit everywhere: in the development of the State and of the\nChurch, in their poetry and history, in their various languages and\nnumerous dialects, in their literature, in their customs and manners,\nand in their popular belief. If we neglect all these we shall never\nunderstand the Eddas; if we neglect the Eddas we shall never understand\nthe other sources of mythology. They mutually explain each other, and\nthe Gothic race must sooner or later begin to study its own history.\n\nThat the Odinic mythology exercised a mighty influence in forming the\nnational character of the Norsemen, becomes evident when we compare the\ndoctrines of their faith with the popular life as portrayed in the\nSagas. Still we must bear in mind that this national spirit was not\ncreated by this faith. The harsh climate of the North modified not only\nthe Norse mythology, but also moulded indefinitely the national\ncharacter, and then the two, the mythology and the national character,\nacted and reacted upon each other. Thus bred up to fight with nature in\na constant battle for existence, and witnessing the same struggle in the\nlife of his gods, the Norseman became fearless, honest and truthful,\nready to smite and ready to forgive, shrinking not from pain himself and\ncareless about inflicting it on others. Beholding in external nature and\nin his mythology the struggle of conflicting forces, he naturally looked\non life as a field for warfare. The ice-bound fjords and desolate fells,\nthe mournful wail of the waving pine-branches, the stern strife of frost\nand fire, the annual death of the short-lived summer, made the Norseman\nsombre, if not gloomy, in his thoughts, and inured him to the rugged\nindependence of the country. The sternness of the land in which he lived\nwas reflected in his character; the latter was in turn reflected in the\ntales which he told of his gods and heroes, and thus the Norseman and\nhis mythology mutually influenced each other.\n\nThe influence of the Asa faith, says Prof. Keyser, upon the popular\nspirit of the Norsemen, must be regarded from quite another point of\nview than that of Christianity at a later period. The Asa faith was, so\nto speak, inborn with the Norsemen, as it had developed itself from\ncertain germs and assumed form with the popular life almost\nunconsciously to the latter. Christianity, on the other hand, was given\nto the people as a religious system complete in itself, intended for all\nthe nations of the earth; one which by its own divine power opened for\nitself a way to conviction, and through that conviction operated on the\npopular spirit in a direction previously pointed out by the fundamental\nprinciples of the religion itself. As the system of the Asa faith arose\nwithout any conscious object of affecting the morals, therefore it did\nnot embrace any actual code of morals in the higher sense of this term.\nThe Asa doctrine does not pronounce by positive expression what is\nvirtue and what is vice; it presupposes a consciousness thereof in its\nvotaries. It only represents virtue as reaping its own rewards and vice\nits own punishment, if not here upon the earth, then with certainty\nbeyond the grave. Thus Keyser.\n\nThe Norse system of mythology embodied the doctrine of an imperishable\nsoul in man; it had Valhal and Gimle set apart for and awaiting the\nbrave and virtuous, and Helheim and Naastrand for the wicked.\n\nThe moral and social maxims of the Norsemen are represented as being\nuttered by Odin himself in the H\u00e1vam\u00e1l (high song of Odin), the second\nsong of the Elder Edda, and by the valkyrie Sigdrifa in the Sigrdr\u00edfum\u00e1l\n(the lay of Sigdrifa), the twenty-first poem of the same work. Read\nthese poems and maxims, and judge whether they will warrant the position\nrepeatedly taken in this work, that the electric spark that has made\nEngland and America great and free came not from the aboriginal Britons,\nnot from the Roman enslavers, but must be sought in the prophetic,\nimaginative and poetic childhood of the Gothic race. Read these poems\nand judge whether the eminent English writer, Samuel Laing, is right\nwhen he says:\n\n    All that men hope for of good government and future improvement in\n    their physical and moral condition,\u2014all that civilized men enjoy at\n    this day of civil, religious and political liberty,\u2014the British\n    constitution, representative legislation, the trial by jury,\n    security of property, freedom of mind and person, the influence of\n    public opinion over the conduct of public affairs, the Reformation,\n    the liberty of the press, the spirit of the age,\u2014all that is or has\n    been of value to man in modern times as a member of society, either\n    in Europe or in the New World, may be traced to the spark left\n    burning upon our shores by these northern barbarians.\n\nRead these poems and find truth in the words of Baron Montesquieu, the\nadmirable author of _The Spirit of Laws_ (L\u2019Esprit des Lois), when he\nsays: The great prerogative of Scandinavia, and what ought to recommend\nits inhabitants beyond every people upon earth, is, that they afforded\nthe great resource to the liberty of Europe, that is, to almost all the\nliberty that is among men; and when he calls the North the forge of\nthose instruments which broke the fetters manufactured in the South.\n\nIn the old Gothic religion were embodied principles and elements which\nhad a tendency to make its votaries brave, independent, honest, earnest,\njust, charitable, prudent, temperate, liberty-loving, etc.; principles\nand morals that in due course of time and under favorable circumstances\nevolved the Republic of Iceland, the Magna Charta of England, and the\nDeclaration of Independence.\n\nThe rules of life as indicated by the High Song of Odin and in\nSigrdr\u00edfum\u00e1l, in which the valkyrie gives counsel to Sigurd Fafnisbane,\nare briefly summed up by Professor Keyser as follows:\n\n    1. The recognition of the depravity of human nature, which calls for\n    a struggle against our natural desires and forbearance toward the\n    weakness of others.\n\n    2. Courage and faith both to bear the hard decrees of the norns and\n    to fight against enemies.\n\n    3. The struggle for independence in life with regard to knowledge as\n    well as to fortune; an independence which should, therefore, be\n    earned by a love of learning and industry.\n\n    4. A strict adherence to oaths and promises.\n\n    5. Candor and fidelity as well as foresight in love, devotion to the\n    tried friend, but dissimulation toward the false and war to the\n    death against the implacable enemy.\n\n    6. Respect for old age.\n\n    7. Hospitality, liberality, and charity to the poor.\n\n    8. A prudent foresight in word and deed.\n\n    9. Temperance, not only in the gratification of the senses, but also\n    in the exercise of power.\n\n    10. Contentment and cheerfulness.\n\n    11. Modesty and politeness in intercourse.\n\n    12. A desire to win the good will of our fellow men, especially to\n    surround ourselves with a steadfast circle of devoted kinsmen and\n    faithful friends.\n\n    13. A careful treatment of the bodies of the dead.\n\nListen now to Odin himself, as he gives precepts of wisdom to mankind in\n\n\n            H\u00c1VAM\u00c1L:\n\n            1.  All door-ways\n                Before going forward,\n                Should be looked to;\n                For difficult it is to know\n                Where foes may sit\n                Within a dwelling\n\n            2.  Givers, hail!\n                A guest is come in:\n                Where shall he sit?\n                In much haste is he,\n                Who on his ways has\n                To try his luck.\n\n            3.  Fire is needful\n                To him who is come in,\n                And whose knees are frozen;\n                Food and raiment\n                A man requires\n                Who o\u2019er the fell has traveled.\n\n            4.  Water to him is needful,\n                Who for refection comes,\n                A towel and hospitable invitation,\n                A good reception;\n                If he can get it,\n                Discourse and answer.\n\n            5.  Wit is needful\n                To him who travels far:\n                At home all is easy.\n                A laughingstock is he\n                Who nothing knows,\n                And with the instructed sits.[8]\n\n            6.  Of his understanding\n                No one should be proud,\n                But rather in conduct cautious.\n                When the prudent and taciturn\n                Come to a dwelling,\n                Harm seldom befalls the cautious;\n                For a firmer friend\n                No man ever gets\n                Than great sagacity.\n\n            7.  A wary guest\n                Who to refection comes\n                Keeps a cautious silence;\n                With his ears listens,\n                And with his eyes observes:\n                So explores every prudent man.\n\n            8.  He is happy\n                Who for himself obtains\n                Fame and kind words:\n                Less sure is that\n                Which a man must have\n                In another\u2019s breast.\n\n            9.  He is happy\n                Who in himself possesses\n                Fame and wit while living;\n                For bad counsels\n                Have oft been received\n                From another\u2019s breast.\n\n            10. A better burthen\n                No man bears on the way\n                Than much good sense:\n                That is thought better than riches\n                In a strange place;\n                Such is the recourse of the indigent.\n\n            11. A worse provision\n                On the way he cannot carry\n                Than too much beer-bibbing;\n                So good is not,\n                As it is said,\n                Beer for the sons of men.\n\n            12. A worse provision\n                No man can take from table\n                Than too much beer-bibbing,\n                For the more he drinks\n                The less control he has\n                Of his own mind.\n\n            13. Oblivion\u2019s heron \u2019tis called\n                That over potations hovers;\n                He steals the minds of men.\n                With this bird\u2019s pinions\n                I was fettered\n                In Gunlad\u2019s dwelling.\n\n            14. Drunk I was,\n                I was over-drunk,\n                At that cunning Fjalar\u2019s.\n                It\u2019s the best drunkenness\n                When every one after it\n                Regains his reason.\n\n            15. Taciturn and prudent,\n                And in war daring\n                Should a king\u2019s children be;\n                Joyous and liberal\n                Everyone should be\n                Until his hour of death.\n\n            16. A cowardly man\n                Thinks he will ever live\n                If warfare he avoids;\n                But old age will\n                Give him no peace.\n                Though spears may spare him.\n\n            17. A fool gapes\n                When to a house he comes,\n                To himself mutters or is silent;\n                But all at once,\n                If he gets drink,\n                Then is the man\u2019s mind displayed.\n\n            18. He alone knows,\n                Who wanders wide\n                And has much experienced,\n                By what disposition\n                Each man is ruled,\n                Who common sense possesses.\n\n            19. Let a man hold the cup,\n                Yet of the mead drink moderately,\n                Speak sensibly or be silent.\n                As of a fault\n                No man will admonish thee,\n                If thou goest betimes to sleep.\n\n            20. A greedy man,\n                If he be not moderate,\n                Eats to his mortal sorrow.\n                Oftentimes his belly\n                Draws laughter on a silly man\n                Who among the prudent comes.\n\n            21. Cattle know\n                When to go home\n                And then from grazing cease;\n                But a foolish man\n                Never knows\n                His stomach\u2019s measure.\n\n            22. A miserable man,\n                And ill-conditioned,\n                Sneers at everything:\n                One thing he knows not,\n                Which he ought to know,\n                That he is not free from faults.\n\n            23. A foolish man\n                Is all night awake,\n                Pondering over everything;\n                He then grows tired,\n                And when morning comes\n                All is lament as before.\n\n            24. A foolish man\n                Thinks all who on him smile\n                To be his friends;\n                He feels it not,\n                Although they speak ill of him,\n                When he sits among the clever.\n\n            25. A foolish man\n                Thinks all who speak him fair\n                To be his friends;\n                But he will find,\n                If into court he comes,\n                That he has few advocates.\n\n            26. A foolish man\n                Thinks he knows everything\n                If placed in unexpected difficulty;\n                But he knows not\n                    What to answer\n                    If to the test he is put.\n\n            27. A foolish man,\n                Who among people comes,\n                Had best be silent;\n                For no one knows\n                That he knows nothing\n                Unless he talks too much.\n                He who previously knew nothing\n                    Will still know nothing,\n                Talk he ever so much.\n\n            28. He thinks himself wise\n                Who can ask questions\n                And converse also;\n                Conceal his ignorance\n                No one can,\n                    Because it circulates among men.\n\n            29. He utters too many\n                Futile words\n                Who is never silent;\n                    A garrulous tongue,\n                If it be not checked,\n                    Sings often to its own harm.\n\n            30. For a gazing-stock\n                    No man shall have another,\n                Although he come a stranger to his house.\n                Many a one thinks himself wise,\n                If he is not questioned,\n                And can sit in a dry habit.\n\n            31. Clever thinks himself\n                The guest who jeers a guest,\n                If he takes to flight.\n                Knows it not certainly\n                He who prates at meat,\n                Whether he babbles among foes.\n\n            32. Many men are mutually\n                    Well-disposed,\n                Yet at table will torment each other.\n                That strife will ever be;\n                Guest will guest irritate.\n\n            33. Early meals\n                A man should often take,\n                Unless to a friend\u2019s house he goes;\n                Else he will sit and mope,\n                Will seem half famished,\n                And can of few things inquire.\n\n            34. Long is and indirect the way\n                To a bad friend\u2019s,\n                Though by the road he dwell;\n                But to a good friend\u2019s\n                The paths lie direct,\n                Though he be far away.\n\n            35. A guest should depart,\n                Not always stay\n                In one place:\n                The welcome becomes unwelcome\n                If he too long continues\n                In another\u2019s house.\n\n            36. One\u2019s own house is best,\n                Small though it be;\n                At home is every one his own master.\n                Though he but two goats possess,\n                And a straw-thatched cot,\n                Even that is better than begging.\n\n            37. One\u2019s own house is best,\n                Small though it be;\n                At home is every one his own master.\n                Bleeding at heart is he\n                Who has to ask\n                For food at every meal-tide.\n\n            38. Leaving in the field his arms,\n                    Let no man go\n                A foot\u2019s length forward;\n                For it is hard to know\n                    When on his way\n                A man may need his weapon.\n\n            39. I have never found a man so bountiful\n                Or so hospitable\n                That he refused a present;\n                Or of his property\n                So liberal\n                That he scorned a recompense.\n\n            40. Of the property\n                Which he has gained,\n                No man should suffer need;\n                For the hated oft is spared\n                What for the dear was destined:\n                Much goes worse than is expected.\n\n            41. With arms and vestments\n                Friends should each other gladden,\n                Those which are in themselves most sightly.\n                Givers and requiters\n                Are longest friends,\n                If all else goes well.\n\n            42.   To his friend\n                A man should be a friend,\n                And gifts with gifts requite;\n                Laughter with laughter\n                Men should receive,\n                But leasing with lying.\n\n            43.   To his friend\n                A man should be a friend,\n                To him and to his friend;\n                  But of his foe\n                  No man shall\n                  His friend\u2019s friend be.\n\n            44. Know if thou hast a friend\n                Whom thou fully trustest,\n            And from whom thou would\u2019st good derive;\n            Thou should\u2019st blend thy mind with his,\n                And gifts exchange,\n                And often go to see him.\n\n            45. If thou hast another\n                Whom thou little trustest,\n                Yet would\u2019st good from him derive,\n                Thou should\u2019st speak him fair,\n                But think craftily,\n                And leasing pay with lying.\n\n            46. But of him yet further\n                Whom thou little trustest,\n                And thou suspectest his affection,\n                Before him thou should\u2019st laugh,\n                And contrary to thy thoughts speak;\n                Requital should the gift resemble.\n\n            47. I once was young,\n                I was journeying alone\n                And lost my way;\n                Rich I thought myself\n                When I met another:\n                Man is the joy of man.\n\n            48. Liberal and brave\n                Men live best,\n                They seldom cherish sorrow;\n                But a bare-minded man\n                Dreads everything;\n                The niggardly is uneasy even at gifts.\n\n            49. My garments in a field\n                I gave away\n                To two wooden men:\n                Heroes they seemed to be\n                When they got cloaks:[9]\n                Exposed to insult is a naked man.\n\n            50. A tree withers\n                That on a hill-top stands;\n                Protects it neither bark nor leaves:\n                Such is the man\n                Whom no one favors:\n                Why should he live long?\n\n            51. Hotter than fire\n                Love for five days burns\n                Between false friends;\n                But is quenched\n                When the sixth day comes,\n                And friendship is all impaired.\n\n            52. Something great\n                Is not always to be given,\n                Praise is often for a trifle bought\n                With half a loaf\n                And a tilted vessel\n                I got myself a comrade.\n\n            53. Little are the sand grains,\n                Little the wits,\n                Little the minds of men;\n                For all men\n                Are not wise alike:\n                Men are everywhere by halves.\n\n            54. Moderately wise\n                Should each one be,\n                But never over-wise;\n                For a wise man\u2019s heart\n                Is seldom glad,\n                If he is all-wise who owns it.\n\n            55. Moderately wise\n                Should each one be,\n                But never over-wise:\n                Of those men\n                The lives are fairest\n                Who know much well.\n\n            56. Moderately wise\n                Should each one be,\n                But never over-wise;\n                His destiny let know\n                No man beforehand;\n                His mind will be freest from care.\n\n            57. Brand burns from brand\n                Until it is burnt out,\n                Fire is from fire quickened:\n                Man to man\n                Becomes known by speech,\n                But a fool by his bashful silence.\n\n            58. He should rise early\n                Who another\u2019s property or life\n                Desires to have:\n                Seldom a sluggish wolf\n                Gets prey,\n                Or a sleeping man victory.\n\n            59. Early should rise\n                He who has few workers.\n                And go his work to see to;\n                Greatly is he retarded\n                Who sleeps the morn away.\n                Wealth half depends on energy.\n\n            60. Of dry planks\n                And roof shingles\n                A man knows the measure;\n                Of the firewood\n                That may suffice\n                Both measure and time.\n\n            61. Washed and refected\n                Let a man ride to _Thing_,[10]\n                Although his garments be not too good;\n                Of his shoes and breeches\n                Let no one be ashamed,\n                Nor of his horse,\n                Although he have not a good one.\n\n            62. Inquire and impart\n                Should every man of sense,\n                Who will be accounted sage.\n                Let one only know,\n                A second may not;\n                If three, all the world knows.\n\n            63. Gasps and gapes,\n                When to the sea he comes,\n                The eagle over old ocean;\n                So is a man\n                Who among many comes,\n                And has few advocates.\n\n            64. His power should\n                Every sagacious man\n                Use with discretion,\n                For he will find,\n                When among the bold he comes,\n                That no one alone is doughtiest.\n\n            65. Circumspect and reserved\n                Every man should be,\n                And wary in trusting friends;\n                Of the words\n                That a man says to another\n                He often pays the penalty.\n\n            66. Much too early\n                I came to many places,\n                But too late to others;\n                The beer was drunk,\n                Or not ready:\n                The disliked seldom hits the moment.\n\n            67. Here and there I should\n                Have been invited\n                If I a meal had needed;\n                Or two hams had hung\n                At that true friend\u2019s\n                Where of one I had eaten.\n\n            68. Fire is best\n                Among the sons of men,\n                And the sight of the sun,\n                If his health\n                A man can have,\n                With a life free from vice.\n\n            69. No man lacks everything,\n                Although his health be bad.\n                One in his sons is happy,\n                One in his kin,\n                One in abundant wealth,\n                One in his good works.\n\n            70. It is better to live,\n                Even to live miserably;\n                A living man can always get a cow.\n                I saw fire consume\n                The rich man\u2019s property,\n                And death stood without his door.\n\n            71. The halt can ride on horseback.\n                The one-handed drive cattle;\n                The deaf, fight and be useful:\n                To be blind is better\n                Than to be burnt:[11]\n                No one gets good from a corpse.\n\n            72. A son is better\n                Even if born late,\n                After his father\u2019s departure.\n                Gravestones seldom\n                Stand by the way-side\n                Unless raised by a kinsman to a kinsman.\n\n            73. Two are adversaries:\n                The tongue is the bane of the head:\n                Under every cloak\n                I expect a hand.\n\n            74. At night is joyful\n                He who is sure of traveling entertainment;\n                A ship\u2019s yards are short;\n                Variable is an autumn night,\n                Many are the weather\u2019s changes\n                In five days,\n                But more in a month.\n\n            75. He knows not,\n                Who knows nothing,\n                That many a one apes another,\n                One man is rich,\n                Another poor:\n                Let him not be thought blameworthy.\n\n            76. Cattle die,\n                Kindred die,\n                We ourselves also die;\n                But the fair fame\n                Never dies\n                Of him who has earned it.\n\n            77. Cattle die,\n                Kindred die,\n                We ourselves also die;\n                But I know one thing\n                That never dies,\u2014\n                Judgment on each one dead.\n\n            78. Full storehouses I saw\n                At Dives\u2019 sons\u2019:\n                Now bear they the beggar\u2019s staff.\n                Such are riches,\n                As is the twinkling of an eye:\n                Of friends they are most fickle.\n\n            79. A foolish man,\n                If he acquires\n                Wealth or woman\u2019s love,\n                Pride grows within him,\n                But wisdom never:\n                He goes on more and more arrogant.\n\n            80. Thus \u2019t is made manifest,\n                If of runes thou questionest him,\n                Those to the high ones known,\n                Which the great powers invented,\n                And the great talker[12] painted,\n                That he had best hold silence.\n\n            81. At eve the day is to be praised,\n                A woman after she is burnt,[13]\n                A sword after it is proved,\n                A maid after she is married,\n                Ice after it has been crossed,\n                Beer after it is drunk.\n\n            82. In the wind one should hew wood,\n                In a breeze row out to sea,\n                In the dark talk with a lass,\n                Many are the eyes of day.\n                In a ship voyages are to be made,\n                But a shield is for protection,\n                A sword for striking,\n                But a damsel for a kiss.\n\n            83. By the fire one should drink beer,\n                On the ice slide;\n                Buy a horse that is lean,\n                A sword that is rusty;\n                Feed a horse at home,\n                But a dog at the farm.\n\n            84. In a maiden\u2019s words\n                No one should place faith,\n                Nor in what a woman says;\n                For on a turning wheel\n                Have their hearts been formed,\n                And guile in their breasts been laid.\n\n            85. In a creaking bow,\n                A burning flame,\n                A yawning wolf,\n                A chattering crow,\n                A grunting swine,\n                A rootless tree,\n                A waxing wave,\n                A boiling kettle,\n\n            86. A flying dart,\n                A falling billow,\n                A one night\u2019s ice,\n                A coiled serpent,\n                A woman\u2019s bed-talk\n                Or a broken sword,\n                A bear\u2019s play\n                Or a royal child,\n\n            87. A sick calf,\n                A self-willed thrall,\n                A flattering prophetess,\n                A corpse newly slain,\n                A serene sky,\n                A laughing lord,\n                A barking dog\n                And a harlot\u2019s grief,\n\n            88. An early-sown field,\n                Let no one trust,\n                Nor prematurely in a son:\n                Weather rules the field,\n                And wit the son,\n                Each of which is doubtful.\n\n            89. A brother\u2019s murderer,\n                Though on the high-road met,\n                A half-burnt house,\n                An over-swift horse\n                (A horse is useless\n                If a leg be broken):\n                No man is so confiding\n                As to trust any of these.\n\n            90. Such is the love of women,\n                Who falsehood meditate,\n                As if one drove not rough-shod\n                On slippery ice,\n                A spirited two-year-old\n                And unbroken horse;\n                Or as in a raging storm\n                A helmless ship is beaten;\n                Or as if the halt were set to catch\n                A reindeer in the thawing fell.[14]\n\n            91. Openly I now speak,\n                Because I both sexes know;\n                Unstable are men\u2019s minds toward women;\n                \u2019Tis then we speak most fair,\n                When we most falsely think:\n                That deceives even the cautious.\n\n            92. Fair shall speak,\n                And money offer,\n                Who would obtain a woman\u2019s love\n                Praise the form\n                Of a fair damsel;\n                He gets, who courts her.\n\n            93. At love should no one\n                Ever wonder\n                In another:\n                A beauteous countenance\n                Oft captivates the wise,\n                Which captivates not the foolish.\n\n            94. Let no one wonder at\n                Another\u2019s folly,\n                It is the lot of many.\n                All-powerful desire\n                Makes of the sons of men\n                Fools even of the wise.\n\n            95. The mind only knows\n                What lies near the heart;\n                That alone is conscious of our affections\n                No disease is worse\n                To a sensible man\n                Than not to be content with himself.\n\n            96. That I experienced\n                When in the reeds I sat\n                Awaiting my delight.\n                Body and soul to me\n                Was that discreet maiden;\n                Nevertheless I possess her not.\n\n            97. Billing\u2019s lass\n                On her couch I found,\n                Sun-bright, sleeping.\n                A prince\u2019s joy\n                To me seemed naught,\n                If not with that form to live.\n\n            98. Yet nearer eve\n                Must thou, Odin, come, she said,\n                If thou wilt talk the maiden over;\n                All will be disastrous\n                Unless we alone\n                Are privy to such misdeed.\n\n            99. I returned,\n                Thinking to love\n                At her wise desire;\n                I thought\n                I should obtain\n                Her whole heart and love.\n\n            100.  When next I came,\n                  The bold warriors were\n                  All awake,\n                  With lights burning,\n                  And bearing torches:\n\n            101.  But at the approach of morn,\n                  When again I came,\n                  The household all was sleeping;\n                  The good damsel\u2019s dog\n                  Alone I found\n                  Tied to the bed.\n\n            102.  Many a fair maiden,\n                  When rightly known,\n                  Toward men is fickle:\n                  That I experienced\n                  When that discreet maiden\n                  I decoyed into danger:\n                  Contumely of every kind\n                  That wily girl\n                  Heaped upon me;\n                  Nor of that damsel gained I aught.\n\n            103.  At home let a man be cheerful,\n                  And toward a guest liberal;\n                  Of wise conduct he should be,\n                  Of good memory and ready speech;\n                  If much knowledge he desires,\n                  He must often talk on what is good.\n                  Fimbulfambi he is called\n                  Who little has to say:\n                  Such is the nature of the simple.\n\n            104.  The old giant I sought;\n                  Now I am come back:\n                  Little got I there by silence;\n                  In many words\n                  I spoke to my advantage\n                  In Suttung\u2019s halls.[15]\n\n            105.  Gunlad gave me,\n                  On her golden seat,\n                  A draught of the precious mead;\n                  A bad recompense I afterwards made her\n                  For her whole soul,\n                  Her fervent love.\n\n            106.  Rate\u2019s mouth I caused\n                  To make a space,\n                  And to gnaw the rock;\n                  Over and under me\n                  Were the giant\u2019s ways:\n                  Thus I my head did peril.\n\n            107.  Of a well assumed form\n                  I made good use:\n                  Few things fail the wise,\n                  For Odr\u00e6rer is now come up\n                  To men\u2019s earthly dwellings.\n\n            108.  \u2019Tis to me doubtful,\n                  That I could have come\n                  From the giant\u2019s courts,\n                  Had not Gunlad aided me,\u2014\n                  That good damsel\n                  Over whom I laid my arm.\n\n            109.  On the day following\n                  Came the frost-giants\n                  To learn something of the High One\n                  In the High One\u2019s hall;\n                  After Bolverk they inquired,\n                  Whether he with the gods were come,\n                  Or Suttung had destroyed him.\n\n            110.  Odin I believe\n                  A ring-oath[16] gave.\n                  Who in his faith will trust?\n                   defrauded,\n                  Of his drink bereft,\n                  And Gunlad made to weep!\n\n            111.  Time \u2019t is to discourse\n                  From the speaker\u2019s chair.\n                  By the well of Urd\n                  I silent sat,\n                  I saw and meditated,\n                  I listened to men\u2019s words.\n\n            112.  Of runes I heard discourse,\n                  And of things divine,\n                  Nor of risting[17] them were they silent,\n                  Nor of sage counsels,\n                  At the High One\u2019s hall.\n                  In the High One\u2019s hall\n                  I thus heard say:\n\n            113.  I counsel thee, Lodfafner,\n                  To take advice;\n                  Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it.\n                  Rise not at night,\n                  Unless to explore,\n                  Or art compelled to go out.\n\n            114.  I counsel thee, Lodfafner,\n                  To take advice;\n                  Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it.\n                  In an enchantress\u2019 embrace\n                  Thou mayest not sleep,\n                  So that in her arms she clasp thee.\n\n            115.  She will be the cause\n                  That thou carest not\n                  For _Thing_ or prince\u2019s words;\n                  Food thou wilt shun\n                  And human joys;\n                  Sorrowful wilt thou go to sleep.\n\n            116.  I counsel thee, Lodfafner,\n                  To take advice;\n                  Thou wilt profit, it thou takest it.\n                  Another\u2019s wife\n                  Entice thou never\n                  To secret converse.\n\n            117.  I counsel thee, Lodfafner,\n                  To take advice;\n                  Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it.\n                  By fell or firth\n                  If thou have to travel,\n                  Provide thee well with food.\n\n\n            118.  I counsel thee, Lodfafner,\n                  To take advice;\n                  Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it.\n                  A bad man\n                  Let thou never\n                  Know thy misfortunes;\n                  For from a bad man\n                  Thou never wilt obtain\n                  A return for thy good will.\n\n            119.  I saw mortally\n                  Wound a man\n                  A wicked woman\u2019s words;\n                  A false tongue\n                  Caused his death,\n                  And most unrighteously.\n\n            120.  I counsel thee, Lodfafner,\n                  To take advice;\n                  Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it.\n                  If thou knowest thou hast a friend,\n                  Whom thou well canst trust,\n                  Go oft to visit him;\n                  For with brushwood overgrown\n                  And with high grass\n                  Is the way that no one treads.\n\n            121.  I counsel thee, Lodfafner,\n                  To take advice;\n                  Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it.\n                  A good man attract to thee\n                  In pleasant converse,\n                  And salutary speech learn, while thou livest.\n\n            122.  I counsel thee, Lodfafner,\n                  To take advice;\n                  Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it.\n                  With thy friend\n                  Be thou never\n                  First to quarrel.\n                  Care gnaws the heart,\n                  If thou to no one canst\n                  Thy whole mind disclose.\n\n            128.  I counsel thee, Lodfafner,\n                  To take advice;\n                  Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it.\n                  Words thou never\n                  Shouldst exchange\n                  With a witless fool.\n\n            124.  For from an ill-conditioned man\n                  Thou wilt never get\n                  A return for good;\n                  But a good man will\n                  Bring thee favor\n                  By his praise.\n\n            125.  There is a mingling of affection,\n                  Where one can tell\n                  Another all his mind.\n                  Everything is better\n                  Than being with the deceitful.\n                  He is not another\u2019s friend\n                  Who ever says as he says.\n\n            126.  I counsel thee, Lodfafner,\n                  To take advice;\n                  Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it.\n                  Even in three words\n                  Quarrel not with a worse man:\n                  Often the better yields,\n                  When the worse strikes.\n\n            127.  I counsel thee, Lodfafner,\n                  To take advice;\n                  Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it.\n                  Be not a shoemaker\n                  Nor a shaftmaker,\n                  Unless for thyself it be:\n                  For a shoe, if ill made,\n                  Or a shaft if crooked,\n                  Will call down evil on thee.\n\n            128.  I counsel thee, Lodfafner,\n                  To take advice;\n                  Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it.\n                  Wherever of injury thou knowest,\n                  Regard that injury as thy own;\n                  And give to thy foes no peace.\n\n            129.  I counsel thee, Lodfafner,\n                  To take advice;\n                  Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it.\n                  Rejoiced at evil\n                  Be thou never,\n                  But let good give thee pleasure.\n\n            130.  I counsel thee, Lodfafner,\n                  To take advice;\n                  Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it.\n                  In a battle\n                  Look not up,[18]\n                  (Like swine[19]\n                  The sons of men then become),\n                  That men may not fascinate thee.\n\n            131.  If thou wilt induce a good woman\n                  To pleasant converse,\n                  Thou must promise fair,\n                  And hold to it:\n                  No one turns from good, if it can be got.\n\n            132.  I enjoin thee to be wary,\n                  But not over-wary;\n                  At drinking be thou most wary,\n                  And with another\u2019s wife;\n                  And thirdly,\n                  That thieves delude thee not.\n\n            133.  With insult or derision\n                  Treat thou never\n                  A guest or wayfarer;\n                  They often little know,\n                  Who sit within,\n                  Of what race they are who come.\n\n            134.  Vices and virtues\n                  The sons of mortals bear\n                  In their breasts mingled;\n                  No one is so good\n                  That no failing attends him,\n                  Nor so bad as to be good for nothing.\n\n            135.  At a hoary speaker\n                  Laugh thou never,\n                  Often is good that which the aged utter;\n                  Oft from a shriveled hide\n                  Discreet words issue,\n                  From those whose skin is pendent\n                  And decked with scars,\n                  And who go loitering among the vile.\n\n            136.  I counsel thee, Lodfafner,\n                  To take advice;\n                  Thou wilt profit, if thou takest it.\n                  Rail not at a guest,\n                  Nor from thy gate thrust him;\n                  Treat well the indigent,\n                  They will speak well of thee.\n\n            137.  Strong is the bar\n                  That must be raised\n                  To admit all.[20]\n                  Do thou give a penny,\n                  Or they will call down on thee\n                  Every ill on thy limbs.\n\n            138.  I counsel thee, Lodfafner,\n                  To take advice;\n                  Thou will profit, if thou takest it.\n                  Wherever thou beer drinkest,\n                  Invoke to thee the power of earth;\n                  For earth is good against drink,\n                  Fire for distempers,\n                  The oak for constipation,\n                  A corn-ear for sorcery,\n                  A hall for domestic strife.\n                  In bitter hates invoke the moon;\n                  The bitter for bite-injuries is good,\n                  But runes against calamity;\n                  Fluid let earth absorb.\n\nThis is all of the famous H\u00e1vam\u00e1l of the Elder Edda except the so-called\nRunic Chapter, which will be given in the second part in connection with\nthe myth of Odin. Hear now what the valkyrie has to say to Sigurd\nFafnisbane in\n\n\n                   SIGRDR\u00cdFUM\u00c1L (_the Lay of Sigdrifa_).\n\n\nSigurd rode up the Hindarfiall, and directed his course southward toward\nFrankland. In the fell he saw a great light, as if a fire were burning,\nwhich blazed up to the sky. On approaching it, there stood a\n_skialdborg_, and over it a banner. Sigurd went into the skialdborg, and\nsaw a warrior lying within it asleep, completely armed. He first took\nthe helmet off the warrior\u2019s head, and saw that it was a woman. Her\ncorselet was as fast as if it had grown to her body. With his sword,\nGram, he ripped the corselet from the upper opening downwards, and then\nthrough both sleeves. He then took the corselet off from her, when she\nawoke, sat up, and, on seeing Sigurd, said:\n\n                   1.  What has my corselet cut?\n                       Why from my sleep have I started?\n                       Who has cast from me\n                       The fallow bands?\n\n\n                   SIGURD:\n\n                   1.  Sigmund\u2019s son\n                       (Recently did the raven\n                       Feed on carrion)[21]\n                       And Sigurd\u2019s sword.\n\n\n                   SHE:\n\n                   2.  Long have I slept,\n                       Long been with sleep oppressed,\n                       Long are mortals\u2019 sufferings!\n                       Odin is the cause\n                       That I have been unable\n                       To cast off torpor.\n\nSigurd sat down and asked her name. She then took a horn filled with\nmead, and gave him the _minnis-cup_ (cup of memory).\n\n\n                   SHE:\n\n                   3.  Hail to Day!\n                       Hail to the sons of Day!\n                       To Night and her daughter, hail!\n                       With placid eyes\n                       Behold us here,\n                       And here sitting give us victory.\n\n                   4.  Hail to the gods!\n                       Hail to the goddesses!\n                       Hail to the bounteous earth!\n                       Words and wisdom\n                       Give to us noble twain,\n                       And healing hands while we live.\n\nShe was named Sigdrifa, and was a valkyrie. She said that two kings had\nmade war on each other, one of whom was named Hialmgunnar; he was old\nand a great warrior, and Odin had promised him victory. The other was\nAgnar, a brother of Aud, whom no divinity would patronize. Sigdrifa\novercame Hialmgunnar in battle; in revenge for which Odin pricked her\nwith a sleep-thorn, and declared that thenceforth she should never have\nvictory in battle, and should be given in marriage. But, said she, I\nsaid to him that I had bound myself by a vow not to espouse any man who\ncould be made to fear. Sigurd answers, and implores her to teach him\nwisdom, as she had intelligence from all worlds:\n\n\n                SIGDRIFA:\n\n                5.  Beer I bear to thee,\n                    Column of battle!\n                    With might mingled,\n                    And with bright glory:\n                    \u2019Tis full of song,\n                    And salutary saws,\n                    Of potent incantations,\n                    And joyous discourses.\n\n                6.  Sig-runes thou must know,\n                    If victory (_sigr_) thou wilt have,\n                    And on thy sword\u2019s hilt rist them;\n                    Some on the chapes,\n                    Some on the guard,\n                    And twice name the name of Tyr.\n\n                7.  \u00d6l-(ale-)runes thou must know,\n                    If thou wilt not that another\u2019s wife\n                    Thy trust betray, if thou\n                    In her confide.\n                    On the horn must they be risted,\n                    And on the hand\u2019s back,\n                    And Naud[22] on the nail be scored.\n\n                8.  A cup must be blessed,\n                    And against peril guarded,\n                    And garlick in the liquor cast;\n                    Then I know\n                    Thou wilt never have\n                    Mead with treachery mingled.\n\n                9.  Biarg-(help-)runes thou must know,\n                    If thou wilt help\n                    And loose the child from women;\n                    In the palm they must be graven,\n                    And round the joints be clasped,\n                    And the dises prayed for aid.\n\n                10. Brim-(sea-)runes thou must know,\n                    If thou wilt have secure\n                    Afloat thy sailing steeds.\n                    On the prow they must be risted,\n                    And on the helm-blade,\n                    And with fire to the oar applied.\n                    No surge shall be so towering,\n                    Nor waves so dark,\n                    But from the ocean thou safe shalt come,\n\n                11. Lim-(branch-)runes thou must know.\n                    If thou a leech would be,\n                    And wounds know how to heal.\n                    On the bark they must be risted,\n                    And on the leaves of trees,\n                    Of those whose boughs bend eastward.\n\n                12. M\u00e1l-(speech-)runes thou must know,\n                    If thou wilt that no one\n                    For injury with hate requite thee.\n                    Those thou must wind,\n                    Those thou must wrap round,\n                    Those thou must altogether place\n                    In the assembly,\n                    Where people have\n                    Into full court to go.\n\n                13. Hug-(thought-)runes thou must know,\n                    If thou a wiser man wilt be\n                    Than every other.\n                    Those interpreted,\n                    Those risted,\n                    Those devised Hropt,[23]\n                    From the fluid\n                    Which had leaked\n                    From Heiddraupner\u2019s[24] head,\n                    And from Hoddropner\u2019s horn.\n\n                14. On a rock he stood,\n                    With edged sword,\n                    A helm on his head he bore.\n                    Then spake Mimer\u2019s head\n                    Its first wise word,\n                    And true sayings uttered.\n\n                15. They are, it is said,\n                    On the shield risted\n                    Which stands before the shining god,\n                    On Aarvak\u2019s[25] ear,\n                    And on Alsvinn\u2019s hoof,\n                    On the wheel which rolls\n                    Under Rogner\u2019s[26] car,\n                    On Sleipner\u2019s teeth,\n                    And on the sledge\u2019s bands.\n\n                16. On the bear\u2019s paw,\n                    And on Brage\u2019s tongue,\n                    On the wolf\u2019s claws,\n                    And the eagle\u2019s beak,\n                    On bloody wings,\n                    And on the bridge\u2019s end,\n                    On the releasing hand.\n                    And on healing\u2019s track.\n\n                17. On glass and on gold,\n                    On amulets of men,\n                    In wine and in ale,\n                    And in the welcome seat,\n                    On Gungner\u2019s point,\n                    And on Grane\u2019s breast,\n                    On the norn\u2019s nail,\n                    And the owl\u2019s neb.\n\n                18. All were erased\n                    That were inscribed,\n                    And mingled with the sacred mead,\n                    And sent on distant ways;\n                    They are with the gods,\n                    They are with the elves;\n                    Some with the wise vans,\n                    Some human beings have.\n\n                19. Those are b\u00f4k-runes\n                    Those are biarg-runes,\n                    And all \u00f6l-(ale-)runes,\n                    And precious megin-(power-)runes\n                    For those who can,\n                    Without confusion or corruption,\n                    Turn them to his welfare.\n                    Use, if thou hast understood them,\n                    Until the powers perish.\n\n                20. Now thou shalt choose,\n                    Since a choice is offered thee,\n                    Keen armed warrior!\n                    My speech or silence:\n                    Think over it in thy mind.\n                    All evils have their measure.\n\n\n                SIGURD:\n\n                21. I will not flee,\n                    Though thou shouldst know me doomed:\n                    I am not born a craven.\n                    Thy friendly councils all\n                    I will receive,\n                    As long as life is in me.\n\n\n                SIGDRIFA:\n\n                22. This I thee counsel first:\n                    That toward thy kin\n                    Thou bear thee blameless.\n                    Take not hasty vengeance,\n                    Although they raise up strife:\n                    That, it is said, benefits the dead.\n\n                23. This I thee counsel secondly:\n                    That no oath thou swear,\n                    If it not be true.\n                    Cruel bonds\n                    Follow broken faith:\n                    Accursed is the faith-breaker.\n\n                24. This I thee counsel thirdly:\n                    That in the assembly thou\n                    Contend not with a fool;\n                    For an unwise man\n                    Oft utters words\n                    Worse than he knows of.\n\n                25. All is vain,\n                    If thou holdest silence;\n                    Then wilt thou seem a craven born,\n                    Or else truly accused.\n                    Doubtful is a servant\u2019s testimony,\n                    Unless a good one thou gettest.\n                    On the next day\n                    Let his life go forth,\n                    And so men\u2019s lies reward.\n\n                26. This I counsel thee fourthly:\n                    If a wicked sorceress\n                    Dwell by the way,\n                    To go on is better\n                    Than there to lodge,\n                    Though night may overtake thee.\n\n                27. Of searching eyes\n                    The sons of men have need,\n                    When fiercely they have to fight:\n                    Oft pernicious women\n                    By the wayside sit,\n                    Who swords and valor deaden.\n\n                28. This I thee counsel fifthly:\n                    Although thou see fair women\n                    On the benches sitting,\n                    Let not their kindred\u2019s silver[27]\n                    Over thy sleep have power.\n                    To kiss thee entice no woman.\n\n                29. This I thee counsel sixthly:\n                    Although among men pass\n                    Offensive tipsy talk,\n                    Never, while drunken, quarrel\n                    With men of war:\n                    Wine steals the wits of many.\n\n                30. Brawls and drink\n                    To many men have been\n                    A heart-felt sorrow;\n                    To some their death,\n                    To some calamity:\n                    Many are the griefs of men!\n\n                31. This I thee counsel seventhly:\n                    If thou hast disputes\n                    With a daring man,\n                    Better it is for men\n                    To fight than to be burnt\n                    Within their dwelling.\n\n                32. This I thee counsel eighthly:\n                    That thou guard thee against evil,\n                    And eschew deceit.\n                    Entice no maiden,\n                    Nor wife of man,\n                    Nor to wantonness incite.\n\n                33. This I thee counsel ninthly:\n                    That thou corpses bury,\n                    Wherever on the earth thou findest them;\n                    Whether from sickness they have died,\n                    Or from the sea,\n                    Or are from weapons dead.\n\n                34. Let a mound be raised\n                    For those departed;\n                    Let their hands and head be washed,\n                    Combed, and wiped dry,\n                    Ere in the coffin they are laid;\n                    And pray for their happy sleep.\n\n                35. This I thee counsel tenthly:\n                    That thou never trust\n                    A foe\u2019s kinsman\u2019s promises,\n                    Whose brother thou hast slain,\n                    Or sire laid low:\n                    There is a wolf\n                    In a young son,\n                    Though he with gold be gladdened.\n\n                36. Strifes and fierce enmities\n                    Think not to be lulled,\n                    No more than deadly injury.\n                    Wisdom and fame in arms\n                    A prince not easily acquires,\n                    Who shall of men be foremost.\n\n                37. This I counsel thee eleventhly:\n                    That thou at evil look,\n                    What course it may take.\n                    A long life, it seems to me,\n                    The prince may [not] enjoy;\n                    Fierce disputes will arise.\n\nSigurd said: A wiser mortal exists not, and I swear that I will possess\nthee, for thou art after my heart. She answered: Thee I will have before\nall others, though I have to choose among all men. And this they\nconfirmed with oaths to each other.\n\nHere ends the lay of Sigdrifa.\n\nThe reader may find some of these rules of _H\u00e1vam\u00e1l_ and _Sigrdr\u00edfum\u00e1l_\nsomewhat inconsistent with our ideas of a supreme deity; but are not\nmany of these principles laid down in the Odinic morality worthy of a\nChristian age and of a Christian people, and do they not all reveal a\nprofound knowledge of human nature in all its various phases?\n\nThese rules of life, says Professor Keyser, were variously understood,\nand as variously carried out into practice. But on the whole we find\nthem reflected in the popular character of the Norsemen, such as history\nteaches it to us during heathendom. Bravery, prudence, and a love of\nindependence are its brightest features, although bravery often\ndegenerated into warrior fierceness, prudence into dissimulation, and\nthe love of independence into self-will. If on the one hand we find a\nnoble self-command, devoted faithfulness in friendship and love,\nnoble-hearted hospitality and generosity, a love of right and of legal\norder, we also see on the other hand, unyielding stubbornness, a fierce\nspirit of revenge, a repulsive arrogance, a far-reaching self-interest,\nand an excessive dependence upon the formalities of the law. A cold and\nunmoved exterior often concealed a soul torn by the bitterest grief, or\nstirred up by the wildest passions. A passionate outburst of joy or of\ngrief was considered undignified. Few words, but energetic action, was\nesteemed in conduct, and complaint was silenced in order that vengeance\ncould strike the more surely and heavily. Under a tranquil, indifferent\nmien were concealed the boldest and most deep-laid plans, and the real\nintention first came to light in the decisive moment. On the whole,\nthere was certainly an impress of rigidity, insensibility and\nself-goodness stamped upon the popular character, but this stamp was\nmore upon the outside than in its innermost character, more the result\nof inordinate prudence than of an evil disposition; and through all its\nfailings there shines forth a dignity of soul which ennobled power and\nheld up glory in this life and in after ages as the highest object of\nhuman undertakings.[28]\n\nThe part assigned to the Norsemen in the grand drama of European history\nwas to free the human mind from the C\u00e6sarian thraldom of Rome, in which\nit had so long been chained; to show what marvels self-government and\nfree institutions can accomplish, and thus hand down to us, their\ndescendants, a glorious heritage of imperishable principles, which we\nmust study and in a great measure be guided by.\n\nWe retain in the days of the week the remembrance of this religion,\nwhich was brought to England more than fourteen hundred years ago by the\nGoths, who came to give that country a new name and a new fate in the\nworld. The Goths taught the people of Britain to divide tho week into\ntheir _Sun_-day, _Moon_-day, _Tys_-day, _Odin\u2019s_-day, _Thor\u2019s_-day, and\n_Frey\u2019s_ or _Freyja\u2019s_-day. The name of Saturday the English owe to the\nRoman god Saturnus; but the last day of the week was known among the\nearly Norsemen, and is still known among them, as _Laugar_-dag,\n_L\u00f6r_-dag, that is _Washing_-day. It is possible, as E. C. Ott\u00e9 quaintly\nremarks, that our Anglo-Saxon forefathers may have wished to change this\nname when, in later times, they had ceased to have only _one_\nwashing-day out of the seven, like their northers ancestors.\n\nWe are now prepared to present the Norse mythology, and we shall divide\nit into three divisions: THE CREATION AND PRESERVATION, THE LIFE AND\nEXPLOITS OF THE GODS, and RAGNAROK AND REGENERATION. These three\ndivisions we dedicate respectively to URD, VERDANDE, and SKULD, the\nthree norns, WAS, IS, and SHALL BE, which uphold the world\u2019s structure\nand preside over the destinies of gods and men.\n\nFootnote 8:\n\n  Beowulf, 1839.\n\nFootnote 9:\n\n  The tailor makes the man.\n\nFootnote 10:\n\n  The public assembly.\n\nFootnote 11:\n\n  That is, _dead_ on the funeral pile.\n\nFootnote 12:\n\n  Odin.\n\nFootnote 13:\n\n  Dead.\n\nFootnote 14:\n\n  Such lines as this show the _Norse_ origin of the Edda.\n\nFootnote 15:\n\n  For the story of Suttung and Gunlad, see second part, pp. 246-253.\n\nFootnote 16:\n\n  In the North a holy oath was taken on a ring kept in the temple for\n  that purpose.\n\nFootnote 17:\n\n  Carving: runes are risted = runes are carved.\n\nFootnote 18:\n\n  In a battle we must not look up, but forward.\n\nFootnote 19:\n\n  To become panic-stricken, which the Norsemen called to become swine.\n\nFootnote 20:\n\n  The meaning is, it is difficult to show hospitality to everybody. A\n  door would have to be strong to stand so much opening and shutting.\n\nFootnote 21:\n\n  The parenthesis refers to Fafner\u2019s death.\n\nFootnote 22:\n\n  The name of a rune; our _N_.\n\nFootnote 23:\n\n  Odin.\n\nFootnote 24:\n\n  Mimer.\n\nFootnote 25:\n\n  The horses of the sun.\n\nFootnote 26:\n\n  Odin.\n\nFootnote 27:\n\n  Which thou mightest get by marriage.\n\nFootnote 28:\n\n  _Religion of the Northmen_, chap. xvii.\n\n\n\n\n                            NORSE MYTHOLOGY.\n\n\n                          Ur\u00f0ar or\u00f0i\n                          kve\u00f0r engi ma\u00f0r.\n                        Vafin er Ver\u00f0andi reyk.\n                          L\u00edti\u00f0 sj\u00e1um aptr,\n                          en ekki fram;\n                          skyggir Skuld fyrir sj\u00f3n.\n\n                        MATTHIAS JOCHUMSON.\n\n\n\n\n                                PART I.\n              THE CREATION AND PRESERVATION OF THE WORLD.\n\n\n                              URD.\n\n                              Ur\u00f0ar or\u00f0i\n                              kve\u00f0r engi ma\u00f0r.\n\n\n\n\n                               CHAPTER I.\n                             THE CREATION.\n\n\n            SECTION I. THE ORIGINAL CONDITION OF THE WORLD.\n\n\nThe condition of things before the creation of the world is expressed\nnegatively. There was nothing of that which sprang into existence. This\ntransition from empty space into being demands the attention of the\nwhole human race. Therefore the vala, or wandering prophetess, begins\nher mysterious song, the grand and ancient V\u00f6lusp\u00e1, the first lay in the\nElder Edda, as follows:\n\n                     Give ear\n                     All ye divine races,\n                     Great and small,\n                     Sons of Heimdal!\n                     I am about to relate\n                     The wonderful works of Valfather,\n                     The oldest sayings of men,\n                     The first I remember.\n\n                     It was Time\u2019s morning\n                     When Ymer lived:\n                     There was no sand, no sea,\n                     No cooling billows;\n                     Earth there was none,\n                     No lofty heaven,\n                     Only Ginungagap,\n                     But no grass.\n\nThe beginning was this: Many ages, ere the earth was made, there existed\ntwo worlds. Far to the north was Niflheim (the nebulous world), and far\nto the south was Muspelheim (the fire world). Between them was\nGinungagap (the yawning gap). In the middle of Niflheim lay the spring\ncalled Hvergelmer, and from it flowed twelve ice-cold streams, the\nrivers Elivagar, of which Gjol was situated nearest Hel-gate. Muspelheim\nwas so bright and hot that it burned and blazed and could not be trodden\nby those who did not have their home and heritage there. In the midst of\nthis intense light and burning heat sat Surt, guarding its borders with\na flaming sword in his hand.\n\n\n          SECTION II. THE ORIGIN OF THE GIANTS (RHIMTHURSAR).\n\n\nThe first beings came into existence in the following manner: When those\nrivers that are called Elivagar, and which flowed from the spring\nHvergelmer, had flowed far from their spring-head the venom which flowed\nwith them hardened, as does dross that runs from a furnace, and became\nice. And when the ice stood still, and ran not, the vapor arising from\nthe venom gathered over it and froze to rime, and in this manner were\nformed in the yawning gap many layers of congealed vapor piled one over\nthe other. That part of Ginungagap that lay toward the north was thus\nfilled with thick and heavy ice and rime, and everywhere within were\nfogs and gusts; but the south side of Ginungagap was lightened by the\nsparks and flakes that flew out of Muspelheim. Thus while freezing cold\nand gathering gloom proceeded from Niflheim, that part of Ginungagap\nwhich looked toward Muspelheim was hot and bright; but Ginungagap was as\nlight as windless air; and when the heated blast met the frozen vapor it\nmelted into drops, _and by the might of him who sent the heat_,[29]\nthese drops quickened into life and were shaped into the likeness of a\nman. His name was Ymer, but the frost-giants called him Aurgelmer. Ymer\nwas not a god; he was bad (evil, _illr_), as were all his kind. When he\nslept, he fell into a sweat, and from the pit of his left arm waxed a\nman and a woman, and one of his feet begat with the other a son, from\nwhom descend the frost-giants, and therefore Ymer is called the old\nfrost-giant (Rhimthurs). Thus the Elder Edda, in the lay of Vafthrudner:\n\n                    Countless winters\n                    Ere earth was formed,\n                    Was born Bergelmer;\n                    Thrudgelmer\n                    Was his sire,\n                    His grandsire Aurgelmer.\n\n                    From Elivagar\n                    Sprang venom drops,\n                    Which grew till they became a giant;\n                    But sparks flew\n                    From the south-world:\n                    To the ice the fire gave way.\n\n                    Under the armpit grew,\n                    \u2019Tis said, of Rhimthurs,\n                    A girl and boy together;\n                    Foot with foot begat,\n                    Of that wise giant,\n                    A six-headed son.\n\n\nSECTION III. THE ORIGIN OF THE COW AUDHUMBLA AND THE BIRTH OF THE GODS.\n\n\nOn what did the giant Ymer live, is a pertinent question. Here is the\nanswer: The next thing, when the rime had been resolved into drops, was\nthat the cow, which is called Audhumbla, was made of it. Four\nmilk-rivers ran out of her teats, and thus she fed Ymer. On what did the\ncow feed? She licked rime-stones, which were salt; and the first day\nthat she licked the stones there came at evening out of the stones a\nman\u2019s hair, the second day a man\u2019s head, and the third day all the man\nwas there. His name was Bure. He was fair of face, great and mighty. He\nbegat a son by name Bor. Bor took for his wife a woman whose name was\nBestla, a daughter of the giant Bolthorn, and they had three sons, Odin,\nVile and Ve, the rulers of heaven and earth; and Odin, adds the Younger\nEdda, is the greatest and lordliest of all the gods.\n\nThe frost-giants were, then, the first race or the first dynasty of\ngods. The Elder Edda makes this dynasty embrace three beings, for\nAurgelmer in the passage quoted is the same as Ymer.\n\nOdin descended from the frost-giants, which is also proved by a passage\nin the Younger Edda, where Ganglere asks where Odin kept himself ere\nheaven and earth were yet made. Then he was, answered Haar, with the\nfrost-giants (Rhimthursar).\n\n\n    SECTION IV. THE NORSE DELUGE AND THE ORIGIN OF HEAVEN AND EARTH.\n\n\nBor\u2019s sons, Odin, Vile and Ve, slew the giant Ymer, but when he fell\nthere ran so much blood out of his wounds, that with that they drowned\nall the race of the frost-giants, save one, who got away with his\nhousehold; him the giants call Bergelmer. He went on board his boat, and\nwith him went his wife, and from them came a new race of frost-giants.\nThus the Elder Edda:\n\n                       Winters past counting,\n                       Ere earth was yet made,\n                       Was born Bergelmer:\n                       Full well I remember\n                       How this crafty giant\n                       Was stowed safe in his skiff.\n\nOdin, Vile and Ve dragged the body of Ymer into the middle of\nGinungagap, and of it they formed the earth. From Ymer\u2019s blood they made\nthe seas and waters; from his flesh the land; from his bones the\nmountains; from his hair the forests, and from his teeth and jaws,\ntogether with some bits of broken bones, they made the stones and\npebbles. From the blood that ran from his wounds they made the vast\nocean, in the midst of which they fixed the earth, the ocean encircling\nit as a ring; and hardy, says the Younger Edda, will he be who attempts\nto cross those waters. Then they took his skull and formed thereof the\nvaulted heavens, which they placed over the earth, and set a dwarf at\nthe corner of each of the four quarters. These dwarfs are called East,\nWest, North, and South. The wandering sparks and red-hot flakes that had\nbeen cast out from Muspelheim they placed in the heavens, both above and\nbelow Ginungagap, to give light unto the world. The earth was round\nwithout and encircled by the deep ocean, the outward shores of which\nwere assigned as a dwelling for the race of giants. But within, round\nabout the earth, the sons of Bor raised a bulwark against turbulent\ngiants, employing for this structure Ymer\u2019s eye-brows. To this bulwark\nthey gave the name Midgard.[30] They afterwards threw and scattered the\nbrains of Ymer in the air, and made of them the melancholy clouds. Thus\nthe Elder Edda, in the lay of Vafthrudner:\n\n                       From Ymer\u2019s flesh\n                       The earth was formed,\n                       And from his bones the hills,\n                       The heaven from the skull\n                       Of that ice-cold giant,\n                       And from his blood the sea.\n\nAnd in Grimner\u2019s lay:\n\n                    Of Ymer\u2019s flesh\n                    Was earth created,\n                    Of his blood the sea,\n                    Of his bones the hills,\n                    Of his hair trees and plants,\n                    Of his skull the heavens,\n                    And of his brows\n                    The gentle powers\n                    Formed Midgard for the sons of men;\n                    But of his brain\n                    The heavy clouds are\n                    All created.\n\n\n      SECTION V. THE HEAVENLY BODIES, TIME, THE WIND, THE RAINBOW.\n\n\nThe heavenly bodies were formed of the sparks from Muspelheim. The gods\ndid not create them, but only placed them in the heavens to give light\nunto the world, and assigned them a prescribed locality and motion. By\nthem days and nights and seasons were marked. Thus the Elder Edda, in\nV\u00f6lusp\u00e1:\n\n                          The sun knew not\n                          His proper sphere;\n                          The stars knew not\n                          Their proper place;\n                          The moon knew not\n                          Where her position was.\n\n                          There was nowhere grass\n                          Until Bor\u2019s sons\n                          The expanse did raise,\n                          By whom the great\n                          Midgard was made.\n                          From the south the sun\n                          Shone on the walls;\n                          Then did the earth\n                          Green herbs produce.\n                          The moon went ahead\n                          The sun followed,\n                          His right hand held\n                          The steeds of heaven.\n\nMundilfare was the father of the sun and moon. It is stated in the\nYounger Edda that Mundilfare had two children, a son and a daughter, so\nlovely and graceful that he called the boy Maane[31] (moon) and the girl\nSol (sun), and the latter he gave in marriage to Glener (the shining\none).\n\nBut the gods, being incensed at Mundilfare\u2019s presumption, took his\nchildren and placed them in the heavens, and let Sol drive the horses\nthat draw the car of the sun. These horses are called Aarvak (the\never-wakeful) and Alsvinn (the rapid one); they are gentle and\nbeautiful, and under their withers the gods placed two skins filled with\nair to cool and refresh them, or, according to another ancient\ntradition, an iron refrigerant substance called _\u00edsarnkol_. A shield, by\nname Svalin (cool), stands before the Sun, the shining god. The\nmountains and the ocean would burn up if this shield should fall away.\nMaane was set to guide the moon in her course, and regulate her\nincreasing and waning aspect.\n\nA giant, by name Norve, who dwelt in Jotunheim, had a daughter called\nNight (_n\u00f3tt_), who, like all her race, was of a dark and swarthy\ncomplexion. She was first wedded to a man called Naglfare, and had by\nhim a son named Aud, and afterward to another man called Annar, by whom\nshe had a daughter called Earth (_j\u00f6rd_). She finally espoused Delling\n(day-break), of asa-race, and their son was Day (_dagr_), a child light\nand fair like his father. Allfather gave Night and Day two horses and\ntwo cars, and set them up in the heavens that they might drive\nsuccessively one after the other, each in twenty-four hours\u2019 time, round\nthe world. Night rides first with her steed Hrimfaxe (rime-fax),[32]\nthat every morn, as he ends his course, bedews the earth with the foam\nfrom his bit. The steed driven by Day is called Skinfaxe (shining-fax),\nand all the sky and earth glistens from his mane. Thus the Elder Edda,\nin the lay of Vafthrudner:\n\n                         Mundilfare hight he\n                         Who the moon\u2019s father is,\n                         And also the sun\u2019s:\n                         Round heaven journey\n                         Each day they must,\n                         To count years for men.\n\nIn the lay of Grimner:\n\n                      Aarvak and Alsvinn,\n                      Theirs it is up hence\n                      Tired the sun to draw\n                      Under their shoulder\n                      These gentle powers, the gods,\n                      Have concealed an iron-coolness.\n\n                      Svalin the shield is called\n                      Which stands before the sun,\n                      The refulgent deity;\n                      Rocks and ocean must, I ween,\n                      Be burnt,\n                      Fell it from its place.\n\nIn the lay of Vafthrudner:\n\n                    Delling called is he\n                    Who the Day\u2019s father is,\n                    But Night was of Norve born;\n                    The new and waning moons\n                    The beneficent powers created\n                    To count years for men.\n\n                    Skinfaxe he is named\n                    That the bright day draws\n                    Forth over human kind;\n                    Of coursers he is best accounted\n                    Among faring men;\n                    Ever sheds light that horse\u2019s mane.\n\n                    Hrimfaxe he is called\n                    That each night draws forth\n                    Over the beneficent powers;\n                    He from his bit lets fall\n                    Drops every morn\n                    Whence in the dells comes dew.\n\nThe sun speeds at such a rate as if she feared that some one was\npursuing her for her destruction. And well she may; for he that seeks\nher is not far behind, and she has no other way to escape than to run\nbefore him. But who is he that causes her this anxiety? There are two\nwolves; the one, whose name is Skol, pursues the sun, and it is he that\nshe fears, for he shall one day overtake and devour her. The other,\nwhose name is Hate Hrodvitneson, runs before her and as eagerly pursues\nthe moon, that will one day be caught by him. Whence come these wolves?\nAnswer: A giantess dwells in a wood called Jarnved (ironwood). It is\nsituated east of Midgard, and is the abode of a race of witches. This\nold hag is the mother of many gigantic sons, who are all of them shaped\nlike wolves, two of whom are Skol and Hate. There is one of that race\nwho is the most formidable of all. His name is Maanagarm\n(moon-swallower): he is filled with the life-blood of men who draw near\ntheir end, and he will swallow up the moon, and stain the heavens and\nthe earth with blood. As it is said in the V\u00f6lusp\u00e1, of the Elder Edda:\n\n                       Eastward in the Ironwood\n                       The old one sitteth,\n                       And there bringeth forth\n                       Fenrer\u2019s fell kindred.\n                       Of these, one, the mightiest,\n                       The moon\u2019s devourer,\n                       In form most fiend-like,\n                       And filled with the life-blood\n                       Of the dead and the dying,\n                       Reddens with ruddy gore\n                       The seats of the high gods.\n                       Then shall the sunshine\n                       Of summer be darkened,\n                       And fickle the weather.\n                       Conceive ye this or not?\n\nThe gods set Evening and Midnight, Morning and Noon, Forenoon and\nAfternoon, to count out the year. There were only two seasons, summer\nand winter; hence spring and fall must be included in these two. The\nfather of summer is called Svasud (the mild), who is such a gentle and\ndelicate being, that what is mild is from him called sweet (_sv\u00e1slegt_).\nThe father of winter has two names, Vindlone and Vindsval (the\nwind-cool); he is the son of Vasud (sleet-bringing), and, like all his\nrace, has an icy breath and is of grim and gloomy aspect.\n\nWhence come the winds, that are so strong that they move the ocean and\nfan fire to flame, and still are so airy that no mortal eye can discern\nthem? Answer: In the northern extremity of the heavens sits a giant\ncalled Hr\u00e6svelger (corpse-swallower), clad with eagles\u2019 plumes. When he\nspreads out his wings for flight, the winds arise from under them.\n\nWhich is the path leading from earth to heaven? The gods made a bridge\nfrom earth to heaven and called it Bifrost (the vibrating way). We have\nall seen it and call it the rainbow. It is of three hues and constructed\nwith more art than any other work. But though strong it be, it will be\nbroken to pieces when the sons of Muspel, after having traversed great\nrivers, shall ride over it. There is nothing in nature that can hope to\nmake resistance when the sons of Muspel sally forth to the great combat.\nNow listen to the Elder Edda on some of these subject.\n\nIn the lay of Grimner:\n\n                Skol the wolf is named\n                That the fair-faced goddess\n                To the ocean chases;\n                Another Hate is called,\n                He is Hrodvitner\u2019s son:\n                He the bright maid of heaven shall precede.\n\nIn the V\u00f6lusp\u00e1:\n\n                      Then went the powers all\n                      To their judgment seats,\n                      The all-holy gods,\n                      And thereon held council:\n                      To night and to the waning moon\n                      Gave names;\n                      Morn they named\n                      And mid-day,\n                      Afternoon and eve,\n                      Whereby to reckon years.\n\nIn the lay of Vafthrudner:\n\n                       Vindsval is his name\n                       Who winter\u2019s father is,\n                       And Svasud summer\u2019s father is:\n                       Yearly they both\n                       Shall ever journey,\n                       Until the powers perish.\n\n                       Hr\u00e6svelger is his name\n                       Who at the end of heaven sits,\n                       A giant in an eagle\u2019s plumage:\n                       From his wings comes,\n                       It is said, the wind\n                       That over all men passes.\n\nIn reference to Maane, it should be added, that the Younger Edda tells\nus, that he once took children from earth. Their names were Bil and\nHjuke. They went from the spring called Byrger, and bore on their\nshoulders the bucket called S\u00e6ger with the pole called Simul. Their\nfather\u2019s name was Vidfin. These children follow Maane, as may be seen,\nfrom the earth.\n\n\n SECTION VI. THE GOLDEN AGE. THE ORIGIN OF THE DWARFS. THE CREATION OF\n                        THE FIRST MAN AND WOMAN.\n\n\nIn the beginning Allfather (Odin) appointed rulers and bade them judge\nwith him the fate of men and regulate the government of the celestial\ncity. They met for this purpose in a place called Idavold (the plains of\nIda), which is the center of the divine abode (Asgard, the abode of the\nasas). Their first work was to erect a court or hall, where there are\ntwelve seats for themselves, besides the throne which is occupied by\nAllfather. This hall is the largest and most magnificent in the\nuniverse, being resplendent on all sides both within and without with\nthe finest gold. Its name is Gladsheim (home of gladness). They also\nerected another hall for the sanctuary of the goddesses. It is a fair\nstructure and is called Vingolf (friends\u2019-floor). Thereupon they built a\nsmithy and furnished it with hammers, tongs and anvils, and with these\nmade all other requisite instruments with which they worked in metals,\nstone and wood, and composed so large a quantity of the metal called\ngold, that they made all their house-furniture of it. Hence that age was\ncalled the Golden Age. This was the age that lasted until the arrival of\nthe women out of Jotunheim, who corrupted it.\n\nThen the gods seating themselves upon their thrones distributed justice,\nand remembered how the dwarfs had been bred in the mould of the earth,\njust as worms in a dead body. The dwarfs were quickened as maggots in\nthe flesh of the old giant Ymer, but by the command of the gods they\nreceived the form and understanding of men; their abode was, however, in\nthe earth and rocks. Four dwarfs, Austre (east), Vestre (west), Nordre\n(north), and Sudre (south), were appointed by the gods to bear up the\nsky. Of the race of dwarfs Modsogner and Durin are the principal ones.\n\nThere were not yet any human beings upon the earth, when one day, as the\nsons of Bor (Odin, H\u0153ner and Loder) were walking along the sea-beach,\nthey found two trees and created from them the first human pair, man and\nwoman. Odin gave them life and spirit, H\u0153ner endowed them with reason\nand the power of motion, and Loder gave them blood, hearing, vision and\na fair complexion. The man they called Ask, and the woman Embla. The\nnewly created pair received from the gods Midgard as their abode; and\nfrom Ask and Embla is descended the whole human family. Thus the Elder\nEdda, in V\u00f6lusp\u00e1.\n\n                         The asas met\n                         On Ida\u2019s plains;\n                         They altars raised\n                         And temples built;\n                         Furnaces they established,\n                         Precious things forged,\n                         Their strength they tried\n                         In many ways\n                         When making tongs\n                         And forming tools.\n\n                         On the green they played\n                         In joyful mood,\n                         Nor knew at all\n                         The want of gold,\n                         Until there came\n                         Three giant maids\n                         Exceeding strong\n                         From Jotunheim.\n\n                         Then all the powers\n                         Went to the throne,\n                         The holy gods,\n                         And held consult\n                         Who should of dwarfs\n                         The race then fashion\n                         From the livid bones\n                         And blood of the giant.\n\n                         Modsogner, chief\n                         Of the dwarfish race,\n                         And Durin, too,\n                         Were then created;\n                         And like to men\n                         Dwarfs in the earth\n                         Were formed in numbers\n                         As Durin ordered.\n\n                         And then there came\n                         Out of the ranks,\n                         Powerful and fair,\n                         Three asas home,\n                         And found on shore,\n                         In helpless plight,\n                         Ask and Embla,[33]\n                         Without their fate.\n\n                         They had not yet\n                         Spirit or mind,\n                         Blood or beauty\n                         Or lovely hue.\n                         Odin gave spirit,\n                         H\u0153ner gave mind,\n                         Loder gave blood\n                         And lovely hue.\n\n\n                SECTION VII. THE GODS AND THEIR ABODES.\n\n\nIn the Old Norse language a god is called _\u00e1ss_ (pl. _\u00e6sir_) and a\ngoddess _\u00e1synja_. The gods dwell in Asgard. In its midst are the plains\nof Ida (_Idav\u00f6llr_, the assembling-place of the gods), and Odin\u2019s\nhigh-seat Hlidskjalf, from where he looks out upon all the worlds. But\nabove the heaven of the asas are higher heavens, and in the highest\nstands the imperishable gold-roofed hall Gimle, which is brighter than\nthe sun.\n\nThe gods, to whom divine honors must be rendered, are twelve in number,\nand their names are Odin, Thor, Balder, Tyr, Brage, Heimdal, Hoder,\nVidar, Vale, Uller, Forsete, Loke. In this list Njord and Frey are not\nmentioned, for they originally belonged to the vans or sea-gods, and\nwere received among the asas by virtue of a treaty in which Njord was\ngiven as a hostage, and Frey is his son.\n\nOf goddesses we find the number twenty-six, and Vingolf is their hall.\nOdin\u2019s hall is the great Valhal. Spears support its ceiling; it is\nroofed with shields, and coats of mail adorn its benches. Thither and to\nVingolf Odin invites all men wounded by arms or fallen in battle.\nTherefore he is called Valfather (father of the slain), and his invited\nguests are called einherjes. They are waited upon by valkyries.\n\nThe dwelling of Thor is Thrudvang or Thrudheim. His hall, the immense\nBilskirner. Uller, Thor\u2019s son, lives in Ydaler. Balder lives in\nBreidablik, where nothing impure is found. Njord, one of the vans,\ndwells in Noatun by the sea. Heimdal inhabits Himinbjorg, which stands\nwhere Bifrost\u2019s bridge approaches heaven. Forsete has Glitner for his\ndwelling, whose roof of silver rests on golden columns. The chief\ngoddess Frigg, wife of Odin, has her dwelling-place in Fensal, and\nFreyja, the goddess of love, dwells in Folkvang; her hall is Sessrymner.\nSaga dwells in the great Sokvabek under the cool waves; there she drinks\nwith Odin every day from golden vessels.\n\nWe have so far mentioned the following classes of deities: giants, gods,\ngoddesses, vans (sea-deities), and dwarfs. In addition to these the\nYounger Edda mentions two kinds of elves: elves of light and elves of\ndarkness. The elves of light dwell in Alfheim (home of the elves), but\nthe elves of darkness live under the earth, and differ from the others\nstill more in their actions than in their appearance. The elves of light\nare fairer than the sun, but the elves of darkness blacker than pitch.\n\nThen we have a lot of inferior spirits, such as trolls, hulder, witches\n(_v\u0153ttr_), nisses, necks, etc., all of which figure extensively in the\nNorse folk-lore, but an extensive description of them will not be\nattempted in this work.\n\n\n               SECTION VIII. THE DIVISIONS OF THE WORLD.\n\n\nNine worlds are mentioned: Muspelheim, Asaheim, Ljosalfaheim, Vanaheim,\nMannaheim, Jotunheim, Svartalfaheim, Helheim, Niflheim. The highest is\nMuspelheim (the fire-world), the realm of Surt, and in its highest\nregions it appears that Gimle (heaven) was thought to be situated. The\nlowest is Niflheim (the mist-world), the realm of cold and darkness, and\nin its midst is the fountain Hvergelmer, where the dragon Nidhug dwells.\nBetween the two is Mannaheim (the world of man) or Midgard, the round\ndisk of the earth, surrounded by the great ocean. The gods gave Ask and\nEmbla, the first human pair, and their descendants, this world to dwell\nin. Far above Mannaheim is Asaheim (the world of the gods), forming a\nvault above the earth. In the midst of this world is Idavold, the\nassembling-place of the gods, and here is also Odin\u2019s lofty throne\nHlidskjalf. Beyond the ocean is Jotunheim (the world of the giants).\nThis world is separated from Asaheim by the river Ifing, which never\nfreezes over. Nearest above the earth is Ljosalfaheim (the world of the\nlight elves), and between it and Asaheim is Vanaheim (the world of the\nvans). Proceeding downward, we come first to Svartalfaheim (world of the\ndark elves), below Mannaheim, and between Svartalfaheim and Niflheim we\nhave Helheim (the world of the dead, hell). Thither the way from the\nupper worlds led down by the north through Jotunheim over the stream\nGjol, the bridge over which, called Gjallar-bridge, was roofed over with\nshining gold.\n\nFootnote 29:\n\n  The supreme god.\n\nFootnote 30:\n\n  The Tower of Babel.\n\nFootnote 31:\n\n  In the Norse language, as also in the Anglo-Saxon, the sun is of the\n  feminine and the moon of the masculine gender.\n\nFootnote 32:\n\n  Fax = mane.\n\nFootnote 33:\n\n  Ash and Elm.\n\n\n\n\n                              CHAPTER II.\n                           THE PRESERVATION.\nTHE ASH YGDRASIL. MIMER\u2019S FOUNTAIN. URD\u2019S FOUNTAIN. THE NORNS OR FATES.\n\n\nYgdrasil is one of the noblest conceptions that ever entered into any\nscheme of cosmogony or human existence. It is in fact the great tree of\nlife, wonderfully elaborated and extended through the whole system of\nthe universe. It furnishes bodies for mankind from its branches; it\nstrikes its roots through all worlds, and spreads its life-giving arms\nthrough the heavens. All life is cherished by it, even that of serpents,\nwhich devour its roots and seek to destroy it. It has three grand roots\nfar apart. One of them extends to the asas, another to the giants in\nthat very place where was formerly Ginungagap, and the third stands over\nNiflheim, and under this root, which is constantly gnawed by the serpent\nNidhug and all his reptile brood, is the fountain Hvergelmer. Under the\nroot that stretches out toward the giants is Mimer\u2019s fountain, in which\nwisdom and wit lie hid. The owner of this fountain is called Mimer. He\nis full of wisdom, because he drinks the waters of the fountain every\nmorning with the Gjallarhorn. Once Odin came and begged a draught of\nthis water, which he received, but he had to leave one of his eyes in\npawn for it. Thus it is recorded in the Elder Edda:\n\n                            Full well I know,\n                            Great Odin, where\n                            Thine eye thou lost;\n                            In Mimer\u2019s well,\n                            The fountain pure,\n                            Mead Mimer drinks\n                            Each morning new,\n                            With Odin\u2019s pledge.\n                            Conceive ye this?\n\nUnder the root of Ygdrasil, which extends to the asas in heaven, is the\nholy Urdar-fountain. Here the gods sit in judgment. Every day they ride\nup hither on horseback over Bifrost (the rainbow), which is called the\nbridge of the gods (_\u00e1sbr\u00fa_). Odin rides his gray eight-footed Sleipner,\nHeimdal on Goldtop. The other horses are Glad (bright), Gyller (gilder),\nGler (the shining one), Skeidbrimer (fleet-foot), Silfrintop (silver\ntop), Siner (sinews), Gisl (the sunbeam), Falhofner (pale hoof), Letfet\n(light-foot). It has been stated before that the gods worthy of divine\nhonors were twelve, and here we have ten horses named. Balder\u2019s and\nThor\u2019s are wanting. Balder\u2019s horse was burnt with his master\u2019s body, and\nas for Thor, he has to go on foot. He cannot pass the Asabridge, for the\nthunder, which he is, would destroy it; therefore he daily wades through\nthe rivers Kormt, Ormt, and two others called Kerlaug, to get to the\ncouncil of the gods.\n\nThe giants cannot pass the Asabridge, for the red in it is burning fire\nand the waters of heaven roar around it. If it were easy for every one\nto walk over it, the giants would go up to heaven by that bridge, and\nperhaps succeed in bringing ruin upon the gods.\n\nAt the Urdar-fountain dwell also three maidens, named Urd, Verdande and\nSkuld (Present, Past and Future). These maidens fix the lifetime of all\nmen, and are called norns. They guard the fountain, which takes its name\nfrom the first and highest of the three, Urd (Urdar-fount). Besides\nthese there are other norns, some of which are of heavenly origin, but\nothers belong to the races of elves and dwarfs. The norns who are of\ngood origin are good themselves, and dispense good destinies. Those men\nto whom misfortunes happen ought to ascribe them to the evil norns. Thus\nit is that some men are fortunate and wealthy, while others acquire\nneither riches nor honors; some live to a good old age, while others are\ncut off in their prime.\n\nFurthermore it must be stated of the ash Ygdrasil, that on its topmost\nbough sits an eagle who knows many things, and between the eagle\u2019s eyes\nsits a hawk by name Vedfolner. A squirrel, whose name is Ratatosk, runs\nup and down the tree, and seeks to cause strife between the eagle and\nthe serpent Nidhug. Four stags leap about beneath its branches and feed\non its buds. They are called Daain, Dvalin, Duneyr, and Durathror. But\nthere are so many snakes with Nidhug in the fountain Hvergelmer, that no\ntongue can count them. Thus the Elder Edda:\n\n                        The tree Ygdrasil\n                        Bears a sorer burden\n                        Than men imagine.\n                        Above the stags bite it,\n                        On its sides age rots it,\n                        Nidhug gnaws below.\n\n                        More serpents lie\n                        Under Ygdrasil\u2019s ash\n                        Than simpletons think of;\n                        Goin and Moin,\n                        The sons of Grafvitner,\n\n                        Graabak and Grafvollud,\n                        Ofner and Svafner,\n                        Must for aye, methinks,\n                        Gnaw the roots of that tree.\n\nThe norns, who dwell by the Urdar-fount, every day draw water from this\nspring, and with it, and the clay that lies around the fount, they\nsprinkle the ash, in order that the boughs may continue green, and not\nrot and wither away. This water is so holy that everything placed in the\nspring becomes as white as the film within an egg-shell. Thus the Elder\nEdda:\n\n                          An ash know I standing\n                          Named Ygdrasil,\n                          A stately tree sprinkled\n                          With water, the purest;\n                          Thence come the dewdrops\n                          That fall in the dales;\n                          Ever blooming it stands\n                          O\u2019er the Urdar-fountain.\n\nThe dew that falls from the tree on the earth men call honey-dew, and it\nis the food of the bees. Finally, two swans swim in the Urdar-fountain,\nand they are the parents of the race of swans. Thus all the tribes of\nnature partake of the universal tree.\n\n\n\n\n                              CHAPTER III.\n  EXEGETICAL REMARKS UPON THE CREATION AND PRESERVATION OF THE WORLD.\n\n\nIn the Norse as in all mythologies, the beginning of creation is a\ncosmogony presenting many questions difficult of solution. The natural\ndesire of knowledge asks for the origin of all things; and as the\nbeginning always remains inexplicable, the mind tries to satisfy itself\nby penetrating as far into the primeval forms of matter and means of\nsustaining life as possible. We follow the development of the tree back\nto the seed and then to the embryo of the seed, but still we are unable\nto explain how a miniature oak can exist in scarcely more than a mere\npoint in the acorn. We even inspect the first development of the plant\nwith the microscope, but we acquire knowledge not of the force, but only\nof its manifestations or phenomena. Such was also the experience of our\nancestors, when they inquired into the origin of this world. They had\nthe same desire to know, but were not so well provided with means of\nfinding out, as we are with our microscopic, telescopic, and spectrum\nanalysis instruments.\n\nThe first effort of the speculative man is to solve the mystery of\nexistence. The first question is: How has this world begun to be? What\nwas in the beginning, or what was there before there yet was anything?\nIn the Greek mythology many forms seem to arise out of night, which\nseems to shroud them all. Thus in the Norse mythology the _negative_ is\nthe first, a _conditio sine qua non_, space we might say, which we must\nconceive of as existing, before anything can be conceived as existing in\nit. Our ancestors imagined in the beginning only a yawning gap in which\nthere was absolutely nothing. Wonderfully enough they said that the one\nside of this immense gulf extended to the north and the other to the\nsouth, as though there could be such things as _north_ and _south_\nbefore the creation of the world. The north side was cold, the south\nwarm; and thus we find by closer inspection that this nothing still was\nsomething, that contained in itself opposite forces, cold and heat,\nforce of contraction and force of expansion, but these forces were in a\nstate of absolute inertia. Thus also the Greek chaos:\n\n             ... rudis indigestaque moles,\n             Nec quidquam nisi pondus iners, congestaque eodem\n             Non bone junctarum discordia semina rerum.\n\nWe cannot conceive how a body containing two forces can be a _pondus\niners_, for every force is infinite and cannot rest unless it is\nprisoned by its opposite force, and this is then strife. The Norse view\nis, philosophically speaking, more correct. Here the opposite forces are\nseparated by a gulf, and as they cannot penetrate the empty space, they\nremain inert.\n\nIt has before been stated that the Norsemen believed in a great and\nalmighty god, who was greater than Odin. This god appears in the\ncreation of the world, where he sends the heated blasts from Muspelheim\nand imparts life to the melted drops of rime. He will appear again as\nthe just and mighty one, who is to reign with Balder in the regenerated\nearth. He is the true Allfather.\n\nWhen the thought was directed to inquire into the origin of the world,\none question would naturally suggest another, thus:\n\nQuestion: What produced the world? Answer: The giant Ymer.\n\nQuestion: But on what did the giant Ymer live? Answer: On the milk of a\ncow.\n\nQuestion: What did the cow live on? Answer: On salt.\n\nQuestion: Where did the salt come from? Answer: From the rime.\n\nQuestion: Whence came the rime? Answer: From ice-cold streams.\n\nQuestion: Whence came the cold? Answer: From Niflheim.\n\nQuestion: But what gave life to the rime? Answer: The heat.\n\nQuestion: Whence came the heat? Answer: From him who sent it.\n\nHere inquiry could go no further. This process brought the inquirer to\nthe god whom he dared not name, the author and ruler of all things. This\nunknown god thus appears only before the creation and after the fall of\nthe world. He is not a god of time but of eternity. He is from\neverlasting to everlasting.\n\nThe Elder Edda calls Ymer, Aurgelmer, father of Thrudgelmer and\ngrandfather of Bergelmer (Berggel-mer.) The first syllables of these\nwords express the gradual hardening of matter from _aur_ (loose clay) to\n_thrud_ (packed, compressed, strong clay), and finally to _berg_ (rock).\nYmer, that is, the first chaotic world-mass, is produced by the union of\nfrost and fire. The dead cold matter is quickened by the heat into a\nhuge shapeless giant, which has to be slain; that is, the crude matter\nhad to be broken to pieces before it could be remodeled into the various\nforms which nature since has assumed. This living mass, Ymer, produces\nmany beings like himself, frost-cold, stone-like, shapeless frost-giants\nand mountain giants (icebergs and mountains). In these forms evil is\nstill predominant. All are allied to the world of cold and darkness. It\nis only the lower, the physical, world-life which moves in them.\n\nBut a better being, although of animal nature,\u2014the cow Audhumbla\u2014came\ninto existence from the frozen vapor, as the nurse of Ymer. This power\nnourishes the chaotic world, and at the sane time calls forth by its\nrefining agency\u2014by licking the rime-clumps\u2014a higher spiritual life,\nwhich unfolds itself through several links\u2014through Bure, the bearing\n(father), and Bor, the born (son)\u2014until it has gained power sufficient\nto overcome chaotic matter\u2014to kill Ymer and his offspring. This\nconquering power is divinity itself, which now in the form of a trinity\ngoes forth as a creative power\u2014as spirit, will and holiness, in the\nbrothers Odin, Vile and Ve. The spirit quickens, the will arranges, and\nholiness banishes the impure and evil. It is however only in the\ncreation of the world that these three brothers are represented as\nco\u00f6perating. Vile and Ve are not mentioned again in the whole mythology.\nThey are blended together in the all-embracing, all-pervading\nworld-spirit Odin, who is the essence of the world, the almighty god.\n\nThis idea of a trinity appears twice more in the Norse mythology. In the\ngylfaginning of the Younger Edda, Ganglere sees three thrones, raised\none above the other, and a man sitting on each of them. Upon his asking\nwhat the names of these lords might be, his guide answered: He who\nsitteth on the lowest throne is a king, and his name is Haar (the high\nor lofty one); the second is Jafnhaar (equally high); but he who sitteth\non the highest throne is called Thride (the third). Then in the creation\nof man the divinity appears in the form of a trinity. The three gods,\nOdin, H\u0153ner, and Loder, create the first human pair, each one imparting\nto them a gift corresponding to his own nature. Odin (_\u00f6nd_, spirit)\ngives them spirit, the spiritual life; he is himself the spirit of the\nworld, of which man\u2019s is a reflection. H\u0153ner (light) illuminates the\nsoul with understanding (_\u00f3dr_). Loder (fire, Germ. _lodern_, to flame)\ngives the warm blood and the blushing color, together with the burning\nkeenness of the senses. It is evident that Odin\u2019s brothers on these\noccasions are mere emanations of his being; they proceed from him, and\nonly represent different phases of the same divine power. Loder is\nprobably the same person as afterwards steps forward as an independent\ndivinity by name Loke. When he was united with Odin in the trinity he\nsends a quiet, gentle and invisible flame of light through the veins of\nAsk and Embla, that is of mankind. Afterwards, assuming the name of\nLoke, he becomes the consuming fire of the earth. Loder produces and\ndevelops life; Loke corrupts and destroys life.\n\nBy the creation the elements are separated. Ymer\u2019s body is parceled out;\norganic life begins. But the chaotic powers, though conquered, are not\ndestroyed; a giant escapes in his ark with his family, and from them\ncomes a new race of giants. Disturbing and deadly influences are\nperceptible everywhere in nature, and these influences are represented\nby the hostile dispositions of the giants toward the asas and of their\nstruggles to destroy the work of the latter. The giants have been forced\nto fly to Jotunheim, to Utgard, to the outermost deserts beyond the sea;\nbut still they manage to get within Midgard, the abode of man, and here\nthey dwell in the rugged mountains, in the ice-clad jokuls and in the\nbarren deserts, in short, everywhere where any barrenness prevails.\nTheir agency is perceptible in the devastating storms caused by the\nwind-strokes of Hr\u00e6svelger, the giant eagle in the North; it is felt in\nwinter\u2019s cold, snow and ice, and in all the powers of nature which are\nunfriendly to fruitfulness and life.\n\n                      The golden age of the gods, when\n                      On the green they played\n                      In joyful mood,\n                      Nor knew at all\n                      The want of gold,\n                      Until there came\n                      Three giant maids\n                      From Jotunheim,\n\nrepresents the golden age of the child and the childhood of the human\nrace. The life of the gods in its different stages of development\nresembles the life of men. Childhood innocent and happy, manhood brings\nwith it cares and troubles. The gods were happy and played on the green\nso long as their development had not yet taken any decided outward\ndirection; but this freedom from care ended when they had to make dwarfs\nand men, and through them got a whole world full of troubles and\nanxieties to provide for and protect,\u2014just as the golden age ends for\nthe child when it enters upon the activities of life, and for the race,\nwhen it enters into the many complications and cares of organized\nsociety. The gods played with pieces of gold. The pure gold symbolizes\ninnocence. These pieces of gold (_gullnar t\u00f6flur_) were lost, but were\nfound again in the green grass of the regenerated earth. From the above\nit must be clear that the three giant maids, who came from Jotunheim and\nput an end to the golden age, must be the norns, the all-pervading\nnecessity that develops the child into manhood. It does not follow,\ntherefore, that these maids were giantesses, for the gods themselves\n_descended_ from the giants. Nor did the norns introduce evil into the\nworld, but they marked out for the gods a career which could not be\nchanged; and immediately after the appearance of the maids from\nJotunheim the gods must create man, whose fate those same norns would\nafterwards determine.\n\nThe gods did not create the dwarfs, but only determined that they were\nto have the form and understanding of men.\n\nMan was made of trees\u2014of the ash and the elm. There is something\ngraceful in this idea. The Norse conception certainly is of a higher\norder than those which produce man from earth or stones. It is more\nnatural and more noble to regard man as having been made of trees, which\nas they grow from the earth heavenward show an unconscious attraction to\nthat which is divine, than, as the Greeks do, to make men stand forth\nout of cold clay and hard stones. We confess that the Norse myth looks\nGreek and the Greek looks Norse; yet there may be a good reason for it.\nThe plastic Greek regarded man as a statue, which generally was formed\nof clay or stone, but to which a divine spark of art gave life. The\nNorsemen knew not the plastic art and therefore had to go to nature, and\nnot to art, for their symbols. The manner in which Odin breathes spirit\nand life into the trees reminds us very forcibly of the Mosaic\nnarrative. It is interesting to study the various mythological theories\nin regard to the origin of man. The inhabitants of Thibet have a theory\nthat undoubtedly is of interest to the followers of Darwin. In Thibet\nthe three gods held counsel as to how Thibet might be peopled. The first\none showed in a speech that the propagation of the human race could not\nbe secured unless one of them changed himself into an ape. The last one\nof the three gods did this, and the goddess Kadroma was persuaded to\nchange herself into a female ape. The plan succeeded, and they have left\na numerous offspring.[34]\n\nVarious classes of beings are mentioned in the mythology. Life is a\nconflict between these beings, for the spiritual everywhere seeks to\npenetrate and govern the physical; but it also everywhere meets\nresistance. The asas rule over heaven and earth, and unite themselves\nwith the vans, the water divinities. The giants war with the asas and\nvans. The elves most properly belong to the asas, while the dwarfs are\nmore closely allied to the giants, but they serve the asas. The most\ndecided struggle, then, is between the asas and giants.\n\nThe spiritual and physical character of the giants is clearly brought\nout in the myths. They constitute a race by themselves, divided into\ndifferent groups, but have a common king or ruler. Their bodies are of\nsuperhuman size, having several hands and heads. Sterkodder had six\narms; Hymer had many heads, and they were hard as stones; Hrungner\u2019s\nforehead was harder than any kettle. The giantesses are either horribly\nugly or charmingly beautiful. As the offspring of darkness, the giants\nprefer to be out at night. The sunlight, and especially lightning,\nterrifies them. On land and sea they inhabit large caves, rocks and\nmountains. Their very nature is closely allied to stones and mountains.\nWhen Brynhild drove in a chariot on the way to Hel, and passed through a\nplace in which a giantess dwelt, the giantess said:\n\n                             Thou shalt not\n                             Pass through\n                             My stone-supported\n                             Dwelling-place.\n\nThe weapons of the giants, as the following myths will show, were stones\nand rocks; they had clubs and shields of stone. Hrungner\u2019s weapons were\nflint-stones. The giants also have domesticated animals. The giant Thrym\nsat on a mound plaiting gold bands for his greyhounds and smoothing the\nmanes of his horses. He had gold-horned cows and all-black oxen. They\npossess abundance of wealth and treasures.\n\nThe giant is old, strong and powerful, very knowing and wise, but also\nsevere, proud and boasting. The giantess is violent, passionate and\nimpertinent. In their lazy rest the giants are good-natured; they may be\nas happy as children; but they must not be teased.\n\nThe giants representing the wild, disturbing, chaotic forces in nature,\nthe beneficent gods can subdue or control them in two ways: The one is\nto kill them and use their remains for promoting the fruitfulness of the\nearth, the other is to unite with them, in other words, to marry them.\nThis forms the subject of a large number of myths, which, when we have\nformed a correct general conception of the giants, need no further\nexplanation. Odin kills Sokmimer, the destructive maelstrom of the\nocean. Thor crushes Hrungner, the barren mountain. Odin marries Gunlad,\nNjord marries Skade, Frey marries Gerd, etc.\n\nWhen the Odinic mythology was superseded by the Christian religion it\nleft a numerous offspring of elves, trolls (dwarfs), nisses, necks,\nmermaids, princes, princesses, etc., all of which still live in the\nmemory and traditions of Scandinavia. They may be said to belong to the\nfairy mythology of these countries. We give a brief sketch of these\nobjects of popular belief, chiefly from the excellent work of Thomas\nKeightley. A general knowledge of them is necessary in order to\nappreciate the rich folk-lore literature of Norseland.\n\nThe elves still retain their distinction into _white_ and _black_. The\nwhite or good elves dwell in the air, dance on the grass, or sit in the\nleaves of trees; the black or evil elves are regarded as an underground\npeople, who frequently inflict sickness or injury on mankind, for which\nthere is a particular kind of doctors and doctresses in most parts of\nScandinavia. The elves are believed to have their kings, and to\ncelebrate their weddings and banquets, just the same as the dwellers\nabove ground. There is an interesting intermediate class of them called\nin popular tradition hill-people (_haugafolk_), who are believed to\ndwell in caves and small hills. When they show themselves they have a\nhandsome human form. The common people seem to connect with them a deep\nfeeling of melancholy, as if bewailing a half-quenched hope of\nsalvation. Their sweet singing may occasionally be heard on summer\nnights out of their hills, when one stands still and listens, or, as it\nis expressed in the ballads, lays his ear to the elf-hill; but no one\nmust be so cruel as by the slightest word to destroy their hopes of\nsalvation, for then the spritely music will be turned into weeping and\nlamentation. The Norsemen usually call the elves _hulder_ or\n_huldrefolk_, and their music _huldreslaat_. It is in the minor key, and\nof a dull and mournful sound. Norse fiddlers sometimes play it, being\nthought to have learned it by listening to the underground people among\nthe hills and rocks. There is also a tune called the elfkings\u2019 tune,\nwhich several of the good fiddlers know right well, but never venture to\nplay, for as soon as it begins both old and young, and even inanimate\nobjects, are compelled to dance, and the player cannot stop unless he\ncan play the air backwards, or that some one comes behind him and cuts\nthe strings of his fiddle. Ole Bull and Thorgeir Andunson, the people\nthink, learned to play the fiddle from the hill-people. The little\nunderground elves, who are thought to dwell under the houses of mankind,\nare described as sportive and mischievous, and as imitating all the\nactions of men. They are said to love cleanliness about the house and\nplace, and to reward such servants as are neat and cleanly.\n\nThe dwarfs have become trolls. They are not generally regarded as\nmalignant. They are thought to live inside of hills, mounds and\nmountains; sometimes in single families, sometimes in societies. They\nfigure extensively in the folk-lore. They are thought to be extremely\nrich, for when on great occasion of festivity they have their hills\nraised up on red pillars, people that have chanced to be passing by have\nseen them shoving large chests full of money to and fro, and opening and\nclapping down the lids of them. Their dwellings are very magnificent\ninside, being decorated with gold and crystal. They are obliging and\nneighborly, freely lending and borrowing and otherwise keeping up a\nfriendly intercourse with mankind. But they have a sad propensity to\nstealing, not only provisions, but also women and children. Trolls have\na great dislike to noise, probably from the recollection of the time\nwhen Thor used to be flinging his hammer after them, while this would\nindicate that the giants are their true ancestors. The hanging of bells\nin the churches has for this reason driven the most of them out of the\ncountry.\n\nThe nisse is the German kobold and the Scotch brownie. He seems to be of\nthe dwarf family, as he resembles them in appearance, and like them has\nplenty of money and a dislike to noise and tumult. He is of the size of\na year-old child, but has the face of an old man. His usual dress is\ngray, with a pointed red cap, but on Michaelmas day he wears a round hat\nlike those of the peasants. No farm-house goes on well unless there is a\nnisse in it, and well it is for the maids and the men when they are in\nfavor with him. They may go to their beds and give themselves no trouble\nabout their work, and yet in the morning the maids will find the kitchen\nswept and water brought in, and the men will find the horses in the\nstable well cleaned and curried, and perhaps a supply of corn cribbed\nfor them from the neighbor\u2019s barns. But he punishes them for any\nirregularity that takes place.\n\nThe neck is the river-spirit. Sometimes he is represented as sitting\nduring the summer nights on the surface of the water, like a pretty\nlittle boy with golden hair hanging in ringlets, and a red cap on his\nhead; sometimes as above the water, like a handsome young man, but\nbeneath like a horse; at other times as an old man with a long beard,\nout of which he wrings the water as he sits on the cliffs. The neck is\nvery severe against any haughty maiden who makes an ill return to the\nlove of her wooer; but should he himself fall in love with a maid of\nhuman kind, he is the most polite and attentive suitor in the world. The\nneck is also a great musician; he sits on the water and plays on his\ngold harp, the harmony of which operates on all nature. To learn music\nof him, a person must present him with a black lamb and also promise him\nresurrection and redemption.\n\nThe stromkarl, called in Norway _grim_ or _fosse-grim_ (force-grim), is\na musical genius like the neck. He who has learned from him can play in\nsuch a masterly manner that the trees dance and waterfalls stop at his\nmusic.\n\nThe merman is described as of a handsome form with green or black hair\nand beard. He dwells either in the bottom of the sea or in cliffs near\nthe sea-shore, and is regarded as rather a good and beneficent kind of\nbeing.\n\nThe mermaid (_haffrue_) is represented in the popular tradition\nsometimes as good, at other times as evil and treacherous. Her\nappearance is beautiful. Fishermen sometimes see her in the bright\nsummer\u2019s sun, when a thin mist hangs over the sea, sitting on the\nsurface of the water, and combing her long golden hair with a golden\ncomb, or driving up her snow-white cattle to feed on the strands or\nsmall islands. At other times she comes as a beautiful maiden, chilled\nand shivering with the cold of the night, to the fires the fishermen\nhave kindled, hoping by this means to entice them to her love. Her\nappearance prognosticates both storm and ill success in their fishing.\nPeople that are drowned, and whose bodies are not found, are believed to\nbe taken into the dwellings of the mermaids.\n\nIt is the prevalent opinion among the common people of the North that\nall these various beings were once worsted in a conflict with superior\npowers, and condemned to remain until doomsday in certain assigned\nabodes. The rocks were given to the dwarfs; the groves and leafy trees\nto the elves; the caves and caverns to the hill-people; the sea, lakes\nand rivers to the merman, mermaids and necks; and the small forces\n(waterfalls) to the fossegrims. Both the Catholic and Protestant priests\nhave tried to excite an aversion to these beings, but in vain. They\nstill live and fill the fairy-tales and folk-lore with their strange\ncharacters, and are capable of furnishing a series of unrivaled subjects\nfor the painter and sculptor. These weird stories are excellently\nadapted to adorn our epic and dramatic poetry as well as our historic\nnovels. But they must be thoroughly understood first, not only by the\npoet, but also by his reader. Thomas Keightley, from whom we have given\na short abstract, has given us an excellent work in English on Gothic\nfairy mythology, and we would recommend our readers to read his work in\nconnection with Dr. Dasent\u2019s _Tales from the Fjeld_. _We_ have to\npresent the original mythology, not its offspring.\n\nYgdrasil is a most sublime and finished myth. It is a symbol uniting all\nthe elements of mythology into a poetical system. The tree symbolizes,\nand extends its roots and branches into, the whole universe. Its roots\nare gnawed by serpents, and stags bite its branches, but the immortal\ntree still stands firm and flourishes from age to age. The Norsemen\u2019s\nwhole experience of life is here presented in a picture that either in\nregard to beauty or depth of thought finds no equal in all the other\nsystems of mythology. Thomas Carlyle says: I like too that\nrepresentation they (the Norsemen) have of the tree Ygdrasil: all life\nis figured by them as a tree. Ygdrasil, the Ash-tree of Existence, has\nits roots deep down in the kingdom of _Hela_, or Death; its trunk\nreaches up heaven-high, spreads its boughs over the whole universe. It\nis the Tree of Existence. At the foot of it, in the Death-kingdom, sit\nthree _Nornas_ (fates),\u2014the Past, Present, Future,\u2014watering its roots\nfrom the Sacred Well. Its boughs, with their buddings and\ndisleafings\u2014events, things suffered, things done, catastrophes,\u2014stretch\nthrough all lands and times. Is not every leaf of it a biography, every\nfiber there an act or word? Its boughs are histories of nations; the\nrustle of it is the noise of human existence, onwards from of old. It\ngrows there, the breath of human passion rustling through it; or\nstorm-tost, the storm-wind howling through it like the voice of all the\ngods. It is Ygdrasil, the Tree of Existence. It is the past, the\npresent, and the future; what was done, what is doing, what will be\ndone; the infinite conjugation of the verb _to do_. Considering how\nhuman things circulate, each inextricably in communion with all,\u2014how the\nword I speak to you to-day is borrowed, not from Ulfila, the M\u00e6so-Goth\nonly, but from all men since the first man began to speak,\u2014I find no\nsimilitude so true as this of a tree. Beautiful altogether, beautiful\nand great. The machine of the universe! Alas, do but think of that in\ncontrast!\n\nThe name Ygdrasil is derived from Odin\u2019s name, _Yggr_ (the deep\nthinker), and _drasill_ (carrier, horse). Ygdrasil, therefore, means the\n_Bearer of God_, a phrase which finds a literal explanation when Odin\nhangs nine nights on this tree before he discovered the runes. Thus the\nElder Edda:\n\n                         I know that I hung\n                         Nine whole nights,\n                         And to Odin offered,\n                         On that tree,\n                         From what root it springs.\n                         On a wind-rocked tree,\n                         With a spear wounded,\n                         Myself to myself,\n                         Of which no one knows.\n\nAll the tribes of nature partake of this universal tree, from the eagle\nwho sits on the topmost bough down through the different stages of\nanimal life; the hawk in the lower strata of air, the squirrel who\nbusily leaps about in the branches, the stags by the fountain, to the\nserpents beneath the surface of the earth.\n\nThe peculiar feature of this myth is its comprehensiveness. How\nbeautiful the sight of a large tree! Its far-extending branches, its\nmoss-covered stem, its high crown and deep roots, remind us of the\ninfinity of time; it has seen ages roll by before we were born. In the\nevening, when our day\u2019s work is done, we lie down in its broad shade and\nthink of the rest that awaits us when all our troubles are ended. Its\nleaves rustle in the breezes and the sunshine; they speak to us of that\nwhich is going on above this sorrow-stricken earth. But the tree is not\nthe whole symbol. It is connected with the great waters, with the clear\nfountain with its egg-white waves, and with the turbulent streams that\nflow in the bowels of the earth. While the calm firmness of the tree and\nthe monotonous rustling of the wind through its leaves invites the soul\nto rest, the ceaseless activity of the various tribes of animals that\nfeed upon its roots and branches remind us of nature never at rest and\nnever tiring. The tree sighs and groans beneath its burden; the animals\nmove about in it and around it; every species of animals has its place\nand destination; the eagle soars on his broad wings over its top; the\nserpent winds his slimy coils in the deep; the swan swims in the\nfountain; and while all the tribes of animated life are busily engaged,\nthe dew-drops fall to refresh and cool the earth and the heart of man.\nNay, this is not all. There is one who has planted the tree, and there\nare many who watch and care for it; higher beings protect it. Gods and\nmen, all that possesses life and consciousness, has its home in this\ntree and its work to do. The norns constantly refresh it with water from\nthe Urdar-fountain; the elves hover about it; Heimdal suspends his\ntri-colored arch beneath it; the glory of Balder shines upon it; Mimer\nlifts his head in the distance, and the pale Hel watches the shades of\nmen who have departed this earth and journey through the nine worlds\nover Gjallarbro to their final rewards. The picture is so grand that\nnothing but an infinite soul can comprehend it; no brush can paint it,\nno colors can represent it. Nothing is quiet, nothing at rest; all is\nactivity. It is the whole world, and it can be comprehended only by the\nmind of man, by the soul of the poet, and be symbolized by the ceaseless\nflow of language. It is not a theme for the painter or sculptor, but for\nthe poet. Ygdrasil is the tree of experience of the Gothic race. It is\nthe symbol of a great race, sprung originally from the same root but\ndivided into many branches, Norsemen, Englishmen, Americans, etc. It has\nthree roots, and experience has taught the Goths that there are in\nreality but three kinds of people in the world: some that work\nenergetically for noble and eternal purposes, and their root is in\nAsaheim; some that work equally energetically, but for evil and temporal\nends, and their root is in Jotunheim; and many who distinguished\nthemselves only by sloth and impotence, and their root is in Niflheim\nwith the goddess Hel or death, in Hvergelmer, where the serpent Nidhug,\nwith all his reptile brood, gnaws at their lives. Thus the Gothic race\nis reflected in Ygdrasil, and if our poets will study it they will find\nthat this grand myth is itself in fact a root in the Urdar-fountain, and\nfrom it may spring an Ygdrasil of poetry, extending long branches\nthroughout the poetical world and delighting the nations of the earth.\n\nBeneath that root of Ygdrasil, which shoots down to Jotunheim, there is\na fountain called after its watcher _Mimer\u2019s Fountain_, in which wisdom\nand knowledge are concealed. The name Mimer means the _knowing_. The\ngiants, being older than the asas, looked deeper than the latter into\nthe darkness of the past. They had witnessed the birth of the gods and\nthe beginning of the world, and they foresaw their downfall. Concerning\nboth these events, the gods had to go to them for knowledge, an idea\nwhich is most forcibly expressed in the V\u00f6lusp\u00e1, the first song in the\nElder Edda, where a vala, or prophetess, from Jotunheim is represented\nas rising up from the deep and unveiling the past and future to gods and\nmen. It is this wisdom that Mimer keeps in his fountain. Odin himself\nmust have it. In the night, when the sun has set behind the borders of\nthe earth, he goes to Jotunheim. Odin penetrates the mysteries of the\ndeep, but he must leave his eye in pawn for the drink which he receives\nfrom the fountain of knowledge. But in the glory of morning dawn, when\nthe sun rises again from Jotunheim, Mimer drinks from his golden horn\nthe clear mead which flows over Odin\u2019s pawn. Heaven and this lower world\nmutually impart their wisdom to each other.\n\nThe norns watch over man through life. They spin his thread of fate at\nhis birth and mark out with it the limits of his sphere of action in\nlife. Their decrees are inviolable destiny, their dispensations\ninevitable necessity. The gods themselves must bow before the laws of\nthe norns; they are limited by time; they are born and must die. Urd and\nVerdande, the Past and Present, are represented as stretching a web from\neast to west, from the radiant dawn of life to the glowing sunset, and\nSkuld, the Future, tears it to pieces. There is a deeply-laid plan in\nthe universe, a close union between spirit and matter. There is no such\nthing as independent life or action. The ends of the threads wherewith\nour life is woven lie deeply hid in the abyss of the beginning.\nSelf-consciousness is merely an abstraction. The self-conscious\nindividual is merely a leaf, which imagines itself to be something, but\nis in fact only a bud that enfolds itself and falls off from the tree of\nthe universe. The self-contradiction between absolute necessity and free\nwill was an unsolved riddle with our heathen ancestors, and puzzles the\nminds of many of our most profound thinkers still. Thus, says the Elder\nEdda, the norns came to decide the destiny of Helge Hundingsbane:\n\n                    It was in times of yore,\n                    When the eagles screamed,\n                    Holy waters fell\n                    From the heavenly hills;\n                    Then to Helge,\n                    The great of soul,\n                    Berghild gave birth\n                    In Braalund.\n\n                    In the mansion it was night:\n                    The norns came,\n                    Who should the prince\u2019s\n                    Life determine;\n                    They him decreed\n                    A prince most famed to be,\n                    And of leaders\n                    Accounted best.\n\n                    With all their might they span\n                    The fatal threads,\n                    When that he burghs should overthrow\n                    In Braalund.\n                    They stretched out\n                    The golden cord,\n                    And beneath the middle\n                    Of the moon\u2019s mansion fixed it.\n\n                    East and west\n                    They hid the ends,\n                    Where the prince had\n                    Lands between;\n                    Toward the north\n                    Nere\u2019s sister\n                    Cast a chain,\n                    Which she bade last forever.\n\nNay, in the Norseman\u2019s faith, man and all things about him were\nsustained by divine power. The norns decreed by rigid fate each man\u2019s\ncareer, which not even the gods could alter. Man was free to act, but\nall the consequences of his actions were settled beforehand.\n\nFootnote 34:\n\n  Wagner, p. 192.\n\n\n\n\n                                PART II.\n                   THE LIFE AND EXPLOITS OF THE GODS.\n\n\n                          VERDANDE.\n\n                          Vafin er Ver\u00f0andi reyk.\n\n\n\n\n                               CHAPTER I.\n                                 ODIN.\n\n\n                            SECTION I. ODIN.\n\n\nThe first and eldest of the asas is Odin. His name is derived from the\nverb _vada_ (imperfect _\u00f3d_), to walk, (compare watan, wuot, wuth,\nw\u00fcthen, wuothan, wodan). He is the all-_pervading_ spirit of the world,\nand produces life and spirit (_\u00f6nd_, _aand_). He does not create the\nworld, but arranges and governs it. With Vile and Ve he makes heaven and\nearth from Ymer\u2019s body; with H\u0153ner and Loder he makes the first man and\nwoman, and he gives them spirit. All enterprise in peace and in war\nproceeds from him. He is the author of war and the inventor of poetry.\nAll knowledge comes from him and he is the inventor of the runes. As the\nspirit of life he permeates all animate and inanimate matter, the whole\nuniverse; he is the infinite wanderer. He governs all things, and\nalthough the other deities are powerful they all serve and obey him as\nchildren do their father. He confers many favors on gods and men. As it\nis said in the Elder Edda, in the lay of Hyndla:\n\n                       FREYJA.\n\n                       Wake maid of maids!\n                       Wake, my friend!\n                       Hyndla! Sister,\n                       Who in the cavern dwellest.\n                       Now there is dark of darks;\n                       We will both to Valhal ride\n                       And to the holy fane.\n\n                       Let us Odin pray\n                       Into our minds to enter;\n                       He gives and grants\n                       Gold to the deserving.\n                       He gave Hermod\n                       A helm and corselet,\n                       And from him Sigmund\n                       A sword received.\n\n                       Victory to his sons he gives,\n                       But to some riches;\n                       Eloquence to the great\n                       And to men wit;\n                       Fair wind he gives to traders,\n                       But visions to skalds;\n                       Valor he gives\n                       To many a warrior.\n\nEspecially are the heroes constantly the object of his care. He guides\nand protects the brave hero through his whole life; he watches over his\nbirth and over his whole development; gives him wonderful weapons,\nteaches him new arts of war; assists him in critical emergencies,\naccompanies him in war, and takes the impetus out of the enemy\u2019s\njavelins; and when the warrior has at last grown old, he provides that\nhe may not die upon his bed, but fall in honorable combat. Finally, he\nprotects the social organization and influences the human mind. He\nrevenges murder, protects the sanctity of the oath, subdues hatred, and\ndispels anxieties and sorrows.\n\n\n                       SECTION II. ODIN\u2019S NAMES.\n\n\nOdin is called Allfather, because he is the father of all the gods, and\nValfather (father of the slain), because he chooses for his sons all who\nfall in combat. For their abode he has prepared Valhal and Vingolf,\nwhere they are called einherjes (heroes). In Asgard, Odin has twelve\nnames, but in the Younger Edda forty-nine names are enumerated, and if\nto these are added all the names by which the poets have called him, the\nnumber will reach nearly two hundred. The reason for his many names,\nsays the Younger Edda, is the great variety of languages. For the\nvarious nations were obliged to translate his name into their respective\ntongues in order that they might supplicate and worship him. Some of his\nnames, however, are owing to adventures that have happened to him on his\njourneys and which are related in old stories. No one can pass for a\nwise man who is not able to give an account of these wonderful\nadventures.\n\n\n                SECTION III. ODIN\u2019S OUTWARD APPEARANCE.\n\n\nIn appearance, Odin is an old, tall, one-eyed man with a long beard, a\nbroad-brimmed hat, a striped cloak of many colors, and a spear in his\nhand. On his arm he wears the gold ring Draupner, two ravens sit on his\nshoulders, two wolves lie at his feet, and a huge chariot rolls above\nhis head. He sits upon a high throne and looks out upon the world, or he\nrides on the winds upon his horse Sleipner. There is a deep speculative\nexpression on his countenance. In the Volsung Saga, Odin is revealed as\nfollows: King Volsung had made preparations for an entertainment.\nBlazing fires burned along the hall, and in the middle of the hall stood\na large tree, whose green and fair foliage covered the roof. (This\nreminds us of Ygdrasil.) King Volsung had placed it there, and it was\ncalled Odin\u2019s tree. Now as the guests sat around the fire in the\nevening, a man entered the hall whose countenance they did not know. He\nwore a variegated cloak, was bare-footed, his breeches were of linen,\nand a wide-brimmed hat hung down over his face. He was very tall, looked\nold, and was one-eyed. He had a sword in his hand. The man went to the\ntree, struck his sword into it with so powerful a blow that it sunk into\nit even to the hilt. No one dared greet this man. Then said he: He who\ndraws this sword out of the trunk of the tree shall have it as a gift\nfrom me, and shall find it true that he never wielded a better sword.\nThen went the old man out of the hall again, and no one knew who he was\nor whither he went. Now all tried to draw the sword out, but it would\nnot move, before Volsung\u2019s son, Sigmund, came; for him it seemed to be\nquite loose. Farther on in the Saga Sigmund had become king, and had\nalready grown old when he waged war with King Lynge. The norns protected\nhim so that he could not be wounded. In a battle with Lynge there came a\nman to Sigmund, wearing a large hat and blue cloak. He had but one eye,\nand had a spear in his hand. The man swung his spear against Sigmund.\nSigmund\u2019s sword broke in two, luck had left him, and he fell. The same\nSaga afterwards tells us that Sigmund\u2019s son, Sigurd, sailed against the\nsons of Hunding, on a large dragon. A storm arose, but Sigurd commanded\nthat the sails should not be taken down, even though the wind should\nsplit them, but rather be hoisted higher. As they passed a rocky point,\na man cried to the ship and asked who was the commander of the ships and\nmen. They answered that it was Sigurd Sigmundson, the bravest of all\nyoung men. The man said, all agree in praising him; take in the sails\nand take me on board! They asked him for his name. He answered: Hnikar\nthey called me, when I gladdened the raven after the battle; call me now\nKarl, from the mountain, Fengr or Fjolner, but take me on board! They\nlaid to and took him on board. The storm ceased and they sailed until\nthey came to the sons of Hunding; then Fjolner (Odin) disappeared. In\nthe same Saga he also comes to Sigurd in the garb of an old man with\nlong flowing beard, and teaches him how to dig ditches by which to\ncapture Fafner.\n\n\n                     SECTION IV. ODIN\u2019S ATTRIBUTES.\n\n\nOdin\u2019s hat represents the arched vault of heaven, and his blue or\nvariegated cloak is the blue sky or atmosphere, and both these symbolize\nprotection.\n\nOdin\u2019s ravens, Hugin (reflection) and Munin (memory), have been\nmentioned before. They are perched upon his shoulders and whisper into\nhis ears what they see and hear. He sends them out at daybreak to fly\nover the world, and they come back at eve toward meal-time. Hence it is\nthat Odin knows so much and is called Rafnagud (raven-god). Most\nbeautifully does Odin express himself about these ravens in Grimner\u2019s\nlay, in the Elder Edda:\n\n                      Hugin and Munin\n                      Fly each day\n                      Over the spacious earth.\n                      I fear for Hugin\n                      That he come not back,\n                      Yet more anxious am I for Munin.\n\nAnd in Odin\u2019s Raven-song, Hug (Hugin) goes forth to explore the heavens.\nOdin\u2019s mind, then, is the flying raven; he is the spiritual ruler.\n\nOdin has two wolves, Gere and Freke (the greedy one and the voracious\none). Odin gives the meat that is set on his table to these two wolves;\nfor he himself stands in no need of food. Wine is for him both meat and\ndrink. Thus the Elder Edda, in Grimner\u2019s lay:\n\n                        Gere and Freke\n                        Feeds the war-faring,\n                        Triumphant father of hosts;\n                        For \u2019tis with wine only\n                        That Odin in arms renowned\n                        Is nourished forever.\n\nTo meet a wolf is a good omen. Odin amusing himself with his wolves is\nan exquisite theme for the sculptor.\n\nOdin had a ring called Draupner. We find its history in the\nconversations of Brage, the second part of the Younger Edda. Loke had\nonce out of malice cut all the hair off Sif, the wife of Thor. But when\nThor found this out he seized Loke and would have crushed every bone in\nhim if he had not sworn to get the elves of darkness to make golden hair\nfor Sif, that would grow like other hair. Then went Loke to the dwarfs,\nthat are called Ivald\u2019s sons, and they made the hair, and Skidbladner\n(Frey\u2019s ship), and the spear that Odin owned and is called Gungner. Then\nLoke wagered his head with the dwarf, whose name is Brok, that his\nbrother, Sindre, would not be able to make three more treasures as good\nas those three just named. The brothers went to the smithy. Sindre put a\npig-skin in the furnace and bade Brok blow the bellows and not stop\nbefore Sindre took that out of the furnace which he had put into it. A\nfly set itself on Brok\u2019s hand and stung him, but still he continued\nblowing the bellows, and that which Sindre took out was a boar with\ngolden bristles. Then Sindre put gold into the furnace. This time the\nfly set itself on Brok\u2019s neck, and stung him worse, but he continued\nblowing the bellows, and that which the smith took out was the gold ring\nDraupner (from the verb meaning _to drop_). The third time Sindre put\niron in the furnace, and bade his brother be sure to continue blowing or\nall would be spoiled. Now the fly set itself between his eyes and stung\nhis eye-lids. The blood ran down into his eyes, so that he could not\nsee; then Brok let go of the bellows just for a moment to drive the fly\naway. That which the smith now took out was a hammer. Sindre gave his\nbrother these treasures and bade him go to Asgard to fetch the wager. As\nnow Loke and Brok came each with his treasures, the asas seated\nthemselves upon their thrones and held consult, and Odin, Thor and Frey\nwere appointed judges who should render a final decision. Then Loke gave\nOdin the spear, which never would miss its mark; Thor he gave the hair,\nwhich immediately grew fast upon Sif\u2019s head; and to Frey he gave the\nship, which always got fair wind as soon as the sails were hoisted, no\nmatter where its captain was going, and it could also be folded as a\nnapkin and put into the pocket, if this were desirable. Thereupon Brok\ncame forward and gave Odin the ring, and said that every ninth night a\nring equally heavy would drop from it. To Frey he gave the boar, and\nsaid that it could run in the air and on the sea, night and day, faster\nthan any horse, and the night never was so dark, nor the other worlds so\ngloomy, but that it would be light where this boar was present, so\nbright shone its bristles. To Thor he gave the hammer, and said that\nwith it he might strike as large an object as he pleased; it would never\nfail, and when he threw it he should not be afraid of losing it, for no\nmatter how far it flew it would always return into his hand, and at his\nwish it would become so small that he might conceal it in his bosom, but\nit had one fault, and that was that the handle was rather short.\nAccording to the decision of the gods, the hammer was the best of all\nthe treasures, and especially as a protection against the frost-giants;\nthey accordingly decided that the dwarf had won the wager. The latter\nnow wanted Loke\u2019s head. Loke offered to redeem it in some way, but the\ndwarf would accept no alternatives. Well take me then, said Loke, and in\na moment he was far away, for he had shoes with which he could run\nthrough the air and over the sea. Then the dwarf asked Thor to seize\nhim, which was done; but when the dwarf wanted to cut his head off, Loke\nsaid: The head is yours, but not the neck.[35] Then took the dwarf\nthread and knife and wanted to pierce Loke\u2019s lips, so as to sew his lips\ntogether, but the knife was not sharp enough. Now it were well, if I had\nmy brother\u2019s awl, said he, and instantaneously the awl was there, and it\nwas sharp. Then the dwarf sewed Loke\u2019s lips together. (The dwarfs are\nhere represented as smiths of the gods.)\n\nThe ring Draupner is a symbol of fertility. Odin placed this ring on\nBalder\u2019s funeral pile and it was burnt with Balder (the summer), and\nwhen Balder sent this ring back to Odin, his wife, the flower-goddess\nNanna, sent Frigg, the wife of Odin, a carpet (of grass), which\nrepresents the return of vegetation and fruitfulness. Balder sends the\nring back as a memento of the fair time when he and his father (Odin)\nworked together, and reminds the father of all, that he must continue to\nbless the earth and make it fruitful. But this is not all; this ring\nalso symbolizes the fertility of the mind, the creative power of the\npoet, the evolution of one thought from the other, the wonderful chain\nof thought. The rings fell from Draupner as drop falls from drop. Ideas\ndo not cling fast to their parent, but live an independent life when\nthey are born; and the idea or thought, when once awakened, does not\nslumber, but continues to grow and develop in man after man, in\ngeneration after generation, evolving constantly new ideas until it has\ngrown into a unique system of thought. If we, as our fathers undoubtedly\ndid, make this gold ring typify the historical connection between times\nand events, a ring constantly multiplying and increasing with ring\ninterlinked with ring in time\u2019s onward march, what a beautiful golden\nchain there has been formed from time\u2019s morning until now!\n\nOdin had a spear called Gungner. The word means producing a violent\nshaking or trembling, and it most thoroughly shook whomsoever was hit by\nit. As has been seen above, it was made by the sons of Ivald (the\ndwarfs), and was presented to Odin by Loke. Odin speeds forth to the\nfield of battle with golden helmet, resplendent armor, and his spear\nGungner. Oath was taken on the point of Gungner. This spear is\nfrequently referred to in the semi-mythological Sagas, where spears are\nseen flying over the heads of the enemy; they are panic-stricken and\ndefeated. Spears are sometimes seen as meteorical phenomena, showing\nthat war is impending. The spear symbolizes Odin\u2019s strength and power.\nWhen Odin\u2019s spear was thrown over anybody, Odin thereby marked him as\nhis own. Did not Odin wound himself with a spear, and thereby consecrate\nhimself to heaven? (See pp. 254-261.) When Odin puts the spear into the\nhands of the warrior, it means that he awakens and directs his deeds of\nvalor. When Odin is the god of poetry and eloquence (Anglo-Saxon _w\u00f3d_),\nthen the spear Gungner is the keen, stinging satire that can be\nexpressed in poetry and oratory.\n\nOdin\u2019s horse Sleipner (slippery) was the most excellent horse. Runes\nwere carved on his teeth. The following myth gives us an account of his\nbirth: When the gods were constructing their abodes, and had already\nfinished Midgard and Valhal, a certain artificer came and offered to\nbuild them, in the space of three half years, a residence so well\nfortified that they should be perfectly safe from the incursions of the\nfrost-giants and the giants of the mountains, even though they should\nhave penetrated within Midgard. But he demanded for his reward the\ngoddess Freyja, together with the sun and moon. After long deliberation\nthe gods agreed to his terms, provided he would finish the whole work\nhimself without any one\u2019s assistance, and all within the space of one\nwinter; but if anything remained unfinished on the first day of summer,\nhe should forfeit the recompense agreed on. On being told these terms,\nthe artificer stipulated that he should be allowed the use of his horse,\ncalled Svadilfare (slippery-farer), and this by the advice of Loke was\ngranted to him. He accordingly set to work on the first day of winter,\nand during the night let his horse draw stone for the building. The\nenormous size of the stones struck the gods with astonishment, and they\nsaw clearly that the horse did one half more of the toilsome work than\nhis master. Their bargain, however, had been concluded in the presence\nof witnesses and confirmed by solemn oaths, for without these\nprecautions a giant would not have thought himself safe among the gods,\nespecially when Thor returned from an expedition he had then undertaken\ntoward the east against evil demons.\n\nAs the winter drew to a close, the building was far advanced, and the\nbulwarks were sufficiently high and massive to render this residence\nimpregnable. In short, when it wanted but three days to summer, the only\npart that remained to be finished was the gateway. Then sat the gods on\ntheir seats of justice and entered into consultation, inquiring of one\nanother who among them could have advised to give Freyja away to\nJotunheim or to plunge the heavens in darkness by permitting the giant\nto carry away the sun and the moon. They all agreed that none but Loke\nLaufeyarson and the author of so many evil deeds could have given such\nbad counsel, and that he should be put to a cruel death if he did not\ncontrive some way or other to prevent the artificer from completing his\ntask and obtaining the stipulated recompense. They immediately proceeded\nto lay hands on Loke, who in his fright promised upon oath, that let it\ncost him what it would he would so manage matters that the man should\nlose his reward. That very night, when the artificer went with\nSvadilfare for building-stone, a mare suddenly ran out of a forest and\nbegan to neigh. The horse being thus excited, broke loose and ran after\nthe mare into the forest, which obliged the man also to run after his\nhorse, and thus between one and the other the whole night was lost, so\nthat at dawn the work had not made the usual progress. The man, seeing\nthat he had no other means of completing his task, resumed his own\ngigantic stature, and the gods now clearly perceived that it was in\nreality a mountain giant who had come amongst them. No longer regarding\ntheir oaths, they therefore called on Thor, who immediately ran to their\nassistance, and lifting up his mallet Mjolner (the crusher) that the\ndwarfs had made, he paid the workman his wages, not with the sun and\nmoon, and not even by sending him back to Jotunheim, for with the first\nblow he shattered the giant\u2019s skull to pieces, and hurled him headlong\ninto Niflheim. But Loke had run such a race with Svadilfare, that\nshortly after the mischief-maker (Loke) bore a gray foal with eight\nlegs. This is the horse Sleipner, which excels all horses ever possessed\nby gods or men. The gods perjured themselves, and in reference to this\nsays the Elder Edda:\n\n                        Then went the rulers there,\n                        All gods most holy,\n                        To their seats aloft,\n                        And counsel together took;\n                        Who all the winsome air\n                        With guile had blended,\n                        Or to the giant\u2019s race\n                        Oder\u2019s maiden given.[36]\n\n                        Then Thor, who was there,\n                        Arose in wrathful mood,\n                        For seldom sits he still\n                        When such things he hears.\n                        Annulled were now all oaths,\n                        And words of promise fair,\n                        And faith not long before\n                        In council plighted.\n\nThis riddle is propounded. Who are the two who ride to the Thing? Three\neyes have they together, ten feet and one tail; and thus they travel\nthrough the lands. The answer is Odin, who rides on Sleipner; he has one\neye, the horse two; the horse runs on eight feet, Odin has two; only the\nhorse has a tail.\n\nOdin\u2019s horse, Sleipner, symbolizes the winds of heaven, that blow from\neight quarters. In Skaane and Bleking, in Sweden, it was customary to\nleave a sheaf of grain in the field for Odin\u2019s horse, to keep him from\ntreading down the grain. Wednesday is named after Odin (Odinsday), and\non this day his horse was most apt to visit the fields. But in a higher\nsense Sleipner is a Pegasos. Pegasos flew from the earth to the abodes\nof the gods; Sleipner comes from heaven, carries the hero unharmed\nthrough the dangers of life, and lifts the poet, who believes in the\nspirit, up to his heavenly home. Grundtvig calls Sleipner the courser of\nthe poet\u2019s soul; that is to say, of the Icelandic or Old Norse strophe\nin poetry, which consisted of eight verses, or four octometers. The most\npoetic is the most truthful interpretation of the myths.\n\n\n                      SECTION V. ODIN\u2019S JOURNEYS.\n\n\nA whole chapter might be written about the wanderings of Odin, his\nvisits to the giants, to men, to battles, etc.; but as these records are\nvery voluminous, and are found to a great extent in the\nsemi-mythological Sagas, in which it is difficult to separate the\nmythical and historical elements, we will make but a few remarks on this\nsubject. All his wanderings of course describe him as the all-pervading\nspirit of the universe. They have the same significance as his horse\nSleipner, his ravens Hugin and Munin, etc. He descends to the bottom of\nthe sea for wisdom, he descends to earth to try the minds of men. In the\nElder Edda journeys of Odin form the subjects of the lays of\nVafthrudner, Grimner, Vegtam, etc. (See pp. 120-124.) In the lay of\nVafthrudner Odin visits the giant Vafthrudner for the purpose of proving\nhis knowledge. They propose questions relating to the cosmogony of the\nNorse mythology, on the condition that the baffled party forfeit his\nhead. The giant incurs the penalty. Odin calls himself Gangraad, but by\nthe last question the giant recognizes him and is stricken with awe and\nfear. The giant must perish since he has ventured into combat with Odin.\nThe mind subdues physical nature. When the giant recognizes Odin he\nrealizes his own depressed nature and must die. No rogue can look an\nhonest man in the eye. In Grimnersm\u00e1l Odin assumes the name of Grimner,\nand goes to try the mind of his foster-son Geirrod. Geirrod tortures him\nand places him between two fires. And here begins the lay, in which Odin\nglorifies himself and the power of the gods and pities his fallen\nfoster-son, but finally discloses himself and declares death to Geirrod\nfor his want of hospitality. Thus Odin closes his address to Geirrod in\nthe lay of Grimner:\n\n                      Many things I told thee,\n                      But thou hast few remembered:\n                      Thy friends mislead thee.\n                      My friend\u2019s sword\n                      Lying I see\n                      With blood all dripping.\n\n                      The fallen by the sword\n                      Ygg shall now have;\n                      Thy life is now run out:\n                      Wrath with thee are the dises,\n                      Odin thou now shalt see:\n                      Draw near to me, if thou canst.\n\n                      Odin I am named,\n                      Ygg I was called before,\n                      Before that Thund,\n                      Vaker and Skilfing,\n                      Vafud and Hroptatyr;\n                      With the gods Gaut and Jalk,[37]\n                      Ofner and Svafner;\n                      All which I believe to be\n                      Names of me alone.\n\n\n                      SECTION VI. ODIN AND MIMER.\n\n\nIn the lay of Vegtam, Odin goes to Hel, and wakes the prophetess to\nlearn the fate of his son Balder. He also takes counsel from the utmost\nsources of the ocean, and listens to the voice from the deep. Some myths\nrefer to Odin\u2019s pawning his eye with Mimer, others to his talking with\nMimer\u2019s head.\n\nThe Younger Edda, having stated that Mimer\u2019s well is situated under that\nroot of the world-ash Ygdrasil that extends to Jotunheim, adds that\nwisdom and wit lie concealed in it, and that Odin came to Mimer one day\nand asked for a drink of water from the fountain. He obtained the drink,\nbut was obliged to leave one of his eyes in pawn for it. To this myth\nrefers the following passage from the V\u00f6lusp\u00e1 in the Elder Edda:\n\n                      Alone she[38] sat without,\n                      When came that ancient\n                      Dreaded prince[39] of the gods,\n                      And in his eye she gazed.\n\nThe vala to Odin:\n\n                      Of what wouldst thou ask me?\n                      Odin! I know all,\n                      Where thou thine eye didst sink\n                      In the pure well of Mimer.\n\n                      Mimer drinks mead each morn\n                      From Valfather\u2019s pledge.\n                      Understand ye yet, or what?\n\nThis myth was given in connection with Ygdrasil, but it is repeated here\nto shed a ray of light upon the character of Odin, and in this wise\nMimer is brought into a clearer sunlight also.\n\nIn regard to Odin\u2019s speaking with Mimer\u2019s head, we have the following\npassage in the lay of Sigdrifa:\n\n                        On the rock he[40] stood\n                        With edged sword,\n                        A helm on his head he bore.\n                        _Then spake Mimer\u2019s head_\n                        Its first wise word,\n                        And true sayings uttered.\n\nAnd in V\u00f6lusp\u00e1, when Ragnarok is impending:\n\n                      Mimer\u2019s sons dance,\n                      But the central tree takes fire\n                      At the resounding\n                      Gjallarhorn,\n                      Loud blows Heimdal,\n                      His horn is raised;\n                      _Odin speaks\n                      With Mimer\u2019s head_.\n\nOdin\u2019s eye is the sun. Mimer\u2019s fountain is the utmost sources of the\nocean. Into it, Odin\u2019s eye, the sun sinks every evening to search the\nsecrets of the deep, and every morning Mimer drinks the gold-brown mead\n(aurora). When the dawn colors the sea with crimson and scarlet, then\nMimer\u2019s white fountain is changed to golden mead; it is then Mimer, the\nwatcher of the fountain of knowledge, drinks with his golden horn the\nclear mead which flows over Odin\u2019s pledge. But Mimer means memory[41]\n(Anglo-Saxon _meomor_), and as we know that our ancestors paid deep\nreverence to the memories of the past, and that the fallen heroes, who\nenjoyed the happiness of Valhal with Odin, reveled in the memory of\ntheir deeds done on earth, it is proper to add that Mimer is an\nimpersonation of memory. Our spirit (Odin, _od_, _aand_) sinks down into\nthe depths of the past (memory, the sea, Odin\u2019s fountain), and brings\nback golden thoughts, which are developed by the knowledge which we\nobtained from the depths beneath the sea of past history and experience.\nWhat a vast ocean is the history and experience of our race!\n\n\n                        SECTION VII. HLIDSKJALF.\n\n\nHlidskjalf is Odin\u2019s throne. The accounts of it are very meagre. The\nYounger Edda speaks of a stately mansion belonging to Odin called\nValaskjalf, which was built by the gods and roofed with pure silver, and\nin which is the throne called Hlidskjalf. When Odin is seated on this\nthrone he can see over the whole world. But he not only looks, he also\nlistens.\n\n                               Odin listened\n                               In Hlidskjalf,\n\nit is said in Odin\u2019s Raven-song; in Grimner\u2019s lay it is stated that Odin\nand Frigg, his wife, were sitting in Hlidskjalf, looking over all the\nworld; and in the lay of Skirner we read that Frey, son of Njord, had\none day seated himself in Hlidskjalf. As Odin every morning sends out\nhis ravens, it seems to be his first business, as a good father, to look\nout upon the world that he has made, and see how his children are doing,\nand whether they need his providential care in any respect. Hlidskjalf\nand Valhal must not be confounded. Valhal will be explained hereafter.\nIt is situated in Gladsheim, where Odin sat with his chosen heroes and\ndrank wine. But Valaskjalf is a place apart from Gladsheim, and on its\nhighest pinnacle above the highest arches of heaven is Odin\u2019s throne,\nHlidskjalf.\n\n\n                   SECTION VIII. THE HISTORICAL ODIN.\n\n\nWe have now presented the mythological Odin as based on the inscrutable\nphenomena of nature, and have given some hints in regard to the ethical\nor anthropomorphic element contained in each myth. Our next subject will\nbe Odin\u2019s wives, their maid-servants, his sons, etc.; but before we\nproceed to them we will give a short outline of the historical Odin, as\nhe is presented in the Heimskringla of Snorre Sturleson by Saxo\nGrammaticus and others. Mr. Mallet, the French writer on Northern\nAntiquities, has given a synoptical view of all that these writers have\nsaid about the wanderings and exploits of this famous person, and we\nwill make an abstract from him.\n\nThe Roman Empire had arrived at its highest point of power, and saw all\nthe then known world subject to its laws, when an unforeseen event\nraised up enemies against it from the very bosom of the forests of\nScythia and on the banks of the Tanais. Mithridates by flying had drawn\nPompey after him into those deserts. The king of Pontus sought there for\nrefuge and new means of vengeance. He hoped to arm against the ambition\nof Rome all the barbarous nations, his neighbors, whose liberty she\nthreatened. He succeeded in this at first, but all those peoples, ill\nunited as allies, poorly armed as soldiers, and still worse disciplined,\nwere forced to yield to the genius of Pompey. Odin is said to have been\nof this number. He was obliged to flee from the vengeance of the Romans\nand to seek, in countries unknown to his enemies, that safety which he\ncould no longer find in his own.\n\nOdin commanded the Asas, whose country was situated between the Pontus\nEuxinus and the Caspian Sea. Their principal city was Asgard. Odin\nhaving united under his banners the youth of the neighboring nations,\nmarched toward the west and north of Europe, subduing all the peoples he\nmet on his way and giving them to one or other of his sons for subjects.\nMany sovereign families of the North are said to be descended from these\nprinces. Thus Hengist and Horsa, the Saxon chiefs who conquered Britain\nin the fifth century, counted Odin in the number of their ancestors. So\ndid also the other Anglo-Saxon princes, as well as the greater part of\nthe princes of Lower Germany and the North.\n\nAfter having disposed of so many countries and confirmed and settled his\nnew governments, Odin directed his course toward Scandinavia, passing\nthrough Holstein and Jutland. These provinces made him no resistance.\nThen he passed into Funen (Denmark), which submitted as soon as he\nappeared. In this island he remained for a long time and built the city\nof Odense (_Odins-ve_, Odin\u2019s sanctuary), which still preserves in its\nname the memory of its founder. Hence he extended his authority over all\nthe North. He subdued the rest of Denmark and placed his son Skjold upon\nits throne. The descendants of Skjold continued for many generations to\nrule Denmark, and were called Skjoldungs.\n\nOdin, who seems to have been better pleased to give crowns to his\nchildren than to wear them himself, afterwards passed over into Sweden,\nwhere at that time ruled a prince by name Gylfe, who paid him great\nhonors and even worshiped him as a divinity. Odin quickly acquired in\nSweden the same authority as he had obtained in Denmark. The Swedes came\nin crowds to do him homage, and by common consent bestowed the title of\nking upon his son Yngve and his posterity. Hence sprung the Ynglings, a\nname by which the kings of Sweden were for a long time distinguished.\nGylfe died and was forgotten; Odin acquired lasting fame by his\ndistinguished rule. He enacted new laws, introduced the customs of his\nown country, and established at Sigtuna, an ancient city in the same\nprovince as Stockholm, a supreme council or tribunal, composed of twelve\njudges. Their business was to watch over the public weal, to distribute\njustice to the people, to preside over the new worship, which Odin had\nbrought with him into the North, and to preserve faithfully the\nreligious and magical secrets which that prince deposited with them. He\nlevied a tax on every man throughout the country, but engaged on his\npart to defend the inhabitants against all their enemies and to defray\nthe expense of the worship rendered to the gods at Sigtuna.\n\nThese great acquisitions seem not, however, to have satisfied his\nambition. The desire of extending further his religion, his authority,\nand his glory, caused him to undertake the conquest of Norway. His good\nfortune followed him thither, and this kingdom quickly obeyed a son of\nOdin named S\u00e6ming, who became the head of a family the different\nbranches of which reigned for a long time in Norway.\n\nAfter Odin had finished these glorious achievements he retired into\nSweden, where, perceiving his end to draw near, he would not wait for a\nlingering disease to put an end to that life which he had so often and\nso valiantly hazarded in the battle-field, but gathering round him the\nfriends and companions of his fortune, he gave himself nine wounds in\nthe form of a circle with the point of a lance, and many other cuts in\nhis skin with his sword. As he was dying he declared he was going back\nto Asgard to take his seat among the gods at an eternal banquet, where\nhe would receive with great honors all who should expose themselves\nintrepidly in battle and die bravely with their swords in their hands.\nAs soon as he had breathed his last they carried his body to Sigtuna,\nwhere, in accordance with a custom introduced by him into the North, his\nbody was burned with much pomp and magnificence.\n\nSuch was the end of this man, whose death was as extraordinary as his\nlife. It has been contended by many learned men that a desire of being\nrevenged on the Romans was the ruling principle of his whole conduct.\nDriven by those enemies of universal liberty from his former home, his\nresentment was the more violent, since the Goths considered it a sacred\nduty to revenge all injuries, especially those offered to their\nrelations or country. He had no other view, it is said, in traversing so\nmany distant kingdoms, and in establishing with so much zeal his\ndoctrines of valor, but to arouse all nations against so formidable and\nodious a nation as that of Rome. This leaven which Odin left in the\nbosoms of the worshipers of the gods, fermented a long time in secret;\nbut in the fullness of time, the signal given, they fell upon this\nunhappy empire, and, after many repeated shocks, entirely overturned it,\nthus revenging the insult offered so many ages before to their founder.\n\nThe Sagas paint Odin as the most persuasive of men. Nothing could resist\nthe force of his words. He sometimes enlivened his harangues with\nverses, which he composed extemporaneously, and he was not only a great\npoet, but it was he who taught the art of poetry to the Norsemen. He was\nthe inventor of the runic characters, which so long were used in the\nNorth. This marking down the unseen thought that is in man with written\ncharacters is the most wonderful invention ever made; it is almost as\nmiraculous as speech itself, and well may it be called a sort of second\nspeech. But what most contributed to make Odin pass for a god was his\nskill in magic. He could run over the world in the twinkling of an eye;\nhe had the command of the air and the tempests, he could transform\nhimself into all sorts of shapes, could raise the dead, could foretell\nthings to come, could by enchantments deprive his enemies of health and\nstrength and discover all the treasures concealed in the earth. He knew\nhow to sing airs so tender and melodious, that the very plains and\nmountains would open and expand with delight; the ghosts, attracted by\nthe sweetness of his songs, would leave their infernal caverns and stand\nmotionless around him.\n\nBut while his eloquence, together with his august and venerable\ndeportment, procured him love and respect in a calm and peaceable\nassembly, he was no less dreadful and furious in battle. He inspired his\nenemies with such terror that they thought they could not describe it\nbetter than by saying he rendered them blind and deaf. He would appear\nlike a wolf all desperate and biting his very shield for rage, he would\nthrow himself amidst the opposing ranks, making around him the most\nhorrible carnage, without receiving any wound himself. Such is the\nhistorical Odin of the North, such was, in other words, the great\nexample that the Norsemen had to imitate in war and in peace.\n\n\n                       SECTION IX. ODIN\u2019S WIVES.\n\n\nOdin\u2019s wives are Jord (Fjorgyn, Hlodyn), Rind and Frigg. Heaven is\nmarried to earth. This we find in all mythologies (Uranos and Gaia, Zeus\nand Demeter, etc.) Among the Norsemen also the ruler of heaven and earth\n(Odin) enters into marriage relations with his own handiwork. This\nrelation is expressed in three ways: Odin is married to Jord, to Frigg,\nand to Rind. Jord is the original, uninhabited earth, or the earth\nwithout reference to man; Frigg is the inhabited, cultivated earth, the\nabode of man, and Rind is the earth when it has again become unfruitful,\nwhen the white flakes of winter have covered its crust; it is in this\nlatter condition that she long resists the loving embraces of her\nhusband. These three relations are expressed still more clearly by their\nchildren. With Jord Odin begets Thor, with Frigg Balder, and with Rind\nVale. Jord is the Greek Gaia, Frigg is Demeter, but the fortunate Greeks\nhad no goddess corresponding to Rind; they knew not the severe Norse\nwinter.\n\nJord is sometimes called Fjorgyn and Hlodyn, but neither of these names\noccur many times in the Eddas. There are only found occasional allusions\nto her, such as the flesh of Ymer, the daughter of Annar, sister of Dag,\nmother of Thor, etc.\n\nFrigg is the daughter of Fjorgyn and the first among the goddesses, the\nqueen of the asas and asynjes. Odin is her dearly beloved husband. She\nsits with him in Hlidskjalf and looks out upon all the worlds, and for\nthe death of their son, the light Balder, they mourn together with all\nnature. Frigg knows the fate of men, but she never says or prophesies\nanything about it herself. She possesses a falcon-disguise, which Loke\nonce borrowed of her. She possesses a magnificent mansion Fensal, where\nshe sat weeping over Valhal\u2019s misfortune after the death of Balder. It\nis not certain whether Friday is named after Frigg or Freyja or after\nFrey, but the probabilities are that it is Freyja\u2019s day (_dies\nVeneris_). While Frigg and Freyja are by many authors confounded, they\nare nevertheless wholly different characters. Frigg is _asa_queen,\nFreyja is _vana_dis. Frigg is a _mother\u2019s_ love; Freyja is the love of\nthe _youth_ or _maiden_. The asas are land deities, the vans are\ndivinities of the water. The vana-goddess Freyja represents the surging,\nbillowy, unsettled love; the asynje Frigg represents love in its nobler\nand more constant form.\n\n\n                   SECTION X. FRIGG\u2019S MAID-SERVANTS.\n\n\nFulla, Hlyn, Gnaa, Snotra, Var, Lofn (Sjofn), and Syn, are enumerated as\nmaid-servants of Frigg.\n\nFulla goes about with her hair flowing over her shoulders and her head\nadorned with a golden ribbon. She is intrusted with the toilette and\nslippers of Frigg and admitted into the most important secrets of that\ngoddess. The word Fulla means full, fulness, and as the servant of Frigg\nshe represents the fulness of the earth, which is beautifully suggested\nby her waving hair and golden ribbon (harvest), and when Balder sent the\nring Draupner from Hel, his wife Nanna sent Frigg a carpet, and Fulla a\ngold ring.\n\nHlyn has the care of those whom Frigg intends to deliver from peril.\n\nGnaa is the messenger that Frigg sends into the various worlds on her\nerrands. She has a horse that can run through air and water, called\nHofvarpner (the hoof-thrower). Once, as she drove out, certain vans saw\nher car in the air, when one of them exclaimed:\n\n                       What flies there?\n                       What goes there?\n                       In the air aloft what glides?\n\nShe answered:\n\n                        I fly not, though I go,\n                        And glide through the air\n                        On Hofvarpner,\n                        Whose sire\u2019s Hamskerper[42]\n                        And dame Gardrofa.[43]\n\nGnaa is interpreted to mean the mild breezes, that Frigg sends out to\nproduce good weather.\n\nVar listens to the oaths that men take, and particularly the troth\nplighted between man and woman, and punishes those who keep not their\npromises. She is wise and prudent, and so penetrating that nothing\nremains hidden from her. Her name Var means _wary_, careful.\n\nLofn (_lofa_, _loben_, love) is so mild and gracious to those who invoke\nher, that by a peculiar privilege which either Odin himself or Frigg has\ngiven her, she can remove every obstacle that may prevent the union of\nlovers sincerely attached to each other. Hence her name is applied to\ndenote love, and whatever is beloved by men.\n\nSjofn delights in turning men\u2019s hearts and thoughts to love; hence love\nis called from her name _sjafni_.\n\nSyn keeps the door in the hall and shuts it against those who ought not\nto enter. She presides at trials, when anything is to be denied on oath;\nwhence the proverb, Syn (negation) is set against it, when anything is\ndenied.\n\n\n                        SECTION XI. GEFJUN, EIR.\n\n\nThe norns or destinies have been previously explained (see p. 190);\nNanna will be discussed in connection with Balder, and Freyja, the\ngoddess of love, in connection with Njord and Frey; but there are\nbesides these a few other goddesses, who demand our attention here.\n\nGefjun is a maid, and all those who die maids become her hand-maidens.\nOf her there is the following anecdote in the Younger Edda. King Gylfe\nruled over the land which is now called Sweden. It is related of him\nthat he once gave a wayfaring woman, as a recompense for her having\ndiverted him, as much land in his realm as she could plow with four oxen\nin a day and a night.[44] This woman was however of the race of the\nasas, and was called Gefjun. She took four oxen from the North, out of\nJotunheim, (but they were the sons she had had with a giant,) and set\nthem before a plow. Now the plow made such deep furrows that it tore up\nthe land, which the oxen drew westward out to the sea until they came to\na sound. There Gefjun fixed the land and called it Zealand. And the\nplace where the land had stood became water, and formed a lake which is\nnow called Logrinn (the sea) in Sweden, and the inlets of this lake\ncorrespond exactly with the headlands of Zealand in Denmark. Thus saith\nthe Skald, Brage:\n\n                    Gefjun drew from Gylfe,\n                    Rich in stored up treasure,\n                    The land she joined to Denmark.\n                    Four heads and eight eyes bearing,\n                    While hot sweat trickled down them,\n                    The oxen dragged the reft mass\n                    That formed this winsome island.\n\nThe etymology of Gefjun is uncertain. Some explain it as being a\ncombination of the Greek \u03b3\u1fc6, and Norse _fj\u00f3n_, separation (_terr\u00e6\nseparatio_). Grimm compares it with the Old Saxon _geban_, Anglo-Saxon,\n_geofon_, _gifan_, the ocean. Grundtvig derives it from Anglo-Saxon\n_gefean_, gladness. He says it is the same word as Funen (_Fyn_), and\nthat the meaning of the myth is that Funen and Jutland with united\nstrength tore Zealand from Sweden. This would then be a historical\ninterpretation.\n\nThe derivation from _gefa_, to give, has also been suggested, and there\nis no doubt that the plowing Gefjun is the goddess of agriculture. She\nunites herself with the giants (the barren and unfruitful fields or\ndeserts) and subdues them, thus preparing the land for cultivation. In\nthis sense she is Frigg\u2019s maid-servant. Gefjun, the plowed land,\ndevelops into Frigg, the fruit-bearing earth; hence she is a maid, not a\nwoman. The maid _is not_, but _shall become_ fruitful.\n\nEir is the goddess of the healing art, and this is about all that we\nknow of her; but that is a great deal. A healer for our frail body and\nfor the sick mind! what a beneficent divinity!\n\n\n                           SECTION XII. RIND.\n\n\nThis goddess was mentioned in Section IX. It is the third form of earth\nin its relation to Odin. Thus the lay of Vegtam, in the Elder Edda:\n\n                        Rind a son shall bear\n                        In the wintry halls,\n                        He shall slay Odin\u2019s son\n                        When one night old.\n                        He a hand will not wash,\n                        Nor his hair comb,\n                        Ere he to the pile has borne\n                        Balder\u2019s adversary.\n\nOdin\u2019s repeated wooing of this maid is expressed in H\u00e1vam\u00e1l, of the\nElder Edda, as follows:\n\n                 The mind only knows\n                 What lies near the heart;\n                 That alone is conscious of our affections.\n                 No disease is worse\n                 To a sensible man\n                 Than not to be content with himself.\n\n                 That I experienced\n                 When in the reeds I sat\n                 Awaiting my delight.\n                 Body and soul to me\n                 Was that discreet maiden:\n                 Nevertheless I possess her not.\n\n                 Billing\u2019s lass[45]\n                 On her couch I found,\n                 Sun-bright, sleeping.\n                 A prince\u2019s joy\n                 To me seemed naught,\n                 If not with that form to live.\n\n                 Yet nearer night, she said,\n                 Must thou, Odin, come,\n                 If thou wilt talk the maiden over;\n                 All will be disastrous\n                 Unless we alone\n                 Are privy to such misdeed.\n\n                 I returned,\n                 Thinking to love\n                 At her wise desire;\n                 I thought\n                 I should obtain\n                 Her whole heart and love.\n\n                 When next I came,\n                 The bold warriors were\n                 All awake,\n                 With lights burning,\n                 And bearing torches:\n                 Thus was the way to pleasure closed.\n\n                 But at the approach of morn,\n                 When again I came,\n                 The household all was sleeping;\n                 The good damsel\u2019s dog\n                 Alone I found\n                 Tied to the bed.\n\n                 Many a fair maiden,\n                 When rightly known,\n                 Toward men is fickle:\n                 That I experienced\n                 When that discreet maiden I\n                 Strove to win:\n                 Contumely of every kind\n                 That wily girl\n                 Heaped upon me;\n                 Nor of that damsel gained I aught.\n\nThis is clearly the same story as is related by Saxo Grammaticus, as\nfollows: Odin loves a maiden, whose name is Rind, and who has a stubborn\ndisposition. Odin tried to revenge the death of his son Balder. Then he\nwas told by Rosthiof that he with Rind, the daughter of the king of the\nRuthenians, would beget another son, who would revenge his brother\u2019s\ndeath. Odin put on his broad-brimmed hat and went into the service of\nthe king, and won the friendship of the king, for as commander he put a\nwhole army to flight. He revealed his love to the king, but when he\nasked the maiden for a kiss, she struck his ear. The next year he came\nas a smith, called himself Rosterus, and offered the maiden a\nmagnificent bracelet and beautiful rings; but she gave his ear another\nblow. The third time he came as a young warrior, but she thrust him away\nfrom her so violently that he fell head first to the ground. Finally he\ncame as a woman, called himself Vecha, and said he was a doctress. As\nRind\u2019s servant-maid, he washed her feet in the evening, and when she\nbecame sick he promised to cure her, but the remedy was so bitter that\nshe must first be bound. He represented to her father that it, even\nagainst her wish, must operate with all its dissolving power, and\npermeate all her limbs before she could be restored to health. Thus he\nwon the maiden, as some think, with the secret consent of her father.\nBut the gods banished Odin from Byzantium, and accepted in his place a\ncertain Oller, whom they even gave Odin\u2019s name. This Oller had a bone,\nwhich he had so charmed by incantations that he could traverse the ocean\nwith it as in a ship. Oller was banished again by the gods, and betook\nhimself to Sweden; but Odin returned in his divine dignity and requested\nhis son Bous, whom Rind bad borne, and who showed a great proclivity for\nwar, to revenge the death of his brother. Saxo Grammaticus relates this\nas confidently as if it were the most genuine history, not having the\nfaintest suspicion as to its mythical character.\n\nSaxo\u2019s Rosthiof is mentioned in the Elder Edda as Hross-thiofr\n(horse-thief), of Hrimner\u2019s (the frost\u2019s rime\u2019s) race. Saxo\u2019s Vecha is\nOdin, who in the Elder Edda is called Vak. The latter portion of the\nmyth is not given in H\u00e1vam\u00e1l, and were it not for faithful Saxo we\nshould scarcely understand that portion of the Elder Edda which was\nquoted above. But with the light that he sheds upon it there is no\nlonger any doubt. Rind is the earth, not generally speaking, but the\nearth who after the death of Balder is consigned to the power of winter.\nDoes not the English word _rind_ remind us of the hard-frozen crust of\nthe earth? Defiantly and long she resists the love of Odin; in vain be\nproffers her the ornaments of summer; in vain he reminds her of his\nwarlike deeds, the Norseman\u2019s most cherished enterprise in the\nsummer-season. By his all-powerful witchcraft he must dissolve and as it\nwere melt her stubborn mind. Finally she gives birth to Vale, the strong\nwarrior.\n\nIn the incantation of Groa, in the Elder Edda, this is the first song\nthat the mother sings to her son:\n\n               I will sing to thee first\n               One that is thought most useful,\n               Which Rind sang to Ran;[46]\n               That from thy shoulders thou shouldst cast\n               What to thee seems irksome:\n               Let thyself thyself direct. (Be independent!)\n\nWhat is it that seems so irksome to Rind and Ran, and that both cast\nfrom their shoulders in order to become independent? It is the ice. When\nRind had thrown it off she requested the sea-goddess Ran to do likewise.\n\nThe Greeks have a myth corresponding somewhat to this. The god of the\nheavens, Zeus, comes down in the rain into Hera\u2019s lap; but when she\nresisted his entreaties Zeus let fall a shower of rain, while she was\nsitting on the top of a mountain, and he changed himself to a\nnightingale (a symbol of spring-time). Then Hera compassionately took\nthe wet and dripping bird into her lap. But look at the difference! Hera\nsoon gives way and pities, but our Norse Rind makes a desperate\nresistance. It repeatedly looks as if Odin had conquered, but the maid\nreassumes her stubborn disposition. How true this is of the climate in\nthe northern latitudes! Rind is not inapplicable to our Wisconsin\nwinters.\n\nSuch is the physical interpretation of Odin\u2019s relation to Frigg and\nRind. Heaven and earth are wedded together; and upon this marriage earth\npresents itself in two forms: fruitful and blest, unfruitful and\nimprisoned in the chains of cold and frost. As the king of the year Odin\nembraces both of them. But Odin is also the spiritual (_aand_) king, who\nunites himself with the human earthly mind. He finds it crude and\nuncultured, but susceptible of impressions. Pure thoughts and noble\nfeelings are developed, which grow into blooming activities. But then\ncomes back again the unfeeling coldness and defiant stubbornness which\ntake possession of the mind, shutting out the influence of truth upon\nthe mind. It is a sad time when doubt and skepticism and despair every\nnight lay their leaden weight upon the poor man\u2019s soul. However to the\nhonest seeker of truth it is only a transitory state of trial. A wise\nProvidence takes him with tender and patient hands again to his bosom.\nHe sends down showers of blessings or misfortunes upon him. With his\nmild breath he melts the frozen heart, and it at once clothes itself\nwith garlands of divinest hues. With all his charms he touches the\nwintry _rind_ that encases us, and the mind stands forth unmanacled and\nfree. What to the year is light summer and dark winter is to us bright\nand gloomy periods of our existence, that succeed each other in their\nturn, advancing or impeding our spiritual development, which must\ncontinue forever. This is also contained in the myth about Odin and\nRind, nay, it is the better half.\n\n\n              SECTION XIII. GUNLAD. THE ORIGIN OF POETRY.\n\n\nPoetry is represented as an inspiring drink. He who partakes of it is\n_sk\u00e1ld_, poet. This drink was kept with the giants, where Gunlad\nprotected it. Odin goes down to the giants, conquers all obstacles, wins\nGunlad\u2019s affection, and gets permission to partake of the drink. He\nbrings it to the upper world and gives it to men. Thus poetry originated\nand developed. Thus it is related in the Younger Edda:\n\n\u00c6ger having expressed a wish to know how poetry originated, Brage, the\ngod of poetry, informed him that the asas and vans having met to put an\nend to the war which had long been carried on between them, a treaty of\npeace was agreed to and ratified by each party spitting into a jar. As a\nlasting sign of the amity which was thenceforward to subsist between the\ncontending parties, the gods formed out of this spittle a being, to whom\nthey gave the name of Kvaser, and whom they endowed with such a high\ndegree of intelligence that no one could ask him a question that he was\nunable to answer. Kvaser then traversed the whole world to teach men\nwisdom, but the dwarfs, Fjalar and Galar, having invited him to a feast,\ntreacherously murdered him. They let his blood run into two cups and a\nkettle. The name of the kettle is Odr\u0153rer, and the names of the cups are\nSon and Bodn. By mixing up his blood with honey they composed a drink of\nsuch surpassing excellence that whoever partakes of it acquires the gift\nof song (becomes a poet or man of knowledge, _sk\u00e1ld_, _e\u00f0a fr\u00e6\u00f0ama\u00f0r_).\nWhen the gods inquired what had become of Kvaser, the dwarfs told them\nthat he had been suffocated with his own wisdom, not being able to find\nanyone who, by proposing to him a sufficient number of learned\nquestions, might relieve him of its super-abundance.\n\nThe dwarfs invited a giant, by name Gilling, and his wife. They proposed\nto the giant to take a boat-ride with them out on the sea, but they\nrowed on to a rock and capsized. Gilling could not swim, and perished,\nbut the dwarfs rowed ashore, and told his wife of his death, which made\nher burst forth in a flood of tears. Then Fjalar asked her whether it\nwould not be some consolation to her to look out upon the water, where\nher husband had perished; and when she consented to this, Fjalar said to\nhis brother Galar that he should get up above the door, and, as she\npassed out through it, he should let fall a mill-stone upon her head,\nfor he was sick and disgusted with her crying. The brother did so, and\nthus she perished also. A son of Gilling, a giant by name Suttung,\navenged these treacherous deeds. He took the dwarfs out to sea and\nplaced them on a shoal, which was flooded at high water. In this\ncritical position they implored Suttung to spare their lives, and accept\nthe verse-inspiring beverage, which they possessed, as an atonement for\ntheir having killed his parents. Suttung, having agreed to these\nconditions, released the dwarfs, and, carrying the mead home with him,\ncommitted it to the care of his daughter Gunlad. Hence poetry is\nindifferently called Kvaser\u2019s blood, Suttung\u2019s mead, the dwarfs\u2019 ransom,\netc.\n\nHow did the gods get possession of this valuable mead of Suttung? Odin\nbeing fully determined to acquire it, set out for Jotunheim, and after\njourneying for some time he came to a meadow, in which nine thralls were\nmowing. Entering into conversation with them, Odin offered to whet their\nscythes, an offer which they gladly accepted. He took a whetstone from\nhis belt and whetted their scythes, and finding that it had given their\nscythes an extraordinarily keen edge the thralls asked him whether he\nwas willing to dispose of it; but Odin threw the whetstone up into the\nair, and as all the thralls attempted to catch it as it fell, each\nbrought his scythe to bear on the neck of one of his comrades, so that\nthey were all killed in the scramble. Odin took up his night\u2019s lodging\nat the house of Suttung\u2019s brother Bauge, who told him he was sadly at a\nloss for laborers, his nine thralls having slain each other. Odin who\nhere called himself Bolverk (one who can perform the most difficult\nwork), said that for a draught of Suttung\u2019s mead he would do the work of\nnine men for him. Bauge answered that he had no control over it. Suttung\nwanted it alone, but he would go with Bolverk and try to get it. These\nterms were agreed on and Odin worked for Bauge the whole summer, doing\nthe work of nine men; but when winter set in he wanted his reward. Bauge\nand Odin set out together, and Bauge explained to Suttung the agreement\nbetween him and Bolverk, but Suttung was deaf to his brother\u2019s\nentreaties and would not part with a drop of the precious drink, which\nwas carefully preserved in a cavern under his daughter\u2019s custody. Into\nthis cavern Odin was resolved to penetrate. We must invent some\nstratagem, said he to Bauge. He then gave Bauge the augur, which is\ncalled Rate, and said to him that he should bore a hole through the\nrock, if the edge of the augur was sharp enough. Bauge did so, and said\nthat he now had bored through. But Odin, or Bolverk as he is here\ncalled, blew into the augur-hole and the chips flew into his face. He\nthen perceived that Bauge intended to deceive him and commanded him to\nbore clear through. Bauge bored again, and, when Bolverk blew a second\ntime, the chips flew the other way. Then Odin transformed himself into a\nworm, crept through the hole, and resuming his natural shape won the\nheart of Gunlad. Bauge put the augur down after him, but missed him.\nAfter having passed three nights with the fair maiden, he had no great\ndifficulty in inducing her to let him take a draught out of each of the\nthree jars called Odr\u0153rer, Bodn, and Son, in which the mead was kept.\nBut wishing to make the most of his advantage, he drank so deep that not\na drop was left in the vessels. Transforming himself into an eagle, he\nthen flew off as fast as his wings could carry him, but Suttung becoming\naware of the stratagem, also took upon himself an eagle\u2019s guise and flew\nafter him. The gods, on seeing him approach Asgard, set out in the yard\nall the jars they could lay their hands on, which Odin filled by\ndisgorging through his beak the wonder-working liquor he had drunk. He\nwas however so near being caught by Suttung, that he sent some of the\nmead after him backwards, and as no care was taken of this it fell to\nthe share of poetasters. It is called the drink of silly poets. But the\nmead discharged into the jars was kept for the gods and for those men\nwho have sufficient wit to make a right use of it. Hence poetry is\ncalled Odin\u2019s booty, Odin\u2019s gift, the beverage of the gods, etc.\n\nBut let us look at this myth in its older and purer form. Thus the Elder\nEdda, in H\u00e1vam\u00e1l:\n\n                       Oblivion\u2019s heron \u2019t is called\n                       That over potations hovers;\n                       He steals the minds of men.\n                       With this bird\u2019s pinions\n                       I was fettered\n                       In Gunlad\u2019s dwelling.\n\n                       Drunk I was,\n                       I was over-drunk\n                       At that cunning Fjalar\u2019s.\n                       It\u2019s the best drunkenness\n                       When every one after it\n                       Regains his reason.\n\nThis passage then refers to the effects of the strong drink of poetry,\nand Odin recommends us to use it with moderation. Would it not be well\nfor some of our poets to heed the advice?\n\nThus H\u00e1vam\u00e1l again:\n\n                    The old giant[47] I sought;\n                    Now I am come back;\n                    Little got I there by silence;\n                    In many words\n                    I spoke to my advantage\n                    In Suttung\u2019s halls.\n\n                    Gunlad gave me,\n                    On her golden seat,\n                    A draught of the precious mead;\n                    A bad recompense\n                    I afterwards made her,\n                    For her whole soul,\n                    Her fervent love.\n\n                    Rate\u2019s mouth I caused\n                    To make a space,\n                    And to gnaw the rock;\n                    Over and under me\n                    Were the giant\u2019s ways:\n                    Thus I my head did peril.\n\n                    Of a well-assumed form\n                    I made good use:\n                    Few things fail the  wise;\n                    For Odr\u0153rer\n                    Is now come up\n                    To men\u2019s earthly dwellings.\n\n                    \u2019Tis to me doubtful\n                    That I could have come\n                    From the giant\u2019s courts\n                    Had not Gunlad aided me\n                    That good damsel\n                    Over whom I laid my arm.\n\n                    On the day following\n                    Came the frost-giants\n                    To learn something of the High One.\n                    In the High One\u2019s hall:\n                    After Bolverk they inquired\n                    Whether he with the gods were come,\n                    Or Suttung had destroyed him.\n\n                    Odin, I believe,\n                    A ring-oath gave.\n                    Who in his faith will trust?\n                    Suttung defrauded,\n                    Of his drink bereft,\n                    And Gunlad made to weep.\n\nIt is a beautiful idea that Odin creeps into Suttung\u2019s hall as a\nserpent, but when he has drunk the mead of poetry, when he has become\ninspired, he soars away on eagles\u2019 pinions.\n\nOdin\u2019s name, Bolverk, may mean the one working evil, which might be said\nof him in relation to the giants, or the one who accomplishes difficult\nthings, which then would impersonate the difficulty in mastering the art\nof poetry. Without a severe struggle no one can gain a victory in the\nart of poetry, and least of all in the Old Norse language. Gunlad (from\n_gunnr_, struggle, and _la\u00f0a_, to invite) invites Odin to this struggle.\nShe sits well fortified in the abode of the giant. She is surrounded by\nstone walls. The cup in which was the mead is called Odr\u0153rer\n(_od-r\u0153rer_, that which moves the spirit); that is, the cup of\ninspiration; and the myth is as clear as these names. Kvaser is the\nfruit of which the juice is pressed and mixed with honey; it produces\nthe inspiring drink. It is also pertinently said that Kvaser perishes in\nhis own wisdom. Does not the fruit burst from its superabundance of\njuice? But do not take only the outside skin of this myth; press the\nethical juice out of it.\n\nIt should be noticed here that Kvaser (the spit, the ripe fruit) is\nproduced by a union of asas and vans, an intimate union of the solid and\nliquid elements.\n\nThis myth also illustrates the wide difference between the Elder and the\nYounger Edda. How much purer and poetic in the former than in the\nlatter! _Ex ipso fonte dulcius bibuntur aqu\u00e6._ In the Elder Edda is\nwater in which it is worth our while to fish.\n\n\n                           SECTION XIV. SAGA.\n\n\nOdin is not only the inventor of poetry, he also favors and protects\nhistory, Saga. The Elder Edda:\n\n                    Sokvabek hight the fourth dwelling.,\n                    Over it flow the cool billows;\n                    Glad drink there Odin and Saga\n                    Every day from golden cups.\n\nThe charming influence of history could not be more beautifully\ndescribed.\n\nSokvabek is the brook of the deep. From the deep arise the thoughts and\nroll as cool refreshing waves through golden words. Saga can tell, Odin\ncan think, about it. Thus they sit together day after day and night\nafter night and refresh their minds from the fountain of history. Saga\nis the second of the goddesses. She dwells at Sokvabek, a very large and\nstately abode. The stream of history is large, it is broad and deep.\nSaga is from the word meaning _to say_. In Greece Klio was one of the\nmuses, but in Norseland Saga is alone, united with Odin, the father of\nheroic deeds. Her favor is the hope of the youth and the delight of the\nold man.\n\n\n               SECTION XV. ODIN AS THE INVENTOR OF RUNES.\n\n\nThe original meaning of the word rune is _secret_, and it was used to\nsignify a mysterious song, mysterious doctrine, mysterious speech, and\nmysterious writing. Our ancestors had an alphabet called runes, before\nthey learned the so-called Roman characters. The runic stave-row was a\nfuthore (_f_, _u_, _th_, _o_, _r_, _k_), not an alphabet (_A_, _B_) as\nin Greek or Latin. But what does it mean mythologically, that Odin is\nthe inventor of the runes? Odin himself says in his famous Rune-song in\nthe Elder Edda:\n\n              I know that I hung\n              On a wind-rocked tree[48]\n              Nine whole nights,\n              With a spear wounded\n              And to Odin offered,\n              Myself to myself;\n              On that tree\n              Of which no one knows\n              From what root it springs.\n\n              Bread no one gave me\n              Nor a horn of drink,\n              Downward I peered,\n              To runes applied myself\n              Wailing learnt them,\n              Then fell down thence.\n\n              Potent songs nine\n              From the  famed son I learned\n              Of Bolthorn, Bestla\u2019s father,\n              And a draught obtained\n              Of the precious mead,\n              Drawn from Odr\u0153rer.\n\n              Then I began to bear fruit\n              And to know many things,\n              To grow and well thrive:\n              Word by word\n              I sought out words,\n              Fact by fact\n              I sought out facts.\n\n              Runes thou wilt find\n              And explained characters,\n              Very large characters,\n              Very potent characters,\n              Which the great speaker depicted\n              And the high powers formed\n              And the powers\u2019 prince graved.\n\n              Odin among the asas,\n              But among the elves, Daain;\n              Odin as inventor of runes\n              And Dvalin for the dwarfs;\n              Aasvid for the giants runes risted,\n              Some I myself risted.\n\n              Knowest thou how to rist them?\n              Knowest thou how to expound them?\n              Knowest thou how to depict them?\n              Knowest thou how to prove them?\n              Knowest thou how to pray?\n              Knowest thou how to offer?\n              Knowest thou how to send?\n              Knowest thou how to consume?\n\n              \u2019T is better not to pray\n              Than too much offer;\n              A gift ever looks to a return.\n              \u2019T is better not to send\n              Than too much consume.\n              So Thund risted\n              Before the origin of men,\n              There he ascended\n              Where he afterwards came.\n\n              Those songs I know\n              Which the king\u2019s wife knows not\n              Nor son of man.\n              _Help_ the first is called,\n              For that will help thee\n              Against strifes and cares.\n\n              For the second I know,\n              What the sons of men require\n              Who will as leeches live.\n\n              For the third I know,\n              If I have great need\n              To restrain my foes,\n              The weapon\u2019s edge I deaden:\n              Of my adversaries\n              Nor arms nor wiles harm aught.\n\n              For the fourth I know,\n              If men place\n              Bonds on my limbs,\n              I so sing\n              That I can walk;\n              The fetter starts from my feet\n              And the manacle from my hands.\n\n              For the fifth I know,\n              I see a shot from a hostile hand,\n              A shaft flying amid the host,\n              So swift it cannot fly,\n              That I cannot arrest it,\n              If only I get sight of it.\n\n              For the sixth I know,\n              If one wounds me\n              With a green tree\u2019s root,[49]\n              Also if a man\n              Declares hatred to me,\n              Harm shall consume _them_ sooner than me.\n\n              For the seventh I know,\n              If a lofty house I see\n              Blaze o\u2019er its inmates,\n              So furiously it shall not burn\n              That I cannot save it;\n              That song I can sing.\n\n              For the eighth I know,\n              What to all is\n              Useful to learn;\n              Where hatred grows\n              Among the sons of men\u2014\n              That I can quickly assuage.\n\n              For the ninth I know,\n              If I stand in need\n              My bark on the water to save,\n              I can the wind\n              On the waves allay,\n              And the sea lull.\n\n              For the tenth I know,\n              If I see troll-wives\n              Sporting in air,\n              I can so operate\n              That they will forsake\n              Their own forms\n              And their own minds.\n\n              For the eleventh I know,\n              If I have to lead\n              My ancient friends to battle,\n              Under their shields I sing,\n              And with power they go\n              Safe to the fight,\n              Safe from the fight;\n              Safe on every side they go.\n\n              For the twelfth I know,\n              If on a tree I see\n              A corpse swinging from a halter,\n              I can so rist\n              And in runes depict,\n              That the man shall walk,\n              And with me converse.\n\n              For the thirteenth I know,\n              If on a young man\n              I sprinkle water,[50]\n              He shall not fall,\n              Though he into battle come:\n              That man shall not sink before swords.\n\n              For the fourteenth I know,\n              If in the society of men\n              I have to enumerate the gods,\n              Asas and elves,\n              I know the distinctions of all.\n              This few unskilled can do.\n\n              For the fifteenth I know.\n              What the dwarf of Thodr\u0153rer[51] sang\n              Before Delling\u2019s doors.\n              Strength he sang to the asas,\n              And to the elves prosperity,\n              Wisdom to Hroptatyr (Odin).\n\n              For the sixteenth I know,\n              If a modest maiden\u2019s favor and affection\n              I desire to possess,\n              The soul I change\n              Of the white-armed damsel,\n              And wholly turn her mind.\n\n              For seventeenth I know,\n              That that young maiden will\n              Reluctantly avoid me.\n              These songs, Lodfafner,\n              Thou wilt long have lacked;\n              Yet it may be good, if thou understandest them,\n              Profitable if thou learnest them.\n\n              For the eighteenth I know,\n              That which I never teach\n              To maid or wife of man,\n              (All is better\n              What _one_ only knows:\n              This is the closing of the songs)\n              Save her alone\n              Who clasps me in her arms,\n              Or is my sister.\n\n              Now are sung the\n              _High One\u2019s_ songs\n              In the High One\u2019s hall,\n              To the sons of men all useful,\n              But useless to the giants\u2019 sons.\n              Hail to him who has sung them!\n              Hail to him who knows them!\n              May he profit who has learnt them!\n              Hall to those who have listened to them!\n\nOdin\u2019s sister or wife is, as we have seen, Frigg, the earth, and there\nis much between heaven and earth of which the wisest men do not even\ndream, much that the profoundest philosophy is unable to unravel, and\nthis is what Odin never teaches to maid or wife of man.\n\nThe runes of Odin were risted on the shield which stands before the\nshining god, on the ear of Aarvak (the ever-wakeful), and on the hoof of\nAlsvin; on the wheels that roll under Rogner\u2019s chariot, on Sleipner\u2019s\nreins, on the paw of the bear and on the tongue of Brage; on the claws\nof the wolf, on the beak of the eagle, on bloody wings and on the end of\nthe bridge (the rainbow); on glass, on gold, on wine and on herb; on\nVile\u2019s heart, on the point of Gungner (Odin\u2019s spear), on Grane\u2019s breast,\non the nails of the norn and on the beak of the owl. All, that were\ncarved, were afterwards scraped off, mixed with the holy mead and sent\nout into all parts of the world. Some are with the asas, some with the\nelves, and some with the sons of men.\n\nAll this and even more that is omitted we find in the Elder Edda. What\nare Odin\u2019s runes? What but a new expression of his being? Odin\u2019s runes\nrepresent the might and wisdom with which he rules all nature, even its\nmost secret phenomena. Odin, as master of runes, is the spirit that\nsubdues and controls physical nature. He governs inanimate nature, the\nwind, the sea, the fire, and the mind of man, the hate of the enemy and\nthe love of woman. Everything submits to his mighty sway, and thus the\nrunes were risted on all possible things in heaven and on earth. He is\nthe spirit of the world, that pervades everything, the almighty creator\nof heaven and earth, or, to use more mythological expression, the father\nof gods and men.\n\nOdin hung nine days on the tree (Ygdrasil) and sacrificed himself to\nhimself, and wounded himself with his own spear. This has been\ninterpreted to mean the nine months in which the child is developed in\nits mother\u2019s womb. Turn back and read the first strophes carefully, and\nit will be found that there is some sense in this interpretation; but,\nkind reader, did you ever try to subdue and penetrate into the secrets\nof matter with your mind? Do you know that knowledge cannot be acquired\nwithout labor, without struggle, without sacrifice, without solemn\nconsecration of one\u2019s self to an idea? Do you remember that Odin gave\nhis eye in pawn for a drink from Mimer\u2019s fountain? The spear with which\nhe now wounds himself shows how solemnly he consecrates himself. For the\nsake of this struggle to acquire knowledge, the spirit offers itself to\nitself. It knows what hardships and sufferings must be encountered on\nthe road to knowledge, but it bravely faces these obstacles, it wants to\nwrestle with them; that is its greatness, its glory, its power. Nine\nnights Odin hangs on the tree. Rome was not built in a day. _Tant\u00e6 molis\nerat Romanas condere gentes!_ Neither is knowledge acquired in a day.\nThe mind is developed by a slow process. He neither eats nor drinks, he\nfasts. You must also curb your bodily appetites, and, like Odin, look\ndown into the depths and penetrate the mysteries of nature with your\nmind. Then will you learn all those wonderful songs that Odin learned\ncrying before he fell from the tree.\n\nOdin is the author of the runic incantations that played so conspicuous\na part in the social and religious life of the Norseman. The belief in\nsorcery (_galdr_ and _sei\u00f0r_) was universal among the heathen Norsemen,\nand it had its origin in the mythology, which represents the magic arts\nas an invention of Odin.\n\n\n                          SECTION XVI. VALHAL.\n\n\nThus the Elder Edda, in the lay of Grimner:\n\n                  Gladsheim is named the fifth dwelling;\n                  There the golden-bright\n                  Valhal stands spacious;\n                  There Hropt[52] selects\n                  Each day those men\n                  Who die by weapons.\n\n                  Easily to be known is,\n                  By those who to Odin come,\n                  The mansion by its aspect.\n                  Its roof with spears is laid,\n                  Its hall with shields is decked,\n                  With corselets are its benches strewed.\n\n                  Easily to be known is,\n                  By those who to Odin come,\n                  The mansion by its aspect.\n                  A wolf hangs\n                  Before the western door,\n                  Over it an eagle hovers.\n\nOdin was pre\u00ebminently the god of war. He who fell in battle came after\ndeath to Odin in Valhal. There he began the battle anew, fell and arose\nagain. Glorious was the life in Valhal.\n\nThe hall was called Valhal, that is, the hall of the slain; Odin was\ncalled Valfather (father of the slain), and the maids he sent out to\nchoose the fallen heroes on the field of battle were called valkyries.\nValhal must not, as before stated, be confused with the silver-roofed\nvalaskjalf.\n\nThe heroes who came to Valhal were called einherjes, from _ein_ and\n_herja_, which together mean the excellent warrior, and we find that\nOdin was also called Herja-father (father of heroes).\n\nValhal is situated in Gladsheim. It is large and resplendent with gold;\nspears support its ceiling, it is roofed with shields, and coats of mail\nadorn its benches. Swords serve the purpose of fire, and of its immense\nsize we can form some idea when we read in the Elder Edda that\n\n                   Five hundred doors\n                   And forty more\n                   Methinks are in Valhal;\n                   Eight hundred heroes through each door\n                   Shall issue forth\n                   Against the wolf to combat.\n\nOutside of Valhal stands the shining grove Glaser. All its leaves are\nred gold, whence gold is frequently called Glaser\u2019s leaves.\n\nWhat does Odin give all his guests to eat? If all the men who have\nfallen in fight since the beginning of the world are gone to Odin in\nValhal, there must be a great crowd there. Yes, the crowd there is\nindeed great, but great though it be, it will still be thought too\nlittle when the wolf comes (the end of the world). But however great the\nband of men in Valhal may be, the flesh of the boar S\u00e6hrimner will more\nthan suffice for their sustenance. This boar is cooked every morning,\nbut becomes whole again every night. The cook is called Andhrimner and\nthe kettle Eldhrimner. Thus the Elder Edda:\n\n                          Andhrimner cooks\n                          In Eldhrimner\n                          S\u00e6hrimner;\n                          \u2019Tis the best of flesh;\n                          But few know\n                          What the einherjes eat.\n\nWhat do the guests of Odin drink? Do you imagine that Allfather would\ninvite kings and jarls and other great men and give them nothing but\nwater to drink? In that case many of those, who had endured the greatest\nhardships and received deadly wounds in order to obtain access to\nValhal, would find that they had paid too great a price for their water\ndrink, and would indeed have reason to complain were they there to meet\nwith no better entertainment. But we shall see that the case is quite\notherwise; for the she-goat Heidrun (the clear stream) stands above\nValhal and feeds on the leaves of a very famous tree. This tree is\ncalled Lerad (affording protection), and from the teats of the she-goat\nflows mead in such great abundance that every day a bowl, large enough\nto hold more than would suffice for all the heroes, is filled with it.\nAnd still more wonderful is what is told of the stag, Eikthyrner (the\noak-thorned, having knotty horns), which also stands over Valhal and\nfeeds upon the leaves of the same tree, and while he is feeding so many\ndrops fall from his antlers down into Hvergelmer that they furnish\nsufficient water for the thirty-six rivers that issuing thence flow\ntwelve to the abodes of the gods, twelve to the abodes of men, and\ntwelve to Niflheim.\n\nAh! our ancestors were uncultivated barbarians, and that is proved by\nthe life in Valhal, where the heroes ate pork and drank mead! But what\nare we, then, who do the same thing? Let us look a little more carefully\nat the words they used. Food they called flesh, and drink,\nmead,\u2014expressions taken from life; but they connected an infinitely\nhigher idea with the heavenly nourishment. Although but few know what\nthe einherjes eat, we ought to know it. When we hear the word ambrosia,\nwe think of a very fine nourishment, although we do not know what it\nwas. In the _Iliad_ (14, 170), it is used of pure water. The words used\nin the Norse mythology in reference to the food and drink of the gods\nare very simple, And-hrimner, Eld-hrimner, and S\u00e6-hrimner. Hrim (rime)\nis the first and most delicate transition from a liquid to a solid;\nhrimner is the one producing this transition. The food was formed, as\nthe words clearly show, by air (_and_, _\u00f6nd_, _aande_, breath), by fire\n(_eld_), and by water (_s\u00e6_, sea). We have here the most delicate\nformation of the most delicate elements. There is nothing earthly in it.\nThe fundamental element is water boiled by the fire, which is nourished\nby the air; and the drink is the clear stream, which flows from the\nhighest abodes of heaven, the pure ethereal current, which comes from\nthe distant regions where the winds are silent. Nay, we cannot even call\nit a drink, but it is the purest and most delicate breath of the air,\nthat fills the lungs of the immortal heroes in Valhal.\n\nA mighty band of men there is in Valhal, and Odin must indeed be a great\nchieftain to command such a numerous host; but how do the heroes pass\ntheir time when they are not drinking? Answer: Every day, as soon as\nthey have dressed themselves, they ride out into the court, and there\nfight until they cut each other into pieces. This is their pastime. But\nwhen meal-time approaches, they remount their steeds and return to drink\nmead from the skulls of their enemies[53] in Valhal. Thus the Elder\nEdda:\n\n                     The einherjes all\n                     On Odin\u2019s plain\n                     Hew daily each other,\n                     While chosen the slain are.\n                     From the battle-field they ride\n                     And sit in peace with each other.\n\n\n                SECTION XVII. THE VALKYRIES (VALKYRJUR).\n\n\nAs the god of war, Odin sends out his maids to choose the fallen heroes\n(_kj\u00f3sa val_). They are called valkyries and valmaids (_valmeyar_). The\nvalkyries serve in Valhal, where they bear in the drink, take care of\nthe drinking-horns, and wait upon the table. Odin sends them to every\nfield of battle, to make choice of those who are to be slain and to sway\nthe victory. The youngest of the norns, Skuld, also rides forth to\nchoose the slain and turn the combat. More than a dozen valkyries are\nnamed in the Elder Edda, and all these have reference to the activities\nof war.\n\nThis myth about Odin as the god of war, about Valhal and the valkyries,\nexercised a great influence upon the mind and character of our\nancestors. The dying hero knows that the valkyries have been sent after\nhim to invite him home to Odin\u2019s hall, and he receives their message\nwith joy and gladness. That the brave were to be taken after death to\nValhal was one of the fundamental points, if not the soul, of the Norse\nreligion.[54] The Norsemen felt in their hearts that it was absolutely\nnecessary to be brave. Odin would not care for them, but despise and\nthrust them away from him, if they were not brave. And is there not some\ntruth in this doctrine? Is it not still a pre\u00ebminent duty to be brave?\nIs it not the first duty of man to subdue fear? What can we accomplish\nuntil we have got rid of fear? A man is a slave, a coward, his very\nthoughts are false, until he has got fear under his feet. Thus we find\nthat the Odinic doctrine, if we disentangle the real kernel and essence\nof it, is true even in our times. A man must be valiant\u2014he must march\nforward and acquit himself like a man. How much of a man he is will be\ndetermined in most cases by the completeness of his victory over fear.\nTheir views of Odin, Valhal and the valkyries made the Norsemen think it\na shame and misery not to die in battle; and if natural death seemed to\nbe coming on, they would cut wounds in their flesh, that Odin might\nreceive them as warriors slain. Old kings, about to die, had their\nbodies laid in a ship; the ship was sent forth with sails set, and a\nslow fire burning it, so that once out at sea it might blaze up in\nflame, and in such manner bury worthily the hero both in the sky and in\nthe ocean. The Norse viking fought with an indomitable, rugged energy.\nHe stood in the prow of his ship, silent, with closed lips, defying the\nwild ocean with its monsters, and all men and things. No Homer sang of\nthese Norse warriors and sea-kings, but their heroic deeds and wild\ndeaths are the ever-recurring theme of the skalds.\n\nThe death of the Norse viking is beautifully described in the following\nstrophe from Professor Hjalmar Hjorth Boyesen\u2019s poem, entitled _Odin\u2019s\nRavens_:\n\n                In the prow with head uplifted\n                Stood the chief like wrathful Thor;\n                Through his locks the snow-flakes drifted\n                Bleached their hue from gold to hoar.\n                Mid the crash of mast and rafter\n                Norsemen leaped through death with laughter\n                Up through Valhal\u2019s wide-flung door.\n\nRegner Lodbrok thus ends his famous song, the Kr\u00e1kum\u00e1l:\n\n                  Cease, my strain! I hear a voice\n                  From realms where martial souls rejoice;\n                  I hear the maids of slaughter call,\n                  Who bid me hence to Odin\u2019s hall:\n                  High-seated in their blest abodes\n                  I soon shall quaff the drink of gods.\n                  The hours of life have glided by,\n                  I fall, but smiling shall I die.\n\nAnd in the death-song of Hakon (_H\u00e1konarm\u00e1l_) we find the valkyries\nGondul and Skogul in the heat of battle:\n\n                           The god Tyr sent\n                           Gondul and Skogul\n                           To choose a king\n                           Of the race of Ingve,\n                           To dwell with Odin\n                           In roomy Valhal.\n\nThe battle being described, the skald continues:\n\n                         When lo! Gondul,\n                         Pointing with her spear,\n                         Said to her sister,\n                         Soon shall increase\n                         The band of the gods:\n                         To Odin\u2019s feast\n                         Hakon is bidden.\n\n                         The king beheld\n                         The beautiful maids\n                         Sitting on their horses\n                         In shining armor,\n                         Their shields before them,\n                         Solemnly thoughtful.\n\n                         The king heard\n                         The words of their lips,\n                         Saw them beckon\n                         With pale hands,\n                         And thus bespoke them:\n                         Mighty goddesses,\n                         Were we not worthy\n                         You should choose us\n                         A better doom?\n\n                         Skogul answered:\n                         Thy foes have fallen,\n                         Thy land is free,\n                         Thy fame is pure;\n                         Now we must ride\n                         To greener worlds,\n                         To tell Odin\n                         That Hakon comes.\n\nAn interpretation of the valkyries is not necessary. The god of war\nsends his thoughts and his will to the carnage of the battle-field in\nthe form of mighty armed women, in the same manner as he sends his\nravens over all the earth.\n\nEthically considered, then, Odin symbolizes the matchless hope of\nvictory that inspired the Norsemen, and from which their daring exploits\nsprang; and we know that this hope of victory did not leave the hero\nwhen he fell bleeding on the field of battle, but followed him borne in\nvalkyrian arms to Valhal, and thence he soared on eagle pinions to Gimle\non the everlasting hights.\n\nFootnote 35:\n\n  Compare _Shakespeare_\u2014Shylock and the pound of flesh:\n\n                 ... No jot of blood;\n                 The words expressly are \u201ca pound of flesh.\u201d\n\nFootnote 36:\n\n  Freyja, whom the gods had promised the giant, was Oder\u2019s wife.\n\nFootnote 37:\n\n  Jack the Giant-killer.\n\nFootnote 38:\n\n  The vala, or prophetess.\n\nFootnote 39:\n\n  Odin.\n\nFootnote 40:\n\n  Odin.\n\nFootnote 41:\n\n  See Vocabulary under the word _Mimer_.\n\nFootnote 42:\n\n  He who hardens the hide.\n\nFootnote 43:\n\n  Fence-breaker.\n\nFootnote 44:\n\n  Compare with this myth Dido and the founding of Carthage.\n\nFootnote 45:\n\n  Rind was daughter of Billing.\n\nFootnote 46:\n\n  The goddess of the sea.\n\nFootnote 47:\n\n  Suttung.\n\nFootnote 48:\n\n  Ygdrasil.\n\nFootnote 49:\n\n  Roots of trees were especially fitted for hurtful trolldom\n  (witchcraft). They produced mortal wounds.\n\nFootnote 50:\n\n  The old heathen Norsemen sprinkled their children with water when they\n  named them.\n\nFootnote 51:\n\n  The waker of the people.\n\nFootnote 52:\n\n  Odin.\n\nFootnote 53:\n\n  If the _North American Review_, or anybody else, thinks this is proof\n  of barbarism, we can refer them to the monks in Trier, who preserved\n  the skull of Saint Theodulf and gave sick people drink from it; and we\n  know several other such instances. Our Norse ancestors were not, then,\n  in this respect any more savage than the Christian bishops and monks.\n  See _North American Review_, January, 1875, p. 195.\n\nFootnote 54:\n\n  See Thomas Carlyle\u2019s _Heroes and Hero-worship_.\n\n\n\n\n                              CHAPTER II.\n                 HERMOD, TYR, HEIMDAL, BRAGE, AND IDUN.\n\n\n                           SECTION I. HERMOD.\n\n\nOdin\u2019s sons are emanations of his own being. As the god of war, warlike\nvalor is one of his servants, and honor another. He invents the art of\npoetry, but the execution of it he leaves to his son Brage. He does not\nmeddle with thunder, having left this work of a lower order to his son\nThor. He is the father of light and darkness, and he leaves the\nbeneficent light to diffuse itself and struggle with darkness\nindependently (Balder and Hoder). Nor does he himself watch the rainbow,\nbut let the watchful Heimdal take care of it.\n\nHermod (the valiant in combat) was the son of Odin and messenger of the\ngods. Odin himself gave him helmet and corselet, the means by which to\ndisplay his warlike character, and he is sent on all dangerous missions.\nOf his many exploits the most important one is when he was sent on\nSleipner to Hel to bring Balder back. It was Hermod and Brage who were\nsent to bid Hakon, the king, welcome, when he arrived at Valhal.\n\n\n                            SECTION II. TYR.\n\n\nTyr\u2019s name is preserved in Tuesday. He is the god of martial honor\n(compare the German _Zier_). Tyr is the most daring and intrepid of all\nthe gods. It is he who dispenses valor in war; hence warriors do well to\ninvoke him. It has become proverbial to say of a man who surpasses all\nothers in valor, that he is Tyr-strong, or valiant as Tyr. A man noted\nfor his wisdom is also said to be wise as Tyr. He gives a splendid proof\nof his intrepidity when the gods try to persuade the wolf Fenrer, as we\nshall see hereafter, to let himself be bound up with the chain Gleipner.\nThe wolf fearing that the gods would never afterwards unloose him,\nconsented to be bound only on the condition that while they were\nchaining him he should keep Tyr\u2019s hand between this jaws. Tyr did not\nhesitate to put his hand in the monster\u2019s mouth, but when the Fenriswolf\nperceived that the gods had no intention to unchain him, he bit the hand\noff at that point which has ever since been called the wolf\u2019s joint\n(_\u00falfli\u00f0r_), the wrist. From that time Tyr has but one hand.\n\nTyr is the son of Odin, and it is through him the latter, as the god of\nwar, awakens wild courage. Thus he is the god of honor, and when the\nnoble gods desire to tame the raging flames he naturally has to arouse\nall his courage and even sacrifice a part of himself, just as we\nfrequently have to sacrifice some of our comforts to keep clear of\nrogues and scoundrels.\n\n\n                   SECTION III. HEIMDAL. (HEIMDALLR).\n\n\nHeimdal is the son of Odin, and is called the white god (_hv\u00edti \u00e1ss_,\nthe pure, innocent god). He is the son of nine virgins, who were\nsisters, and is a very sacred and powerful deity. Thus he says in the\nElder Edda:\n\n                        Born was I of mothers nine,\n                        Son I am of sisters nine.\n\nHe also bears the appellation of the gold-toothed, for his teeth were of\npure gold, and the appellation Hallinskide (_hallinski\u00f0i_, the owner of\nthe vaulted arch). His horse is called Gulltop (_goldtop_), and he\ndwells in Himminbjorg, the mountains of heaven, at the end of Bifrost,\nthe rainbow. He is the warder of the gods, and is therefore placed on\nthe borders of heaven to prevent the giants from forcing their way over\nthe bridge. He requires less sleep than a bird and sees by night as well\nas by day a hundred miles around him. So acute is his ear that no sound\nescapes him, for he can even hear the grass growing on the earth and the\nwool on a sheep\u2019s back. He has a horn called Gjallar-horn, which is\nheard throughout the universe. Thus the Elder Edda, in the lay of\nGrimner:\n\n                       \u2019Tis Himminbjorg called\n                       Where Heimdal they say\n                       Hath dwelling and rule.\n                       There the gods\u2019 warder drinks\n                       In peaceful old halls\n                       Gladsome the good mead.\n\nHeimdal has a sword called Hofud (head); he figures at the death of\nBalder and appears in Ragnarok. Physically interpreted, Heimdal is the\ngod of the rainbow, but the brilliant rainbow most beautifully\nsymbolizes the favoring grace of the gods. The rainbow itself is called\n_\u00e1sbr\u00fa_ (asabridge) or Bifrost (the trembling way), and he who has seen\na perfect rainbow can appreciate how this resplendent arch among all\nraces has served as a symbol of peace, the bridge between heaven and\nearth, the bridge connecting the races of the earth with the gods. Did\nnot God in Genesis set his bow in the cloud that it should be for a\ntoken of a covenant between him and the earth? And when our poor\nlaboring masses get their taste cultivated for poetry, art, and\nmythological lore,\u2014when they have learned to appreciate our common\ninheritance,\u2014they will find that our Gothic history, folk-lore and\nmythology together form\n\n                                            A link\n                    That binds us to the skies,\n                    A bridge of _rainbows_ thrown across\n                    The gulf of tears and sighs.[55]\n\nIn Greece we find the goddess Iris as the impersonation of the rainbow;\nwhile in the Bible the rainbow is not personified, and in no\nmythological system does the graceful divinity of the rainbow enter so\nprominently into the affairs of men as does our Heimdal. In the first\nverse of V\u00f6lusp\u00e1, all mankind is called the sons of Heimdal, and this\nthought is developed in a separate lay in the Elder Edda, called\nRigsm\u00e1l, the lay of Rig (Heimdal), to which the reader is referred.\n\n\n                      SECTION IV. BRAGE AND IDUN.\n\n\nBrage is the son of Odin, and Idun is Brage\u2019s wife. Brage is celebrated\nfor his wisdom, but more especially for his eloquence and correct forms\nof speech. He is not only eminently skilled in poetry, but the art\nitself is from his name called _Brage_, which epithet is also used to\ndenote a distinguished poet or poetess. Runes are risted on his tongue.\nHe wears a long flowing beard, and persons with heavy beard are called\nafter him, beard-brage (_skeggbragi_). His wife Idun (_I\u00f0unn_) keeps in\na box the apples which the gods, when they feel old age approaching,\nhave only to taste of to become young again. It is in this manner they\nwill be kept in renovated youth until Ragnarok. This is a great treasure\ncommitted to the guardianship and good faith of Idun, and it shall be\nrelated how great a risk the gods once ran.\n\nAt the feast after the death of a king or jarl, it was customary among\nthe Norsemen for the heir to occupy a lower bench in front of the chief\nseat, until Brage\u2019s bowl was brought in. Then he arose, made a pledge,\nand drank the cup of Brage. After that he was conducted into the seat of\nhis father.\n\nAt the sacrificial feasts of the Norsemen, the conductor of the\nsacrifice consecrated the drinking-horns as well as the sacrificed food.\nThe guests first drank Odin\u2019s horn, for the victory and rule of the\nking; next they drank Njord\u2019s and Frey\u2019s horns, for prosperous seasons\nand for peace; and then many were accustomed to drink a horn to Brage,\nthe god of poetry. A characteristic ceremony in connection with this\nhorn was, that when the bowl was raised, the promise of performing some\ngreat deed was made, which might furnish material for the songs of the\nskalds. This makes the character of Brage perfectly clear.\n\nIdun\u2019s name is derived from the root _i\u00f0_, and expresses a constant\nactivity and renovation, which idea becomes more firmly established by\nthe following myth.\n\n\n                    SECTION V. IDUN AND HER APPLES.\n\n\n\u00c6ger, the god of the sea, who was well skilled in magic, went to Asgard,\nwhere the gods gave him a very good reception. Supper-time having come,\nthe twelve mighty gods, together with the goddesses Frigg, Freyja,\nGefjun, Idun, Gerd, Sigun, Fulla, and Nanna, seated themselves on their\nlofty doom seats, in a hall around which were arranged swords of such\nsurpassing brilliancy that no other light was necessary. While they were\nemptying their capacious drinking-horns, \u00c6ger, who sat next to Brage,\nrequested him to relate something concerning the asas. Brage instantly\ncomplied with his request by informing him of what had happened to Idun.\n\nOnce, he said, when Odin, Loke and H\u0153ner went on a journey, they came to\na valley where a herd of oxen were grazing, and, being sadly in want of\nprovisions, did not scruple to kill one for their supper. Vain, however,\nwere their efforts to boil the flesh; they found it, every time they\ntook the lid off the kettle, as raw as when first put in. While they\nwere endeavoring to account for this singular circumstance a noise was\nheard above them, and on looking up they beheld an enormous eagle\nperched on the branch of an oak tree. If you are willing to let me have\nmy share of the flesh, said the eagle, it shall soon be boiled. And on\nassenting to this proposal it flew down and snatched up a leg and two\nshoulders of the ox\u2014a proceeding which so incensed Loke that he picked\nup a large pole and made it fall pretty heavily on the eagle\u2019s back. It\nwas, however, not an eagle that Loke struck, but the renowned giant\nThjasse, clad in his eagle-plumage. Loke soon found this out to his\nsorrow, for while one end of the pole stuck fast to the eagle\u2019s back, he\nwas unable to let go his hold of the other end, and was consequently\ntrailed by the eagle-clad giant over rocks and forests until he was\nalmost torn to pieces, and he thought his arms would be pulled off at\nthe shoulders. Loke in this predicament began to sue for peace, but\nThjasse told him that he should never be released from his hold until he\nbound himself by a solemn oath to bring Idun and her apples out of\nAsgard. Loke very willingly gave his oath to bring about this, and went\nback in a piteous plight to his companions.\n\nOn his return to Asgard, Loke told Idun that in a forest not very far\nfrom the celestial residence he had found apples growing, which he\nthought were of a much better quality than her own, and that at all\nevents it was worth while to make a comparison between them. Idun,\ndeceived by his words, took her apples and went with him into the\nforest, but they had no sooner entered it than Thjasse, clad in his\neagle-plumage, flew rapidly toward them, and, catching up Idun, carried\nher and her treasure off with him to Jotunheim. The gods being thus\ndeprived of their renovating apples, soon became wrinkled and gray, old\nage was creeping fast upon them when they discovered that Loke had been,\nas usual, the contriver of all the mischief that had befallen them.\nInquiry was made about Idun in the assembly which was called, and the\nlast anybody knew about her was that she had been seen going out of\nAsgard in company with Loke. They therefore threatened him with torture\nand death if he did not instantly hit upon some expedient for bringing\nback Idun and her apples to Asgard. This threat terrified Loke, and he\npromised to bring her back from Jotunheim if Freyja would lend him her\nfalcon-plumage. He got the falcon-plumage of Freyja, flew in it to\nJotunheim, and finding that Thjasse was out at sea fishing, he lost no\ntime in transforming Idun into a nut and flying off with her in his\nclaws. But when Thjasse returned and became aware of what had happened,\nhe put on his eagle-plumage and flew after them. When the gods saw Loke\napproach, holding Idun changed into a nut between his claws, and Thjasse\nwith his outspread eagle-wings ready to overtake him, they placed on the\nwalls of Asgard bundles of chips, which they set fire to the instant\nLoke had flown over them; and as Thjasse could not stop his flight, the\nfire caught his plumage, and he thus fell into the power of the gods,\nwho slew him within the portals of the celestial residence.\n\nWhen these tidings came to Thjasse\u2019s daughter, Skade (_Ska\u00f0i_, German\n_Schade_, harm), she put on her armor and went to Asgard, fully\ndetermined to avenge her father\u2019s death; but the gods having declared\ntheir willingness to atone for the deed, an amicable arrangement was\nentered into. Skade was to choose a husband in Asgard, and the gods were\nto make her laugh, a feat which she flattered herself it would be\nimpossible for any one to accomplish. Her choice of a husband was to be\ndetermined by a mere inspection of the feet of the gods, it being\nstipulated that the feet should be the only part of their persons\nvisible until she had made known her determination. In inspecting the\nrow of feet placed before her, Skade took a fancy to a pair which from\ntheir fine proportions she thought certainly must be those of Balder. I\nchoose these, she said, for on Balder there is nothing unseemly. The\nfeet were however Njord\u2019s, and Njord was given her for a husband; and as\nLoke managed to make her laugh by playing some diverting antics with a\ngoat, the atonement was fully effected. It is even said that Odin did\nmore than had been stipulated, by taking out Thjasse\u2019s eyes and placing\nthem to shine as stars in the firmament.\n\nThis myth, interpreted by the visible workings of nature, means that\nIdun (the ever-renovating spring) being in the possession of Thjasse\n(the desolating winter), all the gods\u2014that is, all nature\u2014languishes\nuntil she is delivered from her captivity. On this being effected, her\npresence again diffuses joy and gladness, and all things revive; while\nher pursuer, winter, with his icy breath, dissolves in the solar rays\nindicated by the fires lighted on the walls of Asgard. The wintry blasts\nrage so fearfully in the flames, that the flesh cannot be boiled, and\nthe wind even carries a burning (Loke) stick with it. The ethical\ninterpretation will suggest itself to every reader, and Idun is to\nBrage, who sings among the trees and by the musical brooks of spring,\nwhat a poetical contemplation of the busy forces of nature in producing\nblossoms and ripening fruit must always be to every son of Brage.\n\nFootnote 55:\n\n  Barry Cornwall.\n\n\n\n\n                              CHAPTER III.\n               BALDER AND NANNA, HODER, VALE AND FORSETE.\n\n\n                           SECTION I. BALDER.\n\n\nBalder is the favorite of all nature, of all the gods and of men. He is\nson of Odin and Frigg, and it may be truly said of him that he is the\nbest god, and that all mankind are loud in his praise. So fair and\ndazzling is he in form and features, that rays of light seem to issue\nfrom him; and we may form some idea of the beauty of his hair when we\nknow that the _whitest of all plants_ is called _Balder\u2019s brow_.[56]\nBalder is the mildest, the wisest and the most eloquent of all the gods,\nyet such is his nature that the judgment he has pronounced can never be\naltered. He dwells in the heavenly mansion called Breidablik (the\nbroad-shining splendor), into which nothing unclean can enter. Thus the\nElder Edda, in the lay of Grimner:\n\n                         Breidablik is the seventh,\n                         Where Balder has\n                         Built for himself a hall,\n                         In that land\n                         In which I know exists\n                         The fewest crimes.\n\n\n               SECTION II. THE DEATH OF BALDER THE GOOD.\n\n\nThis was an event which the asas deemed of great importance. Balder the\nGood having been tormented by terrible dreams, indicating that his life\nwas in great peril, communicated them to the assembled gods, who,\nsorrow-stricken, resolved to conjure all things to avert from him the\nthreatened danger. Then Frigg exacted an oath from fire and water, from\niron and all other metals, as well as from stones, earths, diseases,\nbeasts, birds, poisons, and creeping things, that none of them would do\nany harm to Balder. Still Odin feared that the prosperity of the gods\nhad vanished. He saddled his Sleipner and rode down to Niflheim, where\nthe dog from Hel met him; it was bloody on the breast and barked a long\ntime at Odin. Odin advanced; the earth trembled beneath him, and he came\nto the high dwelling of Hel. East of the door he knew the grave of the\nvala was situated; thither he rode and sang magic songs (_kva\u00f0 galdra_),\nuntil she unwillingly stood up and asked who disturbed her peace, after\nshe had been lying so long covered with snow and wet with dew. Odin\ncalled himself Vegtam, a son of Valtam, and asked for whom the benches\nwere strewn with rings and the couches were swimming in gold. She\nreplied that the mead was brewed for Balder, but all the gods would\ndespair. When Odin asked further who should be Balder\u2019s bane, she\nanswered that Hoder would hurl the famous branch and become the bane of\nOdin\u2019s son; but Rind should give birth to a son who, only one night old,\nshould wield a sword, and would neither wash his hands nor comb his hair\nbefore he had avenged his brother. But recognizing Odin by an\nenigmatical question, she said: You are not Vegtam, as I believed, but\nyou are Odin, the old ruler. Odin replied: You are no vala, but the\nmother of three giants. Then the vala told Odin to ride home and boast\nof his journey, but assured him that no one should again visit her thus\nbefore Loke should be loosed from his chains and the ruin of the gods\nhad come. Thus the lay of Vegtam in the Elder Edda:\n\n                    Together were the gods\n                    All in council,\n                    And the goddesses\n                    All in conference;\n                    And they consulted\n                    The mighty gods,\n                    Why Balder had\n                    Oppressive dreams.\n\n                    To that god his slumber\n                    Was most afflicting;\n                    His auspicious dreams\n                    Seemed departed.\n                    They the giants questioned,\n                    Wise seers of the future,\n                    Whether this might not\n                    Forebode calamity.\n\n                    The responses said\n                    That to death destined was\n                    Uller\u2019s kinsman,\n                    Of all the dearest:\n                    That caused grief\n                    To Frigg and Svafner,\n                    And to the other powers,\u2014\n                    On a course they resolved:\n\n                    That they would send\n                    To every being,\n                    Assurance to solicit,\n                    Balder not to harm.\n                    All species swore\n                    Oaths to spare him:\n                    Frigg received all\n                    Their vows and compacts.\n\n                    Valfather fears\n                    Something defective;\n                    He thinks the haminjes[57]\n                    May have departed;\n                    The gods he convenes,\n                    Their counsel craves;\n                    At the deliberation\n                    Much is devised.\n\n                    Up stood Odin,\n                    Lord of men,\n                    And on Sleipner he\n                    The saddle laid;\n                    Rode he thence down\n                    To Niflheim.\n                    A dog he met,\n                    From Hel coming.\n\n                    It was blood-stained\n                    On its breast,\n                    On its slaughter-craving throat,\n                    And nether jaw.\n                    It barked\n                    And widely gaped\n                    At the father of magic song;\n                    Long it howled.\n\n                    Forth rode Odin\u2014\n                    The ground thundered\u2014\n                    Till to Hel\u2019s lofty\n                    House he came;\n                    Then rode Ygg (Odin)\n                    To the eastern gate,\n                    Where he knew there was\n                    A vala\u2019s grave.\n\n                    To the prophetess he began\n                    A magic song to chant,\n                    Toward the north looked,\n                    Potent runes applied,\n                    A spell pronounced,\n                    An answer demanded,\n                    Until compelled she rose\n                    And with death-like voice she said:\n\n\n                    THE VALA:\n\n                    What man is this,\n                    To me unknown,\n                    Who has for me increased\n                    An irksome course?\n                    I have with snow been decked,\n                    By rain beaten,\n                    And with dew moistened,\u2014\n                    Long have I been dead.\n\n\n                    VEGTAM:\n\n                    Vegtam is my name,\n                    I am Valtam\u2019s son.\n                    Tell thou me of Hel;\n                    From earth I call on thee.\n                    For whom are these benches\n                    Strewed o\u2019er with rings,\u2014\n                    Those costly couches\n                    O\u2019erlaid with gold?\n\n\n                    THE VALA:\n\n                    Here stands mead\n                    For Balder brewed,\n                    Over the bright drink\n                    A shield is laid;\n                    But the race of gods\n                    Is in despair.\n                    By compulsion I have spoken,\n                    Now will I be silent.\n\n\n                    VEGTAM:\n\n                    Be not silent, vala!\n                    I will question thee\n                    Until all I know:\n                    I will yet know\n                    Who will Balder\u2019s\n                    Slayer be\n                    And Odin\u2019s son\n                    Of life bereave.\n\n\n                    THE VALA:\n\n                    Hoder will hither\n                    His glorious brother send;\n                    He of Balder will\n                    The slayer be,\n                    And Odin\u2019s son\n                    Of life bereave.\n                    By compulsion I have spoken,\n                    Now will I be silent.\n\n\n                    VEGTAM:\n\n                    Be not silent, vala!\n                    I will question thee\n                    Until all I know:\n                    I will yet know\n                    Who on Hoder vengeance\n                    Will inflict,\n                    Or Balder\u2019s slayer\n                    Raise on the pile.\n\n\n                    THE VALA:\n\n                    Rind a son shall bear\n                    In the wintry halls:\n                    He shall slay Odin\u2019s son,\n                    When one night old.\n                    He a hand will not wash,\n                    Nor his hair comb,\n                    Ere to the pile he has borne\n                    Balder\u2019s adversary.\n                    By compulsion I have spoken,\n                    Now will I be silent.\n\n\n                    VEGTAM:\n\n                    Be not silent, vala!\n                    I will question thee\n                    Until all I know:\n                    I will yet know\n                    Who are the maids\n                    That weep at will\n                    And heavenward cast\n                    Their neck-veils.\n                    Tell me that;\n                    Till then thou sleepest not.\n\n\n                    THE VALA:\n\n                    Not Vegtam art thou,\n                    As I before believed;\n                    Rather art thou Odin,\n                    Lord of men.\n\n\n                    ODIN:\n\n                    Thou art no vala,\n                    Nor wise woman;\n                    Rather art thou the mother\n                    Of three thurses (giants).\n\n\n                    THE VALA:\n\n                    Home ride thou, Odin!\n                    And exult.\n                    Thus shall never more\n                    Man again visit me\n                    Until Loke free\n                    From his bonds escapes,\n                    And Ragnarok\n                    All-destroying comes.\n\nWhen it had been made known that nothing in the world would harm Balder,\nit became a favorite pastime of the gods, at their meetings, to get\nBalder to stand up and serve them as a mark, some hurling darts at him,\nsome stones, while others hewed at him with their swords and\nbattle-axes; for whatever they did none of them could harm him, and this\nwas regarded by all as a great honor shown to Balder. But when Loke\nLaufeyarson beheld the scene he was sorely vexed that Balder was not\nhurt. Assuming, therefore, the guise of a woman he went to Fensal, the\nmansion of Frigg. That goddess, seeing the pretended woman, inquired of\nher whether she knew what the gods were doing at their meetings. The\nwoman (Loke) replied that they were throwing darts and stones at Balder,\nwithout being able to hurt him.\n\nAy, said Frigg, neither metal nor wood can hurt Balder, for I have\nexacted an oath from all of them.\n\nWhat! exclaimed the woman, have all things sworn to spare Balder?\n\nAll things, replied Frigg, except one little shrub that grows on the\neastern side of Valhal, and is called mistletoe, and which I thought too\nyoung and feeble to crave an oath from.\n\nAs soon as Loke heard this he went away, and, resuming his natural form,\npulled up the mistletoe and repaired to the place where the gods were\nassembled. There he found Hoder standing far to one side without\nengaging in the sport, on account of his blindness. Loke going up to him\nsaid: Why do not you also throw something at Balder?\n\nBecause I am blind, answered Hoder, and cannot see where Balder is, and\nbesides I have nothing to throw with.\n\nCome then, said Loke, do like the rest, and show honor to Balder by\nthrowing this twig at him, and I will direct your arm toward the place\nwhere he stands.\n\nHoder then took the mistletoe, and under the guidance of Loke darted it\nat Balder, who, pierced through and through, fell down lifeless. Surely\nnever was there witnessed, either among gods or men, a more atrocious\ndeed than this! When Balder fell the gods were struck speechless with\nhorror, and then they looked at each other; and all were of one mind to\nlay hands on him who had done the deed, but they were obliged to delay\ntheir vengeance out of respect for the sacred place (place of peace)\nwhere they were assembled. They at length gave vent to their grief by\nsuch loud lamentations that they were not able to express their grief to\none another. Odin, however, felt this misfortune most severely, because\nhe knew best how great was the mischief and the loss which the gods had\nsustained by the death of Balder. When the gods were a little composed,\nFrigg asked who among them wished to gain all her love and favor by\nriding to the lower world to try and find Balder, and offer a ransom to\nHel if she will permit Balder to return to Asgard; whereupon Hermod,\nsurnamed the Nimble, offered to undertake the journey. Odin\u2019s horse,\nSleipner, was then led forth and prepared for the journey; Hermod\nmounted him and galloped hastily away.\n\nThe god then took the dead body of Balder and carried it to the sea,\nwhere lay Balder\u2019s ship, Ringhorn, which was the largest of all ships.\nBut when they wanted to launch this ship, in order to make Balder\u2019s\nfuneral pile on it, they were unable to move it from the place. In this\npredicament they sent a messenger to Jotunheim for a certain giantess\nnamed Hyrroken (the smoking fire), who came riding on a wolf and had\ntwisted serpents for her reins. As soon as she alighted Odin ordered\nfour berserks to hold her steed, but they were obliged to throw the\nanimal down on the ground before they could manage it. Hyrroken then\nwent to the prow of the ship, and with a single push set it afloat; but\nthe motion was so violent that fire sparkled from the underlaid rollers\nand the whole earth shook. Thor, enraged at the sight, grasped his\nmallet and would have broken the woman\u2019s skull, had not the gods\ninterceded for her. Balder\u2019s body was then carried to the funeral pile\non board the ship, and this ceremony had such an effect upon Balder\u2019s\nwife, Nanna, daughter of Nep, that her heart broke with grief, and her\nbody was laid upon the same pile and burned with that of her husband.\nThor stood beside the pile and consecrated it with his hammer Mjolner.\nBefore his feet sprang up a dwarf called Lit. Thor kicked him with his\nfoot into the fire, so that he also was burned. There was a vast\nconcourse of various kinds of people at Balder\u2019s funeral procession.\nFirst of all came Odin, accompanied by Frigg, the valkyries, and his\nravens. Then came Frey in his chariot, drawn by the boar Gullinburste\n(gold-brush), or Slidrugtanne (the sharp-toothed). Heimdal rode his\nhorse Goldtop, and Freyja drove in her chariot drawn by cats. There were\nalso a great number of frost-giants and mountain-giants present. Odin\ncast upon the funeral pile the famous ring Draupner, which had been made\nfor him by the dwarfs, and possessed the property of producing every\nninth night eight rings of equal weight. Balder\u2019s horse, fully\ncaparisoned, was also laid upon the pile, and consumed in the same\nflames with the body of his master.\n\nMeanwhile Hermod was proceeding on his mission. Of him it is to be\nrelated that he rode nine days and as many nights through dark and deep\nvalleys, so dark that he could not discern anything, until he came to\nthe river Gjol and passed over the Gjallar bridge (bridge over the river\nGjol), which is covered with glittering gold. Modgud, the maiden who\nkept the bridge, asked him his name and parentage, and added that the\nday before five fylkes (kingdoms, bands) of dead men had ridden over the\nbridge; but, she said, it did not shake as much beneath all of them\ntogether as it does under you alone, and you have not the complexion of\nthe dead; why then do you ride here on your way to Hel? I ride to Hel,\nanswered Hermod, to seek for Balder; have you perchance seen him pass\nthis way? She replied that Balder had ridden over the Gjallar bridge,\nand that the road to the abodes of death (to Hel) lay downward and\ntoward the north.\n\nHermod then continued his journey until he came to the barred gates of\nHel. Then he alighted from his horse, drew the girths tighter, remounted\nhim and clapped both spurs into him. The horse cleared the gate with a\ntremendous leap without touching it. Hermod then rode forward to the\npalace, alighted and went in, where he found his brother Balder\noccupying the most distinguished seat in the hall, and spent the night\nin his company. The next morning he entreated Hel (death) to let Balder\nride home with him, representing to her the sorrow which prevailed among\nthe gods. Hel replied that it should now be tried whether Balder was so\nuniversally beloved as he was said to be; if therefore, she added, all\nthings in the world, the living as well as the lifeless, will weep for\nhim, then he shall return to the gods, but if anything speak against him\nor refuse to weep, then Hel will keep him.\n\nAfter this Hermod rose up. Balder went with him out of the hall and gave\nhim the ring Draupner, to present as a keepsake to Odin. Nanna sent\nFrigg a carpet together with several other gifts, and to Fulla she sent\na gold finger-ring. Hermod then rode back to Asgard and related\neverything that he had heard and witnessed.\n\nThe gods upon this dispatched messengers throughout all the world to\nbeseech everything to weep, in order that Balder might be delivered from\nthe power of Hel. All things very willingly complied with the\nrequest,\u2014men, animals, the earth, stones, trees, and all metals, just as\nwe see things weep when they come out of the frost into the warm air.\nWhen the messengers were returning, with the conviction that their\nmission had been quite successful, they found on their way home a\ngiantess (ogress, Icel. _g\u00fdgr_), who called herself Thok. They bade her\nalso weep Balder out of the dominion of Hel. But she answered:\n\n                        Thok will weep\n                        With dry tears[58]\n                        For Balder\u2019s death;\n                        Neither in life nor in death\n                        Gave he me gladness.\n                        Let Hel keep what she has.\n\nIt is supposed that this giantess (_g\u00fdgr_) was no other than Loke\nLaufeyarson himself, who had caused the gods so many other troubles.\nThus the Elder Edda refers to the death of Balder in V\u00f6lusp\u00e1:\n\n                        I saw the concealed\n                        Fate of Balder,\n                        The blood-stained god,\n                        The son of Odin.\n                        In the fields\n                        There stood grown up,\n                        Slender and passing fair,\n                        The mistletoe.\n\n                        From that shrub was made,\n                        As to me it seemed,\n                        A deadly noxious dart;\n                        Hoder shot it forth;\n                        But Frigg bewailed\n                        In Fensal\n                        Valhal\u2019s calamity.\n                        Understand ye yet, or what?\n\nTo conquer Vafthrudner, and to reveal himself, Odin asks him to solve\nthis last problem:\n\n                        What said Odin\n                        In his son\u2019s ear,\n                        Ere he on the pile was laid?\n\nThis is the question that Vafthrudner was unable to answer, and hence he\nhad to forfeit his head. N. M. Petersen thinks that Odin whispered into\nBalder\u2019s ear the name of the supreme god.\n\nThis myth about the death of Balder finds an apt explanation in the\nseasons of the year, in the change from light to darkness, in Norseland.\nBalder represents the bright and clear summer, when twilight and\ndaybreak kiss each other and go hand in hand in these northern\nlatitudes. His death by Hoder is the victory of darkness over light, the\ndarkness of winter over the light of summer, and the revenge by Vale is\nthe breaking forth of new light after the wintry darkness.\n\nIn this connection it is also worthy of notice that there used to be a\ncustom, which is now nearly forgotten, of celebrating the banishment of\ndeath or darkness, the strife between winter and summer, together with\nthe arrival of the May-king and election of the May-queen. Forgotten!\nyes, well may we ask how it could come to pass that we through long\ncenturies have worried and tortured ourselves with every scrap of Greek\nand Latin we could find, without caring the least for our own beautiful\nand profound memories of the past. Death was carried out in the image of\na tree and thrown in the water or burned. In the spring two men\nrepresent summer and winter, the one clad in wintergreen or leaves, the\nother in straw. They have a large company of attendants with them, armed\nwith staves, and they fight with each other until winter (or death) is\nsubdued. They prick his eyes out or throw him into the water. These\ncustoms, which prevailed throughout the middle ages, had their root and\norigin in the ancient myth given above.\n\nNo myth can be clearer than this one of Balder. The Younger Edda says\ndistinctly that he is so fair and dazzling in form and features that\nrays of light seem to issue from him. Balder, then, is the god of light,\nthe light of the world. Light is the best thing we have in the world; it\nis white and pure; it cannot be wounded; no shock can disturb it;\nnothing in the world can kill it excepting its own negative, darkness\n(Hoder). Loke (fire) is jealous of it; the pure light of heaven and the\nblaze of fire are each other\u2019s eternal enemies. Balder does not fight,\nthe mythology gives no exploits by him; he only shines and dazzles,\nconferring blessings upon all, and this he continues to do steadfast and\nunchangeable, until darkness steals upon him, darkness that does not\nitself know what harm it is doing; and when Balder is dead, cries of\nlamentation are heard throughout all nature. All nature seeks light.\nDoes not the eye of the child seek the light of the morning, and does\nnot the child weep when light vanishes, when night sets in? Does not\nthis myth of Balder repeat itself in the old man, who like G\u0153the, when\ndeath darkened his eyes, cried out: _mehr licht_ (more light)? Does not\nthe eagle from the loftiest pinnacle of the mountain seek light? The\nlark soars on his lofty pinions and greets in warbling notes the king of\nday welcome back into his kingdom. The tree firmly rooted in the ground\nstrains toward the light, spreading upward in search of it. The bird of\npassage on his free wing flies after and follows the light. Is it not\nthe longing after light that draws the bird southward in the fall when\nthe days shorten in the north, and draws the little wanderer back again\nas soon as the long northern days set in with all their luminous and\nlong-drawn hours? As Runeberg epigrammatically has it:\n\n                   The bird of passage is of noble birth;\n                   He bears a motto, and his motto is,\n                   _Lux mea dux_, Light is my leader.\n\nNay all living things, even the shells in the sea, every leaf of the oak\nand every blade of grass seeks light, and the blind poet sings:\n\n             Hail, holy light! offspring of heaven first born!\n             He that hath light within his own clear breast\n             May sit in the center and enjoy bright day;\n             But he that hides a dark soul and foul thoughts\n             Benighted walks under the midday sun.[59]\n\nAnd another bard:\n\n                      Light down from heaven descends,\n                      Ether pure in flowing bowls;\n                      Light up to heaven ascends,\n                      A mediator for our souls.\n\nAy, it would be resting satisfied with the shell to interpret Balder as\nthe mere impersonation of the natural light of heaven. He represents and\nsymbolizes in the profoundest sense the heavenly light of the soul and\nof the mind, purity, innocence, piety. There can be no doubt that our\nancestors combined the ethical with the physical in this myth. All light\ncomes from heaven. The natural light shines into and illuminates the\neye, the spiritual shines into and illuminates the heart. Innocence\ncannot be wounded. Arrogance and jealousy throw their pointed arrows of\nslander at it, but they fall harmless to the ground. But there is one\ninclination, one unguarded spot among our other strong guarded passions.\nThe mischief-maker knows how to find this and innocence is pierced. When\nBalder dies, a dark veil enshrouds all nature, and thus history clothes\nherself in mourning, not because the hero dies, but because the innocent\nLincoln is pierced by the bullet of the foul assassin, who turns to the\nnight and flees. Every time light is slain by darkness it is the\nbeautiful and good that is stricken down, but it is never stricken down\nexcept to return and shine with increased splendor. Balder dies in\nnature when the woods are stripped of their foliage, when the flowers\nfade and the storms of winter howl. Balder dies in the spiritual world\nwhen the good are led away from the paths of virtue, when the soul\nbecomes dark and gloomy, forgetting its heavenly origin. Balder returns\nin nature when the gentle winds of spring stir the air, when the\nnightingale\u2019s high note is heard in the heavens, and the flowers are\nunlocked to paint the laughing soil, when light takes the place of gloom\nand darkness; Balder returns in the spiritual world when the lost soul\nfinds itself again, throws off the mantle of darkness, and like a\nshining spirit soars on wings of light to heaven, to God, who gave it.\n\nThe flower which is sacred to Balder, the Balder\u2019s brow, is the\n_anthemis cotula_. It is a complete flower with a yellow disc and white\nrays, a symbol of the sun with its beaming light, a sunflower. What a\npoetical thought! The light pouring down upon the earth from beneath\nBalder\u2019s eye-brows, and the hairs of his eye-lids are the beams. What a\ntheme for a Correggio, who succeeded so well in painting the innocence\nof woman beaming from her half-closed eyes!\n\nBalder\u2019s wife is Nanna. She dies broken-hearted at his death. She is the\nfloral goddess who always turns her smiling face toward the sun. Her\nfather was Nep (_nepr_, a bud), son of Odin. Nanna\u2019s and Balder\u2019s\nsending the ring Draupner to Odin, a carpet to Frigg, and a ring to\nFulla, has been explained heretofore, and how beautifully it symbolizes\nthe return of earth\u2019s flowery carpet, with fruitfulness and abundance,\nwill be evident to every thoughtful reader.\n\nThe sorrow of all nature we easily understand when we know that Loke\nrepresents fire and Balder is gone to Hel. All things weep, become damp,\nwhen brought from the cold to the warm air, excepting fire, and we\nremember that Thok, that is, Loke in disguise, wept dry tears (sparks);\nbut all genuine tears are caused by a change of the heart from coldness\nto warmth. It is a common expression in Iceland yet to say that the\nstones, when covered with dew, weep for Balder (_gr\u00e1ta Baldr_). Balder\u2019s\nship, Ringhorn, is rightly called the largest of all ships. Ringhorn is\nthe whole world, and the whole earth is Balder\u2019s funeral pile. The tops\nof the mountains are the masts of this ship, which is round (ring) as\nthe whirling world.\n\nIt is time we ceased talking about our barbarous ancestors, for, if we\nrightly comprehend this myth of Balder, we know that they appreciated,\nnay, profoundly and poetically appreciated, the light that fills the eye\nand blesses the heart, and were sensitive to the pain that cuts through\nthe bosom of man even into its finest and most delicate fibers. In this\nmyth of Balder is interwoven the most delicate feelings with the\nsublimest sentiments. Read it and comprehend it. Let the ear and heart\nand soul be open to the voiceless music that breathes through it. And\nwhen you have thus read this myth, in connection with the other myths\nand in connection with the best Sagas, then do not say another word\nabout the North not having any literature! Thanks be to the norns, that\nthe monks and priests, whose most zealous work it was to root out the\nmemories of the past and reduce the gods of our fathers to commonplace\ndemons, did not succeed in their devastating mission in faithful\nIceland! Thanks be to Shakespeare, that he did not forget the stern,\nmajestic, impartial and beautiful norns, even though he did change them\ninto the wrinkled witches that figure in Macbeth! Nay, that this our\nancient mythology, in spite of the wintry blasts that have swept over\nit, in spite of the piercing cold to which it has been exposed at the\nhand of those who thought they came with healing for the nations, in\nspite of all the persecution it has suffered from monks and bishops,\nprofessors and kings; that it, in spite of all these, has been able to\nbud and blossom in our Teutonic folk-lore, our May-queens, and popular\nlife, is proof of the strong vital force it contained, and proof, too,\nof the vigorous thought of our forefathers who preserved it. And nowhere\nis this more evident than in Norway. These stories which have their root\nin the Norse mythology have been handed down by word of month from\ngeneration to generation with remarkable fidelity. Look at those long\nand narrow and deep valleys of Norway! Those great clefts are deep\nfurrows plowed in the mountain mass in order that it might yield a\nbountiful crop of folk-lore, the seed of which is the Edda mythology.\nLet us give our children a share in the harvest!\n\n\n                         SECTION III. FORSETE.\n\n\nForsete is the son of Balder and Nanna. He possesses the heavenly\nmansion called Glitner, and all disputants at law who bring their cases\nbefore him go away perfectly reconciled. His tribunal is the best that\nis to be found among gods and men. Thus the Elder Edda, in the lay of\nGrimner:\n\n                       Glitner is the tenth mansion;\n                       It is on gold sustained,\n                       And also with silver decked.\n                       There Forsete dwells\n                       Throughout all time,\n                       And every strife allays.\n\nForsete means simply _president_. The island Helgoland was formerly\ncalled Forseteland. Justice was dealt out in Norseland during the bright\nseason of the year, and only while the sun was up, in the open air, in\nthe flowering lap of nature. The sanctity of the assembly and purity of\njustice is expressed by the golden columns and the silver roof of\nGlitner. The splendor of Balder shone upon his son.\n\nFootnote 56:\n\n  The _anthemis cotula_ is generally called _Baldersbraa_ in the North.\n\nFootnote 57:\n\n  Guardian spirits.\n\nFootnote 58:\n\n  The sparks of fire are dry tears.\n\nFootnote 59:\n\n  Milton.\n\n\n\n\n                              CHAPTER IV.\n                   THOR, HIS WIFE SIF AND SON ULLER.\n\n\n                      SECTION I. GENERAL SYNOPSIS.\n\n\nTHOR (_\u00fe\u00f3rr_, _\u00feunarr_, Anglo-Saxon _\u00feunor_, German _donner_, thunder),\nafter whom Thursday is named (Thor\u2019s-day), is the chief god next after\nOdin. He is a spring god, subduing the frost-giants.\n\nThor wears a red beard, his nature is fire, he is girded with the belt\nof strength, swings a hammer in his hand, rides in a chariot drawn by\ntwo goats, from whose hoofs and teeth sparks of fire flash, and the\nscarlet cloud reflects his fiery eyes, over his head he wears a crown of\nstars, under his feet rests the earth, and it shows the footprints of\nhis mighty steps. He is called Asathor and also Akethor (from _aka_, to\nride), and is the strongest of gods and men. He is enormously strong and\nterrible when angry, but, as is so frequently the case with very strong\nmen, his great strength is coupled with a thoroughly inoffensive\ngood-nature. His realm is named Thrudvang and his mansion Bilskirner, in\nwhich are five hundred and forty halls. It is the largest house ever\nbuilt. Thus the Elder Edda, in the lay of Grimner:\n\n                          Five hundred halls\n                          And forty more\n                          Methinks has\n                          Bowed Bilskirner;\n                          Of houses roofed\n                          There is none I know\n                          My son\u2019s[60] surpassing.\n\nThor\u2019s chariot is drawn by two goats, called Tanngnjost and Tanngrisner.\nIt is from his driving about in this chariot he is called Akethor\n(charioteer-Thor). He possesses three very precious articles. The first\nis a mallet called Mjolner, which both the frost and mountain giants\nknow to their cost, when they see it hurled against them in the air; and\nno wonder, for it has split many a skull of their fathers and kindred.\nThe second rare thing he possesses is called the belt of strength or\nprowess (Megingjarder). When he girds it about him his divine strength\nis redoubled. The third precious article which he possesses is his iron\ngauntlet, which he is obliged to put on whenever he lays hold on the\nhandle of his mallet. No one is so wise as to be able to relate all\nThor\u2019s marvelous exploits.\n\nNow the reader will easily comprehend the following beautiful strophes\nfrom the pen of Longfellow,[61] who has so ingeniously sprinkled his\nliterature with dews from Ygdrasil:\n\n                        I am the god Thor,\n                        I am the war god,\n                        I am the Thunderer!\n                        Here in my Northland,\n                        My fastness and fortress,\n                        Reign I forever!\n\n                        Here amid icebergs\n                        Rule I the nations;\n                        This is my hammer,\n                        Mjolner, the mighty\n                        Giants and sorcerers\n                        Cannot withstand it!\n\n                        These are the gauntlets\n                        Wherewith I wield it\n                        And hurl it afar off;\n                        This is my girdle,\n                        Whenever I brace it\n                        Strength is redoubled!\n\n                        The light thou beholdest\n                        Stream through the heavens,\n                        In flashes of crimson,\n                        Is but my red beard\n                        Blown by the night-wind,\n                        Affrighting the nations.\n\n                        Jove is my brother;\n                        Mine eyes are the lightning;\n                        The wheels of my chariot\n                        Roll in the thunder,\n                        The blows of my hammer\n                        Ring in the earthquake!\n\n                        Force rules the world still,\n                        Has ruled it, shall rule it;\n                        Meekness is weakness,\n                        Strength is triumphant;\n                        Over the whole earth\n                        Still is Thor\u2019s-day!\n\nThor is the father of Magne, whose mother is Jarnsaxa, and of Mode. He\nis the husband of Sif and step-father of Uller; he is the protector of\nAsgard and Midgard, and is frequently called Midgardsveor; his servants\nare Thjalfe, and the sister of the latter, Roskva. Among Thor\u2019s several\nnames the most common ones are Vingthor, Vingner, and Hlorride. All this\nof course has reference to him as the god of thunder. Thor, as has been\nobserved, is \u00feunarr, thunder. Thrudvang, his realm, is the heavy compact\ncloud, where he reigns; his mansion, Bilskirner (_bil-skirnir_), are the\nflushes of lightning that for a moment (_bil_[62]) light up the heavens;\nhis goats, Tanngnjost (teeth-gnasher) and Tanngrisner (fire-flashing\nteeth), symbolize the flashes of lightning, and so does also his red\nbeard. Mjolner, his hammer, is the crusher (compare the English word\n_mill_[63]); his belt, Megingjarder, is the girdle of strength; his\nsons, Magne and Mode, symbolize strength and courage. Vingthor is the\nflying thunderstorm and Hlorride is he who rides in the flaming chariot.\nHis servant Thjalfe is the busy one, and Roskva is the rapid or nimble\none. That Thor is the god of thunder is also most clearly shown in the\nYounger Edda, where it is related that Thor goes on foot and is obliged\nevery day to wade the rivers Kormt and Ormt, and two others called\nKerlaung, when he goes to sit in judgment with the other gods at the\nUrdar-fount, and cannot ride, as do the other gods. If he did not walk\nas he goes to the doomstead under the ash Ygdrasil, the Asabridge would\nbe in flames and the holy waters would become boiling hot, that is, if\nThor should drive over Bifrost in his thunder-chariot.\n\nThor\u2019s wife, Sif, is another symbol of the earth. She is called the\nfair-haired. Gold is called Sif\u2019s hair on account of the myth already\nrelated, according to which Loke cuts off her hair and gets dwarfs to\nforge for her golden locks. The interpreters of mythology are not\nwilling to give to Sif the field waving with ripe grain, which belongs\nto the god Frey, being symbolized by his boar Goldenbristle, but say\nthat Sif is the mountain clad with grass, in contradistinction to\nJarnsaxa, who reigns in the barren deserts. Hrungner, that is, the naked\nrock, tried to win the favor of Sif, but did not succeed.\n\nUller is the son of Sif and the step-son of Thor. He is so well skilled\nin the use of the bow, and can go so fast on his snow-skates (_skees_),\nthat in these arts no one can contend with him. He is also very handsome\nin his person and possesses every quality of a warrior; wherefore it is\nproper to invoke him in single combats. Uller\u2019s mansion is Ydaler\n(valleys of rain). From his running on skees we judge that he is a\npersonification of winter, and if the artist chooses him for his theme,\nhe must represent him standing on snow-shoes, clad in winter-suit, with\nbow and arrow in his hands. We are now prepared to give some of Thor\u2019s\nadventures.\n\n\n                     SECTION II. THOR AND HRUNGNER.\n\n\nThor had once gone eastward to crush trolls, but Odin rode on his horse,\nSleipner, to Jotunheim, and came to a giant by name Hrungner. Then asked\nHrungner what man that was, who with a helmet of gold rode through the\nair and over the sea, and added that it was an extraordinarily good\nhorse he had. Odin replied that he would wager his head that so good a\nhorse could not be found in Jotunheim. Hrungner said that it was indeed\na very excellent horse, but he had one, by name Goldfax (gold-mane),\nthat could take much longer paces, and he immediately sprang upon his\nhorse and galloped away after Odin. Odin constantly kept ahead, but\nHrungner\u2019s giant nature had become so excited that before he was himself\naware of it he had come within the gates of Asgard. When he came to the\ndoor of the hall the gods invited him to drink, which as soon as he had\nentered he demanded. Then the gods set before him the bowls out of which\nThor was accustomed to drink, and them he emptied each in one draught.\nAnd when he had become drunk, he gave the freest vent to his loud\nboastings. He was going to take Valhal, he said, and carry it off to\nJotunheim; he would demolish Asgard and kill the gods, except Freyja and\nSif, whom he would take home with him; and while Freyja was pouring the\ncelestial beverage into the bowls for him he remarked that he was going\nto drink up all the ale of the gods. When the gods at length grew tired\nof his arrogance, they named Thor, who immediately came and swung his\nhammer and was very much enraged, and asked who was to blame that\ndogwise giants should be permitted to drink there, or who had given\nsafety to Hrungner in Valhal, and why Freyja should pour ale for him as\nshe did at the feasts of the gods. Hrungner, looking at Thor with\nanything but a friendly eye, answered that Odin had invited him and that\nhe was under his protection. Thor said that Hrungner should come to rue\nthat invitation before he came out; but the giant answered that it would\nbe but little honor to Asathor to kill him, unarmed as he was; it would\nbe a better proof of his valor if he dared contend with him at the\nboundaries of his territory, at Grjottungard (_Grj\u00f3ttunagar\u00f0ar_).\nFoolish was it also of me, continued Hrungner, to leave my shield and my\nflint-stone at home; had I my weapons here we would now try a\nholmgang;[64] but I declare you to be a coward if you kill me unarmed.\nThor would not excuse himself from a duel when he was challenged out on\na holm; this was something that no one had ever offered him before.\nHrungner now went his way and hastened home. This journey of Hrungner\nwas much talked of by the giants, and especially did his challenge of\nThor awaken their interest, and it was of great importance to them which\nof the two should come out from the combat victorious. For if Hrungner,\nwho was the most powerful among the giants, should be conquered, they\nmight look for nothing but evil from Thor. They therefore made at\nGrjottungard a man of clay, nine rasts (miles?) high and three rasts\nbroad between the shoulders; they could not find a heart corresponding\nto his size, and therefore took one out of a mare; but this fluttered\nand trembled when Thor came. Hrungner had a heart of hard stone, sharp\nand three-cornered; his head was also of stone, and likewise his shield,\nwhich was broad and thick, and this shield he held before himself when\nhe stood at Grjottungard waiting for Thor. His weapon was a flint-stone,\nwhich he swung over his shoulders, so that it was no trifle to join in\ncombat with him. By his side stood the clay-giant, that is called\nMokkerkalfe (_M\u00f6kkrk\u00e1lfi_), and was so extremely terrified that the\nsweat poured from off him. Thor went to the holmgang together with\nThjalfe, a servant, whom he had got from a peasant by the sea. Thjalfe\nran to the place where Hrungner was standing, and said to him: You stand\nunguarded, giant; you hold the shield before you, but Thor has seen you;\nhe comes with violence from beneath the earth and attacks you. Then\nHrungner hastily put the shield beneath his feet and stood on it, but he\nseized his flint-stone with both hands. Presently he saw flashes of\nlightning and heard loud crashings, and then he saw Thor in his\nasamight, rushing forward with impetuous speed, swinging his hammer and\nthrowing it from the distance against Hrungner. The latter lifted the\nflint-stone with both his hands and threw it with all his might against\nthe hammer; the two met in the air and the flint-stone broke into two\npieces, one piece of which fell on the ground (and hence the flint\nmountains), while the other fell with such force against the head of\nThor that he fell forward to the ground; but the hammer Mjolner hit\nHrungner right in the head and crushed his skull into small pieces, he\nhimself falling over Thor, so that his foot lay across Thor\u2019s neck.\nThjalfe contended with Mokkerkalfe, who fell with little honor. Then\nThjalfe went over to Thor, and was going to take Hrungner\u2019s foot away,\nbut he was not able to do it. Thereupon came all the gods to\nGrjottungard, when they had learned that Thor had fallen, but neither\nwas any one of them able to remove the foot of the giant. Then came\nMagne (_magni_, strength), the son of Thor and Jarnsaxa; he was only\nthree nights old and he threw Hrungner\u2019s foot off from Thor saying: It\nwas a great mishap, father, that I came so late; this giant, I think, I\ncould have slain with my fist. Thor stood up and lovingly greeted his\nson, adding that he would give him the giant\u2019s horse Goldfax; but Odin\nremarked that this was wrongfully done of Thor to give the son of a hag\n(_g\u00fdgjar syni_, son of Jarnsaxa) and not his father so excellent a\nhorse.\n\nThor returned home to Thrudvang, and the flint-stone sat fast in his\nhead. Then came a sorceress, whose name was Groa, wife of Orvandel the\nWise; she sang her magic songs over Thor until the flint-stone became\nloose. But when Thor perceived this, and was just expecting that the\nstone would disappear, he desired to reward Groa for her cure, and\ngladden her heart. He accordingly related to her how he had waded from\nthe north over the rivers Elivagar and had borne Orvandel on his back in\na basket from Jotunheim; and in evidence he told her that one toe of\nOrvandel had protruded from the basket and had frozen, wherefore he had\nbroken it off and thrown it up into the sky and made of it the star\nwhich is called Orvandel\u2019s toe. Finally he added that it would not be\nlong before Orvandel would come home again. But Groa became so delighted\nwith this news that she forgot all her magic songs and the flint-stone\nbecame no looser than it was, and it sticks fast in Thor\u2019s head yet.\nTherefore no one must throw a flint-stone across the floor, for then the\nstone in Thor\u2019s head is moved. Thus sings the Skald, Thjodolf of Hvin:\n\n                  We have ample evidence\n                  Of the terrible giant\u2019s journey\n                  To Grjottungard,\n                  With berg-folks\u2019 consuming fire\n                  The blood boiled in Meile\u2019s brother,[65]\n                  The moon-land trembled.\n                  When earth\u2019s son went\n                  To the steel-gloved contest.\n\n                  In bright flame stood\n                  All the realms of the sky\n                  For Uller\u2019s step-father,\n                  And the earth rocked;\n                  To pieces flew Svolner\u2019s widow\n                  When the span of goats\n                  Drew the sublime chariot\n                  And its divine master\n                  To the meeting with Hrungner.\n\nThe most prominent feature of this myth is the lightning which strikes\ndown among the rocks and splits them. Hrungner (from _hruga_, to\nwrinkle, to heap up) is the naked, wrinkled mountains with their peaks.\nEverything is made of stone. Hrungner\u2019s heart and head and shield and\nweapon were all of stone; beside him stands the clayey mountain\n(Mokkerkalfe) clad in mist (_m\u00f6kkr_), and the contest is at\nGrjottungard, on the boundary of the stone-covered field. Thor crushes\nthe mountain to make way for agriculture. Thjalfe is the untiring labor,\nwhich prepares the rock for cultivation. He advises Hrungner to protect\nhimself from below with his shield. The cultivation of the mountain must\nbegin at the foot of it; there labors the industrious farmer. When he\nlooks up the mountain lifts its rocky head like a huge giant of stone,\nbut the clouds gather around the giant\u2019s head, the lightnings flash and\nsplit it. Thjalfe may also be regarded as a concomitant of the\nthunderstorm, and would then represent the pouring rain, as Thor had got\nhim from a peasant by the sea, and he contends with the mountain of\nclay, from which the water pours down. Thor\u2019s forehead may also\nrepresent the face of the earth, from which he rises as the son of\nearth, and we know that Minerva sprang forth full-grown and equipped\nfrom the brain of Zeus. Orvandel[66] and Groa (to grow) refer to the\nseed sprouting (Orvandel) and growing. Thor carries the seed in his\nbasket over the ice-cold streams (Elivagar), that is, he preserves\nplant-life through the winter; the sprout ventures out too early in the\nspring and a toe freezes off; and it is a beautiful idea that the gods\nmake shining stars of everything in the realm of giants that has became\nuseless on earth, and what more charming theme can the painter ask for\nthan Thor carrying on his divine shoulders the reckless Orvandel wading\nthrough the ice streams of winter?\n\nBefore proceeding to the next myth, we will pause here for a moment and\ntake a cursory look at history, to see whether a few outlines of it do\nnot find their completest reflection in this stone-hearted myth about\nHrungner and Thor.\n\nHrungner on his horse _Goldfax_, racing with Odin and Sleipner, in the\nmost perfect manner represents the Roman _poetastry_, reveling in the\n_wealth_ robbed from the nations of the earth, in rivalry with the\ngenuine Greek _poetry_ and philosophy; for Sleipner is Pegasos; and when\nthe Roman poetasters are in the hight of their glory Hrungner is\nentertained at Asgard, drunk and crazy, bragging and swearing that he\nwill put all the gods to death excepting Sif (Fortuna) and Freyja\n(Venus), destroy Asgard and move Valhal to Jotunheim; or, in other\nwords, Venus and Fortuna are the only divinities that shall be\nworshiped; all religion (Asgard) shall be rooted out and history\n(Valhal) shall only serve to glorify Rome.\n\nBut in the course of time the North begins to take part in determining\nthe destinies of the world; Thor comes home, and shortly afterwards a\nduel is fought between the Goth and Roman (Vandal) in which Rome is\nworsted, which could not be expressed more fitly than by the fortunate\nblow of Mjolner, which crushes the stone-hearted and stone-headed Giant\n(Roman Vandalism).\n\nBut the Goth becomes Romanized, he becomes a slave of Roman thought and\nRoman civilization, and thus Hrungner falls upon Thor, with his foot\nupon Thor\u2019s neck, until his son Magne comes and takes it away. Magne is\nthe Anglo-Saxon who created a Gothic Christianity and a Gothic\nbook-speech; and well might the Anglo-Saxon be called Magne, son of\nAsathor and the hag Jarnsaxa, for Magne is the mythical representation\nof the mechanical arts, which have received their most perfect\ndevelopment in England and America (the Anglo-Saxons). And we need only\nto look at the literature of England and America to observe with what\npleasure Magne (the Anglo-Saxon) is a great child, who rides the horse\nGoldfax (the Latin language), at which Odin (the Goth) may well complain\nthat it was wrongfully done, although the spirit of the North (Odin)\nmight rather envy the horse (Romanism) its rider than the rider (the\nAnglo-Saxon) his horse.\n\nIn regard to the piece of flint-stone that remained in Thor\u2019s forehead,\nand sticks there yet, we know, alas! that it is too true that the\nschools and the literature of all the Teutonic races suffer more or less\nfrom the curse of Romanism; and this they suffer in spite of the German\nsorceress Groa (Luther), who in the sixteenth century loosened the ugly\nRoman popery in Thor\u2019s forehead, without his getting rid of it; for he\nbegan boasting too soon, and Groa (the Lutheran Reformation) became so\nglad on account of her husband with his frozen toe (German scholasticism\nand soulless philosophy elevated to the skies), that she forgot not her\nLatin but her magic Teutonic songs; and hence we look in vain for a\ncomplete system of German mythology and old German poetry.\n\nWho the Mokkerkalfe who assisted Hrungner is, in this picture, it is\ndifficult to say, unless it be the Arab, and he may well be called a\nbrother of the Roman (Hrungner) against Thor. The Mokkerkalfe had a\nmare\u2019s heart in him, and we know that love of horses has forever been a\ncharacteristic of the Arabs; and the Frank, who defeated the Arab on the\nhistorical arena, must then be Thjalfe, who was a servant of Thor.\n\nThus this myth is disposed of and its application in a prophetic sense\nhas been pointed out. It is not claimed that the ancient Norsemen had in\ntheir minds Arabs and Greeks and Romans and Franks and Anglo-Saxons, but\nthat they had in their minds a profound comprehension of the relations\nof things, the supreme law of the universe; and history is but the\nreflection of the sublimest riddles in nature.\n\n\n                   SECTION III. THOR AND GEIRROD.[67]\n\n\nIt is worth relating how Thor made a journey to Geirrodsgard without his\nhammer Mjolner, or belt Megingjarder, or his iron gloves; and that was\nLoke\u2019s fault. For when Loke once, in Frigg\u2019s falcon-guise, flew out to\namuse himself, curiosity led him to Geirrodsgard, where he saw a large\nhall. He sat down and looked in through an opening in the wall, but\nGeirrod observed him and ordered one of his servants to seize the bird\nand bring it to him. But the wall was so high that it was difficult to\nclimb up, and it amused Loke that it gave the servant so much trouble,\nand he thought was time enough to fly away when the servant had got over\nthe worst. As the latter now caught at him, he spread his wings and made\nefforts (stritted) with his feet, but the feet were fast, so that he was\nseized and brought to the giant. When the latter saw his eyes he\nmistrusted that it was no bird; and when Loke was silent and refused to\nanswer the questions put to him, Geirrod locked him down in a chest and\nlet him hunger for three months. Thus Loke finally had to confess who he\nwas, and to save his life he had to make an oath to Geirrod that he\nshould get Thor to Geirrodsgard without his hammer or his belt of\nstrength.\n\nOn the way Thor visited the hag Grid, mother of Vidar the Silent. She\ninformed him, in regard to Geirrod, that he was a dogwise and dangerous\ngiant, and she lent him her belt of strength, her iron gloves and her\nstaff, which is called Gridarvold. Thor then went to the river Vimer,\nwhich is exceedingly large; then he buckled the belt around him and\nstemmed the wild torrent with his staff, but Loke and Thjalfe held\nthemselves fast in the belt. When he had come into the middle of the\nriver it grew so much that the waves washed over his shoulders. Then\nquoth Thor:\n\n                            Wax not, Vimer,\n                          Since to wade I desire\n                          To the realms of giants!\n                          Know, if thou waxest\n                          Then waxes my asamight\n                          As high as the heavens!\n\nUp in a cleft he saw Geirrod\u2019s daughter, Gjalp, who stood on both sides\nof the stream and caused its growth; then took he a large stone and\nthrew after her. At its source the stream must be stemmed, and he always\nhit what he aimed at. At the same time he reached the land and got hold\nof a shrub, and so he escaped out of the river; hence comes the adage\nthat a shrub saved Thor. When Thor with his companions had now come to\nGeirrod, lodgings were given them in a house, but there was only one\nchair in it, and on this Thor sat down. Then he noticed that the chair\nwas raised under him toward the roof. He then put Grid\u2019s staff against\nthe beams and pressed himself down against the chair; then a noise was\nheard, upon which followed a great screaming, for Geirrod\u2019s daughters,\nGjalp and Greip, had been sitting under the chair and he had broken the\nbacks of both or them. Then quoth Thor:\n\n                        Once I employed\n                        My asamight\n                        In the realm of giants,\n                        When Gjalp and Greip,\n                        Geirrod\u2019s daughters,\n                        Wanted to lift me to heaven.\n\nThen Geirrod invited Thor into the hall to see games. Large fires burned\nalong the hall, and when Thor had come opposite to Geirrod the latter\ntook with a pair of tongs a red-hot iron wedge and threw it after Thor;\nhe seized it with the iron gloves and lifted it up into the air, but\nGeirrod ran behind an iron post to defend himself. Thor threw the wedge,\nwhich struck through the post and through Geirrod and through the wall,\nso that it went outside and into the ground.\n\nGeirrod is the intense heat which produces violent thunderstorms, and\nhence his daughter the violent torrent. Of course Loke (fire) is locked\nup and starved through the hottest part of the summer; but this myth\nneeds no explanation, and we proceed to the next.\n\n\n                     SECTION IV. THOR AND SKRYMER.\n\n\nOne day the god Thor, accompanied by Loke, set out on a journey in his\ncar drawn by his goats. Night coming on, they put up at a peasant\u2019s\ncottage, when Thor killed his goats, and, after flaying them, put them\nin a kettle. When the flesh was boiled he sat down with his\nfellow-traveler to supper, and invited the peasant and his wife and\ntheir children to partake of the repast. The peasant\u2019s son was named\nThjalfe and his daughter Roskva. Thor bade them throw all the bones into\nthe goats\u2019 skins, which were spread out near the fireplace, but young\nThjalfe broke one of the shank-bones to come at the marrow. Thor having\npassed the night in the cottage, rose at the dawn of day, and when he\nhad dressed himself he took his hammer, Mjolner, and, lifting it up,\nconsecrated the goats\u2019 skins, which he had no sooner done than the two\ngoats reassumed their wonted form, with the exception that one of them\nlimped on one of its hind legs. Thor, perceiving this, said that the\npeasant or one of his family had handled the shank-bone of this goat too\nroughly, for he saw clearly that it was broken. It may readily be\nimagined how frightened the peasant was, when he saw Thor knit his brows\nand seize the handle of his hammer with such force that the knuckles of\nhis fingers grew white with the exertion. But the peasant, as we might\nexpect, and his whole family, screamed aloud, sued for peace, and\noffered all they possessed as an atonement for the offense committed.\nBut when Thor saw their fright he desisted from his wrath and became\nappeased, and he contented himself by requiring their children, Thjalfe\nand Roskva, who thus became his servants and have accompanied him ever\nsince. Thor let his goats remain there, and proceeded eastward on the\nway to Jotunheim clear to the sea. Then he went across the deep ocean,\nand when he came to the other shore he landed with Loke, Thjalfe and\nRoskva. They had traveled but a short distance when they came to a large\nforest, through which they wandered until night set in. Thjalfe was\nexceedingly fleet-footed; he carried Thor\u2019s provision-sack, but the\nforest was a bad place for finding anything eatable to stow into it.\nWhen it had become dark they looked around for lodgings for the night\nand found a house. It was very large, with a door that took up the whole\nbreadth of one of the ends of the building; here they chose them a place\nto sleep in. At midnight they were alarmed by a great earthquake. The\nearth trembled beneath them and the whole house shook. Then Thor stood\nup and called his companions to seek with him a place of safety. On the\nright they found an adjoining chamber, into which they entered; but\nwhile the others, trembling with fear, crept into the farthest corner of\nthis retreat, Thor remained in the doorway, with his hammer in his hand,\nprepared to defend himself whatever might happen. Then they heard a\nrumbling and roaring. When the morning began to dawn, Thor went out and\nsaw a man lying a short distance from the house in the woods. The giant\nwas large, lay sleeping, and snored loudly. Then Thor could understand\nwhence the noise had come in the night. He girded himself with his belt\nof strength, and his divine strength grew; at the same time the man\nawoke and arose hastily. But it is related that Thor on this occasion\nbecame so amazed that he forgot to make use of his mallet; he asked the\nman for his name, however. The latter answered that his name was\nSkrymer; but your name I do not need to ask about, said he; I know you\nare Asathor; but what have you done with my mitten? Thereupon Skrymer\nstretched out his hand and picked up his mitten, which Thor then\nperceived was what they had taken over night for a house, the chamber\nwhere they had taken refuge being the thumb. Skrymer asked whether Thor\nwanted him for a traveling companion, and when Thor consented to this,\nSkrymer untied his provision-sack and began to eat his breakfast. Thor\nand his companions did the same in another place. Then Skrymer proposed\nthat they should put their provisions together, and when Thor gave his\nconsent to this, Skrymer put all the food into one sack and slung it on\nhis back. He went before them all day with tremendous strides, but\ntoward evening he sought out for them a place where they might pass the\nnight, beneath a large oak. Then said Skrymer to Thor that he was going\nto lie down to sleep; the others might in the meantime take the\nprovision-sack and prepare their supper. Then Skrymer fell asleep, and\nsnored tremendously, and Thor took the provision-sack to untie it; but,\nincredible though it may appear, not a single knot could he untie, nor\nrender a single string looser than it was before. Seeing that his labor\nwas in vain, Thor became angry, seized the hammer Mjolner with both\nhands, went over to Skrymer and struck him on the head. But Skrymer\nawoke and asked whether there had fallen a leaf down upon his head, and\nwhether they had eaten their supper and were ready to go to sleep? Thor\nanswered that they were just going to sleep, and went to lie down under\nanother oak, but also here it was dangerous to sleep. At midnight Thor\nagain heard how fast Skrymer slept and snored, so outrageously that a\nthundering noise was heard through the whole woods. Arising he went over\nto the giant, swung his hammer with all his might, and struck him right\nin the skull, and the hammer entered the head clear to the handle.\nSkrymer, suddenly awakening, said: What is the matter now? Did an acorn\nfall down upon my head? How is it with you, Thor. Thor went hastily away\nand said that he had just waked up; it was midnight, he said, and time\nto sleep. Then thought he that if he could get an opportunity to give\nthe giant a third blow he should never see the light of day any more,\nand he now lay watching to see whether Skrymer was fast asleep again.\nShortly before day-break he heard that the giant was sleeping again. He\ngot up, hastened over to him, swung his hammer with all his might, and\ngave him such a blow on the temples that the head of the hammer was\nburied in the giant\u2019s head. Skrymer arose, stroked his chin and said: Do\nthere sit birds above me in the tree? It seemed to me as I awoke that\nsome moss fell down upon me out of the boughs; but are you awake, Thor?\nIt seems to me that it is time to arise and dress, and you have not now\na long journey to the castle which is called Utgard. I have heard you\nhave whispered among yourselves that I am not small of stature, but you\nshall find larger men when you come to Utgard. I am going to give you\ngood advice: do not brag too much. Utgard-Loke\u2019s courtiers will not\nbrook the boasting of such insignificant little fellows as you are. If\nyou will not heed his advice you had better turn back, and that is in\nfact the best thing for you to do. But if you are determined to go\nfurther then hold to the east; my way lies northward to those mountains\nthat you see yonder. Skrymer then taking the provision-sack, slung it on\nhis back and disappeared in the woods, and it has never been learned\nwhether the asas wished to meet him again or not.\n\nThor now went on with his companions till it was noon, when their eyes\nbeheld a castle standing on a great plain, and it was so high that they\nhad to bend their necks quite back in order to be able to look over it.\nThey advanced to the castle; there was a gate to the entrance, which was\nlocked. Thor tried to open it, but could not, and being anxious to get\nwithin the castle, they crept between the bars of the gate. They saw the\npalace before them, the door was open, and they entered, where they saw\na multitude of men, of whom the greater number were immensely large,\nsitting on two benches. Then they came into the presence of the king,\nUtgard-Loke, and saluted him; but it took some time before he would\ndeign to look at them, and he smiled scornfully, so that one could see\nhis teeth, saying: It is tedious to ask for tidings of a long journey,\nbut if I am not mistaken this little stripling must be Asathor; perhaps,\nhowever, you are really bigger than you look. Well, what are the feats\nthat you and your companions are skilled in? No one is tolerated among\nus here unless he distinguishes himself by some art or accomplishment.\nThen said Loke: I understand an art, of which I am prepared to give\nproof, and that is, that there is none here who can eat his food as fast\nas I can. To this Utgard-Loke made reply: Truly that is an art, if you\ncan achieve it, which we shall now see. He called to the men, who sat on\none end of the bench, that he, whose name was Loge (flame), should come\nout on the floor and contend with Loke. A trough was brought in full of\nmeat. Loke seated himself at one end and Loge at the other; both ate as\nfast as they could and met in the middle of the trough. Loke had picked\nthe meat from the bones, but Loge had consumed meat, bones and trough\nall together; and now all agreed that Loke was beaten. Then asked\nUtgard-Loke, what that young man could do. It was Thjalfe. He answered,\nthat he would run a race with any one that Utgard-Loke would appoint.\nUtgard-Loke replied that this was a splendid feat, but added that he\nmust be very swift if he expected to win, but they should see, for it\nwould soon be decided. Utgard-Loke arose and went out; there was a very\ngood race-course on the level field. Then he called a little fellow, by\nname Huge (thought) and bade him race with Thjalfe. The first time they\nran Huge was so much in advance that at the turning back in the course\nhe met Thjalfe. You must ply your legs better, Thjalfe, said\nUtgard-Loke, if you expect to win, though I must confess that there\nnever came a man here swifter of foot than you are. They ran a second\ntime, but when Huge came to the end and turned around, Thjalfe was a\nfull bow-shot from the goal. Well run, both of you, said Utgard-Loke,\nbut I think Thjalfe will hardly win, but the third race shall decide it.\nThey accordingly ran a third time, but Huge had already reached the goal\nbefore Thjalfe had got half-way. Then all who were present cried out\nthat there had been sufficient trial of skill in this art. Utgard-Loke\nthen asked Thor in what arts he would choose to give proof of his skill\nfor which he was so famous. Thor answered that he preferred to contend\nin drinking with any one that wished. Utgard-Loke consented, and\nentering the palace he called his cup-bearer, and bade him bring the\nlarge horn which his courtiers were obliged to drink out of when they\nhad trespassed in any way against established usage. The cup-bearer\nbrought the horn, gave it to Thor, and Utgard-Loke said: Whoever is a\ngood drinker will empty that horn at a single draught, though some men\nmake two of it; but there is no so wretched drinker that he cannot\nexhaust it at the third draught. Thor looked at the horn and thought it\nwas not large, though tolerably long; however, as he was very thirsty he\nset it to his lips, and without drawing breath drank as long and as deep\nas he could, in order that he might not be obliged to make a second\ndraught of it. But when his breath gave way and he set the horn down, he\nsaw to his astonishment that there was little less of the liquor in it\nthan before. Utgard-Loke said: That is well drunk, but not much to boast\nof; I should never have believed but that Asathor could have drunk more;\nhowever, of this I am confident, you will empty it at the second\ndraught. Thor made no reply, but put the horn to his mouth and drank as\nlong as he had breath, but the point of the horn did not rise as he\nexpected; and when he withdrew the horn from his mouth it seemed to him\nthat its contents had sunk less this time than the first; still the horn\ncould now be carried without spilling. Utgard-Loke said: How now, Thor,\nhave you not saved for the third draught more than you can make away\nwith? You must not spare yourself more in performing a feat than befits\nyour skill, but if you mean to drain the horn at the third draught you\nmust drink deeply. You will not be considered so great a man here as you\nare thought to be among the asas if you do not show greater skill in\nother games than you appear to have shown in this. Then Thor became\nangry, put the horn to his mouth, and drank with all his might, so as to\nempty it entirely; but on looking into the horn he found that its\ncontents had lessened but little, upon which he resolved to make no\nfurther attempt, but gave back the horn to the cup-bearer. Then said\nUtgard-Loke: It is now plain that your strength is not so great as we\nthought it to be. Will you try some other games, for we see that you\ncannot succeed in this? Yes, said Thor, I will try something else, but I\nam sure that such draughts as I have been drinking would not have been\ncounted small among the asas, but what new trial have you to propose?\nUtgard-Loke answered: We have a very trifling game here, in which we\nexercise none but children. Young men think it nothing but play to lift\nmy cat from the ground, and I should never have proposed this to Asathor\nif I had not already observed that you are by no means what we took you\nfor. Thereupon a large gray cat ran out upon the floor. Thor advancing\nput his hand under the cat\u2019s body and did his utmost to raise it from\nthe floor, but the cat, bending its back in the same degree as Thor\nlifted, had notwithstanding all Thor\u2019s efforts only one of its feet\nlifted up, seeing which Thor made no further effort. Then said\nUtgard-Loke: The game has terminated just as I expected; the cat is\nlarge, but Thor is small and little compared with our men. Then said\nThor: Little as you call me I challenge any one to wrestle with me, for\nnow I am angry. I see no one here, replied Utgard-Loke, looking around\non the benches, who would not think it beneath him to wrestle with you;\nbut let somebody call hither that old woman, my nurse, Elle (old age),\nand let Thor prove his strength with her, if he will. She has thrown to\nthe ground many a man not less strong and mighty than Thor is. A\ntoothless old woman then entered the hall and she was told by\nUtgard-Loke to wrestle with Thor. To cut the story short, the more Thor\ntightened his hold the firmer she stood. Finally, after a violent\nstruggle, Thor began to lose his footing, and it was not long before he\nwas brought down on one knee. Then Utgard-Loke stepped forward and told\nthem to stop, adding that Thor had now no occasion to ask anyone else in\nthe hall to wrestle with him, and it was also getting late. He therefore\nshowed Thor and his companions to their seats, and they passed the night\nthere enjoying the best of hospitality.\n\nThe next morning, at break of day, Thor and his companions arose,\ndressed themselves and prepared for their departure. Utgard-Loke then\ncame and ordered a table to be set for them, on which there wanted no\ngood provisions, either meat or drink. When they had breakfasted they\nset out on their way. Utgard-Loke accompanied them out of the castle,\nand on parting he asked Thor how he thought his journey had turned out,\nand whether he had found any man more mighty than himself. Thor answered\nthat he could not deny that he had brought great dishonor upon himself;\nand what mortifies me the most, he added, is that you will consider me a\nman of little importance. Then said Utgard-Loke: Now I will tell you the\ntruth, since you are out of my castle, where as long as I live and reign\nyou shall never re-enter, and you may rest assured that had I known\nbefore what might you possessed, and how near you came plunging us into\ngreat trouble, I would not have permitted you to enter this time. Know\nthen that I have all along deceived you by my illusions; first, in the\nforest, where I arrived before you, and there you were unable to untie\nthe provision-sack, because I had bound it with tough iron wire in such\na manner that you could not discover how the knot ought to be loosened.\nAfter this you gave me three blows with your hammer; the first one,\nthough it was the least, would have ended my days had it fallen on me,\nbut I brought a rocky mountain before me, which you did not perceive;\nbut you saw near my castle a mountain in which were three square glens,\nthe one deeper than the other, and those were the marks of your hammer.\nI have made use of similar illusions in the contests you have had with\nmy courtiers. In the first, Loke was hungry and devoured all that was\nset before him, but Loge was in reality nothing else but wild-fire, and\ntherefore consumed not only the meat, but the trough which contained it.\nHuge, with whom Thjalfe contended in running, was my thought, and it was\nimpossible for Thjalfe to keep pace with it. When you tried to empty the\nhorn you performed indeed an exploit so marvelous that had I not seen it\nmyself I should never have believed it. The one end of the horn stood in\nthe sea, which you did not perceive, and when you come to the shore you\nwill see how much the ocean has diminished by what you drank. This is\nnow called the ebb. You performed a feat no less wonderful when you\nlifted the cat, and, to tell the truth, when we saw that one of his paws\nwas off the floor we were all of us terror-stricken, for what you took\nfor a cat was in reality the great Midgard-serpent, that encompasses the\nwhole earth, and he was then barely long enough to inclose it between\nhis head and tail, so high had your hand raised him up toward heaven.\nYour wrestling with Elle was also a most astonishing feat, for there\nnever yet was, nor will there ever be, a man for whom Old Age (for such\nin fact was Elle) will not sooner or later lay low, if he abides her\ncoming. But now, as we are going to part, let me tell you that it will\nbe better for both of us if you never come near me again, for should you\ndo so I shall again defend myself with other illusions, so that you will\nnever prevail against me. On hearing these words Thor grasped his\nhammer, and lifted it into the air, but as he was about to strike\nUtgard-Loke was nowhere, and when he turned back to the castle to\ndestroy it, he saw only beautiful verdant plains around him and no\ncastle. He therefore retraced his steps without stopping till he came to\nThrudvang. But he had already resolved to make that attack on the\nMidgard-serpent, which afterwards took place.\n\nIt is said in the Younger Edda that no one can tell anything more _true_\nof this journey of Thor\u2019s, but if the reader wants to see the most\nbeautiful thing that has been said about this journey, he must learn\nDanish and read \u0152lenschl\u00e6ger\u2019s poem entitled _Thor\u2019s Journey to\nJotunheim_.[68] We have only to add that as the asas had their Loke, so\nthe giants had their _Utgard-Loke_.\n\n\n                SECTION V. THOR AND THE MIDGARD-SERPENT.\n\n\nThe gods were having a feast at \u00c6ger\u2019s, and could not get enough to eat\nand drink. The reason was that \u00c6ger was in want of a kettle for brewing\nale. He asked Thor to go and fetch it, but neither the asas nor the vans\nknew where it could be found, before Tyr said to Thor: East of the\nrivers Elivagar, near the borders of heaven, dwells the dogwise Hymer,\nand this my father has a kettle which is strong and one rast (mile)\ndeep. Do you think we can get it? said Thor. Yes, by stratagem it may be\ngotten, answered Tyr. Tyr, and Thor under the semblance of a young man,\nnow started out and traveled until they came to Egil. With him they left\nthe goats and proceeded further to Hymer\u2019s hall, and we shall presently\nsee how Thor made amends for his journey to Utgard-Loke. At Hymer\u2019s hall\nTyr found his grandmother, an ugly giantess with nine hundred heads, but\nhis mother, a beautiful woman, brought him a drink. She advised her\nguests to conceal themselves under the kettles in the hall, for her\nhusband was sometimes cruel toward strangers. Hymer came home from his\nfishing late in the evening; the jokuls resounded as he entered the\nhall, and his beard was full of frost. I greet you welcome home, Hymer,\nsaid the woman; our son, whom we have been so long expecting, has now\ncome home to your halls, and in company with him is the enemy of the\ngiants and the friend of man, Veor (_i.e._ Asgardsveor, the protector of\nAsgard). See how they have concealed themselves at the gable end of the\nhall, behind the post yonder. Hymer threw a glance in the direction\npointed out by his wife, and the post instantly flew into shivers at the\nlook of the giant, the beam broke, and eight kettles fell down; one so\nhard and strong that it did not break in falling. The gods came forth,\nand straight the old giant gazed at his enemy. It was no pleasant sight\nto see Thor before him, but still he ordered three steers to be killed\nand served on the table. Thor alone ate two. This meal seemed to the\nfriend of Hrungner somewhat extravagant, and he remarked that the next\nevening they would have to live on fish. The following morning, at break\nof day, when Thor perceived that Hymer was making a boat ready for\nfishing, he arose and dressed himself, and begged the giant to let him\nrow out to sea with him. Hymer answered that such a puny stripling as he\nwas could be of no use to him; besides, he said, you will catch your\ndeath of cold if I go far out and remain as long as I am accustomed to\ndo. Thor said that for all that he would row as far from the land as\nHymer had a mind, and was not sure which of them would be the first who\nmight wish to row back again. At the same time he was so enraged that he\nwas much inclined to let his hammer ring at the giant\u2019s skull without\nfurther delay, but intending to try his strength elsewhere he subdued\nhis wrath, and asked Hymer what he meant to bait with. Hymer told him to\nlook out for a bait himself. Thor instantly went up to a herd of oxen\nthat belonged to the giant, and seizing the largest bull, that bore the\nname Himinbrjoter (heaven-breaker), wrung off his head, and returning\nwith it to the boat, put out to sea with Hymer. Thor rowed aft with two\noars, and with such force that Hymer, who rowed at the prow, saw with\nsurprise how swiftly the boat was driven forward. He then observed that\nthey were come to the place where he was wont to angle for flat-fish,\nbut Thor assured him that they had better go on a good way further. They\naccordingly continued to ply their oars, until Hymen cried out that if\nthey did not stop they would be in danger from the great\nMidgard-serpent. Notwithstanding this, Thor persisted in rowing further,\nand in spite of Hymer\u2019s remonstrances it was a long time before he would\nlay down his oars. When they finally stopped, Hymer soon drew up two\nwhales at once with his bait. Then Thor took out a fishing line,\nextremely strong, made with wonderful art and furnished with an equally\nstrong hook, on which he fixed the bull\u2019s head and cast his line into\nthe sea. The bait soon reached the bottom, and it may be truly said that\nThor then deceived the Midgard-serpent not a whit less than Utgard-Loke\nhad deceived Thor when he obliged him to lift up the serpent in his\nhand; for the monster greedily caught at the bait and the hook stuck\nfast in his palate. Stung with the pain, the serpent tugged at the hook\nso violently that Thor was obliged to hold fast with both hands in the\npegs that bear against the oars. But his wrath now waxed high, and\nassuming all his divine power he pulled so hard at the line that his\nfeet forced their way through the boat and went down to the bottom of\nthe sea, while with his hands he drew up the serpent to the side of the\nvessel. It is impossible to express by words the scene that now took\nplace. Thor on the one hand darting looks of wrath at the serpent, while\nthe monster on the other hand, rearing his head, spouted out floods of\nvenom upon him. When the giant Hymer beheld the serpent he turned pale\nand trembled with fright, and seeing moreover that the water was\nentering his boat on all sides, he took out his knife, just as Thor\nraised his hammer aloft, and cut the line, on which the serpent sank\nagain under water. According to another version valiant Thor hauled the\nvenom-potted serpent up to the edge of the boat, his hands struck\nagainst the side of the boat and with both his feet he stepped through,\nso that he stood on the bottom of the sea. With his hammer he struck the\nserpent in the forehead; the mountains thundered, the caves howled, and\nthe whole old earth shrank together; but the serpent sank to the bottom,\nfor at the sight of it the giant became so terrified that he cut the\nline. Then, according to both versions, Thor struck Hymer such a blow on\nthe ear with his fist that the giant fell headlong into the water. The\ngiant was not glad when they rowed back. While he carried his two\nwhales, Thor took the boat, with oars and all, and carried it to the\nhouse of the giant. Then the giant challenged Thor to show another\nevidence of his strength and requested him to break his goblet. Thor,\nsitting, threw it through some large posts, but it was brought whole to\nthe giant. But Thor\u2019s fair friend gave him friendly advice: Throw it\nagainst the forehead of Hymer, said she, it is harder than any goblet.\nThen Thor assumed his asastrength. The giant\u2019s forehead remained whole,\nbut the round wine-goblet was broken. The giant had lost a great\ntreasure; that drink, said he, was too hot; but there yet remained for\nThor one trial of his strength, and that was to bring the kettle out of\nhis hall. Twice Tyr tried to lift it, but it was immovable. Then Thor\nhimself took hold of it at the edge with so great force that he stepped\nthrough the floor of the hall; the kettle he lifted onto his head, and\nits rings rung at his heels. They had gone a long distance before Odin\u2019s\nson looked back and saw a many-headed multitude rushing impetuously from\nthe caves with Hymer. Then he lifted the kettle from his shoulders,\nswung the murderous Mjolner and slew all the mountain-giants. After that\nhe proceeded to Egil, where he had left his goats; and he had not gone\nfar thence before one of the goats dropped down half dead. It was lame,\nand we remember from a previous myth that a peasant near the sea had to\ngive Thor his son Thjalfe and daughter Roskva as bond-servants for\nlaming one of his goats. Thor finally came to the feast of the gods and\nhad the kettle with him, and there was nothing now to hinder \u00c6ger from\nfurnishing ale enough at the feast, that he prepared for the gods at\nevery harvest time.\n\nThis myth forms the subject of the lay of Hymer in the Elder Edda. The\nwhole myth of course represents the thunderstorm in conflict with the\nraging sea; but a historical counterpart of this struggle of Thor with\nHymer and the Midgard-serpent is so forcibly suggested that we cannot\nomit it. It is Luther\u2019s struggle with the pope Romanism. Luther, the\nheroic Thor, saw his enemy, but did not strike just in the right time\nand in the right way, and the golden opportunity was lost after Hymer\n(the pope) had severed the fishing-line; that is after the old memories\nwere destroyed, when the golden line connecting the Germans with their\npoetic dawn had been divided, and Romanism, with blood-stained breast,\nwith close embrace first twined around the whole school system of\nGermany and north Europe, and horribly mangled their grand mission with\nits fangs, and then seized the Teutonic Laocoon and his sons and bound\ntheir unsophisticated Teutonic hearts in its mighty folds. Ay, this\n_Roman_ Midgard-serpent, with its licentiousness, arrogance, despotism,\nunbridled ambition, unbounded egotism, dry reasoning and soulless\nphilosophy, has grasped the _Goth_ twice, yes thrice, about the middle,\nand winding its scaly book thrice around his neck, has overtopped him.\nIn vain he has striven to tear asunder its knotted and gory spires. He\ncan but shriek to heaven for help, and may Thor hear his cry and come to\nhis rescue! May Thor next time embark well armed with his gloves and\nbelt and hammer; but he had better leave the giant slain on shore. Yet\nLuther did a noble work. Although his first intention was to leave the\ngiant unmolested, and only take his kettle from him, still, when he\nfound a determined opposition threatening, he turned around, set down\nhis kettle, and slew both the giant and the many-headed multitude (pope,\ncardinals, bishops, etc.) that followed him. But Luther erred in not\nestablishing a thoroughly Teutonic in place of a Romanic school system.\nThus he left his great work only half finished. If he had made good use\nof his hammer at the time, much valuable knowledge about our Teutonic\nancestors might have been collected and preserved which now is lost\nforever.\n\n\n                      SECTION VI. THOR AND THRYM.\n\n\nThis is a very beautiful myth, and we will give it complete as it is\nfound in the Elder Edda, in the lay of Thrym. We give our own\ntranslation:\n\n                        Wrathful was Vingthor\n                        As he awaked\n                        And his hammer\n                        Did miss;\n                        His beard shook,\n                        His hair trembled,\n                        The son of earth\n                        Looked around him.\n\n                        Thus first of all\n                        He spoke:\n                        Mark now Loke\n                        What I say!\n                        What no one knows\n                        Either on earth\n                        Or in high heaven,\u2014\n                        The hammer is stolen.\n\n                        Went they to Freyja\u2019s\n                        Fair dwelling;\n\n                        There in these words\n                        Thor first spoke:\n                        Wilt thou, Freyja, lend\n                        Me thy feather-guise,\n                        That I my hammer\n                        Mjolner may fetch?\n\n                        I gave it thee gladly\n                        Though it were of gold;\n                        I would instantly give it\n                        Though it were of silver.\n\n                        Flew then Loke\u2014\n                        The feather-guise whizzed;\n                        Out he flew\n                        From home of asas,\n                        In he flew\n                        To home of giants.\n\n                        On the hill sat Thrym;\n                        The king of giants\n                        Twisted gold-bands\n                        For his dogs,\n                        Smoothed at leisure\n                        The manes of his horses.\n\n\n                        THRYM:\n\n                        How fare the asas?\n                        How fare the elves?\n                        Why comest thou alone\n                          To Jotunheim?\n\n\n                        LOKE:\n\n                        Ill fare the asas,\n                        Ill fare the elves,\n                        Hast thou concealed\n                        The hammer of Thor?\n\n\n                        THRYM:\n\n                        I have concealed\n                        The hammer of Thor\n                        Eight rasts\n                        Beneath the ground;\n                        No man\n                        Brings it back\n                        Unless he gives me\n                        Freyja as my bride.\n\n                        Flew then Loke\u2014\n                        The feather-guise whizzed;\n                        Out he flew\n                        From home of giants,\n                        In he flew\n                        To home of asas.\n                        Met him Thor\n                        First of all\n                        And thus addressed him:\n\n                        Hast thou succeeded\n                        In doing thine errand?\n                        Then tell before perching\n                        Long messages;\n                        What one says sitting\n                        Is often of little value,\n                        And falsehood speaks he\n                        Who reclines.\n\n\n                        LOKE:\n\n                        Well have I succeeded\n                        In doing my errand;\n                        Thrym has thy hammer,\n                        The king of the giants.\n                        No man\n                        Brings it back\n                        Unless he gives him\n                        Freyja as bride.\n\n                        Went they then the fair\n                        Freyja to find,\n                        First then Thor\n                        Thus addressed her:\n                        Dress thyself, Freyja,\n                        In bridal robes,\n                        Together we will ride\n                        To Jotunheim.\n\n                        Angry grew Freyja,\n                        And she raged\n                        So the hall of the asas\n                        Must shake.\n                        Her heavy necklace,\n                        Brisingamen, broke;\n                        Then would I be\n                        A lovesick maid\n                        If with thee I would ride\n                        To Jotunheim.\n\n                        Then all the asas\n                        Went to the _Thing_,\n                        To the _Thing_ went\n                        All the asynjes,\n                        The powerful divinities,\n                        And held consult,\n                        How they should get\n                        The hammer back.\n\n                        Then spake Heimdal\n                        The whitest god\u2014\n                        Foreknowing was he,\n                        As the vans are all:\n                        Dress we Thor\n                        In bridal robes,\n                        Brisingamen\n                        Must he wear.\n\n                        Let jingle keys\n                        About his waist;\n                        Let a woman\u2019s dress\n                        Cover his knees;\n                        On his bosom we put\n                        Broad broaches,\n                        And artfully we\n                        His hair braid.\n\n                        Spoke then Thor,\n                        The mighty god:\n                        Mock me all\n                        The asas would,\n                        If in bridal robes\n                        I should be dressed.\n\n                        Spoke then Loke\n                        Laufeyarson:\n                        Be silent Thor;\n                        Stop such talk.\n                        Soon will giants\n                        Build in Asgard\n                        If thou thy hammer\n                        Bring not back.\n\n                        Dressed they then Thor\n                        In bridal-robes;\n                        Brisengumen\n                        He had to wear;\n                        Keys let they jingle\n                        About his waist,\n                        And a woman\u2019s dress\n                        Fell over his knees;\n                        On his bosom they placed\n                        Broad broaches,\n                        And artfully they\n                        His hair did braid.\n\n                        Spoke then Loke\n                        Laufeyarson:\n                        For thee must I\n                        Be servant-maid;\n                        Ride we both\n                        To Jotunheim.\n\n                        Home were driven\n                        Then the goats,\n                        And hitched to the car;\n                        Hasten they must\u2014\n                        The mountains crashed.\n                        The earth stood in flames,\n                        Odin\u2019s son\n                        Rode to Jotunheim.\n\n                        Spoke then Thrym,\n                        The king of giants;\n                        Giants! arise\n                        And spread my benches!\n                        Bring to me\n                        Freyja as bride,\n                        Njord\u2019s daughter,\n                        From Noatun.\n\n                        Cows with golden horns\n                        Go in the yard,\n                        Black oxen\n                        To please the giant;\n                        Much wealth have I,\n                        Many gifts have I;\n                        Freyja, methinks,\n                        Is all I lack.\n\n                        Early in the evening\n                        Came they all;\n                        Ale was brought\n                        Up for the giant.\n                        One ox Thor ate,\n                        Eight salmon\n                        And all the delicacies\n                        For the women intended;\n                        Sif\u2019s husband besides\n                        Drank three barrels of mead.\n\n                        Spoke then Thrym,\n                        The king of giants:\n                        Where hast thou seen\n                        Such a hungry bride?\n                        I ne\u2019er saw a bride\n                        Eat so much,\n                        And never a maid\n                        Drink more mead.\n\n                        Sat there the shrewd\n                        Maid-servant near;[69]\n                        Thus she replied\n                        To the words of Thrym:\n                        Nothing ate Freyja\n                        In eight nights,\n                        So much did she long\n                        For Jotunheim.\n\n                        Behind the veil\n                        Thrym sought a kiss,\n                        But back he sprang\n                        The length of the hall:\n                        Why are Freyja\u2019s\n                        Eyes so sharp?\n                        From her eyes it seems\n                        That fire doth burn.\n\n                        Sat there the shrewd\n                        Maid-servant near,\n                        And thus she spake,\n                        Answering the giant:\n                        Slept has not Freyja\n                        For eight nights,\n                        So much did she long\n                        For Jotunheim.\n\n                        In came the poor\n                        Sister of Thrym;\n                        For bridal gift\n                        She dared to ask:\n                        Give from the hand\n                        The golden rings,\n                        If thou desirest\n                        Friendship of me,\n                        Friendship of me\u2014\n                        And love.\n\n                        Spoke then Thrym,\n                        The king of giants:\n                        Bring me the hammer\n                        My bride to hallow:\n                        Place the hammer\n                        In the lap of the maid;\n                        Wed us together\n                        In the name of Var.[70]\n\n                        Laughed then Thor\u2019s\n                        Heart in his breast;\n                        Severe in mind\n                        He knew his hammer,\n                        First slew he Thrym,\n                        Tho king of giants,\n                        Crushed then all\n                        That race of giants;\n\n                        Slew the old\n                        Sister of Thrym,\n                        She who asked\n                        For a bridal gift;\n                        Slap she got\n                        For shining gold,\n                        Hammer blows\n                        For heaps of rings;\n                        Thus came Odin\u2019s son\n                        Again by his hammer.\n\nThrym (from _\u00feruma_) is the noisy, thundering imitator of Thor. While\nthe thunder sleeps, the giant forces of nature howl and rage in the\nstorms and winds, they have stolen the hammer from Thor. Thor goes and\nbrings his hammer back and the storms are made to cease. It has been\nsuggested that Thor is the impersonation of truth, and the Younger Edda\nspeaks of him as one _never having yet uttered an_ UNTRUTH. It has also\nbeen claimed that the name of his realm _Thrud_-vang contains the same\nroot as our English word _truth_, but this we leave for the reader to\nexamine for himself. Before the Norsemen learned to make the sign of the\ncross, they made the sign of the hammer upon themselves and upon other\nthings that they thereby wished to secure against evil influences.\n\nNow let us glance at the last appearance of Thor on the stage of this\nworld. The Norse king, Olaf the saint, was eagerly pursuing his work of\nChristian reform in Norway, and we find him sailing with fit escort\nalong the western shore of that county from haven to haven, dispensing\njustice or doing other royal work. On leaving a certain haven, it is\nfound that a stranger of grave eyes and aspect, with red beard and of a\nrobust and stately figure, has stepped in. The courtiers address him;\nhis answers surprise by their pertinency and depth. At length he is\nbrought to the king. The strangers conversation here is not less\nremarkable, as they sail along the beautiful shore; but after awhile he\naddresses King Olaf thus: Yes, King Olaf, it is all beautiful, with the\nsun shining on it there; green, fruitful, a right fair home for you; and\nmany a sore day had Thor, many a wild fight with the mountain giants,\nbefore he could make it so. And now you seem minded to put away Thor.\nKing Olaf, have a care! said the stranger, knitting his brows; and when\nthey looked again he was nowhere to be found. This is the last myth of\nThor, a protest against the advance of Christianity, no doubt\nreproachfully set forth by some conservative pagan.[71]\n\nFootnote 60:\n\n  Thor\u2019s.\n\nFootnote 61:\n\n  From _Tales of a Wayside Inn_.\n\nFootnote 62:\n\n  _Bil_ is a common word in Norseland, meaning _moment_.\n\nFootnote 63:\n\n  But see also Vocabulary, under the word _Mjolner_.\n\nFootnote 64:\n\n  Holmgang (literally _isle-gang_) is a duel taking place on a small\n  island. Each combatant was attended by a second who had to protect him\n  with a shield. The person challenged had the right to strike the first\n  blow. When the opponent was wounded, so that his blood stained the\n  ground, the seconds might interfere and put an end to the combat. He\n  that was the first wounded had to pay the holmgang fine.\n\nFootnote 65:\n\n  A name for Thor.\n\nFootnote 66:\n\n  A Orvandel, from _aur_, earth, and _vendill_, the sprout (_v\u00f6ndr_),\n  ruler = the seed.\n\nFootnote 67:\n\n  This Geirrod must not be confounded with Odin\u2019s foster-son Geirrod,\n  son of Hraudung (see p. 228).\n\nFootnote 68:\n\n  The next best thing is William Edward Frye\u2019s translation of\n  \u0152lenschl\u00e6ger\u2019s work entitled _The Gods of the North_. London, 1845.\n\nFootnote 69:\n\n  Loke.\n\nFootnote 70:\n\n  The goddess who presides over marriages.\n\nFootnote 71:\n\n  Thomas Carlyle, _Heroes and Hero-worship_.\n\n\n\n\n                               CHAPTER V.\n                                 VIDAR.\n\n\nOn the way to Geirrod (see p. 310) we noticed that Thor visited the hag\nGrid, and she lent him three things, counterparts of Thor\u2019s own\ntreasures, her belt of strength, iron gloves and staff. Grid belongs to\nthe race of giants; she dwells in the wild, unsubdued nature, but is not\nhostile toward the gods. Her belt, gloves and staff, her name, the place\nwhere she dwells between Asgard and Jotunheim, her ability to give Thor\ninformation about Geirrod, all give evidence of her wild and powerful\ncharacter.\n\nShe is the mother of Vidar, who is a son of Odin. Hence we have here, as\nin the case of Tyr, a connecting link between the giants and asas.\nThrough Tyr the gods are related to the raging sea, through Vidar to the\nwild desert and the forests. Vidar is surnamed the Silent. He is almost\nas strong as Thor himself, and the gods place great reliance on him in\nall critical conjunctures. He is the brother of the gods. He has an iron\nshoe; it is a thick shoe, of which it is said that material has been\ngathered for it through all ages. It is made of the scraps of leather\nthat have have been cut off from the toes and heels in cutting patterns\nfor shoes. These pieces must therefore be thrown away by the shoemaker\nwho desires to render assistance to the gods. He is present at \u00c6ger\u2019s\nfeast, where Odin says to him:\n\n                       Stand up, Vidar!\n                       And let the wolf\u2019s father[72]\n                       Be guest at the feast,\n                       That Loke may not\n                       Bring reproach on us\n                       Here in \u00c6ger\u2019s hall.\n\nHis realm is thus described in the Elder Edda:\n\n                         Grown over with shrubs\n                         And with high grass\n                         Is Vidar\u2019s wide land.\n                         There sits Odin\u2019s\n                         Son on the horse\u2019s back:\n                         He will avenge his father.\n\nHe avenges his father in the final catastrophe, in Ragnarok; for when\nthe Fenris-wolf has swallowed Odin, Vidar advances, and setting his foot\non the monster\u2019s lower jaw he seizes the other with his hand, and thus\ntears and rends him till he dies. It is now his shoe does him such\nexcellent service. After the universe has been regenerated\n\n                      There dwell Vidar and Vale\n                      In the gods\u2019 holy seats,\n                      When the fire of Surt is slaked.\n\nVidar\u2019s name (from _vi\u00f0r_, a forest) indicates that he is the god of the\nprimeval, impenetrable forest, where neither the sound of the ax nor the\nvoice of man was ever heard; and hence he is also most fittingly\nsurnamed the Silent God. Vidar is, then, imperishable and incorruptible\nnature represented as an immense indestructible forest, with the iron\ntrunks of the trees rearing their dense and lofty tops toward the\nclouds. Who has ever entered a thick and pathless forest, wandered about\nin its huge shadows and lost himself in its solemn darkness, without\nfeeling deeply sensible to the loftiness of the idea that underlies\nVidar\u2019s character. Vidar is the Greek Pan, the representative of\nincorruptible nature. He is not the ruler of the peaceful grove near the\nabode of the gods, where Idun dwells, but of the great and wild primeval\nforest, that man never yet entered. The idea of Vidar\u2019s woods is\nimperishableness, while that of Idun\u2019s grove is the constant renovation\nand rejuvenation of the life of the gods. The gods and all the work of\ntheir hands shall perish, and it is nowhere stated that Idun survives\nRagnarok. Odin himself perishes, and with him all his labor and care for\nman; but nature does not perish. If that should be entirely destroyed,\nthen it could not be _regenerated_. If matter should perish, where would\nthen the spirit take its dwelling? If Vidar did not exist, where would\nVale be? The glory of the world, the development that has taken place,\nand the spirit revealed in it, perish; but not Vidar, for he is the\nimperishable, wild, original nature, the eternal matter, which reveals\nits force to, but is not comprehended by, man; a force which man sees\nand reveres, without venturing an explanation; but when all the works of\nman are destroyed by consuming flames, this force of eternal matter will\nbe revealed with increased splendor.\n\nThus we find the power and strength of the gods expressed in two myths,\nin Thor and in Vidar, both sons of Odin, who is, as the reader knows,\nthe father of all the gods. Thor is the thundering, noisy, crushing, but\nwithal beneficent, god; Vidar is silent, dwells far away from, and\nexercises no influence upon, the works of man, except as he inspires a\nprofound awe and reverence. Thor is the visible, in their manifestations\nwonderful, constantly returning and all-preserving, workings of nature;\nVidar is the quiet, secretly working, hidden and self-supporting\nimperishableness. Popularity, fame, position, influence, wealth,\u2014all\nthat makes so much stir and bustle in the world\u2014shall perish; but the\nquiet working of the soul, the honest pursuit of knowledge, the careful\nsecret development of the powers of the human mind, shall live forever.\nAnd Vidar and Vale (mind and knowledge) shall together inhabit the\nsacred dwellings of the gods, when the waves of time have ceased to\nroll: Vidar as the god of imperishable matter, Vale as the god of\neternal light (spirit) that shines upon it.\n\nFootnote 72:\n\n  Loke.\n\n\n\n\n                              CHAPTER VI.\n                               THE VANS.\n\n\n                      SECTION I. NJORD AND SKADE.\n\n\nTwo opposite elements in nature are united in order to produce life. The\nopposite elements are expressed in the mythology by the terms asas and\nvans. In our language and mode of expression that would mean the solid\nand the liquid, the masculine and the feminine. Water, the _par\nexcellence_ representative of liquids, may symbolize various ideas. It\nmay typify sorrow; it then manifests itself in tears, and sorrow is\nfleeting as the flowing tears. Water may symbolize gladness, happiness,\nand blessings, that flow in gushing streams along the pathway of life;\nand it may also be used as the symbol of innocence, purity, and wealth.\nThese ideas may be regarded as a general interpretation of the vans, and\nwe find them reflected in the triune vana-deity; Njord with his children\nFrey and Freyja, who rise from the sea and unite themselves with the\nasa-divinity in heaven and on earth.\n\nNjord is called Vanagod, and he dwells in the heavenly region called\nNoatun. He rules over the winds and checks the fury of the sea and of\nfire, and is therefore invoked by seafarers and fishermen. He is so\nwealthy that he can give possessions and treasures to those who call on\nhim for them. Yet Njord is not of the lineage of the asas, for he was\nborn and bred in Vanaheim. But the vans gave him as hostage to the asas,\nreceiving from them in his stead H\u0153ner. By this means peace was\nre\u00ebstablished between the asas and vans. (See Part II, Chap. 1, Sec.\n13.)\n\nNjord took to wife Skade, the daughter of the giant Thjasse.[73] She\npreferred dwelling in the abode formerly belonging to her father, which\nis situated among rocky mountains in the region called Thrymheim, but\nNjord loved to reside near the sea. They at last agreed that they should\npass together nine nights in Thrymheim and then three in Noatun. But one\nday when Njord came back from the mountains to Noatun, he thus sang:\n\n                         Am weary of the mountains,\n                         Not long was I there,\n                         Only nine nights:\n                         The howl of the wolves\n                         Methought sounded ill\n                         To the song of the swans.\n\nTo which Skade sang in reply:\n\n                        Sleep could I not\n                        On my sea-strand couch\n                        For screams of the sea-fowl.\n                        _There_ wakes me\n                        When from the wave he comes\n                        Every morn the mew (gull).\n\nSkade then returned to the rocky mountains and dwelt in Thrymheim. There\nfastening on her skees and taking her bow she passes her time in the\nchase of wild beasts, and is called Andre-dis (Skee-goddess). Thus it is\nsaid:\n\n                        Thrymheim it\u2019s called\n                        Where Thjasse dwelled,\n                        That stream-mighty giant;\n                        But Skade now dwells,\n                        Skee-bride of the gods,\n                        In her father\u2019s old mansion.\n\nNjord is the god of the sea; that is to say, of that part of the sea\nwhich is immediately connected with the earth, that part of the sea\nwhich is made serviceable to man, where fishing and commerce carried on.\nHis dwelling is Noatun, which means land of ships (_n\u00f3r_, ship; _t\u00fan_,\nyard, place). Njord\u2019s realm is bounded on the one side by the earth, the\nland, and on the other by the raging ocean, where \u00c6ger with his\ndaughters reigns. Njord\u2019s wife is Skade (harm), the wild mountain\nstream, which plunges down from the high rocks, where she prefers to\ndwell, and pours herself into the sea. Her dwelling is Thrymheim, the\n_roaring home_, at the thundering waterfall. Taken as a whole, the myth\nis very clear and simple.\n\nThe compromise between Njord and Skate, to dwell nine nights in\nThrymheim (home of uproar, storms) and three nights in Noatun, of course\nhas reference to the severe northern latitudes, where rough weather and\nwintry storms prevail during the greater part of the year.\n\n\n                       SECTION II. \u00c6GER AND RAN.\n\n\nThese do not belong to the vana-divinities, but are given here in order\nto have the divinities of the sea in one place. As Njord is the mild,\nbeneficent sea near the shore, so \u00c6ger is the wild, turbulent, raging\nsea far from the land, where fishing and navigation cannot well be\ncarried on; the great ocean, and yet bordering on the confines of then\nasas. Hence \u00c6ger\u2019s twofold nature; he is a giant, but still has\nintercourse with the gods. Thus in Mimer, \u00c6ger and Njord, we have the\nwhole ocean represented, from its origin, Mimer, to its last stage of\ndevelopment, to Njord, in whom, as a beneficent divinity, it unites\nitself with the gods; that is to say, blesses and serves the enterprises\nof men.\n\n\u00c6ger visits the gods, and the latter visit him in return; and it was\nonce when the gods visited him that his brewing-kettle was found too\nsmall, so that Thor had to go to the giant Hymer and borrow a larger\none. In \u00c6ger\u2019s hall the bright gold was used instead of fire, and there\nthe ale passed around spontaneously. Ran is his wife. She has a net, in\nwhich she catches those who venture out upon the sea. \u00c6ger and Ran have\nnine daughters, the waves. Loke once borrowed Ran\u2019s net, to catch the\ndwarf Andvare, who in the guise of a fish dwelt in a waterfall. With her\nhand she is able to hold the ships fast. It was a prevailing opinion\namong the ancient Norsemen that they who perished at sea came to Ran;\nfor Fridthjof, who with his companions was in danger of being wrecked,\ntalks about his having to rest on Ran\u2019s couch instead of Ingeborg\u2019s, and\nas it was not good to come empty-handed to the halls of Ran and \u00c6ger, he\ndivided a ring of gold between himself and his men.\n\nThus Tegner has it in _Fridthjof_ at Sea:\n\n                      Whirling cold and fast\n                      Snow-wreaths fill the sail;\n                      Over dock and mast\n                      Patters heavy hail.\n\n                      The very stem they see so more,\n                      So thick is darkness spread,\n                      As gloom and horror hover o\u2019er\n                      The chamber of the dead.\n\n                      Still to sink the sailor dashes\n                      Implacable each angry wave;\n                      Gray, as if bestrewn with ashes,\n                      Yawns the endless, awful grave.\n\nThen says Fridthjof:\n\n                       For us in bed of ocean\n                       Azure pillows _Ran_ prepares,\n                       On thy pillow, Ingeborg,\n                       Thou thinkest upon me.\n                       Higher ply, my comrades,\n                       Ellida\u2019s sturdy oars;\n                       Good ship, heaven-fashioned,\n                       Bear us on an hour.\n\nThe storm continues:\n\n                  O\u2019er the side apace\n                  Now a sea hath leapt;\n                  In an instant\u2019s space\n                  Clear the deck is swept.\n\n                  From his arm now Fridthjof hastens\n                  To draw his ring, three marks in weight;\n                  Like the morning sun it glistens,\n                  The golden gift of Bele great.\n                  With his sword in pieces cutting\n                  The famous work of pigmied art,\n                  Shares he quickly, none forgetting,\n                  Unto every man a part.\n\nThen says Fridthjof again:\n\n                       Gold is good possession\n                       When one goes a-wooing;\n                       Let none go empty-handed\n                       Down to azure _Ran_.\n                       Icy are her kisses,\n                       Fickle her embraces;\n                       But we\u2019ll charm the sea-bride\n                       With our ruddy gold.\n\nHow eager Ran is to capture those who venture out upon her domain is\nalso illustrated in another part of Fridthjof\u2019s Saga, where King Ring\nand his queen Ingeborg ride over the ice on the lake to a banquet.\nFridthjof went along on skates. Thus Tegner again:\n\n              They speed as storms over ocean speed;\n              The queen\u2019s prayers little King Ring doth heed.\n\n              Their steel-shod comrade standeth not still,\n              He flieth past them as swift as he will.\n\n              Many a rune on the ice cutteth he;\n              Fair Ingeborg\u2019s name discovereth she.\n\n              So on their glittering course they go,\n              But _Ran_, the traitress, lurketh below.\n\n              A hole in her silver roof she hath reft,\n              Down sinketh the sleigh in the yawning cleft.\n\nBut, fortunately, Fridthjof was not far away. He came to their rescue,\nand\n\n                  With a single tug he setteth amain\n                  Both steed and sleigh on the ice again.\n\nOf \u00c6ger\u2019s and Ran\u2019s daughters, the waves, it is said that they\ncongregate in large numbers according to the will of their father. They\nhave pale locks and white veils; they are seldom mild in their\ndisposition toward men; they are called billows or surges, and are\nalways awake when the wind blows. They lash the sounding shores, and\nangrily rage and break around the holms;[74] they have a hard bed\n(stones and rocks), and seldom play in calm weather. The names of the\ndaughters of \u00c6ger and Ran represent the waves in their various\nmagnitudes and appearances. Thus Himingl\u0153fa, the sky-clear; Duva, the\ndiver; Blodughadda, the bloody- or purple-haired; Hefring, the swelling;\nBylgja, billow; Kolga, raging sea, etc.\n\nThese myths are very simple and need no extended explanations. \u00c6ger is\nthe Anglo-Saxon _eagor_, the sea. He is also called Hler, the shelterer\n(_hl\u00e9_, Anglo-Saxon _hleo_, Danish _L\u00e6_, English _lee_), and Gymer, the\nconcealing (_geyma_, Anglo-Saxon _gyman_, Norse _gjemme_, to conceal, to\nkeep). These names express the sea in its uproar, in its calmness, and\nas the covering of the deep. The name of his wife, Ran (robbery or the\nrobbing; _r\u0153na_, to plunder), denotes the sea as craving its sacrifice\nof human life and of treasures. It is a common expression in Norseland\nthat the sea brews and seethes, and this at once suggests \u00c6ger\u2019s\nkettles. The foaming ale needs no butler but passes itself around, and\nthere is plenty of it. That \u00c6ger, when visited by the gods, illuminated\nhis hall with shining gold, refers of course to the phosphorescent light\nof the sea (Icelandic _marelldr_, Norse _morild_). Those who are\nfamiliar with the sea cannot fail to have seen the sparks of fire that\napparently fly from it when its surface is disturbed in the dark. Thus\nthe servants of \u00c6ger, Elde and Funfeng (both words meaning fire), are\nproperly called excellent firemen. The relation between Njord and \u00c6ger\nseems to be the same as between Okeanos, the great water encircling the\nearth, and Pontus, the Mediterranean, within the confines of the earth.\n\nSome of the old Norse heroes are represented as possessing a terrifying\nhelmet, \u00c6ger\u2019s helmet (_gishj\u00e1lmr_); and thus, as Odin\u2019s golden helmet\nis the beaming sky, and as the dwarfs cover themselves with a helmet of\nfog, so \u00c6ger wears on his brow a helmet made of dense darkness and\nheaven-reaching, terrifying breakers.\n\n\u00c6ger and his family, it is certain, did not belong among the asas, yet\nthey were regarded, like them, as mighty beings, whose friendship was\nsought by the gods themselves; and England, that proud mistress of the\nsea, is the reflection of the myth of \u00c6ger, showing what grand results\nare achieved historically, when human enterprise and heroism enter into\nfriendly relations with the sea, making it serve the advancement of\ncivilization,\u2014when the gods go to \u00c6ger\u2019s hall to banquet.\n\n\n                           SECTION III. FREY.\n\n\nNjord had two children\u2014a son Frey and a daughter Freyju, both fair and\nmighty. Frey is one of the most celebrated of the gods. He presides over\nrain and sunshine and all the fruits of the earth, and should be invoked\nto obtain good harvests, and also for peace. He moreover dispenses\nwealth among men. He is called van and vanagod, yeargod and goods-giver\n(_f\u00e9gjafi_). He owns the ship Skidbladner and also Goldenbristle\n(_gullinbursti_) or Slidrugtanne (the sharp-toothed), a boar with golden\nbristles, with which he rides as folk-ruler to Odin\u2019s hall. In time\u2019s\nmorning, when he was yet a child, the gods gave him Alfheim (home of\nelves) as a present.\n\nOf Frey\u2019s ship Skidbladner, we have before seen (see p. 220) how it was\nmade by the dwarfs, sons of Ivald, and presented to Frey. It was so\nlarge that all the gods with their weapons and war stores could find\nroom on board it. As soon as the sails are set a favorable breeze arises\nand carries it to its place of destination, and it is made of so many\npieces, and with so much skill, that when it is not wanted for a voyage\nFrey may fold it together like a piece of cloth and put it into his\npocket.\n\nNjord had the consolation, when he was sent as hostage to the gods, that\nhe begat a son whom no one hates, but who is the best among the gods.\nThus the Elder Edda, in \u00c6ger\u2019s banquet to the gods, where Loke also was\npresent:\n\n                       NJORD:\n\n                       It is my consolation\u2014\n                       For I was from a far-off place\n                       Sent as a hostage to the gods\u2014\n                       That I begat that son\n                       Whom no one hates,\n                       And who is regarded\n                       Chief among the gods.\n\nTo which LOKE makes reply:\n\n                        Hold thy tongue, Njord!\n                        Subdue thy arrogance;\n                        I will conceal it no longer\n                        That with thy sister\n                        A son thou didst beget\n                        Scarcely worse than thyself.\n\nBut TYR defends Frey:\n\n                    Frey is the best\n                    Of all the chiefs\n                    Among the gods.\n                    He causes not tears\n                    To maids or mothers:\n                    His desire is to loosen the fetters\n                    Of those enchained.\n\n\n                    LOKE:\n\n                    Hold thy tongue, Tyr!\n                    Never thou couldst\n                    Use both hands,\n                    Since thy right one,\n                    As I now remember,\n                    The wolf Fenrer took from you.\n\n\n                    TYR:\n\n                    I lack a hand,\n                    Thou lackest good reputation,\u2014\n                    Sad it is to lack such a thing;\n                    Nor does the wolf fare well,\u2014\n                    In chains he pines\n                    Till the end of the world.\n\n\n                    LOKE:\n\n                    Hold thy tongue, Tyr!\n                    Thy wife and I\n                    Had a son together,\n                    But thou, poor fellow,\n                    Received not a farthing\n                    In fine from me.\n\n\n                    FREY:\n\n                    The wolf I see lie\n                    At the mouth of the river\n                    Until the powers perish.\n                    Mischief-maker!\n                    If thou dost not hold thy tongue\n                    Thou also shalt be bound.\n\n\n                    LOKE:\n\n                    For gold thou bought\u2019st\n                    Gymer\u2019s daughter,\n                    And sold thy sword\n                    At the same time;\n                    But when the sons of Muspel\n                    Come riding from the dark woods,\n                    What hail thou, poor fellow,\n                    To rely upon?\n\nFrey has a servant by name BYGVER, who responds to Loke:\n\n                       Know that, were I born\n                       Of so noble a race\n                       As Ingun\u2019s Frey,\n                       And had I\n                       So glorious a hall,\n                       I would crush the evil crow,\n                       Break his bones to the marrow!\n\nLOKE then turns upon Bygver, and calls him a little impertinent thing,\nthat always hangs about Frey\u2019s ears and cries under the millstone (can\nthe reader help thinking at this moment of Robert Burns\u2019 famous poem,\n_John Barleycorn?_); a good-for-nothing fellow, who never would divide\ngood with men, and when the heroes fought they could not find him, for\nhe was concealed in the straw of the bed.\n\nFrey\u2019s maid-servant is Beyla, Bygver\u2019s wife, whom Loke calls the ugliest\nand filthiest hag that can be found among the offspring of the gods. Of\ncourse Loke exaggerates and uses abusive language, but it was in truth a\nsorry thing for Frey that he traded his sword away, for it is to this\nfact he owes his defeat when he encounters Surt in Ragnarok.\n\nFrey\u2019s wife was Gerd, a daughter of Gymer, and their son was Fjolner.\nFrey was worshiped throughout the northern countries. In the common\nformula of the oath his name was put first: HJ\u00c1LPI M\u00c9R SV\u00c1 FREYR OK\nNJ\u00d6R\u00d0R OK HINN ALM\u00c1TTKI \u00c1S! that is, So help me Frey and Njord and the\nalmighty Asa (Odin). On Jul-eve (Christmas eve) it was customary to lead\nout a boar, which was consecrated to Frey, and which was called the\natonement boar. On this the persons present laid their hands and made\nsolemn vows; and at the feast, where the flesh of the sacrificed animal\nwas eaten by the assembled guests, there was drunk, among other horns, a\nhorn to Njord and Frey for prosperous seasons and for peace.\n\nEverything about Frey goes to show that he is the god of the earth\u2019s\nfruitfulness. The sea, Njord, rises as vapor and descends in rain upon\nthe land, making it fruitful. There has been much dispute about the\netymological meaning of the word Frey. Finn Magn\u00fasson derives it from\n_fr\u0153_, Norse _fr\u00f6_, meaning seed. Grimm, on the other hand, thinks the\nfundamental idea is mildness, gladness (compare German _froh_, Norse\n_fryd_). A derived meaning of the word is man, masculine of Freyja\n(German _frau_), meaning woman.\n\n\n                       SECTION IV. FREY AND GERD.\n\n\nFrey had one day placed himself in Hlidskjalf, and looked out upon all\nthe worlds. He also saw Jotunheim, and perceived a large and stately\nmansion which a maid was going to enter, and as she raised the latch of\nthe door so great a radiancy was thrown from her hand, that the air and\nwaters and all worlds were illuminated by it. It was Gerd, a daughter of\nthe giant Gymer and Aurboda, relatives of Thjasse. At this sight Frey,\nas a just punishment for his audacity in mounting on that sacred throne,\nwas struck with sudden sadness, so that on his return home he could\nneither speak nor sleep nor drink, nor did any one dare to inquire the\ncause of his affliction. Frey\u2019s messenger was named Skirner. Njord sent\nfor him and requested of him, as did also Skade, that he should ask Frey\nwhy he thus refused to speak to any one.\n\nThus the Elder Edda, in the lay of Skirner:\n\n\n                   SKADE:\n\n                   Skirner, arise, and swiftly run\n                   Where lonely sits our pensive son;\n                   Bid him to parley, and inquire\n                   \u2019Gainst whom he teems with sullen ire.\n\n\n                   SKIRNER:\n\n                   Ill words I fear my lot will prove,\n                   If I your son attempt to move;\n                   If I bid parley, and inquire\n                   Why teems his soul with savage ire.\n\nReluctantly Skirner then proceeded to Frey, and thus addressed him:\n\n\n                  SKIRNER:\n\n                  Prince of the gods, and first in fight!\n                  Speak, honored Frey, and tell me right:\n                  Why spends my lord the tedious day\n                  In his lone hall, to grief a prey?\n\n\n                  FREY:\n\n                  Oh, how shall I, fond youth, disclose\n                  To you my bosom\u2019s heavy woes?\n                  The ruddy god shines every day,\n                  But dull to me his cheerful ray.\n\n\n                  SKIRNER:\n\n                  Your sorrows deem not I so great\n                  That you the tale should not relate:\n                  Together sported we in youth,\n                  And well may trust each other\u2019s truth.\n\n\n                  FREY:\n\n                  In Gymer\u2019s court I saw her move,\n                  The maid who fires my breast with love;\n                  Her snow-white arms and bosom fair\n                  Shone lovely, kindling sea and air.\n                  Dear is she to my wishes, more\n                  Than e\u2019er was maid to youth before;\n                  But gods and elves, I wot it well,\n                  Forbid that we together dwell.\n\n\n                  SKIRNER:\n\n                  Give me that horse of wondrous breed\n                  To cross the nightly flame with speed;\n                  And that self-brandished sword to smite\n                  The giant race with strange affright.\n\n\n                  FREY:\n\n                  To you I give this wondrous steed\n                  To pass the watchful fire with speed;\n                  And this, which borne by valiant wight,\n                  Self-brandished will his foemen smite.\n\nFrey, having thus given away his sword, found himself without arms when\nhe on another occasion fought with Bele, and hence it was that he slew\nhim with a stag\u2019s antlers. This combat was, however, a trifling affair,\nfor Frey could have killed him with a blow of his fist, had he felt\ninclined; but the time will come when the sons of Muspel will sally\nforth to the fight in Ragnarok, and then indeed will Frey truly regret\nhaving parted with his falchion. Having obtained the horse and sword,\nSkirner set out on his journey, and thus he addressed his horse:\n\n                 Dark night is spread; \u2019t is time, I trow,\n                 To climb  the mountains hoar with snow;\n                 Both shall return, or both remain\n                 In durance, by the giant ta\u2019en.\n\nSkirner rode into Jotunheim, to the court of Gymer. Furious dogs were\ntied there before the gate of the wooden inclosure which surrounded\nGerd\u2019s bower. He rode toward a shepherd, who was sitting on a mound, and\nthus addressed him:\n\n                  Shepherd, you, that sit on the mound,\n                  And turn your watchful eyes around,\n                  How may I lull these bloodhounds? say;\n                  How speak unharmed with Gymer\u2019s may?\n\n\n                  THE SHEPHERD:\n\n                  Whence and what are you? doomed to die?\n                  Or, dead, revisit you the sky?\n                  For ride by night or ride by day,\n                  You ne\u2019er shall come to Gymer\u2019s may.\n\n\n                  SKIRNER:\n\n                  I grieve not, I, a better part\n                  Fits him who boasts a ready heart:\n                  At hour of birth our lives were shaped;\n                  The doom of fate can ne\u2019er be \u2019scaped.\n\nBut Gerd inside hears the stranger, and thus speaks to her maid-servant:\n\n                 What sounds unknown my ears invade,\n                 Frightening this mansion\u2019s peaceful shade;\n                 The earth\u2019s foundation rocks withal,\n                 And trembling shakes all Gymer\u2019s hall.\n\n\n                 THE MAID-SERVANT:\n\n                 Dismounted stands warrior sheen;\n                 His courser crops the herbage green.\n\n\n                 GERD:\n\n                 Haste! bid him to my bower with speed,\n                 To quaff unmixed the pleasant mead;\n                 And good betide us; for I fear\n                 My brother\u2019s murderer is near.\n\nSkirner having entered, Gerd thus addresses him:\n\n                 What are you, elf or asas\u2019 son?\n                 Or from the wiser vanas sprung?\n                 Alone to visit our abode,\n                 O\u2019er bickering flames, why have you rode?\n\n\n                 SKIRNER:\n\n                 Nor elf am I, nor asas\u2019 son;\n                 Nor from the wiser vanas sprung:\n                 Yet o\u2019er the bickering flames I rode\n                 Alone to visit your abode.\n                 Eleven apples here I hold,\n                 Gerd, for you, of purest gold;\n                 Let this fair gift your bosom move\n                 To grant young Frey your precious love.\n\n\n                 GERD:\n\n                 Eleven apples take not I\n                 From man as price of chastity:\n                 While life remains, no tongue shall tell\n                 That Frey and I together dwell.\n\n\n                 SKIRNER:\n\n                 Gerd, for you this wondrous ring,\n                 Burnt on young Balder\u2019s pile, I bring,\n                 On each ninth night shall other eight\n                 Drop from it. all of equal weight.\n\n\n                 GERD:\n\n                 I take not, I, that wondrous ring,\n                 Though it from Balder\u2019s pile you bring:\n                 Gold lack not I, in Gymer\u2019s bower;\n                 Enough for me my father\u2019s dower.\n\n\n                 SKIRNER:\n\n                 Behold this bright and slender wand,\n                 Unsheathed and glittering in my hand!\n                 Refuse not, maiden! lest your head\n                 Be severed by the trenchant blade.\n\n\n                 GERD:\n\n                 Gerd will ne\u2019er by force be led\n                 To grace a conqueror\u2019s hateful bed;\n                 But this I trow, with main and might\n                 Gymer shall meet your boast in fight.\n\n\n                 SKIRNER:\n\n                 Behold this bright and slender wand,\n                 Unsheathed and glittering in my hand!\n                 Slain by its edge your sire shall lie,\n                 That giant old is doomed to die.\n\nAs this has no effect upon Gerd\u2019s mind, Skirner heaps blows upon her\nwith a magic wand, and at the same time he begins his incantations,\nscoring runic characters as he sings:\n\n                E\u2019en as I list, the magic wand\n                Shall tame you! Lo, with charmed hand\n                I touch you, maid! There shall you go\n                Where never man shall learn your woe.\n                On some high, pointed rock, forlorn\n                Like eagle, shall you sit at morn;\n                Turn from the world\u2019s all-cheering light,\n                And seek the deep abyss of night.\n                Food shall to you more loathly show\n                Than slimy serpent creeping slow,\n                When forth you come, a hideous sight,\n                Each wondering eye shall stare with fright;\n                By all observed, yet sad and lone;\n                \u2019Mongst shivering giants wider known\n                Than him who sits unmoved on high,\n                The guard of heaven with sleepless eye.\n                \u2019Mid charms and chains and restless woe,\n                Your tears with double grief shall flow.\n                Now sit down, maid, while I declare\n                Your tide of sorrow and despair.\n                Your bower shall be some giant\u2019s cell,\n                Where phantoms pale shall with you dwell;\n                Each day to the frosty giant\u2019s hall,\n                Comfortless, wretched, shall you crawl;\n                Instead of joy, and pleasure gay,\n                Sorrow and tears and sad dismay;\n                With some three-headed giant wed,\n                Or pine upon a lonely bed;\n                From morn to morn love\u2019s secret fire\n                Shall gnaw your heart with vain desire;\n                Like barren root of thistle pent\n                In some high ruined battlement.\n                  O\u2019er shady hill, through greenwood round,\n                I sought this wand; the wand I found.\n                Odin is wroth, and mighty Thor;\n                E\u2019en Frey shall now your name abhor.\n                But ere o\u2019er your ill-fated head\n                The last dread curse of heaven be spread,\n                Giants and Thurses far and near,\n                Suttung\u2019s sons, and ye asas, hear\n                How I forbid with fatal ban\n                This maid the joys, the fruit of man.\n                Cold Grimner is that giant hight\n                Who you shall hold in realms of might;\n                Where slaves in cups of twisted roots\n                Shall bring foul beverage from the goats;\n                Nor sweeter draught, nor blither fare\n                Shall you, sad virgin, ever share.\n                  \u2019Tis done! I wind the mystic charm;\n                Thus, thus I trace the giant form;\n                And three fell characters below,\n                Fury and Lust and restless Woe.\n                E\u2019en as I wound, I straight unwind\n                This fatal spell, if you are kind.\n\n\n                GERD:\n\n                Now hail, now hail, you warrior bold!\n                Take, take this cup of crystal cold,\n                And quaff the pure metheglin old.\n                Yet deemed I ne\u2019er that love could bind\n                To vana-youth my hostile mind.\n\n\n                SKIRNER:\n\n                I turn not home to bower or hall\n                Till I have learnt mine errand all;\n                Where you will yield the night of joy\n                To brave Njord\u2019s, the gallant boy.\n\n\n                GERD:\n\n                Bar-isle is hight, the seat of love;\n                Nine nights elapsed, in that known grove\n                Shall brave Njord\u2019s, the gallant boy,\n                From Gerd take the kiss of joy.\n\nThen Skirner rode home. Frey stood forth and hailed him and asked what\ntidings.\n\n                 FREY:\n\n                 Speak, Skirner, speak and tell with speed!\n                 Take not the harness from your steed,\n                 Nor stir your foot, till you have said,\n                 How fares my love with Gymer\u2019s maid!\n\n\n                 SKIRNER:\n\n                 Bar-isle is hight, the seat of love;\n                 Nine nights elapsed, in that known grove\n                 To brave Njord\u2019s, the gallant boy,\n                 Will Gerd yield the kiss of joy.\n\n\n                 FREY:\n\n                 Long is one night, and longer twain;\n                 But how for three endure my pain?\n                 A month of rapture sooner flies\n                 Than half one night of wishful sighs.\n\nThis poem illustrates how beautifully a myth can be elaborated. Gerd is\nthe seed; Skirner is the air that comes with the sunshine. Thus the myth\nis easily explained: The earth, in which the seed is sown, resists the\nembrace of Frey; his messenger Skirner, who brings the seed out into the\nlight, in vain promises her the golden ears of harvest and the ring, the\nsymbol of abundance. She has her giant nature, which has not yet been\ntouched by the divine spirit; she realizes not the glory which she can\nattain to by Frey\u2019s love. Skirner must conjure her, he must use\nincantations, he must show her how she, if not embraced by Frey, must\nforever be the bride of the cold frost, and never experience the joys of\nwedded life. She finally surrenders herself to Frey, and they embrace\neach other, when the buds burst forth in the grove. This myth then\ncorresponds to Persephone, the goddess of the grain planted in the\nground. Demeter\u2019s sorrow on account of the naked, forsaken field, from\nwhich the sprout shall shoot forth from the hidden reed, is Frey\u2019s\nimpatient longing; and Skirner is Mercurius, who brings Proserpina up\nfrom the lower world.\n\nBut the myth has also a deeper ethical signification. Our forefathers\nwere not satisfied with the mere shell; and Frey\u2019s love to Gerd, which\nis described so vividly in the Elder Edda, is taken from the nature of\nlove, with all its longings and hopes, and is not only a symbol of what\ntakes place in visible nature. As the warmth of the sun develops the\nseed, thus love develops the heart; love is the ray of light (Skirner)\nsent from heaven, which animates and ennobles the clump of earth. Gerd\nis the maid, who is engaged in earthly affairs and does not yet realize\nanything nobler than her every-day cares. Then love calls her; in her\nbreast awakens a new life; wonderful dreams like gentle breezes embrace\nher, and when the dreams grow into consciousness her eyes are opened to\na higher sphere of existence. This myth is most perfectly reflected in\nthe love-story of Fridthjof\u2019s Saga, an old Norse romance moulded into a\nmost fascinating Epic Poem by Tegner. A good English translation of this\npoem appeared a few years ago in London, and was republished in this\ncountry under the auspices of Bayard Taylor. It is also translated into\nalmost every other European language, and is justly considered one of\nthe finest poetical productions of this century.\n\n\n                      SECTION V. WORSHIP OF FREY.\n\n\nThe Sagas tell us, as has already been stated, that Frey was worshiped\nextensively throughout the northern countries.\n\nIn Throndhjem there was during the reign of Olaf Tryggvesson a temple in\nwhich Frey was zealously worshiped. When the king, having overthrown the\nstatue of the god, blamed the bondes for their stupid idolatry, and\nasked them wherein Frey had evinced his power, they answered: Frey often\ntalked with us, foretold us the future, and granted us good seasons and\npeace.\n\nThe Norse chieftain Ingemund Thorstenson, who in the days of the tyrant\nHarald Hairfair emigrated from Norway and settled in Vatnsdal, Iceland,\nbuilt near his homestead a temple, which appears to have been specially\ndedicated to Frey, who had in a manner pointed out a dwelling-place to\nhim; for in digging a place for his pillars of the high-seat\n(_\u00f6ndvegis-s\u00falur_, something similar to the Greek Hermes and Roman\nPenates), Ingemund found in the earth an image of Frey, which he had\nlost in Norway.\n\nThe Icelander Thorgrim of Seabol was a zealous worshiper of Frey, and\nconducted sacrificial festivals in his honor during the winter nights.\nHe was killed in his bed by Gisle, and a famous funeral service was\ngiven him; but one thing, says the Saga of Gisle Surson, also happened,\nwhich seemed remarkable. Snow never settled on Thorgrim\u2019s how\n(grave-mound) on the south side, nor did it freeze; it was thought that\nFrey loved him so much, because he had sacrificed to him, that he did\nnot want it to grow cold between them.\n\nIn the vicinity of the estate Tver-aa, in Eyjafjord in Iceland, there\nwas a temple dedicated to Frey, and the place became so holy that no\nguilty person dared to tarry there, for Frey did not allow it. When the\nchieftain Thorkel the Tall was banished from Tver-aa by Glum Eyjolfson,\nwho is universally known as Vigaglum, he led a full-grown ox to Frey\u2019s\ntemple before he left, and thus addressed the god: Long have you been to\nme a faithful friend, O Frey! Many gifts have you received from me and\nrewarded me well for them. Now I give you this ox, in order that Glum\nmay some day have to leave Tver-aa no less reluctantly than I do. And\nnow give to me a sign to show whether you accept this offering or not.\nAt that moment the ox bellowed loudly and fell dead upon the ground.\nThorkel considered this a good omen, and moved away with a lighter\nheart. Afterwards (it is related in Vigaglum\u2019s Saga) Glum in his old\ndays became involved in a dangerous suit for manslaughter, which ended\nin his having to relinquish Tver-aa to Ketil, son of Thorvald Krok, whom\nhe confessed having killed. On the night before he rode to the _thing_\n(assembly, court), where his case was to be decided, he dreamed that\nthere had congregated a number of men at Tver-aa to meet Frey; he saw\nmany down by the river (_\u00e1_ is river in Icelandic), and there sat Frey\non a bench. Glum asked who they were, and they answered: We are your\ndeparted relatives, and have come to pray Frey that you may not be\ndriven from Tver-aa; but it avails us nothing. Frey answers us short and\nangrily and now remembers the ox which Thorkel the Tall gave to him.\nGlum awoke, and from that time he said that he was on unfriendly terms\nwith Frey.\n\nIn the temple at Upsala, in Sweden, Frey, together with Odin and Thor,\nwas especially worshiped; and by the story of the Norseman Gunnar\nHelming, who in Sweden gave himself out as Frey, it is attested that the\npeople in some provinces of Sweden put their highest trust in this god,\nand even believed him sometimes to appear in human form.\n\nThe horse, it appears, was regarded as a favorite animal of Frey. At his\ntemple in Throndhjem it is said there were horses belonging to him. It\nis related of the Icelander Rafnkel that he loved Frey above all other\ngods, and bestowed upon him an equal share in all his best possessions.\nHe had a brown horse called Frey-fax (compare Col-fax, Fair-fax, etc.),\nwhich he loved so highly that he made a solemn vow to kill the man who\nshould ride this horse against his will, a vow he also fulfilled.\nAnother Icelander, Brand, also had a horse called Frey-fax, which he\nmade so much of that he was said to believe in it as in a divinity.\n\nFrey\u2019s boar, Gullinburste, has been referred to in connection with the\nJul or Christmas festivities, and there are found many examples of\nswine-sacrifice in the old Norse writings. King Hedrek made solemn vows\non the atonement-boar on Jul-eve, and in one of the prose supplements to\nthe ancient Edda poem of Helge Hjorvardson we find that the\natonement-boar is mentioned as being led out on Jul-eve, in order that\nthey might lay lands upon it and make solemn vows.\n\nA highly valued wooden statue or image of Frey was found in a temple at\nThrondhjem, which king Olaf Tryggvesson hewed in pieces in the presence\nof the people. Kjotve the Rich, king of Agder in Norway, one of the\nchiefs who fought against Harald Fairhair, had a weight upon which the\ngod Frey was sculptured in silver. This treasure, which he held in great\nveneration, fell after the battle into the hands of King Harald, and he\npresented it to his friend, the chieftain Ingemund Thorstenson, who\nafterwards carried the image in a purse and held it in very high esteem.\nThis last-mentioned image was probably borne as an amulet, as was often\nthe case, no doubt, with the gold braeteates which are found in the\ngrave-hows and in the earth, having upon them the images of men and\nanimals, and which are furnished with a clasp for fastening to a\nnecklace.\n\n\n                          SECTION VI. FREYJA.\n\n\nThe goddess of love is Freyja, also called Vanadis or Vanabride. She is\nthe daughter of Njord and the sister of Frey. She ranks next to Frigg.\nShe is very fond of love ditties, and all lovers would do well to invoke\nher. It is from her name that women of birth and fortune are called in\nthe Icelandic language _h\u00fas freyjur_ (compare Norse _fru_ and German\n_frau_). Her abode in heaven is called Folkvang, where she disposes of\nthe hall-seats. To whatever field of battle she rides she asserts her\nright to one half the slain, the other half belonging to Odin. Thus the\nElder Edda, in Grimner\u2019s lay:\n\n                       Folkvang \u2019tis called\n                       Where Freyja has right\n                       To dispose of the hall-seats.\n                       Every day of the slain\n                       She chooses the half\n                       And leaves half to Odin.\n\nHer mansion, Sessrymner (having many or large seats), is large and\nmagnificent; thence she rides out in a car drawn by two cats. She lends\na favorable ear to those who sue for her assistance. She possesses a\nnecklace called Brisingamen, or Brising. She married a person called\nOder, and their daughter, named Hnos, is so very handsome that whatever\nis beautiful and precious is called by her name _hnossir_ (that means,\nnice things). It is also said that she had two daughters, Hnos and\nGerseme, the latter name meaning precious. But Oder left his wife in\norder to travel into very remote countries. Since that time Freyja\ncontinually weeps, and her tears are drops of pure gold; hence she is\nalso called the fair-weeping goddess (_it gr\u00e1tfagra go\u00f0_). In poetry,\ngold is called Freyja\u2019s tears, the rain of Freyja\u2019s brows or cheeks. She\nhas a great variety of names, for, having gone over many countries in\nsearch of her husband, each people gave her a different name. She is\nthus called Mardal, Horn, Gefn, Syr, Skjalf and Thrung. It will also be\nremembered, from the chapter about Thor, that Freyja had a falcon-guise,\nand how the giant Thrym longed to possess her. In the lay of Hyndla, in\nthe Elder Edda, Freyja comes to her friend and sister, the giantess\nHyndla, and requests her to ride to Valhal, to ask for success for her\nfavorite Ottar; promising the giantess to appease Odin and Thor, who of\ncourse were enemies to the giants. Hyndla is inclined to doubt Freyja\u2019s\nremarks, especially as she comes to her with Ottar in the night. Who\nthis Ottar was we do not know, excepting that he was a son of the Norse\nhero, Instein, and hence probably a Norseman. He was heir to an estate,\nbut his right to it was disputed by Angantyr. It was therefore necessary\nto make his title good, and to enumerate his ancestors, but for this he\nwas too ignorant. Meanwhile he had always been a devout worshiper of the\nasynjes (goddesses), and had especially worshiped Freyja by making\nsacrifices, images, and erecting altars to her. Hence it is that she\nwishes to help him in this important case, but finds that she is not\nable, and it was for this reason she saddled her golden boar and went to\nthe wise giantess Hyndla, who was well posted in regard to the\npedigrees, origin and fates of gods, giants and men. Hyndla consents to\ngiving the information asked for, and so she enumerates first the\nimmediate ancestors of Ottar on his father\u2019s and mother\u2019s side, then\nspeaks of the king so famous in olden times, Halfdan Gamle, the original\nprogenitor of the Skjolds and several other noble families of the North.\nAnd as these royal families were said to be descended from the gods and\nthe latter again from the giants, Hyndla gives some of their genealogies\nalso. Thus she gets an opportunity to speak of Heimdal and his giant\nmothers, then of Loke and of the monsters descended from him, which\nshall play so conspicuous a part in Ragnarok, then of the mighty god of\nthunder, and finally of a god yet more mighty, whom she ventures not to\nname, and here she ends her tale. She will not prophesy further than to\nwhere Odin is swallowed by the Fenris-wolf and the world by the yawning\nabyss. Freyja after this asks her for a drink of remembrance to give to\nOttar, her guest and favorite, in order that he might be able to\nremember the whole talk and the pedigree two days afterwards, when the\ncase between him and Angantyr should be decided by proofs of this kind.\nHyndla refuses to do this, and upbraids her with abusive language. By\nthis Freyja is excited to wrath and threatens to kindle a fire around\nthe giantess, from which she would not be able to escape, if she did not\ncomply with her request. When the threat begins to be carried out (at\nthe breaking forth of the flaming aurora in the morning) Hyndla gives\nthe requested drink, but at the same time curses it. Freyja is not\nterrified by this, but removes the curse by her blessing and earnest\nprayers to all divinities for the success of her beloved Ottar.\n\nWe should like to give the lay in full, as it is found in the Elder\nEdda, but having quoted several strophes from it before, and it being\nquite long, we reluctantly omit it. We advise our readers, however, by\nall means to read the ELDER EDDA. There is more profound thought in it\nthan in any other human work, not even Shakespeare excepted. What a pity\nthat it is so little known!\n\nWomen came after death to Freyja. When Egil Skallagrimson had lost his\nyoung son, and was despairing unto death on this account, his daughter\nThorgerd, who was married to Olaf in Lax-aa-dal, comes to console him;\nand when she hears that he will neither eat nor drink, then she also\nsays that she has not and will not eat or drink before she comes to\nFreyja. With _her_, lovers who have been faithful unto death are\ngathered; therefore Hagbard sings: Love is renewed in Freyja\u2019s halls.\n\nFreyja is the goddess of love between man and woman. Hence we find in\nher nature, beauty, grace, modesty, the longings, joys, and tears of\nlove, and we find also that burning love in the heart which breaks out\nin wild flames. She rules in _Folk_vang, in the human dwellings, where\nthere are seats enough for all. No one escapes her influence. Odin\nshares the slain equally with her, for the hero has _two_ grand objects\nin view\u2014to conquer his enemy and to win the heart of the maiden.\n\nThus the Norse mythology teaches us that the sturdy Norseman was not\ninsusceptible to impressions from beauty nor unmoved by love. The most\nbeautiful flowers were named after Freyja\u2019s hair and eye-dew, and even\nanimate objects, which, like the flowers, were remarkable for their\nbeauty, were named after this goddess, as for instance the butterfly\n(Icel. _Freyjuh\u0153na_\u2014Freyja\u2019s hen).\n\nThere is a semi-mythological Saga called Orvarodd\u2019s Saga. Orvarodd\nsignifies Arrow-odd; and as this same Arrow-odd is implicated in a large\nnumber of love exploits, it has been suggested that he may be Freyja\u2019s\nhusband, whose name the reader remembers was Oder, the stem of which is\n_od_, and hence we have in the North also not only a _goddess_ of love,\nbut also a god of love (Cupid), with his arrows!\n\nFreyja\u2019s cats symbolize sly fondling and sensual enjoyment. The name of\nher husband, Oder, means sense, understanding, but also wild desire. The\nvarious names bestowed upon Freyja when she travels among the different\nnations denote the various modes by which love reveals itself in human\nlife. The goddesses Sjofn, Lofn, and Var, heretofore mentioned, were\nregarded as messengers and attendants of Freyja. Friday (_dies Veneris_)\nis named after her. (See page 237.)\n\n\n                      SECTION VII. A BRIEF REVIEW.\n\n\nThe lives and exploits of the propitious divinities have now been\npresented; and in presenting the myths we have not only given the forces\nand phenomena of nature symbolized by the myths, but we have also tried\nto bring the mythology down from heaven to the earth, and exhibit the\nvalue it had in the minds of our ancestors. We have tried, as Socrates\ndid with his philosophy, to show what influence the myths have had upon\nthe life of our forefathers; in other words, we have tried to put a\nkernel into the shell. We have tried to present the mythology, not as\nthe science and laws by which the universe is governed, but as\nsomething\u2014call it science or what you will\u2014by which to illustrate how\nthe contemplation of the forces and phenomena of nature have influenced\nhuman thought and action. Language is in its origin nothing but\nimpressions from nature, which having been revolved for a time in the\nhuman mind find their expression in words. Poetry is in its origin\nnothing else but expressions of human thought and feeling called forth\nby the contemplation of the wonderful works of God. And this is also\ntrue of mythology.\n\nWe have found the propitious divinities divided into three classes,\nthose of heaven, those of earth, and those of the sea. The union or\nmarriage between heaven and earth has been promoted in various myths.\nThe king of heaven is but _one_, but he embraces the earth in various\nforms, and the earth is, in a new form, wedded to the god of thunder;\nnay, the vans, or divinities of the sea, arise and fill the land with\nblessings in various ways. The manner in which the gods are combined and\ninterlinked with each other in one grand system is a feature peculiar to\nthe Norse mythology. There is not, as in the Greek, a series of separate\ngroups and separate dwellings, but the gods come in frequent contact\nwith each other. Odin rules in the heavens, Thor in the clouds, Heimdal\nin the rainbow, Balder in the realms of light, Frey with his elves of\nlight in the earth, but the sun affects them all: it is Odin\u2019s eye, it\nis Balder\u2019s countenance, Heimdal needs it for his rainbow, and Frey\ngoverns its rays; and still the sun itself rides as a beaming maid with\nher horses from morning until evening. The earth has its various forms,\nand the seed planted in the earth has its own god (Frey), surrounded by\nthe spirits of the groves, the forests and the fountains. And the king\nof heaven unites man with nature; he not only provides for his animal\nlife, but also breathes into him a living soul and inspires him with\nenthusiasm. He sits with Saga at the fountain of history; he sends out\nhis son Brage, the god of poetry and eloquence, and unites him with\nIdun, the rejuvenating goddess, whose carefully protected rivers meander\nthrough the grove full of fruit trees bearing golden apples; and he lets\nhis other son, Balder, the ruler of light, marry the industrious\nflower-goddess, Nanna, who with her maids spreads a fragrant carpet over\nthe earth. And as the god of thunder rules but to protect heaven and\nearth, so the naked desert and the impenetrable forest exist only to\nremind us of the incorruptible vital force of nature, safe against all\nattacks. The imperishableness of nature appears more strikingly in the\nstupendous mountains and gigantic forests than in the fertile,\ncultivated and protected parts of the earth. Now let us again ask: Is\nthere nothing here for the poet or artist? Has the Norse mythology\nnothing that can be elaborated and clothed with beautiful forms and\ncolors? Does this mythology not contain germs that art can develop into\nfragrant leaves, swelling buds and radiant blossoms? Does not this our\nGothic inheritance deserve a place with the handmaids of literature?\nWill not our poets, public speakers, lecturers, essayists, and writers\nof elegant literature generally, who make so many quaint allusions to,\nand borrow so many elegant and suggestive illustrations from, Greek\nmythology; will they not, we say, do their own ancestors the honor to\ndip their pen occasionally into the mythology of the Gothic race? It is\nbad practice to borrow when we can get along without it, besides the\nproducts of the south thrive not well in our northern Gothic soil and\nclimate. Ygdrasil grows better here, and that is a tree large enough and\nfruitful enough to sustain the Gothic race with enthusiasm and\ninspiration for centuries yet to come, and to supply a a whole race of\nfuture bards and poets and artists with a precious and animating elixir.\nOur next generation will comprehend this.\n\nFootnote 73:\n\n  How Skade came to choose Njord when she was permitted to choose a\n  husband among the gods, seeing only their feet, was related on page\n  277.\n\nFootnote 74:\n\n  Rocky islands.\n\n\n\n\n                              CHAPTER VII.\n            THE DEVELOPMENT OF EVIL. LOKE AND HIS OFFSPRING.\n\n\n                            SECTION I. LOKE.\n\n\nWe have now made an acquaintance with the lives and exploits or the good\nand propitious divinities, with the asas and vans. But what of the evil?\nWhence come they, and how have they been developed? Many a philosopher\nhas puzzled his brain with this vexed question, and the wisest minds are\nstill engaged in deep meditations in regard to it. It is and will remain\nan unsolved problem. But what did the old Goths, and particularly our\nNorse forefathers, think about the development of evil? What forms did\nit assume among them? How did it spring forth in nature, and how did it\nimpress the minds and hearts of the people? These are questions now to\nbe answered.\n\nThere are in the Norse mythology two individuals by the name of Loke.\nThe one is _Utgard_-Loke, hideous in his whole being, and his character\nwas sketched in the myth about Thor and Skrymer (see pp. 312-322); he\nrepresents physical and moral evil in all its naked loathsomeness. The\nother is _Asa_-Loke, of whom there also have been accounts given at\nvarious times in connection with the propitious gods; and it is of him\nsolely we are now to speak, as the former belongs wholly to the race of\ngiants. Asa-Loke, whom we shall hereafter call by his common name, Loke,\nis the same evil principle in all its various manifestations; but as he\nmakes his appearance among the gods, he represents evil in the seductive\nand seemingly beautiful form in which it glides about through the world.\nWe find him flowing in the veins of the human race and call him sin, or\npassion. In nature he is the corrupting element in air, fire and water.\nIn the bowels of the earth he is the volcanic flame, in the sea he\nappears as a fierce serpent, and in the lower world we recognize him as\npale death. Thus, like Odin, Loke pervades all nature. And in no\ndivinity is it more clear than in this, that the idea proceeding from\nthe visible workings of nature entered the human heart and mind and\nthere found its moral or ethical reflection. Loke symbolises sin,\nshrewdness, deceitfulness, treachery, malice, etc. Loke is indeed in his\ndevelopment one of the profoundest myths. In the beginning he was\nintimately connected with Odin, then he became united with the air, and\nfinally he impersonates the destructive fire. And in these changes he\nkeeps growing worse and worse.\n\nIn the banquet of \u00c6ger he reminds Odin that they in the beginning of\ntime had their blood mixed. Thus the Elder Edda:\n\n                    LOKE:\n\n                    Do thou mind, Odin,\n                    That we in time\u2019s morning\n                    Mixed blood together!\n                    Then thou pretendedst\n                    That thou never wouldst ask a drink\n                    Unless it was offered to both of us.\n\nSameness of blood symbolizes sameness of mind, and Loke is in the\nYounger Edda called Odin\u2019s brother, the uncle of the gods. Under the\nname of Loder, or Lopter, Loke took part in the creation of man; he gave\nthe senses, the sources of evil desires, the passions, the fire of the\nveins. Thus he is like the fire, which is beneficent and necessary for\ndevelopment, but also dangerous and destructive. With the giantess\nAngerboda (producing sorrow) he begat the wolf Fenrer, but the most\ndisgusting monster is the woman Hel, who is a daughter of Loke. _Odin_\nunites himself with the gigantic force in nature, but he does this to\ndevelop, ennoble and elevate it. _Loke_ unites himself with crude\nmatter, but by this union he only still further develops the evil\nprinciple, which then expresses itself in all kinds of terrible\nphenomena: the sea tosses its waves against heaven itself, and rushes\nout upon the land; the air trembles; then comes snow and howling winds;\nthe rain splashes down upon the earth, etc. Such is also his influence\nupon the human mind. He is the sly, treacherous father of lies. In\nappearance he is beautiful and fair, but in his mind he is evil, and in\nhis inclinations he is inconstant. Notwithstanding his being ranked\namong the gods, he is the slanderer of the gods, the grand contriver of\ndeceit and fraud, the reproach of gods and men. Nobody renders him\ndivine honors. He surpasses all mortals in the arts of perfidy and\ncraft.\n\nThere is some dispute about the real meaning of Loke\u2019s name. Some derive\nit from the Icelandic _l\u00faka_, to end, thus arguing that Loke is the end\nand consummation of divinity. Another definition is given, taken from\nthe Icelandic _logi_ (Anglo-Saxon _l\u00eeg_), according to which the primary\nmeaning would be fire, flame. He is also called Loder, or Lopter (the\na\u00ebrial; compare Norse _luft_, Anglo-Saxon _lyft_, air); and this would\nseem to corroborate the definition of Loke as fire. Loder (_lodern_, to\nblaze) would then designate him in the character of the blazing earthly\nfire, and Lopter as the heated and unsteady air. He is son of the giant\nFarbaute, that is, the one who strikes the ships, the wind. His mother\nis Laufey, or Nal, the former meaning leaf-isle, and the latter needle.\nOak trees produce leaves and pines produce needles; both Laufey and Nal\nare therefore combustibles. His brothers are Byleist (dwelling\ndestroyer, raging flame), and Helblinde, the latter being another name\nfor Odin.\n\nIn the previous chapters it has frequently been seen how Loke time and\nagain accompanied the gods, they making use of his strength and cunning;\nbut it has also been shown how he acted in concert with the jotuns and\nexposed the gods to very great perils and then extricated them again by\nhis artifices. By Loke\u2019s advice the gods engage the artificer to build a\ndwelling so well fortified that they should be perfectly safe from the\nincursions of the frost-giants. For this the artificer is to receive\nFreyja, providing he completes his work within a stipulated time; but\nLoke prevented him from completing his task by the birth of Sleipner.\nWhen the dwarfs forge the precious things for the gods, it is he who\nbrings about that the work lacks perfection, and even the handle of\nThor\u2019s mallet, Mjolner, becomes too short; for evil is everywhere\npresent and makes the best things defective. He cuts the hair of the\ngoddess Sif, and by this he makes way for the forging of the precious\narticles; thus evil often in spite of itself produces good results.\nExamples of this abound in the history of the world. Loke gives Thjasse\nan opportunity to rob Idun, but brings her back again and thus causes\nThjasse\u2019s death. He hungers at Geirrod\u2019s, and causes Thor to undertake\nhis dangerous journey; but he also looks after Thor\u2019s hammer, and\naccompanies him as maid-servant to get it back. He steals Freyja\u2019s\nBrisingamen, and quarrels with Heimdal about it. But his worst deed is\nBalder\u2019s death. For these reasons Loke is in Old Norse poetry called:\nson of Farbaute, son of Laufey, son of Nal, brother of Byleist, brother\nof Helblinde, father of the Fenris-wolf, father of the Midgard-serpent,\nfather of Hel, uncle of Odin, visitor and chest-goods of Geirrod, thief\nof Brisingamen and of Idun\u2019s apples, defender of Sigyn (his wife), Sif\u2019s\nhair destroyer, adviser of Balder\u2019s bane, etc.\n\nOdin, H\u0153ner and Loke are often together. It is related that they once\nset out to explore the whole world. They came to a stream, and followed\nit until they came to a force (cascade) where there sat an otter near\nthe force. It had caught a salmon in the force and sat half sleeping\neating it. Then Loke picked up a stone and threw it at the otter, struck\nit in the head and then boasted of his deed, for he had killed or\ncaptured both the otter and salmon with one stone. They then took the\nsalmon and otter with them and came to a gard (farm), where they entered\nthe house. The bonde,[75] who lived there, hight Hreidmar, an able\nfellow well skilled in necromancy. The gods asked for night lodgings,\nbut added that they were supplied with provisions whereupon they showed\nwhat they had caught. But when Hreidmar saw the otter he called to him\nhis sons Fafner and Regin, and told them that their brother Odder\n(otter) Wad been slain, and who had done it. Father and sons then attack\nthe gods, overpower and bind them, and then inform them that the otter\nwas Hreidmar\u2019s son. The gods offered a ransom for their lives, as large\nas Hreidmar himself would determine it; they made a treaty accordingly,\nconfirming it with oaths. When the otter then had been flayed, Hreidmar\ntook the skin and demanded that they should fill it with shining gold\nand then perfectly cover it with the same. These were the terms of\nagreement. Then Odin sent Loke to the home of the swarthy elves\n(Svartalf-heim), where he met the dwarf Andvare (wary, cautious spirit),\nwho lived as a fish, in the water. Loke borrowed Ran\u2019s net and caught\nhim, and demanded of him, as a ransom for his life, all the gold he had\nin the rock, where he dwelt. And when they came into the rock the dwarf\nproduced all the gold which he possessed, which was a considerable\namount; but Loke observed that the dwarf concealed under his arm a gold\nring, and ordered him to give it up. The dwarf prayed Loke by all means\nto let him keep it; for when he kept this ring, he said, he could\nproduce for himself more of the metal from it. But Loke said that he\nshould not keep so much as a penny, and took the ring from him, and went\nout. Then said the dwarf, that that ring should be the bane of the\nperson who possessed it. Loke had no objection to this, and said that,\nin order that this purpose should be kept, he should bring these words\nto the knowledge of him who should possess it. Then Loke returned to\nHreidmar, and showed Odin the gold; but when the latter saw the ring he\nthought it was pretty; he therefore, taking it, gave Hreidmar the rest\nof the gold. Hreidmar then filled the otter-skin as well as he could,\nand set it down when it was full. Then Odin went to cover the bag with\ngold, and afterwards bade Hreidmar whether the bag was perfectly\ncovered; but Hreidmar examined, and looked carefully in every place, and\nfound an uncovered hair near the mouth, which Odin would have to cover,\nor the agreement would be broken. Then Odin produced the ring and\ncovered the hair with it, and said that they now had paid the\notter-ransom. But when Odin had taken his spear, and Loke his shoes, so\nthat they had nothing more to fear, Loke said that the curse of the\ndwarf Andvare should be fulfilled, and that this gold and this ring\nshould be the bane of him who possessed it. From this myth it is that\ngold is poetically called otter-ransom.\n\nAnd the curse was fulfilled. This curse of ill-gotten gold became the\nroot of a series of mortal calamities, which are related in the latter\npart of the Elder Edda, in the songs about Sigurd Fafner\u2019s bane, or the\nSlayer of Fafner; about Brynhild, about Gudrun\u2019s sorrow, Gudrun\u2019s\nrevenge, in the song about Atle, etc. The curse on the gold, pronounced\nupon it by Andvare, the dwarf, is the grand moral in these wonderful\nsongs, and never was moral worked out more terribly. Even Shakespeare\nhas no tragedy equal to it. When Odin and Loke had gone away, Fafner and\nRegin demanded from their father, Hreidmar, a share of the ransom in the\nname of their brother Odder; but Hreidmar refused, so Fafner pierced his\nfather with a sword while he slept. Thus Hreidmar died, but Fafner took\nall the gold. Then Regin demanded his paternal inheritance, but Fafner\nrefused to give it, and disappeared. Another prominent character in the\nEdda is Sigurd, who frequently visited Regin and told him that Fafner,\nhaving assumed the shape of a monstrous dragon, lay on Gnita Heath, and\nhad \u00c6ger\u2019s helmet, the helmet of terror, before which all living\ntrembled. Regin made a sword for Sigurd, which was called Gram; it was\nso sharp that when it stood in the river and a tuft of wool floated on\nthe current, the sword would cut the wool as easily as the water. With\nthis sword Sigurd cut Regin\u2019s anvil in twain. Regin excites Sigurd to\nkill Fafner, and accordingly Sigurd and Regin proceeded on their way to\nGnita Heath, and discovered Fafner\u2019s path, whereupon the latter (Fafner)\ncrept into the water. In the way Sigurd dug a large grave and went down\ninto it. When Fafner now crept away from the gold he spit poison, but\nthis flew over Sigurd\u2019s head, and as Fafner passed over the grave Sigurd\npierced him with his sword to the heart. Fafner trembled convulsively,\nand fiercely shook his head and tail. Sigurd sprang out of the grave\nwhen they saw each other. Then a conversation takes place between them,\nin which Fafner heaps curses upon Sigurd until the former expires. Regin\nhad gone away while Sigurd killed Fafner, but came back while Sigurd was\nwiping the blood off the sword.\n\n                   REGIN:\n\n                   Hail to thee now, Sigurd!\n                   Now thou best victory won\n                   And Fafner slain.\n                   Among all men who tread the earth\n                   Most fearless\n                   I proclaim thee to be born.\n\n\n                   SIGURD:\n\n                   Uncertain it is to know,\n                   When we all come together,\n                   Sons of victorious gods,\n                   Who was born most fearless;\n                   Many a man is brave\n                   Who still does not thrust the blade\n                   Into another man\u2019s breast.\n\n\n                   REGIN:\n\n                   Glad art thou now, Sigurd,\n                   Glad of thy victory.\n                   As thou wipest Gram on the grass.\n                   Thou hast my\n                   Brother wounded,\n                   Let myself have some share therein.\n\n\n                   SIGURD:\n\n                   It was thou who caused\n                   That I should ride\n                   Hither over frosty mountains;\n                   His wealth and life\n                   Would the spotted snake still possess,\n                   Hadst thou not excited me to fight.\n\nThen went Regin to Fafner and cut the heart out of him with the sword\ncalled Ridel, and afterwards drank the blood from the wound. He said:\n\n                     Sit down now, Sigurd!\n                     I will go to sleep:\n                     Hold Fafner\u2019s heart by the fire.\n                     Such a repast\n                     Will I partake of\n                     After this drink of blood.\n\n\n                     SIGURD:\n\n                     Thou didst absent thyself\n                     When I in Fafner\u2019s blood\n                     My sharp blade stained.\n                     I set my strength\n                     Against the power of the dragon\n                     While thou didst lie in the heath\n\n\n                     REGIN:\n\n                     Long wouldst thou\n                     Have let the old\n                     Troll lie in the heath,\n                     Hadst thou not used\n                     The sword which I made,\n                     Thy sharpened blade.\n\n\n                     SIGURD:\n\n                     Courage is better\n                     Than sword-strength\n                     Where angry men must fight;\n                     For the brave man\n                     I always see win\n                     Victory with a dull blade.\n                     It it better for the brave man\n                     Than for the coward\n                     To join in the battle,\n                     It is better for the glad\n                     Than for the sorrowing\n                     In all circumstances.\n\nSigurd took Fafner\u2019s heart, put it on a spit and roasted it; but when he\nthought it must be roasted enough, and when the juice oozed out of the\nheart, he felt of it with his fingers to see whether it was well done.\nHe burned himself, and put his finger into his mouth, but when the blood\nof Fafner\u2019s heart touched his tongue he understood the song of birds. He\nheard birds singing in the bushes, and seven birds sang a strophe each,\ntalking about how Regin might avenge his brother, kill Sigurd, and\npossess the treasure alone, when Sigurd finally says:\n\n                          Not so violent\n                          Will fate be, that Regin\n                          Shall announce my death;\n                          For soon shall both\n                          Brothers go\n                          Hence to Hel.\n\nAnd he cut the head off Regin, ate afterwards Fafner\u2019s heart, and drank\nboth his and Regin\u2019s blood. Then Sigurd heard the birds sing:\n\n                        Sigurd! gather\n                        Golden rings;\n                        It is not royal\n                        To be smothered by fear.\n                        I know a maid\n                        Fairer than all\n                        Endowed with gold,\n                        If thou couldst but get her.\n                        To Gjuke lie\n                        Green paths,\n                        Fortune beckons\n                        The wanderers forward;\n                        There a famous king\n                        Has fostered a daughter,\u2014\n                        Her thou, Sigurd, must win.\n\nSigurd followed the track of the dragon to his nest and found it open.\nIts doors and door-frames, and all the beams and posts of the place,\nwere of iron, but the treasure was buried in the ground. There Sigurd\nfound a large heap of gold, with which he filled two chests. Then he\ntook the helmet of terror (\u00c6ger\u2019s helmet), a gold cuirass, the sword\nHrotte, and many treasures, which he put on the back of the horse Grane,\nbut the horse would not proceed before Sigurd mounted it also.\n\nThis is but the beginning of this terrible tragedy, but our space does\nnot allow us here to enter upon all the fatal results of the curse of\nAndvare. In the fate, first of Sigurd and Brynhild, and afterwards of\nSigurd and Gudrun, is depicted passion, tenderness and sorrow with a\nvivid power which nowhere has a superior. The men are princely warriors\nand the women are not only fair, but godlike, in their beauty and vigor.\nThe noblest sentiments and most heroic actions are crossed by the\nfoulest crimes and the most terrific tragedies. In this train of events,\nproduced by the curse of Andvare alone, there is material for a score of\ndramas of the most absorbing character. In the story of Sigurd and\nBrynhild, as we find it in the latter part of the Elder Edda, there are\nthemes for tragic and heroic composition that would become as immortal\nas Dante\u2019s _Inferno_ or Shakespeare\u2019s _Macbeth_, for they are based on\nour profoundest sympathies, and appeal most forcibly to our ideas of the\nbeautiful and the true.\n\nThe ring Andvarenant (Andvare\u2019s gift), as it is called, here as\nelsewhere, symbolizes wealth, which increases in the hands of the wary,\ncareful Andvare (_and-vari_, wary). But for avarice, that never gets\nenough, it becomes a destructive curse. It is perfectly in harmony with\nLoke\u2019s character to be satisfied and pleased with the curse attached to\nthe ring.[76]\n\n\n             SECTION II. LOKE\u2019S CHILDREN. THE FENRIS-WOLF.\n\n\nLoke\u2019s wife was Sigyn; their son was Nare or Narfe, and a brother of him\nwas Ale (Ole) or Vale.\n\nWith the hag, Angerboda, Loke had three children. Angerbode was a\ngiantess of Jotunheim, and her name means anguish-boding. The children\u2019s\nnames are Fenrer or Fenris-wolf, the Midgard-serpent called\nJormungander, and Hel. Tho gods were not long ignorant that these\nmonsters continued to be bred up in Jotunheim, and, having had recourse\nto divination, became aware of all the evils they would have to suffer\nfrom them; that they were sprung from such a bad mother was a _bad_\nomen, and from such a father, one still worse. Allfather (Odin)\ntherefore deemed it advisable to send the gods to bring them to him.\nWhen they came, he threw the serpent into that deep ocean by which the\nearth is encircled. But the monster has grown to such an enormous size,\nthat holding his tail in his mouth he engirdles the whole earth. Hel he\ncast headlong into Niflheim, and gave her power over nine worlds\n(regions), into which she distributes those who are sent to her,\u2014that is\nto say, all who die through sickness or old age. Here she possesses a\nhabitation protested by exceedingly high walls and strongly-barred\ngates. Her hall is called Elvidner (place of storm); hunger is her\ntable; starvation, her knife; delay, her man-servant; slowness, her\nmaid-servant; precipice, her threshold; care, her bed; and burning\nanguish forms the hangings of her apartments. The one half of her body\nis livid, the other half the color of human flesh. She may therefore\neasily be recognized; the more so as she has a dreadfully stern and grim\ncountenance.\n\nThe wolf Fenrer was bred up among the gods, but Tyr alone had courage\nenough to go and feed him. Nevertheless, when the gods perceived that he\nevery day increased prodigiously in size, and that the oracles warned\nthen that he would one day become fatal to them, they determined to make\na very strong iron chain for him, which they called Leding. Taking this\nfetter to the wolf, they requested him to try his strength on it.\nFenrer, perceiving that the enterprise would not be very difficult for\nhim, let them do what they pleased, permitted himself to be bound, and\nthen by great muscular exertion burst the chain and set himself at\nliberty. The gods having seen this, made another chain, twice as strong\nas the former, and this they called Drome. They prevailed on the wolf to\nput it on, assuring him that, by breaking this, he would give an\nincontestible proof of his strength; it would be a great honor to him if\nso great a chain could not hold him.\n\nThe wolf saw well enough that it would not be so easy to break this\nfetter, but finding at the same time that his strength had increased\nsince he broke Leding, and thinking that he could never become famous\nwithout running some risk, he voluntarily submitted to be chained. When\nthe gods told him that they had finished their task, Fenrer shook\nhimself violently, stretched his limbs, rolled on the ground, and at\nlast burst his chains, which flew in pieces all around him. He thus\nfreed himself from Drome. From that time we have the proverbs, to get\nloose out of Leding, or to dash out of Drome, when anything is to be\naccomplished by powerful efforts.\n\nAfter this the gods despaired of ever being able to bind the wolf;\nwherefore Odin sent Skirner, the messenger of Frey, down to the abode of\nthe dark elves (Svartalf-heim), to engage certain dwarfs to make the\nchain called Gleipner. It was made out of six things, namely, the noise\nmade by the footstep of a cat, the beard of a woman, the roots of the\nmountains, the sinews of the bear, the breath of the fish, and the\nspittle of birds (the enumeration of these things produces alliteration\nin Icelandic). And although you, says he who relates this in the Younger\nEdda, may not have heard of these things before, you may easily convince\nyourself that I have not been telling you lies. You may have observed\nthat woman has no beard, that cats make no noise when they run, and that\nthere are no roots under the mountains; but it is a nevertheless none\nthe less true what I have related, although there may be some things\nthat you are not able to furnish proof of.\n\nHow was this chain smithied? It was perfectly smooth and soft like a\nsilken string, and yet, as we shall presently see, very firm and strong.\nWhen this fetter was brought to the gods, they were profuse in their\nthanks to Skirner for the trouble he had given himself and for having\ndone his errand so well, and taking the wolf with them they proceeded to\na lake called Amsvartner, to a holm (rocky island) which is called\nLyngve. They showed the string to the wolf, and expressed their wish\nthat he would try to break it, at the same time assuring him that it was\nsomewhat stronger than its thinness would warrant a person in supposing\nit to be. They took it themselves one after another in their hands, and,\nafter attempting in vain to break it, said: You alone, Fenrer are able\nto accomplish such a feat. Methinks, replied the wolf, that I shall\nacquire no fame by breaking such a slender thread, but if any deceit or\nartifice has been employed in making it, slender though it seems, it\nshall never come on my feet.\n\nThe gods assured him that he would easily break a limber silken cord,\nsince he had already burst asunder iron fetters of the most solid\nconstruction; but if you should not succeed in breaking it, they added,\nyou will show that you are too weak to cause the gods any fear, and we\nwill not hesitate to set you at liberty without delay. I fear much,\nreplied the wolf, that if you once bind me so fast that I shall be\nunable to free myself by my own efforts, you will be in no haste to\nloose me. Loath am I therefore to have this cord wound around me, but in\norder that you may not doubt my courage, I will consent, provided one of\nyou put his hand into my mouth, as a pledge that you intend me no\ndeceit. The gods looked wistfully at one another, and thought the\nconditions severe, finding that they had only the choice of two evils,\nand no one would sacrifice his hand, until Tyr, as has formerly been\nrelated, stepped forward and intrepidly put his hand between the\nmonster\u2019s jaws. Thereupon the gods having tied up the wolf, he violently\nstretched himself as he had formerly done, and used all his might to\ndisengage himself, but the more efforts he made the tighter became the\ncord. Then all the gods burst out in laughter at the sight, excepting\nTyr, who lost his hand.\n\nWhen the gods saw that the wolf was effectually bound, they took the\nchain called Gelgja, which was attached to the cord, and drew it through\nthe middle of a large rock called Gjol, which they sank deep into the\nearth; afterwards, to make it still more secure, they fastened the end\nof the cord to another massive stone called Thvite, which they sank\nstill deeper. The wolf made in vain the most violent efforts to break\nloose, and, opening his tremendous jaws, and turning in every possible\ndirection, endeavored to bite the gods. They, seeing this, thrust a\nsword into his mouth within his outstretched jaws, so that the hilt\nstood in his lower jaw and the point in the roof of the mouth; and this\nis called his palate-spar (_g\u00f3msparri_). He howls horribly, and the foam\nflows continually from his month in such abundance that it forms the\nriver called Von; from which the wolf is also sometimes called\nVonargander. There he will remain until Ragnarok, the Twilight of the\ngods. But why did not the gods slay the wolf, when they have so much\nevil to fear from him? Because they had so much respect for the sanctity\nof their peace-steads that they would not stain them with the blood of\nthe wolf, although prophecies foretold to them that he must one day\nbecome the bane of Odin.\n\nThe Fenris-wolf is the earthly fire chained by man, exceedingly\nferocious when let loose, as has been terribly illustrated by our recent\nfires in Chicago and her sister city Boston; as a devouring wolf it\nattacks and licks up the dwellings of men, as it is said in the lay of\nHaakon:\n\n                           Fearfully fares\n                           The Fenris-wolf\n                           Over the fields of men\n                           When he is loosed.\n\nOnce it shall, with its upper jaw reaching to the heavens and with the\nlower jaw on the earth, advance with terror and destruction, and destroy\nthe fire and flame of heaven, Odin (the sun). At present it is fettered\non the island, where a grave is dug and a furnace is built of stone,\nwith the draft (mouth) partially barred, so that the fire is surrounded\nby things which prevent its spreading. It is managed and controlled by\nmen for their advantage, and it is so useful that no one would think of\nentirely destroying it (killing it).\n\n\n          SECTION III. JORMUNDGANDER, OR THE MIDGARD-SERPENT.\n\n\nThe Midgard- or world-serpent we have already become tolerably well\nacquainted with, and recognize in him the wild tumultuous sea. Thor\ncontended with him; he got him on his hook, but did not succeed in\nkilling him. We also remember how Thor tried to lift him in the form of\na cat. The North abounds in stories about the sea-serpent, which a\nnothing but variations of the original myth of the Eddas. Odin cast him\ninto the sea, where he shall remain until he is conquered by Thor in\nRagnarok.\n\n\n                            SECTION IV. HEL.\n\n\nThe goddess, or giantess (it is difficult to decide what to call her),\nHel, is painted with vivid colors. She rules over nine worlds in\nNiflheim, where she dwells under one of the roots of Ygdrasil. Her home\nis called Helheim. The way thither, Hel-way, is long. Hermod traveled it\nin nine days and nine nights. Its course is always downward and\nnorthward. Her dwelling is surrounded by a fence or inclosure with one\nor more large gates. Gloomy rivers flow through her world. One of these\nstreams is called Slid, which rises in the east and flows westward\nthrough valleys of venom, and is full of mud and swords. A dog stands\noutside of a cave (Gnipahellir). With blood-stained breast and loud\nhowling this dog came from Hel to meet Odin, when the latter rode down\nto wake the vala, who lay buried in her grave-mound east of the\nHel-gate, and to inquire about the fate of Balder. Horrible is the\ncoming of Hel, for she binds the dying man with strong chains that\ncannot be broken. Anguish gnaws his heart, and every evening Hel\u2019s maids\ncome and invite him. These maids are also represented as dead women, who\ncome in the night and invite him who is dying to their benches. And to\nthe vision of the dying man opens a horrible, gloomy world of fog; he\nsees the sun, the genuine star of day, sink and disappear, while he, on\nthe other hand, hears the gate of Hel harshly grate on its hinges,\nopening to receive him. Hel receives all that die of sickness or old\nage. But it also seems that others, both good and evil, come there; for\nBalder we know came to Hel, after he had been slain by Hoder. And\nSigurd, who we remember slew Fafner, was afterwards assassinated by\nGunnar and went to Hel; and thither went also Brynhild, in her beautiful\ncar, after she had been burned on her funeral pile. Hel\u2019s company is\nlarge, but she has dwellings enough for all; for her regions extend\nwidely, and her palaces are terribly high and have large gates. Of\ncourse it is all shadows, but it has the appearance of reality.\n\nFor Balder,\n\n                          The decorated seats\n                          Were strewn with rings;\n                          The lordly couch\n                          Was radiant with gold,\n                          And the pure mead\n                          Was brewed for him.\n\nBut there seems to have been a place set aside far down in the deepest\nabyss of Hel for the wicked; for it is said that the evil went to Hel,\nand thence to Niflhel, that is, down into the ninth world. And it is\nhere, in this most infernal pit, that the palace is named Anguish; the\ntable, Famine; the waiters, Slowness and Delay; the threshold,\nPrecipice, and the bed, Care. It is here Hel is so livid and ghastly\npale that her very looks inspire horror.\n\nHel\u2019s horse has three feet. Hel-shoes were tied on to the feet of the\ndead, even though they went to Valhal.\n\nOur English word _hell_ is connected with the goddess Hel,[77] and to\nkill is in Norse _at slaa ihel_ (i-Hel). The faith in this goddess is\nnot yet perfectly eradicated from the minds of the people. Her dog is\nyet heard barking outside of houses as a warning that death is near. She\nwanders about from place to place as a messenger of death. In the story\nof Olaf Geirstada-alf it is a large ox, that goes from farm to farm, and\nat his breath people sink down dead. In the popular mind in Norway this\nmessenger of death is sometimes thought to be a three-footed goat, and\nat other times a white three-footed horse. To see it is a sure sign of\ndeath. When a person has recovered from a dangerous illness, it is said\nthat he has given Death a bushel of oats, for her wants must be\nsupplied, and Hel wandering about in the guise of a goat, ox or horse,\nmay accept oats as a compromise.\n\nIt may also be noticed here, that the so-called Black Plague, or Black\nDeath, that ravaged Norway as well as many other European countries\nabout the middle of the fourteenth century, assumed in the minds of the\nNorsemen the form of an old hag (Thok, Hel, Loke), going through the\nrealm from parish to parish with a rake and a broom. In some parishes\nshe used the rake, and there a few were spared; in other parishes she\nused the broom, and there all perished, and the parishes were swept\nclean.\n\n\n              SECTION V. THE NORSEMEN\u2019S IDEA OF DEATH.[78]\n\n\nThe Norse mythology shows that our ancestors had a deeply-rooted belief\nin the immortality of the soul. They believed in a state of retribution\nbeyond the grave. The dissolution of the body was typified by Balder\u2019s\ndeath, and like the latter it was result of Loke\u2019s malignity, just as\nthe devil brought death upon Adam and Eve, and through them upon all\nmankind.\n\nBut while we find the belief in the imperishableness of the soul firmly\nestablished, the ideas regarding the state of existence after death were\nsomewhat unsettled. We are soon to present the Eddaic doctrines of\nfuture life, but in connection with Hel it seems proper to give some\nfurther explanation of the ideas that our forefathers entertained of\ndeath. Hel\u2019s gate is open, or ajar, said the old Goths, when the shades\nof death went out through the darkness of night and terrified all; but\nit is also open to receive the child with rosy cheeks as well as the man\nwith hoary locks and trembling gait.\n\nThe future state was regarded as a continuation of our earthly\nexistence. This is proved by the custom so prevalent among the Norsemen\nof supplying the dead with the best part of their property and the first\nnecessities of life. A coin was put under the dead man\u2019s tongue, that he\nmight be able to defray his first expenses with it on his way to his\nfinal abode. Of course the dead went either to Odin or to Hel, but the\nrelation between Valhal and Helheim presented difficulties which the\nNorsemen strove in various ways to solve. It was said that they who are\nslain in battle go to Odin in Valhal, while those who die of sickness or\nold age go to Hel in Helheim. But according to this it would be the kind\nof death alone which decided the soul\u2019s future state; only those who\nfell by weapons would ascend to the glad abodes of heaven, while all who\ndie of sickness would have to wander away to the dark world of the\nabyss, and there were people in whose eyes nothing except warlike deeds\nwas praiseworthy. But the Odinic mythology, taken as a whole, presents a\ndifferent view, although it must be admitted, as has before repeatedly\nbeen stated, that bravery was a cardinal virtue among our Norse\nancestors.\n\nWe remember, from a previous chapter in this book, that the spirit or\nsoul of man was a gift of Odin, while the body, blood and external\nbeauty were a gift of Loder, who afterwards separated from the trinity\nof Odin, H\u0153ner and Loder and became the mischievous Loke. Thus the soul\nbelonged to the spirit-world, or Heaven, and the body to the material\nworld, to the Deep. The two, soul and body, were joined together in this\nearthly life, but at its close they were separated, and each returned to\nits original source. The soul, with its more refined bodily form in\nwhich it was thought to be enveloped, went to the home of the gods,\nwhile the body, with the grosser material life, which was conceived to\nbe inseparable from it, went to the abodes of Hel to become the prey of\nLoke\u2019s daughter. Thus man\u2019s being was divided between Odin and Hel.\nOdin, whose chief characteristic was _god of war_, seems to have claimed\nhis share chiefly from those who fell in battle; and this probably may\nsuggest to us some reason why Balder went to Hel. Balder is not a\nfighting god, he only shines, conferring numberless blessings on\nmankind, and death finally steals upon him. Odin seems not to have much\nneed of his like. Thus death by arms came to be considered a happy lot,\nby the zealous followers of the asa-faith, for it was a proof of Odin\u2019s\nfavor smiling upon them. He who fell by arms was called by Odin to\nhimself, before Hel laid claim to her share of his being; he was Odin\u2019s\nchosen son, who with longing was awaited in Valhal, that he, in the\nranks of the einherjes, might assist and sustain the gods in their last\nbattle, in Ragnarok. In accordance with this theory we find in the\nancient song of praise to the fallen king Erik Blood-ax, that Sigmund\nasks Odin this question:\n\n                        Why snatch him then, father,\n                        From fortune and glory?\n                        Why not leave him rather\n                        To fill up his story\n                        On victory\u2019s road?\n\n\n                        ODIN:\n\n                        Because no man knows\n                        When gray wolf[79] so gory\n                        His grisly maw shows\n                        In Asgard\u2019s abode;\n                        Therefore Odin calls\n                        And Erik fain falls\n                        To follow his liege lord\n                        And fight for his god.\n\nBy this Odin means to say, we do not know when the Fenris-wolf may come,\nand therefore we may need Erik\u2019s assistance. In the same sense the\nvalkyrie is made by Eyvind Skaldespiller, in H\u00e1konarm\u00e1l, to say:\n\n                Now _are strengthened the host of the gods_,\n                Since they have Haakon\n                And his valiant army\n                Home to themselves brought.\n\nBut because the dead who were slain by arms were thought to be called to\nValhal, to unite themselves with the hosts of the einherjes, it was not\nsupposed that Hel did not get her share in their being; nor was it\nsupposed, on the other hand, that the soul of every one who died a\nnatural death was shut out from heaven and forced to follow the body\ndown into the abodes of Hel. That it was virtue, on the whole, and not\nbravery alone, which was to be rewarded in another life, and that it was\nwickedness and vice that were to be punished, is distinctly shown in the\nfirst poem of the Elder Edda, where it says of Gimle:\n\n                            The virtuous there\n                            Shall always dwell,\n                            And evermore\n                            Delights enjoy;\n\nwhile perjurers, murderers and adulterers shall wade through thick\nvenom-streams in Naastrand. But it must be remembered that Gimle and\nNaastrand had reference to the state of things after Ragnarok, the\nTwilight of the gods; while Valhal and Hel have reference to the state\nof things between death and Ragnarok,\u2014a time of existence corresponding\nsomewhat to what is called _purgatory_ by the Catholic church. It may\nhowever be fairly assumed that the ideas which our ancestors had of\nreward and punishment concerning the preceding middle state (purgatory)\nof the dead, were similar to those which they had concerning the state\nafter Ragnarok.\n\nIt was certainly believed that the soul of the virtuous, even though\ndeath by arms had not released it from the body and raised it up to the\nrank of the real einherjes, still found an abode in heaven, either in\nValhal or in Vingolf or in Folkvang. The skald, Thjodolf of Hvin, makes\nKing Vanlande go to Odin, although Hel tortured him; and Egil\nSkallagrimson, lamenting the death of his drowned son, knows that the\nson has come to the home of the gods (Gudheimr), while of himself he\nsays that he fearlessly awaits the coming of Hel.\n\nOf Nanna we read that she went with her husband, Balder, to Hel; but the\nsouls of noble women were believed to go to heaven after death. There\nthey found an abode with Freyja, and the spirits of maidens with Gefjun.\nWhen it is said that Freyja shares the slain with Odin, it may be\nsupposed to mean that the slain, who in life had loved wives, were\nunited to them again with Freyja.\n\nOn the other hand, it was as certainly believed that blasphemy and\nbaseness might shut out even the bravest from Valhal. In the Saga of\nBurnt Njal, Hakon Jarl says of the bold but wicked Hrap, who had seduced\nhis benefactor\u2019s daughter and burned a temple: The man who did this\nshall be banished from Valhal and never come thither.\n\nThe reader may think that the statements here presented show some\ninconsistency in the theory and plan of salvation according to the\ndoctrines of the Norse mythology. We admit that there _seems_ to be some\ninconsistency, but let us ask, is not this charge also frequently made\nagainst the Scriptures? Is not the church, on this very question of the\nplan of salvation, divided into two great parties, the one insisting on\nfaith and the other on works? The one party quoting and requoting Paul,\nin his epistle to the Romans (iii, 28), where he says, that man is\njustified by _faith_ without the deeds of the law; and the other\nappealing to James\u2019 epistle (ii, 24), where he says, that by works a man\nis justified, and not by faith only. And as the most eminent divines\nhave found harmony in the principles of the Mosaic-Christian religion as\nlaid down in the Scriptures, so we venture to assert that a profound\nstudy of the Odinic mythology will enable the student to elicit a\nsublime harmony in its doctrines and principles.\n\nThe strict construction of the asa-doctrine appears to be this, that\nalthough man in the intermediate state, between death and Ragnarok, was\ndivided between Odin and Hel, yet each one\u2019s share of his being, after\ndeath, was greater or less according to the life he had lived. The\nspirit of the virtuous and the brave had the power to bear up to heaven\nwith it after death the better part of its corporeal being, and Hel\nobtained only the dust. But he whose spirit, by wickedness and base,\nsensual lust was drawn away from heaven, became in all his being the\nprey of Hel. His soul was not strong enough to mount freely up to the\ncelestial abodes of the gods, but was drawn down into the abyss by the\ndust with which it had ever been clogged. Perhaps the representation of\nHel as being half white and half pale-blue had its origin in this\nthought, that to the good, death appeared as a bright (white) goddess of\ndeliverance, but to the wicked, as a dark and punishing deity.\n\nWhen the drowned came to the halls of Ran, the sea-goddess took the part\nof Hel; that is, Ran claimed the body as her part, while the spirit\nascended to heaven.\n\nBondsmen came to Thor after death. This seems to express the idea, that\ntheir spirits had not the power to mount up with free-born heroes to the\nhigher celestial abodes, but were obliged to linger midway, as it were,\namong the low floating clouds under the stern dominion of Thor;\u2014a\nthought painful to the feelings of humanity, but nevertheless not\ninconsistent with the views of our ancestors in ancient times. But when\nthe bondsmen, as was the custom in the most ancient Gothic times,\nfollowed their master on the funeral pile, the motive must have been\nthat they would continue to serve him in the future life, or their\nthrowing themselves on their master\u2019s funeral pile could have no meaning\nwhatever.\n\nThe old Norsemen had many beautiful ideas in connection with death. Thus\nin the lay of Atle it is said of him who dies that he goes to the other\nlight. That the dead in the mounds were a state of consciousness is\nillustrated by the following passages from Fridthiof\u2019s Saga:\n\n             Now, children, lay us in two lofty graves\n             Down by the sea-shore, near the deep-blue waves:\n             Their sounds shall to our souls be music sweet,\n             Singing our dirge as on the strand they beat.\n\n             When round the hills the pale moonlight is thrown\n             And midnight dews fall on the Bautn-stone,\n             We\u2019ll sit, O Thorsten, in one rounded graves\n             And speak together o\u2019er the gentle waves.\n\nFinally, it is a beautiful thought that there was a sympathetic union\nbetween the dead and the living. As the Persians believed that the\nrivers of the lower world grew by the tears of the living and interfered\nwith the happiness of the departed, so the Norse peasant still believes\nthat when a daughter weeps for the death of her father she must take\ncare that no tear falls on his corpse, for thereby the peace of the\ndeceased would be disturbed. We find this same thought expressed in the\nElder Edda, where Helge says to Sigrun:\n\n                        Thou alone causest, Sigrun\n                        From Sevafjeld,\n                        That Helge is bathed\n                        In sorrow\u2019s dew.\n\n                        Thou weepest, gold-adorned,\n                        Sunbright woman!\n                        Cruel tears,\n                        Before thou goest to sleep.\n                        Every bloody tear\n                        Fell on the king\u2019s breast,\n                        Ice-cold and swelling\n                            With sorrow.\n\nThus also in the old song of Aage and Else:\n\n                        Whenever thou grievest,\n                        My coffin is within\n                        As livid blood:\n                        Whenever thou rejoicest,\n                        My coffin is within\n                        Filled with fragrant roses.\n\n\n                     SECTION VI. LOKE\u2019S PUNISHMENT.\n\n\nLoke and Balder struggled for the government of the world. Loke\ngradually grew victorious in his terrible children, while Balder,\ndefenseless and innocent, had nothing but his shining purity with which\nto oppose Loke\u2019s baseness. Loke\u2019s wickedness reached its culminating\npoint in the death of Balder and in the hag Thok, who with arid tears\nwould wail Balder from Hel.\n\nAccording to the Younger Edda it would seem that Loke was punished\nimmediately after the death of Balder, but according to the Elder Edda\nthe banquet of \u00c6ger seems to have taken place after the death of Balder,\nand there Loke was present to pour out in words his enmity to the\ndefeated gods. When \u00c6ger had received the large kettle, that Thor had\nbrought him from the giant Hymer, he brewed ale for the gods and invited\nthem to a banquet. The gods and elves were gathered there, but Thor was\nnot present. \u00c6ger\u2019s servants were praised for their attentiveness and\nagility. This Loke could not bear to hear, and he killed one of them by\nname Funfeng. The gods drove him into the woods, but when they had\nseated themselves at the table and had begun to drink he came back\nagain, and asked Elder, the other servant of \u00c6ger, what the gods talked\nabout at the banquet. They talk about their weapons and about their\nbravery, replied Elder, but neither the gods nor the elves speak well of\nyou. Then, said Loke, I must go into \u00c6ger\u2019s hall, to look at the\nbanquet: scolding and evil words bring I to the sons of the gods and mix\nevil in their ale. Then Loke went into the hall; but when they who were\nthere saw who had entered, they were all silent. Then said Loke to the\ngods:\n\n                       Thirsty I hither\n                       To the hall came\u2014\n                       Long way I journeyed\u2014\n                       The gods to ask\n                       Whether one would grant me\n                       A drink of the precious mead.\n\n                       Why are ye silent, gods!\n                       And sit so stubborn?\n                       Have ye lost your tongues?\n                       Give me a seat\n                       And place at the banquet,\n                       Or turn me away.\n\n\n                       BRAGE:\n\n                       The gods will never\n                       Give you a seat\n                       And place at the banquet:\n                       Well know the gods\n                       To whom they will give\n                       Pleasure at the banquet.\n\nThen Loke begins to abuse the gods, and reminds Odin how they once mixed\nblood together,\u2014and Vidar must yield him his seat. But before Loke drank\nhe greeted all the gods and goddesses excepting Brage, who occupied the\ninnermost bench. And now Loke pours out his abuse upon all the gods and\ngoddesses, much of which has been given heretofore. His last quarrel is\nwith Sif, the wife of Thor. But then Beyla hears the mountains quake and\ntremble. It is Thor that is coming; and when he enters the hall he\nthreatens to crush every bone in Loke\u2019s body; and to him Loke finally\nyields, for he knows that Thor carries out his threats. On going out he\nheaps curses upon \u00c6ger, and hopes that he (\u00c6ger) may never more make\nbanquets for the gods, but that flames may play upon his realm and burn\nhim too.\n\nLoke now fled and hid himself in the mountains. There he built him a\ndwelling with four doors, so that he could see everything that passed\naround him. Often in the daytime he assumed the likeness of a salmon and\nconcealed himself under the waters of a cascade called Fraananger Force,\nwhere he employed himself in divining and circumventing whatever\nstratagems the gods might have recourse to in order to catch him. One\nday as he sat in his dwelling he took flax and yarn and worked them into\nmeshes, in the manner that nets have since been made by fishermen. Odin\nhad however, sitting in Hlidskjalf, discovered Loke\u2019s retreat; and the\nlatter, becoming aware that the gods were approaching, threw his net\ninto the fire and ran to conceal himself in the river. When the gods\nentered Loke\u2019s house, Kvaser, who as the most distinguished among them\nall for his quickness and penetration, traced out in the hot embers the\nvestiges of the net which had been burnt, and told Odin that it must be\nan invention to catch fish. Whereupon they set to work and wove a net\nafter the model they saw imprinted in the ashes. This net, when\nfinished, they threw into the river in which Loke had hid himself. Thor\nheld one end of the net and all the other gods laid hold of the other\nend, thus jointly drawing it along the stream. Notwithstanding all their\nprecautions the net passed over Loke, who had crept between two stones,\nand the gods only perceived that some living thing had touched the\nmeshes. They therefore cast their net a second time, hanging so great a\nweight to it that it everywhere raked the bed of the river. But Loke,\nperceiving that he had but a short distance to the sea, swam onward and\nleapt over the net into the force. Tho gods instantly followed him and\ndivided themselves into two bands. Thor, wading along in mid-stream,\nfollowed the net, whilst the others dragged it along toward the sea.\nLoke then perceived that he had only two chances of escape,\u2014either to\nswim out to the sea, or to leap again over the net. He chose the latter,\nbut as he took a tremendous leap Thor caught him in his hand. Being\nhowever extremely slippery, he would have escaped had not Thor held him\nfast by the tail; and this is the reason why salmon have had their tails\never since so fine and slim.\n\nThe gods having thus captured Loke, they dragged him without\ncommiseration into a cavern, wherein they placed three sharp-pointed\nrocks, boring a hole through each of them. Having also seized Loke\u2019s\nchildren, Vale and Nare, or Narfe, they changed the former into a wolf,\nand in this likeness he tore his brother to pieces and devoured him. The\ngods then made cords of his intestines, with which they bound Loke on\nthe points of the rocks, one cord passing under his shoulders, another\nunder his loins, and a third under his hams, and afterwards transformed\nthese cords to fetters of iron. Then the giantess Skade took a serpent\nand suspended it over him in such a manner that the venom should fall\ninto his face, drop by drop. But Sigyn, Loke\u2019s wife, stands by him and\nreceives the drops, as they fall, in a cup, which she empties as often\nas it is filled. But while she is doing this, venom falls upon Loke,\nwhich makes him shriek with horror and twist his body about so violently\nthat the whole earth shakes; and this produces what men call\nearthquakes. There will Loke lie until Ragnarok.\n\nHere we have Loke in the form of a salmon. Slippery as a salmon, is as\ncommon an adage in Norseland as our American: slippery as an eel. Lobe\nhimself makes the net by which he is caught and ruined. This is very\nproper; sin and crime always bring about their own ruin. The chaining of\nLoke is one of the grandest myths in the whole mythology. That Loke\nrepresents fire in its various forms, becomes clearer with every new\nfact, every new event in his life. Skade is the cold mountain stream,\nthat pours its venom upon Loke. Sigyn takes much of it away, but some of\nit will, in spite of her, come in contact with the subterranean fire,\nand the earth quakes and the geysers spout their scalding water. But who\ncannot see human life represented in this grand picture? All great\nconvulsions in the history of man are brought about in the same manner,\nand beside the great forces of revolution stand the pious, gentle and\nwomanly minds who with the cup of religion or with the eloquence of the\npure spirit prevent the most violent outbreaks of storm among the\nnations, and pour their quieting oils upon the disturbed waters. And who\ndoes not remember cases at the shrine of the family, where the\ninevitable consequences of man\u2019s folly and crime produce convulsive\ncrises, misfortunes and misery, which the wife shares, prevents and\nmoderates with her soft hand, gentle tears, and soothing words,\u2014always\ncheerful and never growing weary. It is woman\u2019s divine work in life, in\na quiet manner to bring consolation and comfort, and never to despair.\n\nAs the earth and sea in their various manifestations are represented by\nvarious divinities, so the fire also presents various forms. It is\ncelestial, united with Odin; it is earthly in the Fenris-wolf, and it is\nsubterranean in the chained Loke. That Loke symbolizes fire, is also\nillustrated by the fact that the common people in Norway, when they hear\nthe fire crackling, say that Loke is whipping his children. In a wider\nsense Loke is in one word the evil one, the devil. The common people\nalso know Loke as a divinity of the atmosphere. When the sun draws\nwater, they say that Loke is drinking water. When vapors arise from the\nearth and float about in the atmosphere, this phenomenon is also\nascribed to Loke. When he sows his oats among the grain, he produces a\npeculiar a\u00ebrial phenomenon, of which the novelist Blicher speaks in one\nof his romances, saying that this trembling motion of the air, which the\npeople call Loke\u2019s oats, confuses and blinds the eyes. Nay, truly it\nconfuses and blinds, for we need not take this only in a literal sense.\nIt is that motion which shocks the nerves of man when the soul conceives\nevil thoughts; it is that nervous concussion which shocks the whole\nsystem of the criminal when he goes to commit his foul misdeed.\n\nHaving now given a description of Loke,\u2014having painted with words the\ncharacter of this wily, mischievous, sly and deceitful divinity,\u2014we ask,\nwith Petersen, where is the painter who will present him in living\ncolors on canvas? We want a personal representation of him. We want his\nlimbs, his body and his head. Where is the painter who can give his chin\nthe proper form, his mouth the right shape, paint his dimples with those\ndeep and fine wrinkles when he smiles, and do justice to his nose and\nupper lip? Who will paint those delicate elevations and depressions of\nhis cheeks, that terrible brilliancy of his eyes, his subtle and crafty\nforehead, and his hair at once stiff and wavy? Who will paint this\nimmortal youth who yet everywhere reveals his old age, or this old man\nwhose face mocks at everything like a reckless youth? Here is a theme\nwithout a model, a theme for a master of the art.\n\n\n                      SECTION VII. THE IRON POST.\n\n\nThe following story from the south of Germany illustrates how stories\ncan be remodeled and changed as to their external adornment and still\npreserve their fundamental feature. The reader will not fail to discover\nLoke in the following tradition, entitled _Der Stock im Eisen_, a story\nwhich in its most original form must date back to the time when Loke was\nknown in Germany.\n\nOpposite St. Stephen\u2019s Tower in Vienna there is found, it is said, one\nof the old landmarks of this city, the so-called _Stock im Eisen_ (the\niron post). It is a post that has in the course of time become blackened\nand charred, and into which nail after nail has been driven so close\ntogether that there is not room for a single one more, and the post is\nliterally inclosed in an iron casing. This covering of iron keeps the\ndry post in an upright position, and near the ground it is fastened by\nan iron ring with unusually wonderful lock. In olden times this post was\na landmark, for to it extended the great Wienerwald. In connection with\nit the following tale is told by H. Meinert:\n\n    A young good-looking locksmith apprentice, by name Reinbert, had\n    secretly won the heart and become engaged to his master\u2019s daughter\n    Dorothea; but there was not much hope that she would ever become his\n    wife. One evening the two lovers agreed to meet outside the city:\n    they forget themselves in their conversation, in their doubts and\n    their hopes, and hear not the clock that strikes the hour when the\n    gate of the city is to be closed; and the lover has forgotten to\n    take money along to get it opened. But what a misfortune if they\n    should be shut out, what a disgrace to his beloved, if it should\n    become known that she has spent the night outside the city, outside\n    of her father\u2019s house, in company with a man! Suddenly there arises\n    as it were from the ground a pale man, with the contour of his face\n    sharply marked, with wonderful flashing eyes, wearing a black cloak\n    and black hat, and in the latter waves a cock-feather. Reinbert\n    involuntarily shudders as he sees him, but still he does not forget\n    his misfortune in being shut out of the city; he therefore explains\n    his distress to the stranger, and asks him to lend him enough to pay\n    the gate-watch. Like for like! whispers the stranger into Reinbert\u2019s\n    ear; if I am to help you and your beloved out of your distress, then\n    you must promise me upon the salvation of your soul never any Sunday\n    to neglect the holy mass. Reinbert hesitates; but it is in fact a\n    pious promise, and necessity knows no laws. He promises, and the\n    gate opens as it were spontaneously.\n\n    Four weeks later, when Reinbert sat in his workshop, the door opens\n    and that strange man enters. Reinbert shudders at the sight of him;\n    but when the stranger does not even care to look at him and only\n    asks for his master, he regains his peace of mind. When the\n    apprentices had called the master, the visitor ordered an iron\n    fastening, with lock and bolt, and the master is willing to\n    undertake the work. But now began the stranger (cunning as Loke)\n    with a wonderful knowledge of details to mention all the different\n    parts of the lock, explained with great eloquence the whole plan of\n    it, and took special pains to describe the manner in which the\n    springs must necessarily be bent and united; and although both the\n    master and the apprentices had to admit that such a lock was not\n    without the range of possibilities,\u2014nay, that it would indeed be a\n    masterpiece,\u2014still their heads began to swim when they tried to\n    think of its wonderful construction and arrange the plan in their\n    minds, and they had to admit that they did not trust themselves to\n    do the work. Then the stranger\u2019s mouth assumed a deeply-furrowed,\n    indescribably scornful smile; and he said with contempt: Call\n    yourselves master and apprentices, when you do not know how to\n    undertake a work that the youngest one among you can do in less than\n    an hour! The youngest one among us, murmured the apprentices; do you\n    think that Reinbert would be able to do it,\u2014he is the youngest one\n    among us? O yes, said the stranger, he there can do it, or his look\n    must deceive me much. With these words he called out the astounded\n    Reinbert, explained to him once more the plan of the lock, and\n    added: If you do not save the honor of the smiths, the whole world\n    shall know their disgrace: but if you can get the lock ready within\n    two hours, no master will refuse you his daughter, after you have\n    saved his reputation. Yes indeed, said the master, if you can\n    perform such an impossibility, Dorothea shall be yours. While the\n    stranger described the nature of the lock, Reinbert had sunk into\n    deep reflections; to his soul the narrow workshop widened into a\n    large plain; he saw a beautiful, happy future blooming before him;\n    by strange and wonderful voices he heard himself styled the master\n    of masters; and his beloved he saw approaching him with the bridal\n    wreath entwined in her locks; and just at that moment he heard his\n    master\u2019s words: If you can perform such an impossibility, Dorothea\n    shall be yours. He immediately began his work; it seemed as if he\n    were working with a hundred arms: each blow of the hammer gave form\n    to a part of the work; by a peculiar resounding the hammer-blows\n    seemed to multiply, as if more invisible hands hammered with him,\n    while the stranger in the red glare of the flame looked like a\n    pillar of fire (Loke). After the lapse of an hour the work was\n    finished. Apprentices and master looked at it and examined it,\n    shaking their heads, and with mouths wide open; but there was no\n    doubt that Reinbert had accomplished a masterpiece never seen\n    before, and the master ascribed it to his enthusiasm awakened by his\n    love. The stranger took the lock and went ahead; the master with\n    Reinbert and all his apprentices and the members of his family\n    followed, and all proceeded to the place where the iron post (Stock\n    im Eisen) now stands. Here the stranger placed an iron chain around\n    the post and fastened it with Reinbert\u2019s lock. When they returned,\n    the stranger had disappeared, and with him the key to the marvelous\n    lock.\n\nWe omit a part of the story, taking only that part which has reference\nto Loke.\n\n    On account of slander, Reinbert had to travel far and wide before he\n    finally got his beloved Dorothea. A few days after he had returned,\n    the government issued a proclamation to the effect that whatever\n    smith could make a key that would open that lock should thereby get\n    his diploma of mastership. Reinbert announced himself a candidate,\n    and repaired to his workshop to make the key. But for the first time\n    his work did not seem to succeed. The iron was stubborn and would\n    not assume the form required; and it seemed astonishing to him, when\n    he at last had succeeded in giving the key the proper form, and put\n    it into the furnace to temper it, it was turned and twisted when he\n    took it out again. His impatience grew into wrath. But when he at\n    length, after many unsuccessful attempts, had got the key ready and\n    put it into the furnace and carefully scrutinized to see what it was\n    that thus always ruined his work, he saw in the midst of the fire a\n    claw seize after the key, and terror-stricken he discovered that\n    disagreeable stranger\u2019s twisted face (Loke) staring at him out of\n    the burning furnace. He quickly snatched the key away, turned it,\n    seized it with the tongs at the other end, and put it into the fire\n    again; and lo and behold! when he took it out the handle was\n    somewhat twisted, but the head preserved its right shape. (We\n    remember that it was Loke\u2019s fault that the handle of Thor\u2019s hammer\n    became rather short.)\n\n    Reinbert now announced to the government that the key was ready; and\n    the day after the government officials and the citizens marched in\n    procession to the iron post, and Reinbert\u2019s key opened the lock. In\n    his enthusiasm at his success he threw the key high up in the air,\n    but to everybody\u2019s surprise it did not come down again. It was\n    sought for everywhere, but could nowhere be found, and Reinbert had\n    to promise to make a new one some time. To commemorate the fact that\n    it had been possible to open the lock he drove a nail into the\n    woodon post, and since that time every smith has done the same when\n    he left Vienna; thus this post was formed with its numberless nails.\n\n    Reinbert became a master and married his beloved. Up to this time he\n    had kept his promise and had attended upon the holy mass every\n    Sunday; he began to drink and gamble, but he conscientiously\n    continued to keep his promise. Finally it happens that he once\n    stayed a little too long at the gambling-house, and hastens\n    terrified in order not too late to church. But the door of St.\n    Stephen\u2019s church is closed. Outside sits an old woman (Loke assumed\n    the guise of a woman[80] after Balder\u2019s death), who, in answer to\n    his question, informs him that mass is out. Filled with deadly\n    anguish he rushes back to his comrades, who laughed at him and\n    insisted that, as as began at half-past eleven o\u2019clock, and as it\n    was only three-quarters past eleven, the mass could not yet be over.\n    He hastens back again: the church-door is now open, but at the very\n    moment he enters, the priest leaves the altar\u2014the mass is over. The\n    old woman rises, seizes him by the arms, and his soul departs from\n    him.\n\nThus the myth develops into traditionary story, and one story begets\nanother; they wander about from the south to the north and from the\nnorth to the south, and change with the times, reminding us of the\nvarious manifestations of life; reminding us how human things circulate\nand develop, each inextricably interwoven with all, and always reminding\nus, too, that there is a heaven above the earth and an existence beyond\nwhat is allotted to us mortals on earth.\n\n\n                     SECTION VIII. A BRIEF REVIEW.\n\n\nWe have now completed the second part of our work, and witnessed the\nlife and exploits of the gods. It remains now to sum up briefly the main\nfeatures of, and the principal lessons taught in, this portion of the\nmythology.\n\nWe cannot fail to have observed that the life of the gods is, in the\nfirst place, a reflection of the workings of visible nature, and, in the\nsecond place, a reflection and foreshadowing of the life of man,\nparticularly of life in its various manifestations in the history of the\nGothic race. We have also witnessed how wonderfully the interests and\nworks of the gods\u2014nay, how absolutely the gods themselves\u2014are\ninterlinked with each other,\u2014that centralizing thought which, as has\nbeen said before, forms one of the most prominent characteristics of\nNorse or Gothic mythology, thought and history.\n\nWe have seen how the divinities and demons, after having been created,\nenter upon various activities, contend with each other and are\nreconciled, and how new beings are developed in this struggle, all\ndestined to fight on one side or the other in the final conflict.\n\nThe myth reflects nature and society, the one inextricably in communion\nwith the other; and in the development of nature and society we find\nthree relations: the relation of the asas to the giants, the relation of\nthe asas to the vans, and the relation of Loke to Odin. The asas and the\ngiants try to unite, but meet with poor success, their natures are too\nopposite. The union of the asas and vans is accomplished with but little\ndifficulty; while between Odin and Loke there is a tendency to separate\nmore and more. The beginning of warfare between the gods and the giants\nis the beginning of nature\u2019s development; the giants storm the heavens\nand are repulsed; this struggle lasts through life, and in it Sleipner\nis produced. Later, begins the war between the asas and vans, which ends\nin peace, and with this peace begins the development of society; the\nasas and vans together forming a series of beautiful myths, that have\nreference to war, to the cultivation of the earth, to the civilizing\ninfluences of the water, to the greater development of the mind and\nheart,\u2014that is, to knowledge, love, humanity and peace,\u2014the object of\nwhich reconciliation, reached by labor and struggles. But enmity soon\narises among the gods themselves. Odin\u2019s union with Loke is dissolved.\nIn the midst of the good there is evil. The evil proceeds from the good\nby separation, by taking a wrong course. The unity of the spirit is\ndestroyed when anything tears itself loose from it and assumes an\nindependent position in opposition to it. Loke separates himself from\nOdin and develops himself independently. He acts like Odin; he permeates\nall nature and the soul of man; but he does it independently, and the\nresult is that the powers of evil spread over the earth in the form of\nLoke\u2019s children. Everything becomes wild and tumultuous. Fire rages in\nits frantic fury in the character of the Fenris-wolf. The\nMidgard-serpent represents the furious convulsions of the sea; cowardice\nseizes the heart and begets the pale Hel, death without conflict, life\nas a mere shadow. Thus it goes on. Knowledge rightly used is a blessing,\nbut unconstrained by prudence it degenerates into cunning and\ndeceitfulness; killing is honorable, but unconstrained by justice and\nvalor it becomes foul murder; to break a promise that can no longer be\nkept is proper, but when done recklessly it is perjury. We find,\nthroughout the life of the gods, light and darkness well defined and\ndistinctly separated. Loke fluctuates between the two; he gradually\nleaves light and unites himself to darkness. The darkness of night\nsupplants the light of day; the gloomy winter overcomes the shining\nsummer. The gods learn that they are subject to the infirmities of old\nage; the rejuvenating Idun sinks into the abyss. From the depths below,\nOdin receives warnings that the light of life may be extinguished. Loke\nbegins his conflict with Balder; finally his stratagem and cunning gain\na victory, and all the sorrowing of nature is in vain. Loke is chained,\nbut Balder does not return from Hel. Vale has avenged his brother\u2019s\ndeath, but the end of life is at hand. And now we are prepared for\nRAGNAROK, followed by the REGENERATION OF THE EARTH.\n\nFootnote 75:\n\n  Peasant, farmer.\n\nFootnote 76:\n\n  To anyone who wishes to read this great epic of the North, we would\n  recommend the _V\u00f6lsunga Saga_ translated by Eir\u00edkr Magn\u00fasson and\n  William Morris. London, 1872.\n\nFootnote 77:\n\n  They are both derived from the Anglo-Saxon _h\u00e9lan_ or _helian_, to\n  cover, to conceal; compare the English _to hill_.\n\nFootnote 78:\n\n  For a more complete discussion of this subject the reader is referred\n  to Keyser\u2019s _Religion of the Northmen_ translated by Barclay Pennock.\n  New York, 1854.\n\nFootnote 79:\n\n  The Fenris-wolf.\n\nFootnote 80:\n\n  Thok.\n\n\n\n\n                               PART III.\n                       RAGNAROK AND REGENERATION.\n\n\n                         SKULD.\n\n                         L\u00edti\u00f0 sj\u00e1um aptr,\n                         En ekki fram;\n                         Skyggir Skuld fyrir sj\u00f3n.\n\n\n\n\n                               CHAPTER I.\n                               RAGNAROK.\n\n\nThe final destruction of the world, and regeneration of gods and men, is\ncalled Ragnarok; that is, the Twilight of the gods (_Ragna_, from\n_regin_, gods, and _r\u00f6kr_, darkness).\n\nThe journey through life has been a long one, and yet we have not\nreached the end, for the end is also the beginning. Death is the center,\nwhere the present and future existence meet. When life ends, there is a\nchange, there comes a new day and a sun without a shadow.\n\nIn comparing the Greek mythology with the Norse, it was stated, that the\nNorse has a theoktonic myth, while the Greek lacks the final act of the\ngrand drama. The Greeks knew of no death of the gods; their gods were\nimmortal. And yet, what were they but an ideal conception of the forms\nof life? And this life with all its vanity, pomp and glory, the Greek\nloved so dearly, that he thought it must last forever. He imagined an\neverlasting series of changes. But what will then the final result be?\nShall the thundering Zeus forever continue to thunder? Shall the\nfaithless Aphrodite forever be unfaithful? Shall Typhon forever go on\nwith his desolations? Shall the sinner continue to sin forever, and\nshall the world continue without end to foster and nourish evil? These\nare questions that find no satisfactory answer in the Greek mythology.\n\nAmong the Norsemen, on the other hand, we find in their most ancient\nrecords a clearly expressed faith in the perishableness of all things;\nand we find this faith at every step that the Norsemen has taken. The\norigin of this faith we seek in vain; it conceals itself beneath the\nwaters of the primeval fountains of their thoughts and aspirations. They\nregarded death as but the middle of a long life. They considered it\ncowardice to spare a life that is to return; they thought it folly to\ncare for a world that must necessarily perish; while they knew that\ntheir spirits would be clothed with increased vigor in the other world.\nHappy were they who lived beneath the polar star, for the greatest fear\nthat man knows, the fear of death, disturbed them not. They rushed\ncheerfully upon the sword; they entered the battle boldly, for, like\ntheir gods, who every moment looked forward to the inevitable Ragnarok,\nthey knew that life could be purchased by a heroic death.\n\nThe very fact that the gods in the creation proceeded from the _giant_\nYmer foreshadowed their destruction. The germ of death was in their\nnature from the beginning, and this germ would gradually develop as\ntheir strength gradually became wasted and consumed. That which is born\nmust die, but that which is not born cannot grow old.\n\nThe gradual growth of this germ of death, and corresponding waste of the\nstrength of the gods, is profoundly sketched throughout the mythology.\nThe gods cannot be conquered, unless they make themselves weak; but such\nis the very nature of things, that they must do this. To win the\ncharming Gerd, Frey must give away his sword, but when the great final\nconflict comes he has no weapon. In order that the Fenris-wolf may be\nchained, Tyr must risk his right hand, and he loses it. How shall he\nthen fight in Ragnarok? Balder could not have died, had not the gods\nbeen blind and presumptuous; their thoughtlessness put weapons into the\nhands of their enemy. Hoder would never have thrown the fatal mistletoe,\nhad not their own appointed game been an inducement to him to honor his\nbrother. When Loke became separated from Odin, the death of the gods was\na foregone conclusion.\n\nThe imperfection of nature is also vividly depicted in the Eddas. The\nsun was so scorching hot that the gods had to place a shield before it;\nthe fire was so destructive that the gods had to chain it, in order that\nit might not bring ruin upon the whole world. Life, after the natural\ndeath, was not continued only in the shining halls of Valhal, but also\nin the subterranean regions among the shades of Hel.\n\nOur old Gothic fathers, in the poetic dawn of our race, investigated the\norigin and beginning of nature and time. The divine poetic and\nimaginative spark in them lifted them up to the Eternal, to that\nwonderful secret fountain which is the source of all things. They looked\nabout them in profound meditation to find the image and reflection of\nthat glorious harmony which their soul in its heavenly flight had found,\nbut in all earthly things they discovered strife and warfare. When the\nstorms bent the pine trees on the mountain tops, and when the foaming\nwaves rolled in gigantic fury against the rocky cliffs, the Norseman saw\nstrife. When the growl of the bear and the howl of the wolf blended with\nthe moaning of the winds and the roaring of the waters, he heard strife.\nIn unceasing conflict with the earth, with the beasts and with each\nother, he saw men stand, conquer, and fall. If he lifted his weary eye\ntoward the skies, he saw the light struggling with darkness and with\nitself. When light arose out of darkness, it was greeted with\nenthusiasm; when it sank again into darkness, its rays were broken and\nit dissolved in glimmering colors; and if he looked down into the heart\nof man, into his own breast, he found that all this conflict of opposing\nelements in the outward world did but faintly symbolize that terrible\nwarfare pervading and shattering his whole being. Well might he long for\npeace, and can we wonder that this deep longing for rest and peace,\nwhich filled his heart in the midst of all his struggles,\u2014can we wonder,\nwe say, that his longing for peace found a grand expression in a final\nconflict through which imperishableness and harmony were attained?\n\nThis final conflict, this dissolution of nature\u2019s and life\u2019s disharmony,\nthe Edda presents to us in the death of the gods, which is usually, as\nstated, called Ragnarok.\n\nThere is nothing more sublime in poetry than the description, in the\nEddas, of Ragnarok. It is preceded by ages of crime and terror. The vala\nlooks down into Niflheim,\n\n                         There saw she wade\n                         In the heavy streams\n                         Men\u2014foul murderers,\n                         And perjurers,\n                         And them who other\u2019s wives\n                         Seduce to sin.\n\nThe growing depravity and strife in the world proclaim the approach of\nthis great event. First there is a winter called Fimbul-winter, during\nwhich snow will fall from the four corners of the world; the frosts will\nbe very severe, the winds piercing, the weather tempestuous, and the sun\nwill impart no gladness. Three such winters shall pass away without\nbeing tempered by a single summer. Three other similar winters follow,\nduring which war and discord will spread over the whole earth. Brothers\nfor the sake of mere gain shall kill each other, and no one shall spare\neither his parents or his children. Thus the Elder Edda:\n\n                       Brothers slay brothers;\n                       Sisters\u2019 children\n                       Shed each other\u2019s blood.\n                       Hard is the world;\n                       Sensual sin grows huge.\n                       There are sword-ages, ax-ages;\n                       Shields are cleft in twain;\n                       Storm-ages, murder-ages;\n                       Till the world falls dead,\n                       And men no longer spare\n                       Or pity one another.\n\nThen shall happen such things as may truly be regarded as great\nmiracles. The Fenris-wolf shall devour the sun, and a severe loss will\nthat be to mankind. The other wolf[81] will take the moon, and this,\ntoo, will cause great mischief. Then the stars shall be hurled from the\nheavens, and the earth shall be shaken so violently that trees will be\ntorn up by the roots, the tottering mountains will tumble headlong from\ntheir foundations, and all bonds and fetters will be shivered to pieces.\nThe Fenris-wolf then breaks loose and the sea rushes over the earth on\naccount of the Midgard-serpent writhing in giant rage and gaining the\nland. On the waters floats the ship Naglfar (nail-ship), which is\nconstructed of the nails of dead men. For this reason great care should\nbe taken to die with pared nails, for he who dies with his nails unpared\nsupplies materials for the building of this ship, which both gods and\nmen wish may be finished as late as possible. But in this flood shall\nNaglfar float, and the giant Hrym be its steersman.\n\nThe Fenris-wolf advances and opens his enormous mouth; the lower jaw\nreaches to the earth and the upper one to heaven, and he would open it\nstill wider had he room to do so. Fire flashes from his eyes and\nnostrils. The Midgard-serpent, placing himself by the side of the\nFenris-wolf, vomits forth floods of poison, which fill the air and the\nwaters. Amidst this devastation the heavens are rent in twain, and the\nsons of Muspel come riding through the opening in brilliant array. Surt\nrides first, and before and behind him flames burning fire. His sword\noutshines the sun itself. Bifrost (the rainbow), as they ride over it,\nbreaks to pieces. Then they direct their course to the battle-field\ncalled Vigrid. Thither repair also the Fenris-wolf and the\nMidgard-serpent, and Loke with all the followers of Hel, and Hrym with\nall the frost-giants. But the sons of Muspel keep their effulgent bands\napart on the battle-field, which is one hundred miles (rasts) on each\nside.\n\nMeanwhile Heimdal arises, and with all his strength he blows the\nGjallar-horn to arouse the gods, who assemble without delay. Odin then\nrides to Mimer\u2019s fountain and consults Mimer how he and his warriors are\nto enter into action. The ash Ygdrasil begins to quiver, nor is there\nanything in heaven or on earth that does not fear and tremble in that\nterrible hour. The gods and all the einherjes of Valhal arm themselves\nwith speed and sally forth to the field, led on by Odin with his golden\nhelmet, resplendent cuirass, and spear called Gungner. Odin places\nhimself against the Fenris-wolf. Thor stands by his side, but can render\nhim no assistance, having himself to combat the Midgard-serpent. Frey\nencounters Surt, and terrible blows are exchanged ere Frey falls; and he\nowes his defeat to his not having that trusty sword which he gave to\nSkirner. That day the dog Garm, that had been chained in the Gnipa-cave,\nbreaks loose. He is the most fearful monster of all, and attacks Tyr,\nand they kill each other. Thor gains great renown for killing the\nMidgard-serpent, but at the same time, retreating nine paces, he falls\ndead upon the spot, suffocated with the floods of venom which the dying\nserpent vomits forth upon him. The wolf swallows Odin, but at that\ninstant Vidar advances, and setting his foot upon the monster\u2019s lower\njaw he seizes the other with his hand, and thus tears and rends him till\nhe dies. Vidar is able to do this because he wears those shoes which\nhave before been mentioned, and for which stuff has been gathered in all\nages, namely, the shreds of leather which are cut off to form the toes\nand heels of shoes; and it is on this account that those who desire to\nrender service to the gods should take care to throw such shreds away.\nLoke and Heimdal fight and kill each other. Then Surt flings fire and\nflame over the world. Smoke wreathes up around the all-nourishing tree\n(Ygdrasil), the high flames play against the heavens, and earth consumed\nsinks down beneath the sea.\n\nAll this is vividly and sublimely presented in the Elder Edda, thus:\n\n                      East of Midgard in the Ironwood\n                      The old hag[82] sat,\n                      Fenrer\u2019s terrible\n                      Race she fostered.\n                      One[83] of them\n                      Shall at last\n                      In the guise of a troll\n                      Devour the moon.\n\n                      It feeds on the bodies\n                      Of men, when they die:\n                      The seats of the gods\n                      It stains with red blood:\n                      The sunshine blackens\n                      In the summers thereafter\n                      And the weather grows bad\u2014\n                      Know ye now more or not?\n\n                      The hag\u2019s watcher,\n                      The glad Edger,\n                      Sat on the hill-top\n                      And played his harp;\n                      Near him crowed\n                      In the bird-wood\n                      A fair-red cock\n                      Which Fjalar hight.\n\n                      Among the gods crowed\n                      The gold-combed cock,\n                      He who wakes in Valhal\n                      The hosts of heroes;\n                      Beneath the earth\n                      Crows another,\n                      The root-red cock,\n                      In the halls of Hel.\n\n                      Loud barks Garm\n                      At Gnipa-cave;\n                      The fetters are severed,\n                      The wolf is set free,\u2014\n                      Vale knows the future.\n                      More does she see\n                      Of the victorious gods\n                      Terrible fall.\n\nThe wolf referred to in the first strophe is Maanegarm (the\nmoon-devourer), of whom we have made notice before. The hag in the\nIronwood is Angerboda (anguish-boding), with whom Loke begat children.\nEvil is being developed. The gods become through Loke united with the\ngiants. The wood is of iron, hard and barren; the children are ravenous\nwolves. On the hill-top sits Egder (an eagle), a storm-eagle, the\nhowling wind that rushes through the wood, and howling wind is the music\nproduced upon his harp. The cock is a symbol of fire, and it is even to\nthis day a common expression among the Norsemen, when a fire breaks out,\nthat _the red cock is crowing over the roof of the house_. There are\nthree cocks, one in the bird-wood, one in heaven, and one in the lower\nregions with Hel. The idea then is, that the cock as a symbol of fire\nannounces the coming of Ragnarok in all the regions of the world. The\nvala continues:\n\n                    Mimer\u2019s sons play;\n                    To battle the gods are called\n                    By the ancient\n                    Gjallar-horn.\n                    Loud blows Heimdal,\n                    His sound is in the air;\n                    Odin talks\n                    With the head of Mimer.\n\n                    Quivers then Ygdrasil,\n                    The strong-rooted ash;\n                    Rustles the old tree\n                    When the giant gives way.\n                    All things tremble\n                    In the realms of Hel,\n                    Till Surt\u2019s son\n                    Swallows up Odin.\n\n                    How fare the gods?\n                    How fare the elves?\n                    Jotunheim shrieks.\n                    The gods hold Thing;\n                    The dwarfs shudder\n                    Before their cleft caverns,\n                    Where behind rocky walls they dwell.\n                    Know ye now more or not?\n\n                    Loud barks Garm[84]\n                    At Gnipa-cave;\n                    The fetters are severed,\n                    The wolf is set free,\u2014\n                    Vala knows the future.\n                    More does she see\n                    Of the victorious gods\u2019\n                    Terrible fall.\n\n                    From the east drives Hrym,\n                    Bears his child before him;\n                    Jormungander welters\n                    In giant fierceness;\n                    The waves thunder;\n                    The eagle screams,\n                    Rends the corpses with pale beak,\n                    And Naglfar is launched.\n\n                    A ship from the east nears,\n                    The hosts of Muspel\n                    Come o\u2019er the main,\n                    But Loke is pilot.\n                    All grim and gaunt monsters\n                    Conjoin with the wolf,\n                    And before them all goes\n                    The brother of Byleist.[85]\n\n                    From the south wends Surt\n                    With seething fire;\n                    The sun of the war-god\n                    Shines in his sword;\n                    Mountains together dash,\n                    And frighten the giant-maids;\n                    Heroes tread the paths to Hel,\n                    And heaven in twain is rent.\n\n                    Over Hlin[86] then shall come\n                    Another woe,\n                    When Odin goes forth\n                    The wolf to combat,\n                    And he[87] who Bele slew\n                    \u2019Gainst Surt rides;\n                    Then will Frigg\u2019s\n                    Beloved husband[88] fall.\n\n                    Loud barks Garm\n                    At Gnipa-cave;\n                    The fetters are severed,\n                    The wolf is set free,\u2014\n                    Vala knows the future.\n                    More does she see\n                    Of the victorious gods\u2019\n                    Terrible fall.\n\n                    Then Vidar, the great son\n                    Of Victory\u2019s father,\n                    Goes forth to fight\n                    With the ferocious beast;\n                    With firm grasp his sword\n                    In the giant-born monster\u2019s heart\n                    Deep he plants,\n                    And avenges his father.\n\n                    Then the famous son[89]\n                    Of Hlodyn[90] comes;\n                    Odin\u2019s son comes\n                    To fight with the serpent;\n                    Midgard\u2019s ward[91]\n                    In wrath slays the serpent.\n                    Nine paces away\n                    Goes the son of Fjorgyn;\n                    He totters, wounded\n                    By the fierce serpent.\n                    All men\n                    Abandon the earth.\n\n                    The sun darkens,\n                    The earth sinks into the ocean:\n                    The lucid stars\n                    From heaven vanish;\n                    Fire and vapor\n                    Rage toward heaven;\n                    High flames\n                    Involve the skies.\n\n                    Loud barks Garm\n                    At Gnipa-cave;\n                    The fetters are severed,\n                    The wolf is set free,\u2014\n                    Vala knows the future.\n                    More does she see\n                    Of the victorious gods\u2019\n                    Terrible fall.\n\nThese strophes are taken from V\u00f6lusp\u00e1 (the prophecy of the vala); and\nbesides these we also have a few strophes of the lay of Vafthrudner, in\nthe Elder Edda, referring to the final conflict:\n\n                       VAFTHRUDNER:\n\n                       Tell me, Gagnraad,[92]\n                       Since on the floor thou wilt\n                       Prove thy proficiency,\n                       How that plain is called,\n                       Where in fight shall meet\n                       Surt and the gentle gods?\n\n\n                       GAGNRAAD (ODIN):\n\n                       Vigrid the plain is called,\n                       Where in fight shall meet\n                       Surt and the gentle gods;\n                       A hundred rasts it is\n                       On every side.\n                       That plain is to them decreed.\n\nAnd in the second part of this same poem, in which Odin asks and\nVafthrudner answers:\n\n\n                         GAGNRAAD (ODIN):\n\n                         What of Odin will\n                         The end of life be,\n                         When the powers perish?\n\n\n                         VAFTHRUDNER:\n\n                         The wolf will\n                         The father of men devour;\n                         Him Vidar will avenge:\n                         He his cold jaws\n                         Will cleave\n                         In conflict with the wolf.\n\nThe terrible dog mentioned several times is Hel\u2019s bloody-breasted and\nmurderous hound. Like the Fenris-wolf and Loke, this dog had been bound\nat Gnipa-cave, although the Eddas tell us nothing about when or how this\nwas done.\n\nWhen it is said that another woe comes over Hlin, the maid-servant is\nplaced for Frigg herself; and the former woe implied is the death of\nBalder, _the other woe_ meaning the approaching death of Odin.\n\nIt is worthy of notice, that as this final conflict is inevitable, the\ngods proceed to it, not with despair and trembling, but joyfully and\nfearlessly as to a game, for it is the last. Odin rides to the battle\nadorned; he knows that he must die, and for this very reason he\ndecorates himself as does a bride for the wedding, and the gods follow\nhim; even those who are defenseless voluntarily expose themselves on the\nplain of Vigrid. They are determined to die.\n\nWhich are the powers that now oppose each other? On the one side we have\nthose who have ruled and blessed heaven and earth; and fighting against\nthem we find their eternal enemies, those powers which had sprung into\nbeing before heaven and earth were created, and those which had\ndeveloped in the earth and in the sea, and which no asa-might can\nconquer. From Muspelheim come the sons of Muspel in shining armor; from\nMuspel\u2019s world came originally the sun, moon and stars. It is a\nfundamental law in nature that all things destroy themselves, all things\ncontain an inherent force that finally brings ruin; that is the meaning\nof perishableness or corruption. A second host consists of the\nfrost-giants. From the body of the old giant Ymer was formed the earth,\nthe sea, the mountains, the trees, etc.; the giants must therefore\nassist in the destruction of their own work. The third host is Loke and\nhis children, born in time and the offspring of that which was created.\nThey are the destructive elements in that which was created; the ocean\nbecoming a fierce serpent, mid the fire a devouring wolf. Loke himself\nis the volcanic fire which the earth has produced within its bowels; and\nthen there is all that is cowardly represented by the pale Hel with her\nbloodless shadows, the life which has turned into shadowy death. All\nthese forces oppose each other. Those who fought in life mutually\nconquer each other in death. Odin, whose heaven is the source of all\nlife, is slain by the Fenris-wolf, the earthly fire, which has brought\nall kinds of activities into the life of man; but the wolf, after he has\nconquered, falls again at the hands of Vidar, the imperishable,\nincorruptible force of nature. In this duel heaven and earth are\nengaged. The god of the clouds, Thor, contends with the\nMidgard-serpent,\u2014many a struggle they have had together; now the clouds\nand ocean mutually destroy each other. Since the death of Balder, Frey\nis the most pure and shining divinity. His pure and noble purpose and\nlonging are still within him, but his sword, his power, is gone. Hence\nhe is stricken down by Surt, the warder of Muspelheim. Heimdal stretched\nhis brilliant rainbow over the earth, Loke his variegated stream of fire\nwithin the earth; the one proclaiming mercies and blessings, the other\ndestruction; both perish in Ragnarok. Hel and her pale host also betake\nthemselves to the final contest, but the Eddas say nothing about their\ntaking part in the fight. How can they? They are nothing but emptiness,\nthe mere vanity of the heart, in which there is no substance; they are\nbut the darkness which enwraps the earth, and are not capable of deeds.\n\nThus is Ragnarok! The great antagonism pervading the world is removed in\na final struggle, in which the contending powers mutually destroy each\nother. Ragnarok is an outbreak of all the chaotic powers, a conflict\nbetween them and the established order of creation. Fire, water,\ndarkness and death work together to destroy the world. The gods and\ntheir enemies meet in a universal, world-embracing wrestle and duel, and\nmutually destroy each other. The flames of Surt, the supreme fire-god,\ncomplete the overthrow, and the last remnant of the consumed earth sinks\ninto the ocean.\n\nFootnote 81:\n\n  Moongarm. See Vocabulary.\n\nFootnote 82:\n\n  Angerboda. See p. 179.\n\nFootnote 83:\n\n  Moongarm. See p. 180.\n\nFootnote 84:\n\n  Hel\u2019s dog.\n\nFootnote 85:\n\n  Loke.\n\nFootnote 86:\n\n  One of Frigg\u2019s maid-servants.\n\nFootnote 87:\n\n  Frey.\n\nFootnote 88:\n\n  Odin.\n\nFootnote 89:\n\n  Thor.\n\nFootnote 90:\n\n  Another name for Frigg.\n\nFootnote 91:\n\n  Defender.\n\nFootnote 92:\n\n  Odin.\n\n\n\n\n                              CHAPTER II.\n                             REGENERATION.\n\n\nBut when the heavens and the earth and the whole world have been\nconsumed in flames, when the gods and all the einherjes and all mankind\nhave perished,\u2014what then? Is not man immortal? Are not all men to live\nin some world or other forever? The vala looks again, and\n\n                    She sees arise\n                    The second time,\n                    From the sea, the earth\n                    Completely green:\n                    Cascades do fall,\n                    The eagle soars,\n                    From lofty mounts\n                    Pursues its prey.\n\n                    The gods convene\n                    On Ida\u2019s plains,\n                    And talk of the powerful\n                    Midgard-serpent:\n                    They call to mind\n                    The Fenris-wolf\n                    And the ancient runes\n                    Of the mighty Odin.\n\n                    Then again\n                    The wonderful\n                    Golden tablets\n                    Are found in the grass:\n                    In time\u2019s morning\n                    The leader of the gods\n                    And Odin\u2019s race\n                    Possessed them.\n\n                    The fields unsown\n                    Yield their growth;\n                    All ills cease;\n                    Balder comes.\n                    Hoder and Balder,\n                    Those heavenly gods,\n                    Dwell together in Hropt\u2019s[93] halls.\n                    Conceive ye this or not?\n\nVidar and Vale survive; neither the flood nor Surt\u2019s flame has harmed\nthem, and they dwell on the plain of Ida, where Asgard formerly stood.\nThither come the sons of Thor, Mode and Magne, bringing with them their\nfather\u2019s hammer, Mjolner. H\u0153ner is there also, and comprehends the\nfuture. Balder and Hoder sit and converse together; they call to mind\ntheir former knowledge and the perils they underwent, and the fight with\nthe wolf Fenrer, and with the Midgard-serpent. The sons of Hoder and\nBalder inhabit the wide Wind-home. The sun brings forth a daughter more\nlovely than herself, before she is swallowed by Fenrer; and when the\ngods have perished, the daughter rides in her mother\u2019s heavenly course.\n\nDuring the conflagration caused by Surt\u2019s fire, a woman by name Lif\n(life) and a man named Lifthraser lie concealed in Hodmimer\u2019s forest.\nThe dew of the dawn serves then for food, and so great a race shall\nspring from them that their descendants shall soon spread over the whole\nearth.\n\nThen the vala\n\n                         Sees a hall called Gimle;\n                         It outshines the sun,\n                         Of gold its roof;\n                         It stands in heaven:\n                         The virtuous there\n                         Shall always dwell,\n                         And evermore\n                         Delights enjoy.\n\nToward the north on the Nida-mountains stands a large hall of shining\ngold, which the race of Sindre, that is the dwarfs, occupy. There is\nalso another hall called Brimer, which is also in heaven, in the region\nOkolner, and there all who delight in quaffing good drink will find\nplenty in store for them. Good and virtuous beings inhabit all these\nhalls.\n\nBut there is also a place of punishment. It is called Naastrand (strand\nof dead bodies). In Naastrand there is a vast and terrible structure,\nwith doors that face to the north. It is built entirely of the backs of\nserpents, wattled together like wicker-work. But all the serpents\u2019 heads\nare turned toward the inside of the hall, and continually vomit forth\nfloods of venom, in which wade all those who have committed murder,\nperjury, or adultery. The vala, in the Elder Edda,\n\n                     Saw a hall\n                     Far from the sun,\n                     On the strand of dead bodies,\n                     With doors toward the north.\n                     Venom drops\n                     Through the loopholes;\n                     Formed is that hall\n                     Of wreathed serpents.\n\n                     There saw she wade\n                     Through heavy streams,\n                     Perjurers\n                     And murderers\n                     And adulterers;\n                     There Nidhug sucked\n                     The bodies of the dead\n                     And the wolf tore them to pieces.\n                     Conceive ye this or not?\n\n                     Then comes the mighty one[94]\n                     To the great judgment;\n                     From heaven he comes,\n                     He who guides all things:\n                     Judgments he utters;\n                     Strifes he appeases,\n                     Laws he ordains\n                     To flourish forever.\n\nOr as it is stated in Hyndla\u2019s lay, after she has described Heimdal, the\nsublime protector of the perishable world:\n\n                          Then comes another\n                          Yet more mighty,\n                          But him dare I not\n                          Venture to name;\n                          Few look further forward\n                          Than to the time\n                          When Odin goes\n                          To meet the wolf.\n\nAnd when the vale in V\u00f6lusp\u00e1, beginning with the primeval time, has\nunveiled, in the most profound sentences, the whole history of the\nuniverse,\u2014when she has gone through every period of its development down\nthrough Ragnarok and the Regeneration, the following is her last vision:\n\n                      _There_ comes the dark\n                      Dragon[95] flying,\n                      The shining serpent\n                      From the Nida-mountains\n                      In the deep.\n\n                      Over the plain it flies;\n                      Dead bodies Nidhug\n                      Drags in his whizzing plumage,\u2014\n                      Now must Nidhug sink.\n\nThus ends the vala\u2019s prophecy (_v\u00f6lusp\u00e1_.) She has revealed the decrees\nof the Father of Nature; she has described the conflagration and\nrenovation of the world, and now proclaims the fate of the good and of\nthe evil.\n\nThe world and the things in it perish, but not the forces. Some of the\ngods reappear in the regenerated earth, while some do not. They who\nreappear are mentioned in pairs, excepting H\u0153ner, who is alone. Balder\nand Hoder are together; likewise Vidar and Vale, and Mode and Magne.\nNeither Odin nor Thor nor the vans appear. They perished with the world,\nfor they represented the developing forces of this world; they were\ndivinities representing that which came into being and had existence in\nit. On the other hand, Balder and Hoder came back from Hel. They\nrepresent light and darkness; but they are alike in this respect, that\nthey are nothing substantial, nothing real, they are only the condition\nfor something to be, or we might say they are the space, the firmament,\nin which something may exist. They are the two brothers whose sons shall\ninhabit the wide Wind-home. Thus when heaven and earth have passed away\nthere is nothing remaining but the wide expanse of space with light and\ndarkness, who not only rule together in perfect harmony, but also\npermeate each other and neutralize each other.\n\nH\u0153ner comes back. He was originally one of the trinity with Odin and\nLoder (Loke); but the gods received Njord as a hostage from the vans,\nand gave to the vans in return H\u0153ner, as a security of friendship\nbetween them. This union between the asas and vans is now dissolved.\nH\u0153ner has nothing more to do among the vans. Their works all perished\nwith the old earth. He is the developing, creative force that is needed\nnow in the new world as it was in the old.\n\nVidar is the imperishable force in original nature, that is, in crude\nnature, but at the same time united with the gods. He is the connecting\nlink between gods and giants. His mother was Grid, a giantess, and his\nfather was Odin. The strong Vale begotten of Odin and Rind (the\nslumbering earth) is the imperishable force of nature which constantly\nrenews itself in the earth as a habitation of man. Both Vidar and Vale\nare avenging gods. Vale avenges the death of Balder, and Vidar the death\nof Odin, and thus we have in Vidar and Vale representatives of the\nimperishable force of nature in two forms, the one without and the other\nwithin the domain of man, both purified and renewed in the regenerated\nearth.\n\nIn the atmosphere and in the dense clouds reigned Thor, with his\nflashing fire and clattering thunder. Thunder and lightning have passed\naway, but the forces that produced them, courage and strength, are\npreserved in Thor\u2019s sons, Mode (courage) and Magne (strength). They have\ntheir father\u2019s hammer, Mjolner, and with it they can strike to the right\nand to the left, permeating the new heaven and new earth. What a well of\nprofound thought are the Eddas!\n\nThe parents of the new race of men are called Lif and Lifthraser. Life\ncannot perish. It lies concealed in Hodmimer\u2019s forest, which the flame\nof Surt was not able to destroy. The new race of mankind seem to possess\na far nobler nature than the former, for they subsist on the morning\ndew.\n\nDo Mimer and Surt live? They are the fundamental elements of fire and\nwater. The Eddas are not clear on this point, but an affirmative answer\nseems to be suggested in the fact that the better part of every being is\npreserved.\n\nThe good among men find their reward in Gimle; for he that made man gave\nhim a soul, which shall live and never perish, though the body shall\nhave mouldered away or have been burnt to ashes; and all that are\nrighteous shall dwell with him in the place called Gimle, says the\nYounger Edda. The dwarfs have their Sindre, and their golden hall on the\nNida-mountains; and the giant has his shining drinking hall, Brimer, but\nit is situated in Okolner (not cool), where there is no more frost.\n\nThe Elder Edda seems to point out two places of punishment for men.\nGiants and dwarfs are not punished, for they act blindly, they have no\nfree will. But the wicked of mankind go to Naastrand and wade in streams\nof serpent-venom, and thence they appear to be washed down into\nHvergelmer, that horrible old kettle, where their bodies are torn by\nNidhug, the dragon of the uttermost darkness.\n\nThere is a day of judgment. The good and bad are separated. The god,\nwhom the Edda dare not name, is the judge. The Younger Edda once calls\nhim Allfather, for he is to the new world what Odin was to the old. He\nwas before the beginning of time, and at the end of time he enters upon\nhis eternal reign.\n\nThe reward is eternal. Is the punishment also eternal? When light and\ndarkness (Balder and Hoder) can live peaceably together,\u2014when darkness\ncan resolve itself into light,\u2014cannot then the evil be dissolved in the\ngood; cannot the eternal streams of goodness wash away the evil? We\nthink so, and the Edda seems to justify us in this thought; at least the\nElder Edda seems to take this view of the subject. Listen again to the\nlast vision of the vala:\n\n                      _There_ comes the dark\n                      Dragon flying,\n                      The shining serpent\n                      From the Nida-mountains\n                      In the deep.\n                      Over the plain it flies;\n                      Dead bodies Nidhug\n                      Drags in his whizzing plumage,\u2014\n                      _Now must Nidhug sink_.[96]\n\nWhen there is an intermediate state, a transition, a purification, a\npurgatory, then this purification must sooner or later be accomplished;\nand that is the day of the great judgment, _when Nidhug must sink_, and\nnevermore lift his wings loaded with dead bodies. This idea is\nbeautifully elaborated in _Zendavista_. The Edda has it in a single\nline, but the majority of its interpreters have not comprehended it. We\nwho are permeated by the true Christian spirit, we know how great joy\nthere is in heaven over a sinner who is converted; we know the God of\nmercy, who does not desire the ruin of a single sinner, and the God of\nomnipotence, who with his hand is able to press the tears of repentance\nfrom the heart, though it be hard as steel; we comprehend why he lets\nNidhug sink down. All darkness shall be cleared up and be gilded by the\nshining light of heaven.\n\nSuch was the origin, the development, the destruction and regeneration\nof the world. And now, says the Younger Edda, as it closes the deluding\nof King Gylfe, if you have any further questions to ask, I know not who\ncan answer you; for I never heard tell of anyone who could relate what\nwill happen in the other ages of the world. Make therefore the best use\nyou can of what has been imparted to you.\n\nUpon this Ganglere heard a terrible noise all around him. He looked, but\ncould see neither palace nor city anywhere, nor anything save a vast\nplain. He therefore set out on his return to his kingdom, where he\nrelated all that he had seen and heard; and ever since that time these\ntidings have been handed down from man to man by oral tradition, and we\nadd, may the stream of story never cease to flow! May the youth, the\nvigorous man, and the grandfather with his silvery locks, forever\ncontinue to refresh their minds by looking into and drinking from the\nfountain that reflects the ancient history of the great Gothic race!\n\nIn closing, we would present this question: Shall we have northern art?\nWe have southern art (Hercules and Hebe), we have oriental art (Adam and\nEve), and now will some one complete the trilogy by adding Loke and\nSigyn? Ay, let us have another Thorvaldsen, and let him devote himself\nto _northern art_. Here is a new and untrodden field for the artist. Ye\nGothic poets and painters and sculptors! why stand ye here idle?\n\nFootnote 93:\n\n  Odin\u2019s.\n\nFootnote 94:\n\n  The Supreme God.\n\nFootnote 95:\n\n  Nidhug.\n\nFootnote 96:\n\n  We present this view of the subject from N. M. Petersen, who suggests\n  that the common reading of this passage _hon_ ought to be _hann_,\u2014that\n  is _he_, not _she_. In our translation we have supplied the noun\n  _Nidhug_, while if we had followed the other authorities we would have\n  used the noun _vala_. Petersen remarks that the word sink (_s\u00f6kkvask_)\n  is a natural expression when applied to the dragon, who sinks into the\n  abyss, but forced and unnatural when applied to the vala. He also\n  quotes another passage (the last line in Brynhild\u2019s Hel-ride, where\n  Brynhild says to the hag: Sink thou (_s\u00f6kkstu!_) of giantkind!) from\n  the Elder Edda which corroborates his view. As the reader will\n  observe, we have adopted Petersen\u2019s view entirely.\n\n\n\n\n    VOCABULARY OF THE PRINCIPAL PROPER NAMES OCCURRING IN THE NORSE\n                               MYTHOLOGY,\n\n\n    WITH A BRIEF SYNOPSIS OF THE CHARACTER AND EXPLOITS OF\n    THE GODS, EXPLANATIONS, ETYMOLOGICAL\n    DEFINITIONS, ETC.\n\n    GIVING\n\n    THE ORIGINAL ICELANDIC FORM OF THE WORD IN THE VOCABULARY,\n\n    AND ADDING, AFTER THE SYNOPSIS,\n\n    THE ANGLICIZED FORM USED BY THE AUTHOR\n    THROUGHOUT THE WORK.\n\n    ARRANGED BY THE AUTHOR FROM THE BEST SOURCES.\n\n\nA\n\n\u00c6GIR [Anglo-Sax. _eagor_, the sea]. The god presiding over the stormy\nsea. He entertains the gods every harvest, and brews ale for them. It\nstill survives in provincial English for the sea-wave on rivers. Have a\ncare, there is the _eager_ coming!\u2014(Carlyle\u2019s Heroes and Hero-worship.)\n_\u00c6ger._\n\nAGNAR. A son of King Hraudung and foster-son of Frigg. _Agnar._\n\nAGNAR. A son of King Geirrod. He gives a drink to Grimner (Odin).\n_Agnar._\n\n\u00c1LFR [Anglo-Sax. _\u00e6lf_, _munt-\u00e6lfen_, _s\u00e6-elfen_, _wudu-elfen_, etc.;\nEng. _elf_, _elves_; Germ. _alb_ and _elfen_, _Erl-_ in _Erl_k\u00f6nig\n(Goethe) is, according to Grimm, a corrupt form from the Danish\n_Elle_konge like _Elver_konge; in the west of Iceland the word is also\npronounced _\u00e1lbr_]. An elf, fairy; a class of beings like the dwarfs,\nbetween gods and men. They were of two kinds: elves of light\n(_Lj\u00f3s\u00e1lfar_) and elves of darkness (_D\u00f6kk\u00e1lfar_). The abode of the\nelves is _\u00c1lfheimr_, fairy-land, and their king is the god Frey. _Elf._\n\nALF\u00d6\u00d0R or ALFA\u00d0IR [Father of all]. The name of Odin as the supreme god.\nIt also refers to the supreme and unknown god. _Allfather._\n\n\u00c1LFHEIMR [_\u00e1lf_, elf, and _heimr_, home]. Elf-land, fairy-land. Frey\u2019s\ndwelling, given him as a tooth-gift. _Alfheim._\n\nALSVI\u00d0R [_svi\u00f0r_ (_svinnr_), rapid, wise]. All-wise. One of the horses\nof the sun. _Alsvid._\n\nALV\u00cdSS [All-wise]. The dwarf who answers Thor\u2019s questions in the lay of\nAlvis. _Alvis._\n\nAMSVARTNIR. [The etymology is doubtful; perhaps from _ama_, to vex,\nannoy, and _svartnir_ (_svartr_), black.] The name of the sea, in which\nthe island was situated where the wolf Fenrer was chained. _Amsvartner._\n\n\u00c1NNARR or \u00d3NARR. Husband of night and father of Jord (_j\u00f6r\u00f0 earth_).\n_Annar._\n\nANDR\u00cdMNIR [_\u00f6nd_, soul, spirit, breath, and _hr\u00edmnir_, _hr\u00edm_.\nAnglo-Sax. _hr\u00edm_; Eng. _rime_, hoar-frost; _hr\u00edmnir_, the one producing\nthe hoar-frost]. The cook in Valhal. _Andhrimner._\n\nANDVARI. The name of a gurnard-shaped dwarf; the owner of the fatal ring\ncalled _Andvaranautr_. _Andvare._\n\nANDVARAFORS. The force or waterfall in which the dwarf Andvare kept\nhimself in the form of a gurnard (pike). _Andvare-Force._\n\nANDVARANAUTR [_\u00f6nd_, spirit; _varr_, cautious; _nautr_, Germ. ge-_nosse_\n(from Icel. _njota_), a donor]. The fatal ring given by Andvare (the\nwary spirit). _Andvarenaut._\n\nANGANTYR. He has a legal dispute with Ottar Heimske, who is favored by\nFreyja. _Angantyr._\n\nANGEYJA. One of Heimdal\u2019s nine mothers. Says the Elder Edda in the Lay\nof Hyndla: Nine giant maids gave birth to the gracious god, at the\nworld\u2019s margin. These are: Gjalp, Greip, Eistla, Angeyja, Ulfrun,\nEyrgjafa, Imd, Atla, and Jarnsaxa. _Angeyja._\n\nANGRBO\u00d0A [Anguish-boding]. A giantess; mother of the Fenris-wolf by\nLoke. _Angerboda._\n\n\u00c1RVAKR [Early awake]. The name of one of the horses of the sun.\n_Aarvak._\n\n\u00c1SS or \u00c1S, plural \u00c6SIR. The _asas_, gods. The word appears in such\nEnglish names as _Os_born, _Os_wald, etc. With an _n_ it is found in the\nGerm. _Ans_gar (Anglo-Sax. _Os_car). It is also found in many\nScandinavian proper names, as _As_bj\u00f6rn, _As_trid, etc. The term _\u00e6sir_\nis used to distinguish Odin, Thor, etc., from the _vanir_. (vans).\n_Asa._\n\n\u00c1SA-LOKI. Loke, so called to distinguish him from Utgard-Loke, who is a\ngiant. _Asa-Loke._\n\n\u00c1SA-P\u00d3RR. A common name for Thor. _Asa-Thor._\n\n\u00c1SGAR\u00d0R. The residence of the gods (_asas_). _Asgard._\n\nASKR [Anglo-Sax. _\u00e4sc_, an ash]. The name of the first man created by\nOdin, H\u0153ner and Loder. _Ask._\n\n\u00c1SYNJA; plural \u00c1SYNJUR. A goddess; feminine of _\u00c1ss_. _Asynje._\n\nATLA. One of Heimdal\u2019s nine mothers. _Atla._\n\nAU\u00d0HUMLA; also written AU\u00d0HUMBLA. [The etymology of this word is\nuncertain. Finn Magn\u00fasson derives it from _au\u00f0r_, void, and _hum_,\ndarkness, and expresses the name by _a\u00ebr nocturnus_.] The cow formed\nfrom the frozen vapors resolved into drops. She nourished the giant\nYmer. _Audhumbla._\n\nAURBO\u00d0A [_aurr_, wet clay or loam; _bo\u00f0a_, to announce]. Gymer\u2019s wife\nand Gerd\u2019s mother. _Aurboda._\n\nAURGELMIR [_aurr_, wet clay or loam]. A giant; grandfather of Bergelmer;\ncalled also Ymer. _Aurgelmer._\n\nAUSTRI. A dwarf presiding over the east region. _Austre._ _East._\n\n\nB\n\nBALDR. [Anglo-Sax. _baldor_, princeps, the best, foremost]. The god of\nthe summer-sunlight. He was son of Odin and Frigg; slain by Hoder, who\nwas instigated by Loke. He returns after Ragnarok. His dwelling is\nBreidablik. _Balder._\n\nBARREY [Needle-isle]. A cool grove in which Gerd agreed with Skirner to\nmeet Frey. _Barey._\n\nBAUGI. A brother of Suttung, for whom (Baugi) Odin worked one summer in\norder to get his help in obtaining Suttung\u2019s mead of poetry. _Bauge._\n\nBELI. A giant, brother of Gerd, slain by Frey. _Bele_.\n\nBERGELMIR [_berg_, rock]. A giant; son of Thrudgelmer and grandson of\nAurgelmer. _Bergelmer._\n\nBESTLA. Wife of Bur and mother of Odin. _Bestla._\n\nBEYLA. Frey\u2019s attendant; wife of Bygver. _Beyla._\n\nBIFR\u00d6ST [_bifast_, to tremble, _r\u00f6st_ (compare Eng. _rest_), a space, a\nway; the trembling way, _via tremula_]. The rainbow. _Bifrost._\n\nBILSKIRNIR [_bil_, a moment; _skir_, serene, shining]. The heavenly\nabode of Thor, from the flashing of light in the lightning.\n_Bilskirner._\n\nB\u00d6L\u00deORN [Evil thorn]. A giant: father of Bestla, Odin\u2019s mother.\n_Bolthorn._\n\nB\u00d6LVERKR [Working terrible things]. An assumed name of Odin, when he\nwent to get Suttung\u2019s mead. _Bolverk._\n\nBO\u00d0N. [Compare Anglo-Sax. _byden_, dolium.] One of the three vessels in\nwhich the poetical mead was kept. Hence poetry is called the wave of the\n_bo\u00f0n_. _Bodn._\n\nB\u00d6RR [_burr_, a son; compare Eng. _born_, Scotch _bairn_, Norse _barn_,\na child]. A son of Bure and father of Odin, Vile and Ve. _Bor._\n\nBRAGI. [Compare Anglo-Sax. _brego_, princeps.] The god of poetry. A son\nof Odin. He is the best of skalds. _Brage._\n\nBREI\u00d0ABLIK [Literally broad-blink, from _brei\u00f0r_, broad, and _blika_\n(Germ. _blicken_; Eng. to _blink_), to gleam, twinkle]. Balder\u2019s\ndwelling. _Breidablik._\n\nBR\u00cdSINGAMEN. Freyja\u2019s necklace or ornament. _Brisingamen._\n\nBURI. [This word is generally explained as meaning _the bearing_, _i.\ne._ father; but we think that it is the same as the Anglo-Saxon _b\u00fdre_,\nson, descendant, offspring. We do not see how it can be conceived as an\nactive participle of the verb _bera_, to bring forth. See p. 195, where\nwe have followed Keyser.] The father of Bor. He was produced by the\ncow\u2019s licking the stones covered with rime. _Bure._\n\nBYGGVIR. Frey\u2019a attendant; Beyla\u2019s husband. _Bygver._\n\nBYLEIPTR [The flame of the dwelling]. The brother of Loke. _Byleipt._\n\n\nD\n\nDAGR [Day]. Son of Delling. _Dag._\n\nD\u00c1INN. A hart that gnaws the branches of Ygdrasil. _Daain._\n\nDELLINGR [_deglinger_ (_dagr_, day), dayspring]. The father of Day.\n_Delling._\n\nD\u00cdS; plural D\u00cdSIR. Attendant spirit or guardian angel. Any female mythic\nbeing may be called D\u00eds. _Dis._\n\nDRAUPNIR [_drj\u00fapa_; Eng. _drip_; Germ. _traufen_; Dan. _dryppe_]. Odin\u2019s\nring. It was put on Belder\u2019r funeral-pile. Skirner offered it to Gerd.\n_Draupner._\n\nDR\u00d3MI. One of the fetters by which the Fenris-wolf was fettered.\n_Drome._\n\nDUNEYRR, DURAPR\u00d3R. Harts that gnaw the branches of Ygdrasil. _Duneyr_;\n_Durathror_.\n\nDURINN. The dwarf, second in degree. _Durin._\n\nDVALINN. A dwarf. _Dvalin._\n\nDVERGR [Anglo-Sax. _dweorg_; Eng. _dwarf_; Germ. _zwerg_; Swed.\n_dwerg_]. A dwarf. In modern Icelandic lore dwarfs disappear, but remain\nin local names, as Dverga-steinn (compare the Dwarfie Stone in Scott\u2019s\n_Pirate_), and in several words and phrases. From the belief that dwarfs\nlived in rocks an echo is called _dwerg-m\u00e1l_ (dwarf-talk), and\n_dwerg-m\u00e1la_ means to echo. The dwarfs were skilled in metal-working.\n\n\nE\n\nEDDA. The word means a great-grandmother. The name usually applied to\nthe mythological collection of poems discovered by Brynjolf Sveinsson in\nthe year 1643. He, led by a fanciful and erroneous suggestion, gave to\nthe book which he found the name S\u00e6mundar Edda, Edda of S\u00e6mund. This is\nthe so-called _Elder Edda_. Then there is the _Younger Edda_, a name\napplied to a work written by Snorre Sturleson, and containing old\nmythological lore and the old artificial rules for verse-making. The\nancients applied the name _Edda_ only to this work of Snorre. The _Elder\nEdda_ was never so called. And it is also uncertain whether Snorre\nhimself knew his work by the name Edda. In the Rigsm\u00e1l (Lay of Rig) Edda\nis the progenitrix of the race of thralls.\n\nEG\u00d0IR. An eagle that appears at Ragnarok. _Egder._\n\nEGILL. The father of Thjalfe; a giant dwelling near the sea. Thor left\nhis goats with him on his way to the giant Hymer. _Egil._\n\nEIK\u00deYRNIR. [_eik_, oak, and _\u00feyrnir_, a thorn]. A hart that stands over\nOdin\u2019s hall (Valhal). From his antlers drops into the abyss water from\nwhich rivers flow. _Eikthyrner._\n\nEINHERI; plural EINHERJAR. The only (_ein_) or great champions; the\nheroes who have fallen in battle and been admitted into Valhal.\n_Einherje._\n\nEIR. [The word means _peace_, _clemency_.] An attendant of Menglod, and\nthe best of all in the healing art. _Eir._\n\nEISTLA. One of Heimdal\u2019s nine mothers. _Eistla._\n\nELDHR\u00cdMNIR. [_eld_, fire, and _hr\u00edmnir_, the one producing rime]. The\nkettle in which the boar S\u00e6hrimner is cooked in Valhal. _Eldhrimner._\n\nELDIR. The fire-producer; a servant of \u00c6ger. _Elder._\n\n\u00c9LIV\u00c1GAR. The ice-waves; poisonous cold streams that flow out of\nNiflheim. _Elivagar._\n\nEMBLA. The first woman. The gods found two lifeless trees, the _ask_\n(ash) and the _embla_; of the ash they made _man_, of the embla,\n_woman_. It is a question what kind of tree the embla was; some suggest\na metathesis, viz. _emla_, from _almr_ (elm), but the compound\n_emblu-askr_, in one of Egil\u2019s poems, seems to show that the _embla_ was\nin some way related to the ash. _Embla._\n\nEYRGJAFA. One of Heimdal\u2019s nine mothers. _Eyrgjafa._\n\n\nF\n\nF\u00c1FNIR. Son of Hreidmar. He kills his father to get possession of the\nAndvarenaut. He afterwards changes himself into a dragon and guards the\ntreasure on Gnita-heath. He is slain by Sigurd, and his heart is roasted\nand eaten. _Fafner._\n\nFALH\u00d3FNIR [Barrel-hoof, hollow-hoof]. One of the horses of the gods.\n_Falhofner._\n\nFARBAUTI [Ship-beater, ship-destroyer]. The father of Loke. _Farbaute._\n\nFENRIR or FENRIS\u00daLFR. The monster-wolf. He is the son of Loke. He bites\nthe hand Tyr. The gods put him in chains, where he remains until\nRagnarok. In Ragnarok he gets loose, swallows the sun and conquers Odin,\nbut is killed by Vidar. _Fenrer_ or _Fenris-wolf_.\n\nFENSALIR. The abode of Frigg. _Fensal._\n\nFJALAR. A misnomer for Skrymer, in whose glove Thor took shelter.\n_Fjalar._\n\nFJALAR. A dwarf, who slew Kvaser, and composed from his blood the poetic\nmead. _Fjalar._\n\nFJALAR. A cock that crows at Ragnarok. _Fjalar._\n\nFIMAFENGR [_fimr_, quick, nimble]. The nimble servant of \u00c6ger. He was\nslain by the jealous Loke. _Fimafeng._\n\nFIMBUL. [Compare Germ. _fimmel_, an iron wedge; Bohem. _fimol_; Swed.\n_fimmel-st\u00e5ng_, the handle of a sledge-hammer; in Icel. obsolete, and\nonly used in four or five compounds in old poetry.] It means _mighty\ngreat_. In the mythology we have:\n\nFIMBULFAMBI. A mighty fool. _Fimbulfambe._\n\nFIMBULT\u00ddR. The mighty god, great helper (Odin). _Fimbultyr._\n\nFIMBULVETR [_vetr_, winter]. The great and awful winter of three years\u2019\nduration preceding the end of the world. _Fimbul-winter._\n\nFIMBUL\u00deUL. A heavenly river (_\u00feul_, roaring.) _Fimbulthul._\n\nFIMBUL\u00deULR. The great wise man (Odin\u2019s High-song, 143). _Fimbulthuler._\n\nFJ\u00d6LNIR. A name of Odin. _Fjolner._\n\nFJ\u00d6RGYN. A personification of the earth; mother of Thor. _Fjorgyn._\n\nF\u00d3LKVANGR [Anglo-Sax. _folc_; Germ. _volk_; Eng. _folk_, people, and\n_vangr_ (Ulfilas, _waggs_), paradise; Anglo-Sax. _wang_; Dan. _vang_, a\nfield]. The folk-field. Freyja\u2019s dwelling. _Folkvang._\n\nFORNJ\u00d3TR. The ancient giant. He was father of \u00c6ger or Hler, the god of\nthe ocean; of Loge, flame or fire, and of Kaare, wind. His wife was Ran.\nThese divinities are generally regarded as belonging to an earlier\nmythology, probably that of the Fins or Celts, and we omitted them in\nour work. _Fornjot._\n\nFORSETI [The fore-sitter, president, chairman]. Son of Balder and Nanna.\nHis dwelling is Glitner, and his office is peace-maker. _Forsete._\n\nFR\u00c1NANGRS-FORS. The force or waterfall into which Loke, in the likeness\nof a salmon, cast himself, and where the gods caught him and bound him.\n_Fraananger-Force._\n\nFREKI. One of Odin\u2019s wolves. _Freke._\n\nFREYJA [Feminine of Freyr]. The daughter of Njord and sister of Frey.\nShe dwells in Folkvang. Half the fallen in battle belong to her. She\nlends her feather disguise to Loke. She is the goddess of love. Her\nhusband is Oder. Her necklace is Brisingamen. She has a boar with golden\nbristles. _Freyja._\n\nFREYR [Goth. _frauja_; Gr. \u03c7\u03cd\u03c1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, Anglo-Sax. _fre\u00e2_; Heliand _fr\u00f4_, a\nlord]. He is son of Njord, husband of Skade, slayer of Bele, and falls\nin conflict with Surt in Ragnarok. Alfheim was given him as a\ntooth-gift. The ship Skidbladner was built for him. He falls in love\nwith Gerd, Gymer\u2019s fair daughter. He gives his trusty sword to Skirner.\n_Frey._\n\nFRIGG. [Compare Anglo-Sax. _frigu_, love]. She is the wife of Odin, and\nmother of Balder and of other gods. She is the queen of the gods. She\nsits with Odin in Hlidskjalf. She exacts an oath from all things that\nthey shall not harm Balder. She mourns Balder\u2019s death. _Frigg._\n\nFULLA [Fullness]. Frigg\u2019s attendant. She takes care of Frigg\u2019s toilette,\nclothes and slippers. Nanna sent her a finger-ring from Helheim. She\nwears her hair flowing over her shoulders. _Fulla._\n\n\nG\n\nGALAR. One of the dwarfs who killed Kvaser. Fjalar was the other.\n_Galar._\n\nGAGNR\u00c1\u00d0E. A name assumed by Odin when he went to visit Vafthrudner.\n_Gagnraad._\n\nGANGLERI. One of Odin\u2019s names in Grimner\u2019s Lay. _Ganglere._\n\nGANGLERI. A name assumed by King Gylfe when he came to Asgard.\n_Ganglere._\n\nGAN\u00d0ROFA [Fence-breaker]. The goddess Gnaa has a horse by name\nHofvarpner. The sire of this horse is Hamskerper, and its mother is\nGar\u00f0rofa. _Gardrofa._\n\nGARMR. A dog that barks at Ragnarok. He is called the largest and best\namong dogs. _Garm._\n\nGEFJUN or GEFJON. A goddess. She is a maid, and all those who die maids\nbecome her maid-servants. She is present at \u00c6ger\u2019s feast. Odin says she\nknows men\u2019s destinies as well as he does himself. _Gefjun._\n\nGEIRR\u00d6\u00d0R. A son of King Hraudung and foster-son of Odin; he becomes king\nand is visited by Odin, who calls himself Grimner. He is killed by his\nown sword. There is also a giant by name Geirrod, who was once visited\nby Thor. _Geirrod._\n\nGEIRSK\u00d6GUL. A valkyrie. _Geirskogul._\n\nGEIRVIMUL. A heavenly river. _Geirvimul._\n\nGER\u00d0R. Daughter of Gymer, a beautiful young giantess; beloved by Frey.\n_Gerd._\n\nGERI [_gerr_, greedy]. One of Odin\u2019s wolves. _Gere._\n\nGERSEMI [Anglo-Sax. _gersuma_, a costly thing.] One of Freyja\u2019s\ndaughters. _Gerseme._\n\nGJALLARBR\u00da [_gjalla_, to yell, to resound; Anglo-Sax. _giellan_]. The\nbridge across the river Gjol, near Helheim. The bridge between the land\nof the living and the dead. _Gjallar-bridge._\n\nGJALLARHORN. Heimdal\u2019s horn, which he will blow at Ragnarok. _Gjallar\nhorn_.\n\nGILLING. Father of Suttung, who possessed we poetic mead. He was slain\nby Fjalar and Galar. _Gilling._\n\nGIMLI [_gimill_, _himill_, _himin_, heaven]. The abode of the righteous\nafter Ragnarok. _Gimle._\n\nGJ\u00c1LP. One of Heimdal\u2019s nine mothers. _Gjalp._\n\nGINNUNGA-GAP. [Compare Anglo-Sax. _gin_ or _ginn_, vast, wide. (The\n_unga_ may be the adverbial ending added to _ginn_, as in _eall-unga_,\nadv. from _all_, all.)] The great yawning gap, the premundane abyss, the\nchaos or formless void, in which dwelt the supreme powers before the\ncreation. In the eleventh century the sea between Greenland and Vinland\n(America) was called Ginnunga-gap. _Ginungagap._\n\nGJ\u00d6LL. The one of the rivers Elivagar that flowed nearest the gate of\nHel\u2019s abode. _Gjol._\n\nG\u00cdSL [Sunbeam]. One of the horses of the gods. _Gisl._\n\nGLA\u00d0R [Clear, bright]. One of the horses of the gods. _Glad._\n\nGLA\u00d0SHEIMR [Home of brightness or gladness]. Odin\u2019s dwelling.\n_Gladsheim._\n\nGLASIR. A grove in Asgard. _Glaser._\n\nGLEIPNIR. The last fetter with which the wolf Fenrer was bound.\n_Gleipner._\n\nGLER [The glassy]. One of the horses of the gods. _Gler._\n\nGLITNIR [The glittering]. Forsete\u2019s golden hall. _Glitner._\n\nGN\u00c1. She is the messenger that Frigg sends into the various worlds on\nher errands. She has a horse called Hofvarpner, that can run through air\nand water. _Gnaa._\n\nGN\u00cdPAHELLIR. The cave before which the dog Garm barks. _The Gnipa-cave._\n\nGN\u00cdTAHEI\u00d0R. Fafner\u2019s abode, where he kept the treasure called\nAndvarenaut. _Gnita-heath._\n\nG\u00d3INN. A serpent under Ygdrasil. _Goin._\n\nG\u00d6LL. A valkyrie. _Gol._\n\nG\u00d6MUL. A heavenly river. _Gomul._\n\nG\u00d6NDUL. A valkyrie. _Gondul._\n\nG\u00d6PUL. A heavenly river. _Gopul._\n\nGR\u00c1BAKR [Gray-back]. One of the serpents under Ygdrasil. _Graabak._\n\nGR\u00c1\u00d0. A heavenly river. _Graad._\n\nGRAFVITNIR, GRAFV\u00d6LLU\u00d0R. Serpents under Ygdrasil. _Grafvitner_;\n_Grafvollud_.\n\nGREIP [Anglo-Sax. _gr\u00e2p_; Eng. _grip_]. One of Heimdal\u2019s nine giant\nmothers. _Greip._\n\nGR\u00cdMNIR [Icel. _grima_; Anglo-Sax. _gr\u00eema_; Dan. _grime_, a\nhorse-halter]. A kind of hood or cowl covering the upper part of the\nface. Grimner is a name of Odin from his traveling in disguise.\n_Grimner._\n\nGR\u00d3A [Icel. _gr\u00f3a_; Anglo Sax. _growan_; Eng. _grow_; Lat. _crescere_,\n_crev_-i]. The giantess mother of Orvandel. Thor went to her to have her\ncharm the flint-stone out of his forehead. _Groa._\n\nGULLFAXI [Gold-mane]. The giant Hrungner\u2019s horse. _Goldfax._\n\nGULLINKAMBI [Gold-comb]. A cock that crows at Ragnarok. _Gullinkambe_ or\n_Goldcomb_.\n\nGULLTOPPR [Gold-top]. Heimdal\u2019s horse. _Goldtop._\n\nGULLVEIG [Gold-drink, gold-thirst]. A personification of gold. She is\npierced and thrice burnt, and yet lives. _Gulveig._\n\nGULLINBURSTI [Golden bristles]. The name of Frey\u2019s hog. _Gullinburste._\n\nGUNGNIR [Dan. _gungre_, to tremble violently]. Odin\u2019s spear. _Gungner._\n\nGUNNL\u00d6\u00d0; genitive GUNNLA\u00d0AR [Icel. _gunnr_, war, battle; Anglo-Sax.\n_g\u00fb\u00f0_; Old High Germ. _gundia_; and Icel. _l\u00f6\u00f0_ (_la\u00f0a_, to invite),\ninvitation; Anglo-Sax. _gela\u00f0ian_, to invite]. One who invites war. She\nwas daughter of the giant Suttung, and had charge of the poetic mead.\nOdin got it from her. _Gunlad._\n\nGYLFI. A king of Svithod, who visited Asgard under the name of Ganglere.\nThe first part of the Younger Edda is called Gylfaginning, which means\nthe Delusion of Gylfe. _Gylfe._\n\nGYLLIR [Golden]. One of the horses of the gods. _Gyller._\n\nG\u00ddMIR. A giant: the father of Gerd, the beloved of Frey. _Gymer._\n\nG\u00ddMIR. Another name of the ocean divinity \u00c6ger. _Gymer._\n\n\nH\n\nHALLINSK\u00cd\u00d0I. Another name of the god Heimdal. The possessor of the\nleaning (_halla_) way (_skei\u00f0_). _Hallinskid._\n\nHAMSKERPIR [Hide-hardener]. A horse; the sire of Hofvarpner, which was\nGnaa\u2019s horse. _Hamskerper._\n\nH\u00c1R [Anglo. Sax. _he\u00e1h_; Eng. _high_; Ulfilas _hauhs_]. The High One,\napplied to Odin. _Haar._\n\nH\u00c1RBAR\u00d0R. The name assumed by Odin in the Lay of Harbard. _Harbard._\n\nHEI\u00d0RUNR [Bright-running]. A goat that stands over Valhal. _Heidrun._\n\nHEIMDALR. The etymology has not been made out. He was the heavenly\nwatchman in the old mythology, answering to St. Peter in the medieval.\nAccording to the Lay of Rig (Heimdal), he was the father and founder of\nthe different classes of men, nobles, churls and thralls. He has a horn\ncalled Gjallar-horn, which he blows at Ragnarok. His dwelling is\nHiminbjorg. He is the keeper of Bifrost (the rainbow). Nine giantesses\nare his mothers. _Heimdal._\n\nHEL. [Ulfilas _halja_, \u1f85\u03b4\u03b7\u03c2; Anglo-Sax. and Eng. _hell_; Heliand and Old\nHigh Germ. _hellia_; Germ. _H\u00f6lle_; Dan. at slaa, i-_hjel_, to kill].\nThe goddess of death, born of Loke and Angerboda. She corresponds to\nProserpina. Her habitation is Helheim, under one of the roots of\nYgdrasil. _Hel._\n\nHELBLINDI. A name of Odin. _Helblinde._\n\nHELGRINDR. The gates of Hel. _Helgrind_ or _Helgate_.\n\nHELHEIM. The abode of Hel. _Helheim._\n\nHERF\u00d6\u00d0R, HERJAF\u00d6\u00d0R. [The father of hosts]. A name of Odin. _Her-father._\n\nHERMO\u00d0R [Courage of hosts]. Son of Odin, who gives him helmet and\ncorselet. He went on Sleipner to Hel to bring Balder back. _Hermod._\n\nHILDISVINI [_hildr_ (Anglo-Sax. _hild_) means war]. Freyja\u2019s hog.\nHILDE-SVINE.\n\nHIMINBJ\u00d6RG [_himinn_, heaven, and _bj\u00f6rg_, help, defense; hence heaven\ndefender]. Heimdal\u2019s dwelling. _Himinbjorg._\n\nHIMINBRJ\u00d3TR [Heaven-breaker]. One of the giant Hymer\u2019s oxen.\n_Himinbrjoter._\n\nHL\u00c9SEY. The abode of \u00c6ger. _Hlesey._\n\nHLI\u00d0SKJ\u00c1LF [from _hli\u00f0_, gate, and _skj\u00e1lf_, shelf, bench]. The seat of\nOdin, whence he looked out over all the worlds. _Hlidskjalf._\n\nHL\u00cdN. One of the attendants of Frigg; but Frigg herself is sometimes\ncalled by this name. _Hlin._\n\nHL\u00d3\u00d0YN. A goddess; a names of the earth; Thor\u2019s mother. _Hlodyn._\n\nHL\u00d3RIDI [from _hl\u00f3a_; Anglo-Sax. _hlowan_; Eng. _low_, to bellow, roar,\nand _rei\u00f0_, thunder]. One of the names of Thor; the bellowing thunderer.\n_Hloride._\n\nHNIKARR, HNIKU\u00d0R. Names of Odin, Hnikar and Hnikuder.\n\nHNOSS [Anglo-Sax. _hnossian_, to hammer]. A costly thing; the name of\none of Freyja\u2019s daughters. _Hnos._\n\nHODDM\u00cdMISHOLT. Hodmimer\u2019s holt or grove, where the two human beings Lif\nand Lifthraser were preserved during Ragnarok. _Hodmimer\u2019s forest._\n\nH\u00d6\u00d0R. The slayer of Balder. He is blind, returns to life in the\nregenerated world. The Cain of the Norse mythology. _Hoder._\n\nH\u0152NIR. One of the three creating gods. With Odin and Loder H\u0153ner creates\nAsk and Embla, the first human pair. _H\u0153ner._\n\nH\u00d3FVARPNIR [Hoof-thrower]. Guaa\u2019s horse. His father is Hamskerper and\nmother Gardrofa. _Hofvarpner._\n\nHR\u00c6SVELGR [Corpse-swallower]. A giant in an eagle\u2019s plumage, who\nproduces the wind. _Hr\u00e6svelger._\n\nHRAU\u00d0UNGR. Geirrod\u2019s father. _Hraudung._\n\nHREI\u00d0MARR. Father of Regin and Fafner. He exacts the blood-fine from the\ngods for slaying Otter. He is slain by Fafner. _Hreidmar._\n\nHR\u00cdMFAXI [Rime-mane]. The horse of Night. _Rimefax._\n\nHR\u00cdM\u00deURSAR [Anglo-Sax. _hr\u00eem_; Eng. _rime_, hoar-frost]. Rime-giants or\nfrost-giants, who dwell under one of Ygdrasil\u2019s roots. _Giants._\n\nHRO\u00d0VITNIR. A wolf; father of the wolf Hate. _Hrodvitner._\n\nHROPTR. One of Odin\u2019s names. _Hropt._\n\nHRUNGNIR. A giant; friend of Hymer. Thor fought with him and slew him.\n_Hrungner._\n\nHRINGHORNI. The ship upon which Balder\u2019s body was burned. _Hringhorn._\n\nHROSS\u00deJ\u00d3FR [Horse-thief]. A giant. _Hrosthjof._\n\nHUGINN [Mind]. One of Odin\u2019s ravens. _Hugin._\n\nHVERGELMIR [The old kettle]. The spring in the middle of Niflheim,\nwhence flowed the rivers Elivagar. The Northern Tartaros. _Hvergelmer._\n\nH\u00ddMIR. A giant with whom Thor went fishing when he caught the\nMidgard-serpent. His wife was the mother of Tyr. Tyr and Thor went to\nhim to procure a kettle for \u00c6ger. _Hymer._\n\nHYNDLA. A vala visited by Freyja, who comes to her to learn the\ngenealogy of her favorite Ottar. _Hyndla._\n\n\nI\n\nI\u00d0AV\u00d6LLR. A plain where the gods first assemble, where they establish\ntheir heavenly abodes, and where they assemble again after Ragnarok. The\nplains of Ide. _Idavold._\n\nI\u00d0UNN. Daughter of the dwarf Ivald; she was wife of Brage, and the\ngoddess of early spring. She possesses rejuvenating apples of which the\ngods partake. _Idun._\n\nIFING. A river which divides the giants from the gods. _Ifing._\n\nIM\u00d0. One of Heimdal\u2019s nine giant mothers. _Imd._\n\n\u00cdMR. A son of the giant Vafthrudner. _Im._\n\nINGUNAR-FREYR. One of the names of Frey. _Ingun\u2019s Frey._\n\nINNSTEINN. The father of Ottar Heimske; the favorite of Freyja.\n_Instein._\n\n\u00cdVALDI. A dwarf. His sons construct the ship Skidbladner. _Ivald._\n\n\nJ\n\nJAFNH\u00c1R [Equally high]. A name of Odin. _Evenhigh._ _Jafnhaar._\n\nJ\u00c1LKR. A name of Odin (Jack the Giant-killer?). _Jalk._\n\nJ\u00c1RNSAXA [Iron-chopper]. One of Heimdel\u2019s nine giant mothers.\n_Jarnsaxa._\n\nJ\u00c1RNVI\u00d0R [Iron-wood]. A wood east of Midgard, peopled by giantesses\ncalled Jarnvids. This wood had iron leaves. _Jarnvid._\n\nJ\u00c1RNVI\u00d0IUR. The giantesses in the Iron-wood. _Jarnvids._\n\nJ\u00d6RD. Wife of Odin and mother of Thor. Earth. _Jord._\n\nJ\u00d6TUNN [Anglo-Sax. _eoten_]. A giant. The giants were the earliest\ncreated beings. Tho gods question them in regard to Balder. Thor\nfrequently contends with them. Famous giants are: Ymer, Hymer, Hrungner,\nOrvandel, Gymer, Skrymer, Vafthrudner and Thjasse. _Giant._\n\nJ\u00d6TUNHEIMAR (plural). The Utgaard; the home of the giants in the\noutermost parts of the earth. _Jotunheim._\n\n\nK\n\nKERLAUGAR (plural). Two rivers which Thor every day must cross.\n_Kerlaug._\n\nK\u00d6RMT. Another river which Thor every day must pass. _Kormt._\n\nKV\u00c1SIR. The hostage given by the vans to the asas. His blood, when\nslain, was the poetical mead kept by Suttung. _Kvaser._\n\n\nL\n\nL\u00c6\u00d0INGR. One of the fetters with which the Fenris-wolf was bound.\n_L\u00e6ding._\n\nL\u00c6RA\u00d0R [Furnishing protection]. A tree near Valhal. _L\u00e6rad._\n\nLANDVI\u00d0I. [A mountain range overgrown with trees is _vi\u00f0i_.] Vidar\u2019s\nabode. The primeval forests. _Landvide._\n\nLAUFEY [Leafy island]. Loke\u2019s mother. _Laufey._\n\nLEIF\u00deRASIR, LIF. The two persons preserved in Hodmimer\u2019s grove during\nSurt\u2019s conflagration in Ragnarok; the last beings in the old and the\nfirst in the new world. _Lif_ and _Lifthraser_.\n\nL\u00c9TTFETI [Light-foot]. One of the horses of the gods. _Lightfoot._\n\nLITR. A dwarf that Thor kicked into Balder\u2019s funeral pile. _Liter._\n\nLODDF\u00c1FNIR. A prot\u00e9g\u00e9 of Odin. _Lodfafner._\n\nLO\u00d0URR [Compare Germ. _lodern_, to flame]. One of the three gods (Odin,\nH\u00e6ner and Loder) who create Ask and Embla, the first man and woman. He\nis identical with Loke. _Loder._\n\nLOKI [Icel. _l\u00faka_, to end, finish: Loke is the end and consummation of\ndivinity]. The evil giant-god of the Norse mythology. He steers the ship\nNaglfar in Ragnarok. He borrows Freyja\u2019s feather-garb and accompanies\nThor to the giant Thrym, who has stolen Thor\u2019s hammer. He is the father\nof Sleipner; but also of the Midgaard-serpent, of the Fenris-wolf and of\nHel. He causes Balder\u2019s death, abuses the gods in \u00c6ger\u2019s feast, but is\ncaptured in Fraanangerforce and is bound by the gods. _Loke._\n\nLOPTR [The a\u00ebrial]. Another name of Loke. _Lopter._\n\n\nM\n\nMAGNI [_megin_, might, strength]. A son of Thor. _Magne._\n\nM\u00c1NI [Ulfilas _m\u00eana_; Anglo-Sax. _m\u00f4na_; Eng. _moon_]. Brother of Sol\n(the sun, feminine), and both were children of the giant Mundilfare.\n_Moon_ or _Maane_.\n\nMARD\u00d6LL or MAR\u00deOLL. One of the names of Freyja. _Mardallar gr\u00e1tr_ (the\ntears of Mardal), gold. _Mardal._\n\nM\u00c1NAGARMR [Moon-swallower]. A wolf of Loke\u2019s offspring. He devours the\nmoon. _Maanegarm_ or _Moongarm_.\n\nMANNHEIMAR (plural) [Homes of man]. Our earth. _Manheim._\n\nMEILI. A son of Odin. _Meile._\n\nMI\u00d0GAR\u00d0R. [In Cumberland, England, are three farms: _High-garth_,\n_Middle-garth_, _Low-garth_.] The mid-yard, middle-town, that is, the\nearth, is a mythological word common to all the ancient Teutonic\nlanguages. Ulfilas renders the Gr. [Greek: oikoumen\u00ea] by _midjungards_;\nHeliand calls the earth _middil-gard_; the Anglo-Saxon homilies, instead\nof earth, say _middan-geard_ (_meddlert_, Jamieson), and use the word us\nan appellative; but the Icelandic Edda alone has preserved the true\nmythical bearing of this old Teutonic word. The earth (Midgard), the\nabode of men, is seated in the middle of the universe, bordered by\nmountains and surrounded by the great sea (_\u00fbthaf_); on the other side\nof this sea is the Utgard (out-yard), the abode of the giants; the\nMidgard is defended by the yard to burgh Asgard (the burgh of the gods)\nlying in the middle (the heaven being conceived as rising above the\nearth). Thus the earth and mankind are represented as a stronghold\nbesieged by the powers of evil from without, defended by the gods from\nabove and from within. _Midgard._\n\nMI\u00d0GAR\u00d0SORMR [The serpent of Midgaard]. The world-serpent hidden in the\nocean, whose coils gird around the whole Midgard. Thor once fishes for\nhim, and gets him on his hook. In Ragnarok Thor slays him, but falls\nhimself poisoned by his breath. _Midgard-serpent._\n\nM\u00cdMAMEI\u00d0R. A mythic tree; no doubt the same as Ygdrasil. It derives its\nname from Mimer, and means Mimer\u2019s tree. _Mimameider._\n\nM\u00cdMIR. The name of the wise giant keeper of the holy well M\u00edmis-brunnr,\nthe burn (bourn, brun) of Mimer, the well of wisdom, in which Odin\npawned his eye for wisdom; a myth which is explained as symbolical of\nthe heavenly vault with its single eye, the sun, setting in the sea. Is\nthe likeness of the word to the Latin _memor_ only accidental? The true\netymology of M\u00edmir is not known. _Mimer._\n\nMJ\u00d6LNIR. [The derivation from _mala_ or _mola_ (to crush) is, though\nprobable, not certain. The word may be akin to Goth. _milhma_, cloud;\nSwed. _moln_; Dan. _mulm_; Norse _molnas_ (Ivor Aasen), to grow dark\nfrom bands of clouds arising.] Thor\u2019s formidable hammer. After Ragnarok,\nit is possessed by his sons Mode and Magne. _Mjolner._\n\nMISTILTEINN [Old High Germ. _mistil_; Germ. _mistel_; Anglo-Sax.\n_mistel_ or _mistel-t\u00e2_; Eng. _mistletoe_]. The mistletoe or\nmistle-twig, the fatal twig by which Balder, the white sun-god, was\nslain. After the death of Balder, Ragnarok set in. Balder\u2019s death was\nalso symbolical of the victory of darkness over light, which comes every\nyear at midwinter. The mistletoe in English households at Christmas time\nis no doubt a relic of a rite lost in the remotest heathendom, for the\nfight of light and darkness at midwinter was a foreshadowing of the\nfinal overthrow in Ragnarok. The legend and the word are common to all\nTeutonic peoples of all ages. _Mistletoe._\n\nM\u00d3\u00d0I [Courage]. A son of Thor. _Mode._\n\nM\u00d3\u00d0SOGNIR. The dwarf highest in degree or rank. _Modsogner._\n\nM\u00d3INN. A serpent under Ygdrasil. _Moin._\n\nMUNDILFARI. Father of the sun and moon. _Mundilfare._\n\nMUNINN [Memory]. One of Odin\u2019s ravens. _Munin._\n\nM\u00daSPELL. The name of an abode of fire. It is peopled by _M\u00faspells l\u00fd\u00f0ir_\n(the men of Muspel), a host of fiends, who are to appear at Ragnarok and\ndestroy the world by fire. _Muspel._ (See next word.)\n\nM\u00daSPELLSHEIMR. The abode of Muspel. This interesting word (_M\u00faspell_)\nwas not confined to the Norse mythology, but appears twice in the old\nSaxon poem Heliand, thus: (1) _mutspelli cumit on thiustra naht, also\nthiof ferit_ (_mutspelli_ comes in dusky night, as a thief fares,\u2014that\nis, But the day of the Lord will come as a thief in the night), and (2)\n_mutspellis megin obar man ferit_ (the main of _mutspelli_ fares over\nmen). A third instance is an Old High German poem on the Last Day, thus:\n_d\u00e2r ni mac denne mac andremo helfan vora demo muspille_ (there no man\ncan help another against the _muspel-doom_). In these instances _muspel_\nstands for the _day of judgment_, _the last day_, and answers to\nRagnarok of the Norse mythology. The etymology is doubtful, for _spell_\nmay be the _weird_, _doom_, Lat. _fatum_; or it may be _spoil_,\n_destruction_. The former part, _m\u00fas_ or _muod_, is more difficult to\nexplain. The Icelandic _m\u00fas_ is an assimilated form. _Muspelheim._\n\nM\u00d6KKURK\u00c1LFI [_m\u00f6kkr_ means a dense cloud]. A clay giant in the myth of\nThor and Hrungner. _Mokkerkalfe._\n\n\nN\n\nNAGLFAR [Nail-ship]. A mythical ship made of nail-parings. It appears in\nRagnarok. _Naglfar._ _Nailship._\n\nN\u00c1L [Needle]. Mother of Loke. _Naal._\n\nNANNA. Daughter of Nep (bud); mother of Forsete and wife of Balder. She\ndies of grief at the death of Balder. _Nanna._\n\nNARI or NARFI. Son of Loke. Loke was bound by the intestines of Nare.\n_Nare_ or _Narfe_.\n\nN\u00c1STR\u00d6ND [The shore of corpses]. A place of punishment for the wicked\nafter Ragnarok. _Naastrand._\n\nNI\u00d0AFJ\u00d6LL. The Nida-mountains toward the north, where there is after\nRagnarok a golden hall for the race of Sindre (the dwarfs). NIDAFELL.\n\nNI\u00d0H\u00d6GGR. A serpent of the nether world, that tears the carcases of the\ndead. He also lacerates Ygdrasil. _Nidhug._\n\nNIFLHEIMR [_nifl_; Old High Germ. _nibul_; Germ. _nebel_; Lat. _nebula_;\nGr. \u03bd\u03b5\u03c6\u03ad\u03bb\u03b7, mist, fog.] The world of fog or mist; the nethermost of the\nrime worlds. The place of punishment (Hades). It was visited by Odin\nwhen he went to inquire after the fate of Balder. _Niflheim._\n\nNJ\u00d6R\u00d0R. A van, vanagod. He was husband of Skade, and father of Frey and\nFreyja. He dwells in Noatun. _Njord._\n\nN\u00d3AT\u00daN [Place of ships]. Njord\u2019s dwelling; Njord being a divinity of the\nwater or sea. _Noatun._\n\nNOR\u00d0RI [North]. A dwarf presiding over the northern regions. _Nordre_ or\n_North_.\n\nN\u00d3TT. Night; daughter of Norve. _Night._\n\nNORN; plural NORNIR. The weird sisters; the three heavenly norns\n(_parc\u00e6_, fates) Urd, Verdande, and Skuld (Past, Present, and Future);\nthey dwelt at the fountain of Urd, and ruled the fate of the world.\nThree norns were also present at the birth of every man and cast the\nweird of his life. _Norn._\n\n\nO\n\n\u00d3\u00d0INN [Anglo-Sax. _Wodan_; Old High Germ. _Wodan_]. Son of Bor and\nBestla. He is the chief of the gods. With Vile and Ve he parcels out\nYmer. With H\u0153ner and Loder he creates Ask and Embla. He is the\nfountain-head of wisdom, the founder of culture, writing and poetry, the\nprogenitor of kings, the lord of battle and victory. He quaffs with Saga\nin Sokvabek. He has two ravens, two wolves and a spear. His throne is\nHlidskjalf, from where he looks out over all the worlds. In Ragnarok he\nis devoured by the Fenris-wolf. _Odin._\n\n\u00d3\u00d0R. Freyja\u2019s husband. _Oder._\n\n\u00d3\u00d0R\u0152RIR [The spirit-mover]. One of the vessels in which the blood of\nKvaser, that is, the poetic mead, was kept. The inspiring nectar.\n_Odr\u0153rer._\n\nOFNIR. A serpent under Ygdrasil. _Ofner._\n\n\u00d3K\u00d3LNIR [Not cool]. After Ragnarok the giants have a hall (ale-_hall_)\ncalled Brimer, at Okolner.\n\n\u00d6KU-\u00de\u00d3RR [Icel. _aka_; Lat. _agere_; Gr. \u1f04\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd (compare English _yoke_),\nto drive, to ride]. A name of Thor as a charioteer. _Akethor._\n\n\u00d3SKI [Wish]. A name of Odin. _Oske._ _Wish._\n\nOTR [OTTER]. A son of Hreidmar; in the form of an otter killed by Loke.\n_Oter._\n\n\u00d3TTARR or \u00d3TTARR HEIMSKI [Stupid]. A son of Instein, a prot\u00e9g\u00e9 of\nFreyja. He has a contest with Angantyr. Hyndla gives him a cup of\nremembrance. _Ottar._\n\n\nR\n\nRAGNAR\u00d6K [_ragna_, from _regin_, god; _r\u00f6k_ may be Old High Germ.\n_rahha_, sentence, judgment, akin to _rekja_; _r\u00f6k_, from _rekja_, is\nthe whole development from creation to dissolution, and would, in this\nword, denote the dissolution, doomsday, of the gods; or it may be from\n_r\u00f6kr_ (_reykkr_, smoke), twilight, and then the word means the twilight\nof the gods.] The last day; the dissolution of the gods and the world.\n_Ragnarok._\n\nR\u00c1N [Rob]. The goddess of the sea; wife of \u00c6ger. _Ran._\n\nRATATOSKR. A squirrel that runs up and down the branches of Ygdrasil.\n_Ratatosk._\n\nRATI. An auger used by Odin in obtaining the poetic mead. _Rate._\n\nREGINN. Son of Hreidmar; brother of Fafner and Otter. _Regin._\n\nRINDR [Eng. _rind_, crust]. A personification of the hard frozen earth.\nMother of Vale. The loves of Odin and Rind resemble those of Zeus and\nEuropa in Greek legends. _Rind._\n\nR\u00d6SKVA. The name of the maiden follower of Thor. She symbolizes the ripe\nfields of harvest. _Roskva._\n\n\nS\n\nS\u00c6HR\u00cdMNIR [_s\u00e6r_, sea; _hr\u00edmnir_, rime-producer]. The name of the boar\non which the gods and heroes in Valhal constantly feed. _S\u00e6hrimner._\n\nSAGA [History]. The goddess of history. She dwells in Sokvabek. _Saga._\n\nSESSR\u00daMNIR [Seat-roomy]. Freyja\u2019s large-seated palace. _Sesrumner._\n\nS\u00cd\u00d0SH\u00d6TTR [Long-hood]. One of Odin\u2019s names, from his traveling in\ndisguise with a large hat on his head hanging down over his face.\n_Sidhat._\n\nS\u00cd\u00d0SKEGGR [Long-beard]. One of Brage\u2019s names. It is also a name of Odin\nin the lay of Grimner. _Sidskeg._\n\nSIF. The wife of Thor and mother of Uller. [Ulfilas _sibja_; Anglo-Sax.\n_sib_; Eng. gos-_sip_, god-_sib_; Heliand _sibbia_; Old High Germ.\n_sibba_; Germ. _sippe_. The word denotes affinity.] Sif, the\ngolden-haired goddess, wife of Thor, betokens mother earth with her\nbright green grass. She was the goddess of the sanctity of the family\nand wedlock, and hence her name. _Sif._\n\nSIGFA\u00d0\u00cdR [Father of victory]. A name of Odin. _Sigfather._\n\nSIGYN. Loke\u2019s wife. She holds a basin to prevent the venom from dropping\ninto Loke\u2019s face. _Sigyn._\n\nSILFRINTOPPR [Silver-tuft]. One of the horses of the gods. _Silvertop._\n\nSINDRI. One of the most famous dwarfs. _Sindre._\n\nSINIR [Sinew]. One of the horses of the gods. _Siner._\n\nSJ\u00d6FN. One of the goddesses. She delights in turning men\u2019s hearts to\nlove. _Sjofn._\n\nSKA\u00d0I [_scathe_, harm, damage]. A giantess; daughter of Thjasse and the\nwife of Njord. She dwells in Thrymheim. Hangs a venom serpent over\nLoke\u2019s face. _Skade._\n\nSKEI\u00d0BR\u00cdMIR [Race-runner]. One of the horses of the gods. _Skeidbrimer._\n\nSKI\u00d0BLA\u00d0NIR. The name of the famous ship of the god Frey. _Skidbladner._\n\nSKINFAXI [Shining-mane]. The horse of Day. _Skinfax._\n\nSK\u00cdRNIR [The bright one]. Frey\u2019s messenger. _Skirner._\n\nSKR\u00ddMIR. The name of a giant; the name assumed by Utgard-Loke.\n_Skrymer._\n\nSKULD [Shall]. The norn of the future. _Skuld._\n\nSK\u00d6GUL. A valkyrie. _Skogul._\n\nSLEIPNIR [The slipper]. The name of Odin\u2019s eight-footed steed. He is\nbegotten by Loke with Svadilfare. _Sleipner._\n\nSNOTRA [Neat]. The name of one of the goddesses. _Snotra._\n\nS\u00d6KKM\u00cdMIR [Mimer of the deep]. A giant slain by Odin. _Sokmimer._\n\nS\u00d6KKVABEKKR. A mansion where Odin and Saga quaff from golden beakers.\n_Sokvabek._\n\nS\u00d3L [Sun]. Daughter of Mundilfare. She drives the horses that draw the\ncar of the sun. _Sol._\n\nSONR. One of the vessels containing the poetic mead. _Son._\n\nSUDRI [South]. A dwarf presiding over the south region. _Sudre._\n_South._\n\nSURTR. A fire-giant in Ragnarok; contends with the gods on the plain of\nVigrid; guards Muspelheim. _Surt._\n\nSUTTUNGR. The giant possessor of the poetic mead. _Suttung._\n\nSVA\u00d0ILFARI. A horse; the sire of Sleipner. _Svadilfare._\n\nSVAFNIR. A serpent under Ygdrasil. _Svafner._\n\nSVALINN [Cooler]. The shield placed before the sun. _Svalin._\n\nSV\u00c1SU\u00d0R [Delightful]. The name of a giant; the father of the sun.\n_Svasud._\n\nS\u00ddN. A minor goddess. _Syn._\n\n\nT\n\nT\u00ddR; genitive TYS, dative and accusative T\u00fd. [Compare Icel. _tivi_, god;\n_Twisco_ (_Tivisco_) in Tacitus\u2019 _Germania_. For the identity of this\nword with Sanscrit _dyaus_, _d\u00edvas_, heaven; Gr. \u0396\u03b5\u03cd\u03c2 (\u0394\u03b9\u03cc\u03c2); Lat.\n_divus_, see Max M\u00fcller\u2019s _Lectures on the Science of Language_, 2d\nseries, p. 425.] Properly the generic name of the highest divinity, and\nremains in many compounds. In the mythology he is the one-armed god of\nwar. The Fenris-wolf bit one hand off him. He goes with Thor to Hymer to\nborrow a kettle for \u00c6ger. He is son of Odin by a giantess. _Tyr._\n\n\n\u00de (TH).\n\n\u00deJ\u00c1LFI. The name of the servant and follower of Thor. The word properly\nmeans a delver, digger (Germ. _delber_, _delben_, to dig). The names\nThjalfe and Roskva indicate that Thor was the friend of the farmers and\nthe god of agriculture. _Thjalfe._\n\n\u00deJAZI [\u00deJASSI]. A giant; the father of Njord\u2019s wife, Skade. His dwelling\nwas Thrymheim; he was slain by Thor. _Thjasse._\n\n\u00de\u00d3RR. [Anglo-Sax. _\u00feunor_; Eng. _thunder_; North Eng. _thunner_; Dutch\n_donder_; Old High Germ. _donar_; Germ. _donner_; Hel\u03afand _thunar_;\nDanish _tor_, in _tor_-den (compare Lat. _tono_ and _tonitrus_.) The\nword _\u00de\u00f3rr_ is therefore formed by absorption of the middle _n_, and\ncontraction of an old dissyllabic _\u00feonor_ into one syllable, and is a\npurely Scandinavian form; hence in Anglo-Saxon charters or diplomas it\nis a sure sign of forgery when names compounded with _\u00feur_- appear in\ndeeds pretending to be of a time earlier than the Danish invasion in the\nninth century; although in later times they abound. The English\n_Thursday_ is a later form, in which the phonetic rule of the\nScandinavian tongue has been followed; but perhaps it is a North English\nform]. The god of thunder, keeper of the hammer, the ever-fighting\nslayer of trolls and destroyer of evil spirits, the friend of mankind,\nthe defender of the earth, the heavens and the gods; for without Thor\nand his hammer the earth would become the helpless prey of the giants.\nHe was the consecrator, the hammer being the cross or holy sign of the\nancient heathen, hence the expressive phrase on a heathen Danish runic\nstone: _\u00deurr vigi \u00feassi runar_ (Thor consecrate these runes!) Thor was\nthe son of Odin and Fjorgyn (mother earth); he was blunt, hot-tempered,\nwithout fraud or guile, of few words and ready stroke\u2014such was Thor, the\nfavorite deity of our forefathers. The finest legends of the Younger\nEdda and the best lays of the Elder Edda refer to Thor. His hall is\nBilskirner. He slays Thjasse, Thrym, Hrungner, and other giants. In\nRagnarok he slays the Midgard-serpent, but falls after retreating nine\npaces, poisoned by the serpent\u2019s breath. _Thor._\n\n\u00deRI\u00d0I [Third]. A name of Odin in Gylfaginning. _Thride._\n\n\u00deR\u00da\u00d0GELMIR. The giant father of Bergelmer. _Thrudgelmer._\n\n\u00deR\u00da\u00d0HEIMR or \u00deR\u00da\u00d0VANGR. Thor\u2019s abode. _Thrudheim_; _Thrudvang_.\n\n\u00deR\u00da\u00d0R. The name of a goddess; the daughter of Thor and Sif. _Thrud._\n\n\u00deRYMHEIMR. Thjasse\u2019s and Skade\u2019s dwelling. _Thrymheim._\n\n\u00deRYMR. The giant who stole Thor\u2019s hammer and demanded Freyja for it.\n_Thrym._\n\n\u00de\u00d6KK. The name of a giantess (supposed to have been Loke in disguise) in\nthe myth of Balder. She would not weep for his death. _Thok._\n\n\nU\n\n\u00daLFR\u00daN. One of Heimdal\u2019s nine giant mothers. _Ulfrun._\n\nULLR. The son of Sif and stepson of Thor. His father is not named. He\ndwells in Ydaler. _Uller._\n\nUR\u00d0ARBRUNNR. The fountain of the norn Urd. The Urdar-fountain. The weird\nspring.\n\nUR\u00d0R [Anglo-Sax. _wyrd_; Eng. _weird_; Heliand _wurth_]. One of the\nthree norns. The norn of the past, that which has been. _Urd._\n\n\u00daTGAR\u00d0AR [The out-yard]. The abode of the giant Utgard-Loke. _Utgard._\n\n\u00daTGAR\u00d0A-LOKI. The giant of Utgard visited by Thor. He calls himself\nSkrymer. _Utgard-Loke._\n\n\nV\n\nVAF\u00deR\u00da\u00d0NIR. A giant visited by Odin. They try each other in questions\nand answers. The giant is defeated and forfeits his life. _Vafthrudner._\n\nVALASKJ\u00c1LF. One of Odin\u2019s dwellings. _Valaskjalf._\n\nVALF\u00d6\u00d0R [Father of the slain]. A name of Odin. _Valfather._\n\nVALGRIND. A gate of Valhal. _Valgrind._\n\nVALH\u00d6LI. [The hall of the slain. Icel. _valr_; Anglo-Sax. _w\u0153l_, the\nslain]. The hall to which Odin invited those slain in battle. _Valhal._\n\nVALKYRJA [The chooser of the slain]. A troop of goddesses, handmaidens\nof Odin. They serve in Valhal, and are sent on Odin\u2019s errands.\n_Valkyrie._\n\nVALI. Brother of Balder. Slays Hoder when only one night old. Rules with\nVidar after Ragnarok. _Vale._\n\nVALI. A son of Loke. _Vale._\n\nVALTAMR. A fictitious name of Odin\u2019s father. _Valtam._\n\nV\u00c9. A brother of Odin (Odin, Vile and Ve). _Ve._\n\nVEGTAMR. A name assumed by Odin. _Vegtam._\n\nVANAHEIMAR. The abode of the vans. _Vanaheim._\n\nVANR; plural VANIR. Those deities whose abode was in Vanaheim, in\ncontradistinction to the asas, who dwell in Asgard: Njord, Frey and\nFreyja. The vans waged war with the asas, but were afterwards, by virtue\nof a treaty, combined and made one with them. The vans were deities of\nthe sea. _Van._\n\nV\u00c9ORR [Defender]. A name of Thor. _Veor._\n\nVER\u00d0ANDI [from _ver\u00f0a_, to become; Germ. _werden_]. The norn of the\npresent, of that which is.\n\nVESTRI. The dwarf presiding over the west region. _Vestre._ _West._\n\nVI\u00d0ARR. Son of Odin and the giantess Grid. He dwells in Landvide. He\nslays the Fenris-wolf in Ragnarok. Rules with Vale after Ragnarok.\n_Vidar._\n\nV\u00cdGRI\u00d0R [Icel. _v\u00edg_; Ulfilas _wiahjo_, \u03bc\u03ac\u03b3\u03b7, a fight, a battle]. The\nfield of battle where the gods and the sons of Surt meet in Ragnarok.\n_Vigrid._\n\nV\u00cdLI. Brother of Odin and Ve. These three sons of Bor and Bestla\nconstruct the world out of Ymer\u2019s body. _Vile._\n\nV\u00cdMUR. A river that Thor crosses. _Vimer._\n\nVINDSVALR [Wind-cool]. The father of winter. _Vindsval._\n\nVINDHEIMR [Wind-home]. The place that the sons of Balder and Hoder are\nto inhabit after Ragnarok. _Vindheim._ _Wind-home._\n\nVIN-G\u00d3LF [The mansion of bliss]. The palace of the asynjes. _Vingolf._\n\nVING\u00de\u00d3RR. A name of Thor. _Vingthor._\n\nV\u00d3R. The goddess of betrothals and marriages. _Vor._\n\n\nY\n\n\u00ddDALIR. Uller\u2019s dwelling. _Ydaler._\n\nYGGR. A name of Odin. _Ygg._\n\nYGGDRASILL [The bearer of Ygg (Odin)]. The world-embracing ash tree. The\nwhole world is symbolized by this tree. _Ygdrasil._\n\n\u00ddMIR. The huge giant in the cosmogony, out of whose body Odin, Vile and\nVe created the world. The progenitor of the giants. He was formed out of\nfrost and fire in Ginungagap. _Ymer._\n\n\n\n\n                                 INDEX.\n\n\n A\n\n Aachen, 92.\n\n Aage, 397.\n\n Aarvak, 159, 177, 178, 259.\n\n Acts of the Apostles, 25.\n\n Adam, 82, 390, 436.\n\n Adelsten, Hakon, 110.\n\n Adonis, 53.\n\n \u00c6ger, 39, 40, 98, 110, 123, 247, 274, 322, 323, 327, 337, 338, 343-349,\n    372, 377, 381, 397-399.\n\n \u00c6schylus, 78.\n\n Afternoon, 180.\n\n Agder, 363.\n\n Agnar, 122, 156.\n\n Ahriman, 81.\n\n Alexander, 88, 96.\n\n Ale, 382.\n\n Alfheim, 186, 348.\n\n Allfather, 49, 182, 193, 216, 434.\n\n Alsvinn, 159, 177, 178.\n\n Alsvin, 259.\n\n Alvis, 124.\n\n America, American, etc., 34, 52, 59, 74, 92, 94, 96, 113, 128, 208,\n    308, 309, 401.\n\n Amsvartner, 384.\n\n Andunson (Thorgeir), 202.\n\n Andhrimner, 263, 264.\n\n Andvare, 344, 376, 377, 381.\n\n Angantyr, 365, 366.\n\n Angerboda, 373, 382, 419, 420.\n\n Anglo-Saxon, 23, 36, 43, 47, 48, 72, 74, 75, 79, 117, 126, 165, 177,\n    223, 230, 233, 240, 298, 308, 309, 347, 373.\n\n Annar, 178, 237.\n\n Aphrodite, 53, 413.\n\n Apollo, 40.\n\n Arab, 309.\n\n Argos, 72, 87.\n\n Asa-bridge, 189, 301.\n\n Asaheim, 54, 187, 208.\n\n Asas (a people), 232.\n\n Asgard, 35, 36, 38, 40, 101, 123, 126, 182, 185, 217, 221, 233, 234,\n    250, 274-277, 287, 289, 300, 302, 303, 308, 323, 332, 337, 392, 429.\n\n Asia, 81.\n\n Ask, 82, 100, 183, 185, 187, 196.\n\n Atle, 377, 396.\n\n Athens, 59, 92.\n\n Aud, 156, 178.\n\n Audhumbla, 173, 174, 195.\n\n Augustus, 71, 89.\n\n Aurboda, 352.\n\n Aurgelmer, 173, 174, 194.\n\n Austre, 183.\n\n Avon, 78.\n\n\n B\n\n Babel, 82, 175.\n\n Balder, 29, 39, 49, 53, 54, 57, 60, 64, 65, 82, 84, 90, 96, 98, 106,\n    109, 110, 113, 121, 123, 124, 185, 186, 189, 193, 208, 222, 229,\n    237-239, 241, 243, 244, 270, 272, 277-297, 356, 369, 375, 388, 390,\n    391, 394, 397, 407, 409, 415, 425, 426, 429, 432-434.\n\n Barleycorn (John), 351.\n\n Bascom (Dr. John), 17, 114.\n\n Bauge, 249.\n\n Bele, 345, 354, 423.\n\n Beowulf, 36, 43, 47, 126, 131.\n\n Bergelmer, 173-175, 194.\n\n Berghild, 210.\n\n Berzelius, 28.\n\n Bestla, 174, 254.\n\n Beyla, 357, 399.\n\n Bifrost, 98, 101, 181, 186, 189, 272, 301, 418.\n\n Bil, 182.\n\n Billing, 242.\n\n Bilskirner, 186, 298, 300.\n\n Bjarkemaal, 62.\n\n Bj\u00f6rnson (Bj\u00f6rnstjerne), 95.\n\n Black Plague, 389.\n\n Black Sea, 82.\n\n Bleking, 226.\n\n Blicher, 402.\n\n Blodughadda, 347.\n\n Boccaccio, 126.\n\n Bodn, 247, 249.\n\n Bolthorn, 174, 254.\n\n Bolverk, 149, 249, 252.\n\n Bor, 174-176, 183.\n\n Boston, 386.\n\n Bous, 244.\n\n Boyesen (Hjalmar Hjorth), 18, 267.\n\n Braalund, 210.\n\n Brage, 90, 96-98, 123, 126, 159, 185, 220, 240 (the skald), 247, 259,\n    270, 273-278, 369, 398, 399.\n\n Brand, 363.\n\n Breidablik, 186, 279.\n\n Brimer, 430, 434.\n\n Brisingamen, 331, 364, 374, 375.\n\n Brok, 106, 220, 221.\n\n Brynhild, 48, 118, 200, 377, 381, 388, 435.\n\n Bugge (Sophus), 116.\n\n Bull (Ole), 96, 202.\n\n Bure, 174.\n\n Burns (Robert), 351.\n\n Bygver, 350, 351.\n\n Byleist, 374, 375, 422.\n\n Bylgja, 347.\n\n Byrger, 182.\n\n Byzantium, 244.\n\n\n C\n\n Cambridge (Eng.), 72.\n\n Carpenter (Dr. S. H.), 17, 75.\n\n Carthage, 240.\n\n Carlyle, 27, 37, 47, 54, 69, 72, 205, 266, 336.\n\n Caspian Sea, 82, 232.\n\n Castalian fountain, 72, 97.\n\n Catholic church, 31, 43, 49, 205, 393.\n\n Cato, 88.\n\n Charlemagne, 42.\n\n Chicago, 386.\n\n Christ, 31, 39, 41, 42, 49, 57, 82.\n\n Christian, Christianity, etc., 25, 27, 29, 31, 32, 33, 35, 37, 39, 40,\n    42, 44, 45, 47, 49, 50, 62, 70, 79, 94, 95, 113, 115, 128, 163, 201,\n    205, 265, 308, 335, 336, 394, 435.\n\n Cicero, 89.\n\n Clarendon press, 72.\n\n Cleasby (Richard), 72.\n\n Colfax, 363.\n\n Cologne, 92.\n\n Constantinople, 65, 92.\n\n Cornwall (Barry) 28, 273.\n\n Correggio, 294.\n\n Creation, 60, 171-187.\n\n Cupid, 367.\n\n\n D\n\n Daain, 190, 255.\n\n Dan, 105.\n\n Danaides, 64.\n\n Dane, Danish, Denmark, etc., 34, 35, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 47, 60, 72,\n    83, 108, 233, 240, 322, 347.\n\n Dante, 381.\n\n Danube, 69.\n\n Darwin, 199.\n\n Dasent, 35, 36, 47, 48, 50, 51, 72, 205.\n\n Day, 178, 179, 237.\n\n Decameron, 126.\n\n Declaration of Independence, 92, 129.\n\n Delling, 178, 179, 258.\n\n Delphi, 57.\n\n Demeter, 236, 237, 359.\n\n Demosthenes, 77.\n\n Deucalion, 56.\n\n Dido, 240.\n\n Dorothea, 403-407.\n\n Draupner, 106, 217, 220-223, 238, 288, 289, 299.\n\n Drome, 383, 384.\n\n Duneyr, 190.\n\n Durathror, 190.\n\n Durin, 183, 184.\n\n Dutch, 43, 95.\n\n Duva, 347.\n\n Dvalin, 105, 190, 255.\n\n Dwarfs, 27, 29, 98, 99, 101, 102-109, 175.\n\n\n E\n\n Edda (Elder), 116-125.\n\n Edda (Younger), 125-127.\n\n Edinburgh, 72.\n\n Egder, 420, 421.\n\n Egil, 326.\n\n Egil Skallagrimson, 367, 394.\n\n Egyptians, 23.\n\n Eikthyrner, 263.\n\n Eir, 241.\n\n Elder, 347, 398.\n\n Eldhrimner, 263, 264.\n\n Elektra, 53.\n\n Elivagar, 97, 172, 173, 305, 307, 323.\n\n Elle, 320, 322.\n\n Ellida, 345.\n\n Else, 397.\n\n Elves, 201.\n\n Elvidner, 382.\n\n Embla, 82, 183, 185, 187, 196.\n\n England, English, etc., 23, 34, 35, 40, 42, 43-48, 52, 59, 65, 71, 72,\n    74, 75, 76, 78, 92, 113, 118, 119, 128, 129, 165, 205, 208, 233,\n    301, 308, 309, 347, 348, 360, 389.\n\n Ennius, 89.\n\n Erik Blood-ax, 392.\n\n Eros, 69.\n\n Etrurian, 74.\n\n Europe, European, etc., 35, 48, 49, 51, 52, 59, 68, 71, 75, 77, 92, 99,\n    111, 113, 120, 129, 164, 233, 327, 360, 389.\n\n Euxinus, 232.\n\n Eve, 82, 390, 436.\n\n Evening, 180.\n\n Eyjafjord, 361.\n\n Eyvind Skaldespiller, 392.\n\n\n F\n\n Fafner, 375, 377-380, 388.\n\n\n Fairfax (Harald), 26, 48, 49, 361, 363.\n\n Falhofner, 189.\n\n Farbaute, 374, 375.\n\n Fengr, 219.\n\n Fenris-wolf, 25, 53, 271, 338, 350, 366, 373, 375, 382-387, 402, 409,\n    414, 417-419, 425-429.\n\n Fensal, 186, 237, 285, 290.\n\n Fimbul-winter, 416.\n\n Fjalar, 133, 247, 248, 250.\n\n Fjolner, 219, 351.\n\n Fjorgyn, 123, 236, 237, 423.\n\n Folkvang, 186, 364, 367, 393.\n\n Forenoon, 180.\n\n Forsete, 185, 186, 296, 297.\n\n Forseteland, 297.\n\n Fortuna, 308.\n\n Fraananger Force, 399.\n\n France, French, etc., 34, 41, 42, 48, 65, 75, 92, 113, 155, 232.\n\n Frank, 48, 309.\n\n Freke, 219, 220.\n\n Frey, 46, 98, 104, 106, 108, 109, 122, 165, 185, 200, 221, 231, 237,\n    239, 274, 288, 301, 341, 348-363, 369, 414, 418, 423, 426.\n\n Freyja, 110, 123, 125, 165, 186, 215, 224-226, 237-239, 274, 276, 288,\n    303, 308, 328-334 341, 348, 352, 364-368, 374, 394.\n\n Friday, 237, 367, 420.\n\n Fridthjof, 344-346, 360, 396.\n\n Frigg, 53, 98, 121-123, 186, 222, 231, 236-241, 245, 259, 274, 279-281,\n    285-290, 294, 310, 364, 422, 425.\n\n Frisians, 87.\n\n Frye (W. E.), 322.\n\n Fulla, 110, 238, 274, 289, 295.\n\n Funen, 233, 240, 241.\n\n Funfeng, 347, 398.\n\n\n G\n\n Gagnraad, 121, 227, 424, 425.\n\n Gaia, 236, 237.\n\n Galar, 247, 248.\n\n Ganglere, 174, 195, 436.\n\n Gardrofa, 239.\n\n Garm, 419-424.\n\n Gausta-fjeld, 33, 66.\n\n Gaut, 228.\n\n Gefjun, 123, 240, 241, 274.\n\n Gefn, 365.\n\n Geirrod, 122, 228, 310-312, 337, 374, 375.\n\n Gelgja, 385.\n\n Genesis, 55, 89, 272.\n\n Gerd, 122, 200, 274, 351-360, 414.\n\n Gere, 219, 220.\n\n German, Germany, etc., 34, 35, 39-49, 59, 72-75, 79, 118, 119, 126,\n    196, 203, 233, 270, 277, 298, 309, 327, 352, 364, 403.\n\n Gerseme, 364.\n\n Giants, 29, 36, 38-40, 56, 60, 84, 86, 98, 102, 104, 105, 172, 173.\n\n Gibraltar, 69.\n\n Gilling, 247, 248.\n\n Gimle, 54, 101, 128, 185, 187, 269, 393, 430, 434.\n\n Ginungagap, 56, 66, 98, 171, 172, 175, 188.\n\n Gisl, 189.\n\n Gisle Surson, 361.\n\n Gjallar-bridge, 187, 208, 288, 289.\n\n Gjallar-horn, 188, 230, 272, 418, 421.\n\n Gjalp, 311.\n\n Gjol, 172, 187, 288, 385.\n\n Gjake, 380.\n\n Gladsheim, 98, 182, 231, 261, 262.\n\n Glaser, 262.\n\n Gleipner, 271, 384.\n\n Glener, 177.\n\n Glitner, 186, 296, 297.\n\n Glommen, 103.\n\n Glum, 361, 362.\n\n Gnaa, 238, 239, 245.\n\n Gnipa-cave, 419-425.\n\n Gnipa-heller, 387.\n\n Gnipa-heath, 377.\n\n\n God (the supreme), 24-34, 49, 54, 62, 66, 80, 119, 173, 272, 294, 368,\n    415, 431, 435.\n\n Goethe, 40, 292.\n\n Goin, 190.\n\n Golden Age, 183.\n\n Goldfax, 302-309.\n\n Goldtop, 189, 272, 288.\n\n Gondul, 267.\n\n Gothic, 23, 33, 42-47, 51, 61, 62, 71, 73, 74, 78, 79, 94, 95, 111-114,\n    117, 125-129, 165, 205, 208, 235, 273, 308, 327, 370, 371, 390, 395,\n    407, 408, 415, 436.\n\n Graabak, 191.\n\n Grafvitner, 190.\n\n Grafvollud, 191.\n\n Gram, 155, 377, 378.\n\n Grane, 159, 259, 381.\n\n Greek, Greece, etc., 23-25, 51-79, 81, 87-89, 92, 97, 111-119, 192,\n    193, 198, 237, 240, 245, 253, 254, 273, 291, 308, 309, 339, 361,\n    369, 370, 413.\n\n Greenland, 65, 92.\n\n Greip, 311.\n\n Grid, 310, 311, 337, 433.\n\n Gridarvold, 310.\n\n Grimm (the brothers), 35, 39, 45, 86, 240, 352.\n\n Grimner, 90, 122, 176, 178, 181, 219, 220, 227-231, 261, 272, 279, 296,\n    298, 358, 364.\n\n Grjottungard, 303-307.\n\n Groa, 305-309.\n\n Grundtvig, 16, 19, 60, 227, 240.\n\n Gudrun, 377, 381.\n\n Gullinburste, 106, 288, 301, 348, 363.\n\n Gungner, 159, 220-224, 259, 418.\n\n Gunlad, 91, 132, 148, 149, 200, 246-253.\n\n Gunnar Helming, 362, 388.\n\n Gylfaginning, 126.\n\n Gylfe, 126, 233, 234, 240, 436.\n\n Gymer, 347, 350-359.\n\n\n H\n\n Haar, 91, 194, 195.\n\n Hagbard, 367.\n\n Hakon, 267-270, 386, 394.\n\n H\u00e1konarm\u00e1l, 392.\n\n Halfdan Gamle, 365.\n\n Hallfred, 44.\n\n Hallinskide, 271.\n\n Hamarsheimt, 110, 328-336.\n\n Hamder, 62.\n\n Hamlet, 78.\n\n Hamskerper, 239.\n\n Harald Haardraade, 92.\n\n Harald Haarfager. See Fairfax.\n\n Harbard, 122, 123.\n\n Hate Hrodvitneson, 179, 181.\n\n Hauch, 60.\n\n H\u00e1vam\u00e1l, 120, 128-155, 163, 241, 244, 250, 251.\n\n Hebe, 436.\n\n Hebrews, 76, 77, 89.\n\n Hedrik, 363.\n\n Hefring, 347.\n\n Heiddraupner, 159.\n\n Heidrun, 263.\n\n Heimdal, 53, 84, 93, 101, 102, 171, 185-189, 208, 230, 270-273, 288,\n    331, 357, 366, 369, 375, 419-431.\n\n Heimskringla, 50, 82, 125, 232.\n\n Hekla (Mt.), 34, 100.\n\n Hel, Helheim, Helgate, etc., 63, 84, 124, 128, 172, 187, 200, 205, 208,\n    229, 238, 270, 280-283, 287-290, 295, 373, 375, 380, 382, 387-397,\n    409, 415, 418-432.\n\n Helblinde, 374, 375.\n\n Helge, 49, 210, 363, 396.\n\n Helgoland, 297.\n\n Hengist, 48, 233.\n\n Hera, 87, 245.\n\n Herbert, 352.\n\n Hercules, 65, 78, 92, 119, 436.\n\n Hermes, 361.\n\n Hermion, 57.\n\n Hermod, 91, 216, 270, 287-289.\n\n Herodotus, 77, 88.\n\n Hesiod, 118.\n\n Himinbjorg, 186, 272.\n\n Himinbrjoter, 324.\n\n Himingl\u0153fa, 346.\n\n Hindoos, 23, 53, 81.\n\n Hjalmgunnar, 156.\n\n Hjaltalin, 72.\n\n Hjuke, 182.\n\n Hler, 347.\n\n Hlidskjalf, 185, 187, 231, 237, 352, 399.\n\n Hlin, 238, 422, 425.\n\n Hlodyn, 236, 237, 423.\n\n Hnikar, 218.\n\n Hnos, 364.\n\n Hoddropner, 159.\n\n Hoder, 29, 82, 84, 185, 270, 280, 284, 286, 290-292, 388, 414, 429,\n    432, 434.\n\n Hodmimer, 429, 433.\n\n H\u0153ner, 81, 183, 185, 196, 215, 275, 342, 375, 391, 429-433.\n\n Hofud, 272.\n\n Hofvarpner, 238, 239.\n\n Holstein, 83, 233.\n\n Homer, 52, 77, 88, 89, 116, 118, 119, 267.\n\n Horn, 365.\n\n Horsa, 48, 233.\n\n Howitts (William and Mary), 80, 118.\n\n Hr\u00e6svelger, 181, 182, 197.\n\n Hrap, 394.\n\n Hraudung, 310.\n\n Hreidmar, 375-377.\n\n Hrimfaxe, 178, 179.\n\n Hrimner, 244.\n\n Hropt, 158, 261, 429.\n\n Hroptatyr, 228, 258.\n\n Hrotte, 381.\n\n Hrungner, 91, 199, 200, 301-310, 324.\n\n Hrym, 39, 418, 422.\n\n Hvergelmer, 172, 187, 188, 190, 208, 263, 434.\n\n Huge, 317-321.\n\n Hugin, 29, 219, 227.\n\n Hulder, 201.\n\n Humber, 40.\n\n Hunding, 218, 219.\n\n Hymer, 39, 101, 123, 199, 322-328, 344, 397.\n\n Hyndla, 24, 54, 124, 215, 365, 366, 431.\n\n Hyrroken, 287.\n\n\n I\n\n Ibsen, 95.\n\n Iceland, 25, 34-50, 65, 72, 75, 77, 81, 92, 116, 117, 126, 129, 227,\n    290, 295, 296, 347, 361-364, 367, 373, 384.\n\n Ida\u2019s Plains, 428, 429.\n\n Idavold, 182-187.\n\n Idun, 90, 98, 109, 123, 273-278, 339, 369, 374, 375, 409.\n\n Ifing, 187.\n\n Iliad, 89, 116, 264.\n\n India, 81, 116.\n\n Ingeborg, 344, 366.\n\n Ingemund, 25, 361, 363.\n\n Ingun, 351.\n\n Ingve, 267.\n\n Instein, 365.\n\n Io, 87.\n\n Iris, 53, 273.\n\n Iron post, 403-407.\n\n Italy, 15, 75, 92.\n\n Ivald, 220, 227, 348.\n\n Ixion, 63.\n\n\n J\n\n Jack the Giant-killer, 228.\n\n Jafuhaar, 91, 196.\n\n Jalk, 228.\n\n Japhet, 83.\n\n Jarnsaxa, 300-308.\n\n Jarnved, 179, 180.\n\n Jehovah. See God.\n\n Jew, 33, 58.\n\n Jochumson, 167.\n\n Jonsson (Arngrim), 26.\n\n Jord, 178, 236, 237.\n\n Jormungander, 100, 101, 382, 387, 422.\n\n Jotunheim, 38, 91, 101, 110, 177, 183, 184, 187, 196-198, 208, 209,\n    225, 226, 229, 240, 248, 276, 287, 302, 305, 313, 322, 329-332, 334,\n    337, 352, 354, 382, 421.\n\n Judas, 82.\n\n Judea, 57.\n\n Jul, 357, 363.\n\n Jupiter, 98, 300.\n\n Jutland, 83, 233, 241.\n\n\n K\n\n Kadroma, 199.\n\n Keightley (Thomas), 201-205.\n\n Kerlaung, 189, 301.\n\n Ketil, 362.\n\n Keyser (Prof. R.), 47, 86, 126, 128, 130, 163, 164, 390.\n\n Kjotve, 363.\n\n Klio, 253.\n\n Kolga, 347.\n\n Kormt, 189, 301.\n\n Kvaser, 91, 247, 248, 252, 253, 399.\n\n\n L\n\n Ladrones Islands, 38.\n\n Laing (Samuel), 72, 129.\n\n Laocoon, 327.\n\n\n Latin, Rome, Roman, etc., 23, 31, 42-44, 49, 68, 71-79, 83, 84, 88-99,\n    113, 117, 119, 128, 165, 232, 235, 254, 201, 308, 309, 327, 328,\n    361.\n\n Lanfey, 374, 375.\n\n Lax-aa-dal, 367.\n\n Leding, 383.\n\n Lerad, 263.\n\n Lif, 429, 433.\n\n Lifthrase, 420, 433.\n\n Lightfoot, 189.\n\n Lincoln, 294.\n\n Lit, 288.\n\n Ljosalfahelm, 187.\n\n Lodbrok (Regner), 267.\n\n Loder, 81, 183, 185, 196, 215, 372, 373, 391, 432.\n\n Lodfafner, 150-154.\n\n Lofn, 238, 239, 368.\n\n Loge, 317, 321.\n\n Logrinn, 240.\n\n Loire, 92.\n\n Loke, 28, 29, 38, 65, 81-84, 98, 102-113, 123, 124, 185, 196, 220-226,\n    237, 260, 275-277, 281, 285, 286, 290, 292, 295, 301, 310-312, 317,\n    321, 322, 328-336, 338, 344, 349, 350, 351, 371-409, 414, 418-436.\n\n London, 72.\n\n Longfellow (H. W.), 96, 97, 99, 299.\n\n Loptr, 105, 372, 373.\n\n Lord\u2019s Supper, 31.\n\n Luther, 73, 309, 327, 328.\n\n Lybia, 69.\n\n Lynge, 218.\n\n Lyngve, 384.\n\n\n M\n\n Maane, 177, 182.\n\n Maane (Thorkel), 25, 26.\n\n Maanegarm, 180, 417, 419, 420.\n\n Macbeth, 296, 381.\n\n Magna Charta, 92, 129.\n\n Magne, 29, 300, 301, 305, 308, 309, 429, 432, 433.\n\n Magn\u00fasson (E.), 72, 382.\n\n Magnussen (Finn), 352.\n\n Mallet, 232.\n\n Mannaheim, 187.\n\n Mannigfual, 87.\n\n Mardal, 365.\n\n Mars, 73, 89, 98.\n\n Marsh (George P.), 76.\n\n Mars\u2019 Hill, 25.\n\n Maurer (Konrad), 72.\n\n Mediterranean Sea, 76, 347.\n\n Megingjarder, 29, 299, 301, 310.\n\n Meile, 306.\n\n Meinert (H.), 403.\n\n Mercurius, 360.\n\n Mermaid, 204.\n\n Merman, 204.\n\n Midgard, 82, 98, 99, 175-179, 183, 187, 197, 224, 300, 419, 423.\n\n Midgard-serpent, 53, 96, 123, 322-328, 375, 382, 387, 409, 417-419,\n    426, 428, 429.\n\n Midnight, 180.\n\n Millers, 28.\n\n Milton, 69, 293.\n\n Mimer, 69, 96, 98, 103, 159, 188, 189, 208, 209, 229, 230, 260, 344,\n    418, 421, 433.\n\n Minerva, 307.\n\n Mithridates, 83, 232.\n\n Mjolner, 28, 79, 101-103, 110, 225, 288, 299, 301, 305, 308, 310, 312,\n    315, 326, 329, 374, 429, 433.\n\n Mnemosyne, 53.\n\n Mode, 300, 301, 429, 432, 433.\n\n Modgud, 289.\n\n Modsogner, 183, 184.\n\n M\u00f6bius, 72.\n\n M\u00e6so-Gothic, 75, 206.\n\n Moin, 190.\n\n Mokkerkalfe, 91, 304-309.\n\n Montesquieu, 129.\n\n Morning, 180.\n\n Morris (William), 72, 382.\n\n Moses, Mosaic, 33, 70, 79, 89, 198, 394.\n\n M\u00fcller (Max), 47, 74.\n\n Munch (P. A.) 47.\n\n Mundilfare, 177, 178.\n\n Munin, 29, 53, 219, 227.\n\n Muspel, 181, 350, 354, 418, 422, 425.\n\n Muspelheim, 54, 56, 98, 172, 175, 176, 187, 193, 425, 427.\n\n\n N\n\n Naastrand, 62, 99, 100, 128, 393, 430, 434.\n\n Naglfar, 178, 417, 418, 422.\n\n Nal, 374, 375.\n\n Nanna, 84, 90, 98, 106, 109, 113, 222, 238, 239, 274, 287, 289, 294,\n    296, 369, 394.\n\n Nare, or Narfe, 382, 400.\n\n Necks, 203.\n\n Nep, 288, 294.\n\n Nere, 211.\n\n Newtons, 28.\n\n Nida-mountains, 430, 431, 434, 435.\n\n Nidhug, 187, 188, 190, 208, 431-435.\n\n Niebelungen-Lied, 43, 47, 118, 126.\n\n Niflheim, 56, 98, 124, 172, 187, 188, 194, 208, 220, 264, 280, 282,\n    382, 387, 416.\n\n Niflhel, 389.\n\n Night, 177-179.\n\n Niobe, 57.\n\n Nisses, 203.\n\n Nix, 105.\n\n Njal, 394.\n\n Njord, 123, 185, 186, 200, 231, 239, 274, 277, 333, 341-364, 432.\n\n Noah, 55, 82, 83.\n\n Noatun, 186, 333, 341-343.\n\n Noon, 180.\n\n Nordre, 183.\n\n Normandy, 48, 92.\n\n Norns, 62, 109, 205.\n\n North American Review, 265.\n\n North Sea, 34, 37.\n\n Norve, 177, 179.\n\n Nottingham, 39.\n\n Numa Pompilius, 74.\n\n\n O\n\n Odense, 233.\n\n Oder, 226, 364-368.\n\n\n Odin, 24, 26, 29, 35, 40, 49, 53-56, 74, 81-84, 87, 90, 91, 96, 98,\n    101, 103, 106, 108-113, 116, 120-130, 144, 147, 149, 155-159, 163,\n    165, 171, 174, 175, 182-189, 193-200, 206, 209, 215-300, 302, 303,\n    308, 309, 326, 332, 335-339, 347-351, 358, 362-369, 372-376,\n    382-395, 398-402, 408, 409, 414, 418-434.\n\n Odr\u0153rer, 140, 247-254.\n\n Oehlenschl\u00e6ger, 95, 108, 322.\n\n Oersted, 28.\n\n Ofner, 191, 228.\n\n Okeanos, 53, 347.\n\n Okolner, 430, 434.\n\n Olaf Geirstada-alf, 389.\n\n Olaf in Lax-aa-dal, 367.\n\n Olaf the Saint, 335, 336.\n\n Ole, 382.\n\n Oller, 244.\n\n Olympos, 53, 54.\n\n Ormt, 189, 301.\n\n Orvandel, 305-307.\n\n Orvar-Odd, 367.\n\n Ottar, 365, 366.\n\n Ott\u00e9 (E. C.), 165.\n\n Oxford, 72.\n\n\n P\n\n P\u00e6stum, 118.\n\n Paganism, 42, 49.\n\n Palestine, 65.\n\n Pan, 339.\n\n Paris, 92.\n\n Parnassos, 56, 72.\n\n Paul (the apostle), 25, 394.\n\n Pegasos, 227, 308.\n\n Penates, 361.\n\n Pennock (Barclay), 390.\n\n Persephone, 359.\n\n Persia, 81, 396.\n\n Peter, 394.\n\n Petersen (N. M.), 47, 116, 117, 291, 402, 435.\n\n Plato, 77.\n\n Plautus, 89.\n\n Pluto, 81.\n\n Pompey, 83, 232.\n\n Pontus, 83, 232, 347.\n\n Proserpina, 360.\n\n Psyche, 69.\n\n Pyrrha, 56.\n\n Pythia, 57.\n\n\n Q\n\n Quirinus, 74.\n\n\n R\n\n Rafnagud, 219.\n\n Rafnkel, 363.\n\n\n Ragnarok, 25, 60, 61, 66, 84, 96, 100, 102, 120, 123, 230, 272, 273,\n    285, 338, 339, 351, 354, 366, 386, 387, 392-395, 401, 409, 413-427,\n    431.\n\n Ran, 98, 103, 110, 245, 343-348, 376, 395.\n\n Rask (Rasmus), 72, 82, 83.\n\n Ratatosk, 190.\n\n Rate, 148, 249-251.\n\n Reformation, 129.\n\n Regeneration, 428-436.\n\n Regin, 375-379.\n\n Reinbert, 403-407.\n\n Rhine, 69, 92.\n\n Ridel, 379, 380.\n\n Rig, 124, 273.\n\n Rind, 236-246, 280, 284, 433.\n\n Ring (King), 346.\n\n Ringhorn, 287, 295.\n\n Rjukan Force, 66.\n\n Rogner, 159, 259.\n\n Rolf Ganger, 48.\n\n Rolleif, 25.\n\n Romance, 58, 70, 75.\n\n Rome, Roman. See Latin.\n\n Romulus, 73, 89.\n\n Roskva, 300, 312, 313, 326.\n\n Rosterus, 243.\n\n Rosthiof, 243, 344.\n\n Rouen 48.\n\n Rudbek, 88.\n\n Rune, 42, 50.\n\n Runeburg, 293.\n\n Rune Song, 254-259.\n\n Runic Chapter, 155, 273.\n\n Russia, 41, 92.\n\n Ruthenians, 243.\n\n\n S\n\n Sabines, 73, 74.\n\n Saga (Goddess), 186, 253, 369.\n\n Sagas (Histories), 36, 38, 43, 44, 49, 72, 77, 88, 96, 126, 127,\n    218-223, 227, 235, 295, 360, 361.\n\n S\u00e6ger, 182.\n\n S\u00e6hrimner, 69, 263, 264.\n\n S\u00e6ming, 234.\n\n S\u00e6mund, 37, 38, 50, 116.\n\n Sars (J. E.), 47.\n\n Saturnus, 165.\n\n Saxo Grammaticus, 82, 232, 243, 244.\n\n Saxon, 40, 42, 48, 233, 240.\n\n Scandinavian, Scandinavia, 34, 35, 40-47, 59, 72, 75, 89, 95, 96, 129,\n    201, 233.\n\n Scotland, 39, 40, 75, 203.\n\n Scheldt, 92.\n\n Scythia, 232.\n\n Seabold, 361.\n\n Seine, 48, 92.\n\n Seneca, 78.\n\n Sesrumner, 186, 364.\n\n Seva-fjeld, 396.\n\n Shakespeare, 40, 52, 78, 79, 119, 222, 296, 366, 377, 381.\n\n Sibylline, 89.\n\n Sicily, 48.\n\n Sif, 28, 29, 102, 103, 107-109, 220, 221, 300, 301, 303, 308, 333, 374,\n    375, 399.\n\n Sigdrifa, 128, 129, 155-163, 230.\n\n Sigfrid, 118.\n\n Sigmund, 156, 216, 218, 392.\n\n Sigrun, 396.\n\n Sigtuna, 234, 235.\n\n Sigurd, 48, 130, 155-163, 218, 219, 377-381, 388.\n\n Sigyn, 111, 274, 375, 382, 401, 436.\n\n Silfrintop, 189.\n\n Simul, 182.\n\n Sindre, 106, 107, 220, 221,\n   (Hall, 430, 434.)\n\n Siner, 189.\n\n Sisyphos, 64.\n\n Siva, 81.\n\n Sjofn, 238, 239, 368.\n\n Skaane, 226.\n\n Skade, 200, 277, 341-343, 352, 400, 401.\n\n Sk\u00e1ldskaparm\u00e1l, 126.\n\n Skeidbrimer, 189.\n\n Skidbladner, 34, 122, 220, 348.\n\n Skilfing, 228.\n\n Skinfaxe, 178, 179.\n\n Skirner, 122, 231, 352-360, 384, 419.\n\n Skjalf, 365.\n\n Skjold, 83, 233, 365.\n\n Skogul, 267, 268.\n\n Skol, 179, 181.\n\n Skrymer, 312-322, 371.\n\n Skuld, 98, 110, 165, 189, 210, 265.\n\n Sleipner, 159, 189, 217, 224-227, 259, 270, 280, 282, 287, 302, 308,\n    374, 408.\n\n Slid, 387.\n\n Slidrugtanne, 288, 348.\n\n Snorre Sturleson, 38, 50, 82, 116, 125, 232.\n\n Snotra, 238.\n\n Socrates, 88, 368.\n\n Sokmimer, 200.\n\n Sokvabek, 186, 253.\n\n Sol, 177.\n\n Solomon, 89, 120.\n\n Solon, 88.\n\n Son, 247, 249.\n\n Spanish, 38, 65, 75, 92.\n\n Sparta, 59.\n\n Spirit of Laws, 129.\n\n Sterkodder, 199.\n\n Stockholm, 234.\n\n Stephens (George), 23.\n\n Stephens (St.), 403-407.\n\n Stromkarl, 96.\n\n Sudre, 183.\n\n Sulun, 82.\n\n Surt, 172, 338, 351, 418-433.\n\n Suttung, 148, 149, 248-252, 358.\n\n Svadilfare, 224-226.\n\n Svafner, 191, 228, 281.\n\n Svalin, 177, 178.\n\n Svartalf-heim, 187, 376, 384.\n\n Svasud, 180, 182.\n\n Svithjod, 82.\n\n Svolner, 306.\n\n Swedes, 34, 35, 41-47, 83, 126, 226, 233, 234, 240, 241, 244, 362.\n\n Syn, 238, 239.\n\n Syr, 365.\n\n\n T\n\n Tanais, 232.\n\n Tanngnjost, 299.\n\n Tanngrisner, 299, 301.\n\n Tantalos, 63.\n\n Tartaros, 60, 63.\n\n Taylor, Bayard, 360.\n\n Tegner, 95, 344, 346, 360.\n\n Teutonic, 34-36, 41-52, 70-78, 90, 296, 309, 327, 328.\n\n Thames, 48.\n\n Thaumas, 53.\n\n Theodolf, St., 265.\n\n Thessalian, 57.\n\n Thibet 199.\n\n Thjalfe, 91, 300-326.\n\n Thjasse, 275-277, 342, 352, 374.\n\n Thjodolf of Hvin, 306, 393.\n\n Thjodr\u0153rer, 258.\n\n Thok, 65, 290, 295, 389, 397, 407.\n\n Thor, 26-29, 39, 40, 46, 49, 52, 53, 74, 79, 82, 84, 87, 91, 93, 96,\n    98-124, 165, 185-189, 220-226, 237, 267, 270, 287, 288, 298-339,\n    358, 362, 365, 369, 371, 374, 387, 395-400, 406, 418, 426, 429, 432,\n    433.\n\n Thorgerd, 367.\n\n Thorgrim, 361.\n\n Thorkel, 361, 362.\n\n Thorp, Benjamin, 46, 72.\n\n Thorstein, 396.\n\n Thorwald Krok, 362.\n\n Thorwaldsen, Albert, 436.\n\n Thride, 91, 196.\n\n Throndhjem, 360-363.\n\n Thrudgelmer, 173, 194.\n\n Thrudheim, 186.\n\n Thrudvang, 186, 298, 300, 305, 322, 335.\n\n Thrung, 365.\n\n Thrym, 39, 111, 123, 124, 200, 328-336, 365.\n\n Thrymheim, 342, 343.\n\n Thund (Odin), 228, 255.\n\n Thvite, 386.\n\n Tiberias, 92.\n\n Tityos, 63.\n\n Trent, 39.\n\n Trier, 265.\n\n Trinity, 81, 91.\n\n Trolls, 202.\n\n Troy, 118.\n\n Tryggvesson, Olaf, 44, 360, 363.\n\n Tuesday, 270.\n\n Tver-aa, 361, 362.\n\n Twilight of the gods. See Ragnarok.\n\n Tyndall, 28.\n\n Typhon, 413.\n\n Tyr, 157, 165, 185, 267, 270, 271, 323, 326, 337, 349, 350, 383, 385,\n    414, 419.\n\n\n U\n\n Uller, 185, 186, 281, 300-306.\n\n Ulfilas, 206.\n\n United States, 65.\n\n Upsala, 362.\n\n Uranos, 236.\n\n Urd, Urdar-fount, etc., 95, 98, 110, 149, 165, 169, 189, 190, 191, 208,\n    200, 301.\n\n Utgard, 196, 315, 316.\n\n Utgard-Loke, 316-325, 371.\n\n\n V\n\n Vafthrudner, 120, 121, 173-181, 227, 290, 291, 424, 425.\n\n Vafud, 228.\n\n Vak, 244.\n\n Vaker, 228.\n\n Valaskjalf, 231.\n\n Vale, 185, 237, 245, 291, 338-340, 382, 400, 409, 429-433.\n\n Valfather. See Odin.\n\n Valhal, 60, 98, 108-112, 122, 128, 185, 215, 216, 224, 230, 231, 237,\n    261-269, 286, 290, 302-308, 365, 389-394, 415-420.\n\n Valkyries, 69, 110, 112, 265-269.\n\n Valtam, 280, 283.\n\n Vanaheim, 187, 341.\n\n Vandal, 79, 308.\n\n Vanlande, King, 393.\n\n Vans, 341-370.\n\n Var, 238, 239, 334, 368.\n\n Vasud, 180.\n\n Vatnsdal, 361.\n\n Ve, 56, 81, 91, 174, 175, 195, 215.\n\n Vecha, 243, 244.\n\n Vedfolner, 190.\n\n Vedic, 52, 116.\n\n Vegtam, 124, 227, 229, 241, 280-285.\n\n Venus, 237, 308, 367.\n\n Veor, 323.\n\n Verdande, 98, 110, 165, 189, 209.\n\n Vestre, 183.\n\n Vidar, 185, 310, 333-340, 398, 419-433.\n\n Vienna, 403-407.\n\n Vidfin, 182.\n\n Viga-glum, 361, 362.\n\n Vigfusson, Gudbrand, 72.\n\n Vigrid, 418, 425.\n\n Vile, 56, 81, 84, 91, 174, 175, 195, 215, 259.\n\n Vimer, 311.\n\n Vindlone, 180.\n\n Vindsval, 180, 181.\n\n Vinland, 52, 65.\n\n Vingolf, 183, 185, 216, 393.\n\n Volsung and Volsung Saga, 217, 218, 322.\n\n Volund, 124.\n\n V\u00f6lusp\u00e1, 120, 171, 176, 180-183, 209, 229, 230, 273, 290, 424, 431.\n\n Von, 386.\n\n Vonargander, 386.\n\n Voring Force, 66.\n\n\n W\n\n Wagner, 199.\n\n Welhaven, 95.\n\n Wergeland, 95.\n\n Wiener-wald, 403-407.\n\n Wind-home, 429, 432.\n\n Wisconsin, 245.\n\n\n Y\n\n Ydaler, 186, 302.\n\n Ygdrasil, 74, 82, 86, 87, 94, 98, 120, 122, 188-191, 205-209, 217, 229,\n    254, 260, 299, 301, 370, 387, 418-421.\n\n Ygg, 206, 228, 282.\n\n Ymer, 40, 56, 66, 82, 96, 122, 125, 171-176, 183, 194-196, 215, 237,\n    414, 426.\n\n Ynglings, 233.\n\n Yngve, 233.\n\n\n Z\n\n Zealand, 240, 241.\n\n Zendavista, 435.\n\n Zeus, 53-56, 236, 245, 307, 413.\n\n\n\n\n \u25cf Transcriber\u2019s Notes:\n    \u25cb Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only\n      when a predominant form was found in this book.\n    \u25cb Text that was in italics is enclosed by underscores (_italics_).\n    \u25cb Footnotes have been moved to follow the chapters in which they are\n      referenced.","title":"Norse mythology; or, The religion of our forefathers, containing all the myths of the Eddas, systematized and interpreted","tradition":"myth-cosmogony","translated_text":null,"word_count":121141}