{"collection":"myth-cosmogony","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_66216/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_66216","id":"gutenberg_66216","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/66216","summary":null,"tags":["Category: History - Ancient","Category: Music","Category: Mythology, Legends & Folklore","Music -- History and criticism"],"text":"Curiosities of Music\n\n\n A Collection of Facts, not generally known, regarding the Music of\n Ancient and Savage Nations\n\n By\n LOUIS C. ELSON\n\n [Illustration: publisher logo]\n\n OLIVER DITSON COMPANY\n BOSTON\n\n New York Chicago\n CHAS. H. DITSON & CO. LYON & HEALY\n\n Copyright, MDCCCLXXX, by J. M. STODDART & CO.\n Copyright, MCMVIII, by OLIVER DITSON COMPANY\n\n\n TO MY ESTEEMED FRIEND,\n Dr. C. Annette Buckei,\n THIS LITTLE WORK IS DEDICATED.\n\n\n\n\n PREFACE.\n\n\nIn this work, I have endeavored to bring together the most curious\npoints in the music of many nations, ancient and modern. As the work\noriginally appeared in a magazine (\u201cThe Vox Humana\u201d) I was obliged to\navoid any extended research into disputed points, such as Hebrew music,\nGreek music, water organs, etc., as being too abstruse for periodical\nreading. Yet many of the facts contained in its columns have not yet\nfound their way into English literature. This was so entirely the case\nwith Chinese music, that I was tempted to somewhat transgress my limits\non this subject, it being, apparently, a neglected one. In all the other\nchapters I have merely sought out such facts as would interest, and\npresent a comprehensive idea to the general reader, whether musical or\nnot.\n\nMy hearty thanks are due to Col. Henry Ware, and Mr. J. Norton, of\nBoston, for many facilities afforded and suggestions offered, in the\ncourse of compiling this book. If it fills an unoccupied niche, however\nsmall, in musical literature, it will have fulfilled the desire of\n\n The Author.\n\n\n\n\n CONTENTS\n\n\n I Introduction 7\n The Hindoos 8\n II Ancient Egyptian 15\n III Biblical and Hebrew 26\n IV Ancient Greek Music 35\n V The Public Games of Greece 39\n VI The Philosophers, and Greek Social Music 53\n VII Greek Theatre and Chorus 67\n VII The Dances of Ancient Greece 79\n VIII Ancient Roman Music 85\n IX Music of the Roman Theatre 95\n X Music of the Roman Empire 99\n XI History of Chinese Music 114\n XII Chinese Music and Musical Instruments 142\n Of the Sound of Stone 145\n Of the Sound of Metal 148\n Of the Sound of Baked Clay 149\n Of the Sound of Silk 149\n The Sound of Wood 151\n The Sound of Bamboo 153\n The Sound of Calabash 155\n Miscellaneous Instruments 156\n The Sound of the Voice 158\n XIII Chinese Musical Compositions and Ceremonies 162\n Hymn to the Ancestors 164\n XVI The Chinese Theatre and Dances 176\n XVII Music of Japan 201\n XVIII Music of Savage Nations 229\n XIX African Music 251\n Praise of Dingan, A Very Celebrated Chief 254\n XX Music of the Early Christian Church 280\n Greek Church 288\n Syrian Church 290\n The Armenian Church 292\n The Churches of Africa 293\n General Synopsis of Early Christian Music 296\n XXI The Ambrosian and Gregorian Chant 299\n XXII Music in Europe from the Fifth Century 308\n XXIII The Ancient Bards 323\n XXIV The Troubadours and Minne-Singers 329\n XXV Curiosities of the Opera. Modern Composers, and Conclusion 352\n Footnotes 364\n Index. 365\n\n\n\n\n CURIOSITIES OF MUSIC.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER I.\n INTRODUCTION.\n\n\nMusic has been broadly defined by Fetis as \u201cthe art of moving the\nfeelings by combinations of sounds;\u201d taken in this broad sense it may be\nconsidered as coeval with the human race.\n\nVocal music, in a crude form, is as natural in man, to express feelings,\nas it is for a cat to purr or a lion to roar; as regards instrumental\nmusic, the primitive man might have found in every hollow tree a\nreverberating drum, and in every conchshell or horn of cattle, the\nnatural beginnings of instrumental music; we shall find later that many\nnations ascribe the discovery of their music to the accidental appliance\nof some natural instrument; our surest guide in watching the rise of the\nart, should be the manner in which savage peoples, yet in a state of\nnature, produce music, and we shall find too, that even the lowest in\nthe scale, even those beings who make the monkey tribe nearer and dearer\nto us, as possible relatives (the bushmen of Australia for example),\nhave still a method of \u201cmoving the feelings by means of combinations of\nsounds.\u201d\n\nIt is therefore, really in barbarous nations, that we may, reasoning by\nanalogy, find in what state music existed when our own ancestors were in\na state of nature; but in order to give a more chronological character\nto our sketches we will begin with the _Music and Musical Mythology of\nthe Ancients_.\n\n\n THE HINDOOS.\n\nWith this people, and the Egyptians we find proofs of the existence of a\nmusical system at a time which far antedates the earliest reliable\nScriptural records.\n\nAmong the Hindoos especially, as far back as history extends, music has\nbeen treated not only as a fine art, but philosophically and\nmathematically. According to the oldest Brahminical records, in their\nall-embracing \u201cTemple of Science,\u201d it belongs to the 2d chief division\nof Lesser Sciences, but its natural and philosophic elements, are, with\na nice distinction, admitted into their holiest and oldest book, the\n_Veda_.[1] Of course it has a divine origin ascribed to it, in fact the\nentire realm of Indian music is one tale of Mythology.\n\nAccording to Brahminical accounts, when Brahma had lain in the egg three\nthousand billion, four hundred million of years (3,000,400,000,000) he\nsplit it by the force of his thought and made Heaven and Earth from the\ntwo pieces; then Manu brought forth ten great forces, which made Gods,\nGoddesses, good and evil spirits and Gandharbas (Genii of music), and\nApsarasas (Genii of Dance), and these became the musicians of the Gods,\nbefore man knew of the art. Then Sarisvati, Goddess of Speech and\nOratory, consort of Brahma, at Brahma\u2019s command brought the art to man\nand gave him also his finest musical instrument, the Vina, of which\nhereafter. Music then found a protector in the demi-god Nared, one of\nthe chief Indian musical deities, while Maheda Chrishna helped it along\nby allowing five keys, or modes, to spring from his head (_a la_\nMinerva) in the shape of Nymphs, and his wife Parbuti, added one more;\nthen Brahma added thirty lesser keys, or modes, and all these modes were\nalso Nymphs.\n\nThe Hindoo scale has seven chief tones and these tones are represented\nas so many heavenly sisters.\n\nIn the Indian legends, music is represented as of immense might. All\nmen, all animals, all inanimate nature listened to the singing of Maheda\nand Parbuti with ecstasy.\n\nSome modes were never to be sung by mortals, as they were so fiery that\nthe singer would be consumed by them. In the time of Akber, it is\nrelated, that ruler commanded Naik Gobaul, a famous singer, to sing the\nRaagni[2] of Fire; the poor singer entreated in vain, to be allowed to\nsing a less dangerous strain; then he plunged up to his neck in the\nriver Djumna, and began: he had not finished more than half of his lay\nwhen the water around him began to boil; he paused (at boiling point)\nbut the relentless, or curious Akber, demanded the rest, and with the\nend of the song the singer burst into flames and was consumed. Another\nmelody caused clouds to rise and rain to fall; a female singer is said\nonce to have saved Bengal from famine and drought in this manner.\nAnother lay caused the sun to disappear and night to come at midday, or\nanother could change winter to spring or rain to sunshine. All these\ntypify beautifully the might of music with this race. Of the four chief\ntone systems, two also have divine origin, from Iswara and from Hanuman\n(the Indian Pan), the others come from Bharata Muni who invented the\ndrama with music and dance, and from Calinath.\n\nWhen Chrishna was upon the earth as a shepherd, there were sixteen\nthousand pastoral Nymphs or Shepherdesses who fell in love with\nhim.\u2014They all tried to win his heart by music, and each one sang him a\nsong, and each one sang in a _different key_, (let us hope not all at\nonce). Thence sprang the sixteen thousand keys, which according to\ntradition once existed in India.\n\nIn order that the full extent of Hindoo Musical Mythology may be\nconceived, we will now sketch the tones which are employed.\n\nWe have stated that there are seven chief tones; these tones have short\nmonosyllabic names; as we give to our notes the syllables, _do_, _re_,\n_mi_, etc., the Hindoos call their scale tones _sa_, _ri_, _ga_, _ma_,\n_pa_, _dha_, _ni_, _sa_, which are certainly as easy to vocalise upon as\nour _solfeggi_; in fact the language is very well adapted to music, as\nit has all the softness, elegance and clearness of the Italian. Von\nDalberg says that Sanscrit unites the splendor of the Spanish, the\nstrength of the German, and the singableness of the Italian.\n\nWith the resemblance of seven chief tones, however, the similarity ends,\nfor while our scale has only half tones as smallest interval, the\nHindoos have quarter tones, and not equally distributed either; thus:\n\n whole small half whole whole small half\n tone whole tone tone tone whole tone\n Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa\n \u00bc\u00bc\u00bc\u00bc \u00bc\u00bc\u00bc \u00bc\u00bc \u00bc\u00bc\u00bc\u00bc \u00bc\u00bc\u00bc\u00bc \u00bc\u00bc\u00bc \u00bc\u00bc\n\nIn theory it will be seen that the octave is always a half tone flat,\nbut practically they correct this by singing it on its proper pitch. On\nsix of the above intervals they found their chief modes but they form\nvarious lesser modes on each interval, i. e., they could give ten\ndifferent modes, or scales, starting from C alone.\n\nThese six chief styles, are, of course, six Genii, corresponding to the\nsix Hindoo divisions of the year, these are each married to five Nymphs,\nthe thirty lesser styles; each Genii has eight sons, who are each\nwedded, also to Nymphs, one apiece. There seem to be few celibates in\nHindoo Mythology, therefore an exact census gives to this interesting\nfamily six fathers, thirty mothers, forty-eight sons, forty-eight\ndaughters-in-law, or one hundred thirty-two in all, each of them being\nthe God or Goddess of some particular key, and each of them, of course,\nhaving a distinctive name; we shall not give the various names, but to\nillustrate the relationship among them, the following will suffice; the\nfour 1-4 tones beginning on the fifth tone of the scale, _Panchama_ (or\n_Pa_) are the Nymphs _Malina_, _Chapala_, _Lola_ and _Serveretna_, while\nthe next full tone (_Dha_) is owned by Santa and her sisters; if _Dha_\nshould be flatted 1-4 tone which would give it the same pitch as the\nhighest 1-4 tone of _Pa_, (called Serveretna), the poetical Hindoo would\nnot say \u201c_Dha_ is flat,\u201d but \u201c_Serveretna_ has been introduced to the\nfamily of _Santa_ and her sisters.\u201d[3]\n\nAlthough the musical art of the Hindoos had such an early existence, it\nseems not to have developed or receded much since ancient days; they\npossess airs to which the European ear instantly, and involuntarily\nattaches harmony, (auxiliary voices), and yet they have not the\nslightest craving for harmony. They are completely satisfied to express\nall emotion by melody, sometimes combined with the dance, and yet do not\nfeel the monotony, which would be obviated by additional voices.\n\nBut it must be said that, so far as melody goes, they have great taste\nand discrimination; the music often approaches the European in form and\nrhythm, and the Hindoo seems to feel instinctively the importance of the\ntonic, and dominant, and often finishes the phrases of a melody with a\nhalf cadence.[4]\n\nOf the Hindoo instruments the Vina takes the lead; as before mentioned,\nthey ascribe to it a divine origin; it has four strings and is\nincorrectly defined as a lyre by many commentators, but it is rather a\nguitar than lyre, and is made of a large hollow bamboo pipe, about 3\u00bd\nfeet long, at each end of which are two large hollow gourds, to increase\nthe resonance: it may be roughly compared to a drum major\u2019s _baton_,\nwith a ball at _both_ ends, while the strings extend along the stick; it\nhas a finger-board like a guitar, and the frets are not fastened\npermanently on it, but stuck on by the performer with wax.\n\nThe tone is both full and delicate, sometimes metallic and clear and\nvery pleasant. The music composed for it is usually brilliant and rapid,\nand the Hindoos seem to have their Liszts and Rubinsteins; in the last\ncentury Djivan Shah was known throughout all India as a _virtuoso_, on\nthe Vina.\n\nThey ornament their Vinas sometimes very richly and there are paintings\nof their chief performers, sitting with magnificent Vinas leaning\nagainst their bodies, this being the attitude of the player. They also\nhave possessed from time immemorial, a three-stringed violin, so that\nRaphael and Tintoretto may not have committed an anachronism in painting\nApollo with a violin.[5]\n\nA Guitar called Magoudi, finishes the list of characteristic stringed\ninstruments.\n\nThe instruments of percussion and wind instruments are more numerous.\nThey possess four kinds of drums, and their popular, secular dances are\nusually accompanied by the Vina, for the melody, and drums, bells and\ncymbals.\n\nFlutes they have possessed from remotest antiquity, and a muffled drum\ncalled Tare for funeral occasions, and they also have a double flute\nwith a single mouth piece. We will not dwell further upon their\ninstruments; there is but one, the _Vina_, which is really fitted to\nproduce beautiful music.\n\nThe Hindoos complain that their old music is deteriorating and such\nsingers as Chanan or Dhilcook, two vocal celebrities of the last\ncenturies, have passed away. When one inquires for the miracle-working\nRagas, (improvised songs) in Bengal, the people say there are singers\nprobably left in Cashmere who can give them; and should you inquire in\nCashmere they would send you to Bengal for them, but in reality there\nseems to have been comparatively little change in the style of Hindoo\nmusic from its earliest days.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER II.\n ANCIENT EGYPTIAN.\n\n\nThe ancient Egyptians ascribed the origin of music to opposite causes,\nsome legends giving its invention to beneficent Deities, while other\nlegends are interpreted to give its origin to Satan, the evil principle,\nor at least the principle of sensuality, as represented by the buck\nMendes. Hermes (or Mercury) is accredited with first having observed the\nharmony of the spheres, and the lyre also is represented as being his\ninvention, in the following legend:\n\nA heavy inundation of the Nile had taken place, and when the waters\nreceded, there was left upon the banks a tortoise, who went the way of\nall tortoises, and after a time was completely dried up by the sun; the\ntendons however, which were attached to the shell, remained, and became\ntightly drawn by the expansion of the shell. Hermes, wandering upon the\nbank, accidentally struck his foot against it; the tendons resounded,\nand Hermes thus found a natural lyre.\n\nThis legend is however found also in Hindoo and Greek Mythology, and may\nbe one of those tales, springing from Arian root, which belong to almost\nevery race. We also find an Egyptian Apollo and Muses in other musical\nlegends, according to Diodorus Siculus.\n\n\u201cWhen Osiris was in Ethiopia,\u2014the Egyptian God Osiris was a sort of\nblending of Bacchus and Apollo\u2014he met a troupe of revelling satyrs, and\nbeing a lover of pleasure and taking delight in choruses of music, he\nadmitted them to his already numerous train of musicians. In the midst\nof these satyrs were nine young maidens, skilled in music and divers\nsciences.\u201d\n\nThe Egyptians also considered Horus, brother of Osiris, (equivalent to\nthe Greek Apollo) as God of Harmony.\n\nThus three Gods have the honor of fostering Egyptian music, Osiris,\nHorus, and Hermes.\n\nHermes, or (by his Egyptian name) Thoth, was the especial God of many\nsciences, and is said to have written two books of song, or works\nrelating to the song-art. According to Diodorus, the Lyre which he had\ninvented had three strings, which represented the three seasons of\nEgypt; the deepest string was the wet season, the middle one the growing\nseason, the highest the harvest season: the tones of Egyptian music seem\nto be taken from the seven heavenly planets, as known to the ancients,\nand from this circumstance Ambros hazards the conjecture that the\ndiatonic scale was known to them.\n\nAmong the mythical musical personages of the earliest Egyptian music,\nmay be mentioned Maneros, who was son of the first king of Egypt, who\nsucceeded the second dynasty of demi-gods.\n\nHe seems to be analogous to the Linus, (son of Apollo), of the Greeks;\nhe died young, and the _first_ song of the Egyptian music[6] was in his\nhonor; it was a lament over his untimely end, the swift passing away of\nYouth, Spring, etc. The song was sung under various guises, for Maneros,\nLinus, Adonis, etc., among various ancient nations, and Herodotus was\nsurprised at hearing it in Egypt. But in course of time the song itself,\nand not the king\u2019s son was called Maneros, and gradually diffused its\ninfluence, (the warning of the passing away of Joy) through Egyptian\nsocial life; at their banquets a perfectly painted statue of a _corpse_\nwas borne round and shown to each guest, and there was sung the\nfollowing warning:\n\n \u201cCast your eyes upon this corpse\n You will be like this after Death,\n Therefore drink and be merry now.\u201d[7]\n\nThe song also from being a mournful one, became in time joyous and\nlively,[8] Plutarch thinks that the words Maneros, became synonymous\nwith \u201cGood Health.\u201d The fashion was after the conquest of Egypt,\nimitated in Rome.[9] The ancient Egyptian music was really a twofold\naffair and is well symbolized in being attributed by some to good, by\nothers to evil gods; for it was used in the religious services of the\nhighest gods, (except, according to Strabo, in the services of Osiris,\nat Abydos) and on the other hand was degraded as a pastime for the\nlowest orders.\n\nThe musicians were not held in any respect, and were not allowed to\nchange their occupation, but were obliged to transmit it from father to\nson and were also probably compelled to live in a certain quarter of the\ncities wherein they dwelt.[10]\n\nOf course there were celebrated singers and performers, and also leaders\nof the chants, and royal singers, who were exceptions to the foregoing\nrule, but according to Diodorus Siculus, the Egyptians not only\nconsidered music a useless art, but even a hurtful one, as it enervated\nthe soul and made man effeminate. Yet for all this there are found among\nancient sculptures many representations of singers and musicians\nevidently belonging to the higher classes, though we cannot but believe\nthat these exceptions only prove the rule, and even to-day music is\nconsidered a sensuous and rather unmanly art, by Eastern nations.\n\nAmong the most ancient songs of Egypt there seem to have been little\nrefrains sung by the working classes while at labor; there is here not\nconjecture but absolute certainty, for the words of part of one of these\nsongs are preserved, on an ancient picture of threshers of grain, oxen,\netc.; the threshers sing, according to Champollion\u2019s learned\ndeciphering,\n\n \u201cThresh for yourselves, oh oxen,\n Thresh for yourselves;\n Measures for your masters,\n Measures for yourselves.\u201d\n\nIn a grotto at _El bersheh_ there is also a painting of the\ntransportation of a colossal statue from the quarry, and here also while\none hundred and seventy-two men are laboring at the ropes, one is\nperched upon the statue and is giving the time of a refrain, which all\nare to sing.\n\nThe custom of singing while at work still exists in Egypt, as, for\nexample, sailors sing a particular song when starting on a voyage,\nanother when there is danger of a collision, another when the danger is\npast.\n\nMusic was a chief portion of the Egyptian funeral ceremonies, and on the\nwalls of nearly all the tombs of ancient days, are found paintings of\nthe funeral ceremonies; the greater part of what is known of their\ninstruments comes from this source; the best singers and players were\nengaged for the purpose by the richer classes, and sang mournful chants,\nbeing similar to the professional mourners at present found in the East.\nThe music was probably chiefly melodic, or one-voiced, though this\nsubject has some ambiguity attached to it, our only guide as to their\nmusic being the representations in the tombs, etc., as not a scrap of\nactual music has been left to us; but when we consider the furious\ncontroversy about, and the different interpretations of the fragments of\nGreek music which time has left us, this may be an _advantage_ rather\nthan otherwise. There is one painting[11] left, which seems to confirm\nthe idea that the Egyptians knew something of the effect of harmony.\nThis painting represents two harpers at one side and three flute players\nat the other, while between them are two singers, one of whom seems to\nbe following with his voice the melody of the harpers, while the other\nsings with the flutes; this seems to intimate that the Egyptians\npossessed, at least _two-voiced_ harmony.\n\nChappell, in his admirable History of Music, says that it is\nmathematically impossible, that all of the instruments represented in\ntheir paintings should have been played in unison.\n\nThe music of Egypt was for a long time regulated by the Government, that\nis all innovations were punishable by law; probably this referred only\nto religious music, and did not affect popular music.\n\nIn all ages there seem to have been two distinct schools of music, the\nscientific, and popular. There is no doubt that while the early European\ntheorists held that _only consecutive fifths and fourths_ were musical,\nthe populace had a less forced and more beautiful style, and it is more\nthan probable that in Egypt the popular music was totally different from\nthe sacred.\n\nAll the songs appear to have been accompanied by a clapping of hands,\nand therefore the rhythm was probably strongly marked. The effect of\nthis clapping of hands is by no means unpleasant, and is still used by\nthe negroes of America in some songs and dances, and among various\nbarbarous nations. It seems curious to think, that in witnessing these\nlively dances, one may be beholding a counterpart of the enjoyments of\nfour thousand years ago, or that in witnessing the _pirouettes_ of a\nballet dancer, we are amusing ourselves in the ancient Egyptian manner;\nthe latter fact is proved by ancient paintings, however. Other ancient\nEgyptian dances were similar to the modern jigs, clog dances and\nbreakdowns, as is amply shown by figures found both in Upper and Lower\nEgypt.\n\nThe Egyptians had also dances with regular figures, forward and back,\nswing, etc.; these dances were restricted to the lower orders, the upper\nclasses being forbidden to indulge in them.\n\nIf we could transport ourselves back to Thebes in its days of grandeur,\nwe should be somewhat astonished at the slight change, in comparison\nwith what is usually supposed, from our own times. Imagine the time of a\ngreat religious festival. The Nile is crowded with boats, loaded to\ntheir utmost capacity, with passengers, offerings, etc. Sometimes\nhundreds of thousands came to Thebes or Memphis, and especially to\nBubastis, on such occasions. From each boat is heard playing and\nsinging. Within the city all the streets are full; here march by a troop\nof Pharaoh\u2019s soldiers, all the privates uniformed alike, their marching\nregular, and their drill well attended to; at their head is a military\nband, (picture found at Thebes) of trumpeters, drummers beating the drum\nwith their _hands_, and other performers; along that mighty avenue of\nSphinxes is marching a procession to one of the temples: here also\nmusical instruments, particularly flutes, head the column, and a\nprocessional hymn is being sung, to which the white-robed priests keep\ntime while marching, as they carry the sacred golden barge of the God,\nfull of treasure of various kinds.\n\nHere is passing along, a deputation from some far off tributary prince\nin the heart of \u00c6thiopia, carrying presents for the king, and all around\nis life, bustle, and enjoyment. In some of the temples music is\nsounding, (the temple of Osiris, at Abydos, being the only exception,)\nand the clang of the sistrum is often heard. Truly the life of ancient\nEgypt was as joyous and varied as that of more modern times.\n\nThe sistrum was, until the Napoleonic expedition to Egypt, which gave to\nthe world the wonders of this store house of antiquity, considered the\nrepresentative of Egyptian music. It was merely a short, oval hand frame\nwhich held three or four metal bars; sometimes bells were hung upon\nthese bars, and by shaking the instrument, as a baby shakes a rattle,\nwhich it really in principle resembles, a jingling of the bars or bells\nwas produced.\n\nLatterly it has been thought that the sistrum was not a musical\ninstrument at all; but, like the bell sounded at the elevation of the\nHost in Catholic churches, was used as a means of riveting and\nimpressing the minds of the worshippers. At all events the sistrum takes\nno rank among Egyptian musical instruments. The harp was really the\ninstrument on which they lavished the most attention; paintings, and\nfragments of harps have been found, in the so-called \u201cHarpers\u2019 Tomb,\u201d\nwhich caused Bruce to exclaim that no modern maker could manufacture a\nmore beautiful piece of workmanship.\n\nThe ancient Egyptian harps look very modern indeed, except for the fact\nthat they have no front board or \u201cPole,\u201d and it seems strange that they\ncould bear the tension without its support; the pitch could not have\nbeen at all high. There was a species of harp, of the compass of about\ntwo octaves, with catgut strings, (wire strings the Egyptians had not),\nfound in a tomb hewn in the solid rock at Thebes, so entirely preserved\nthat it was played upon by the discoverer, and gave out its tones _after\nbeing buried 3000 years_. Of course the strings perished after exposure\nto the air.\n\nFetis, to whom musical history owes so much, has here fallen into a\nsingular mistake. He says \u201cit would scarcely be believed that the\nancient Egyptians with whom the cat was a sacred animal, should have\nused _cat-gut_ strings on their instruments, but the fact is proved\nbeyond a doubt.\u201d This is all very true, but M. Fetis seems not to have\nknown the fact that cat-gut has not its origin in the _cat_, but is\nalmost always, in reality _sheep-gut_.\n\nThe list of instruments of ancient Egypt embraces harps of various\nnumbers of strings, Nabla, from which come the Roman _Nablium_ and\nHebrew _Nebel_, a sort of Guitar; Flutes, single and double, (a flute\nplayer often headed the sacred processions, and Isis is said to have\ninvented the flute.) Tambourines and hand drums; sometimes the Egyptians\ndanced to a rhythmic accompaniment of these alone.[12] The flute was\ngenerally played by men, and the tambourines by women. Lyres, of various\nshapes, often played with the hand, but sometimes also with a plectrum,\n(a short, black stick, with which the strings were struck,) trumpets,\ncymbals, and some metal instruments of percussion. There are many\npaintings in which entire orchestras of these instruments are playing\ntogether, but probably all in unison.\n\nThere exists an excellent painting from a Theban tomb,[13] in which we\nsee an Egyptian musical party in a private house. Two principal figures\nare smelling of small nosegays, while two females offer to them\nrefreshments; three females are dancing and singing for the amusement of\nthe guests, who sit around, apparently having a very enjoyable time;\nbelow are seen slaves preparing a banquet, which is to follow the music.\nThe Egyptians often had music before dinner.\n\nAnother application of music is pictured in a very ancient painting,\ngiven by Rosellini,[14] in his great work; in it is seen a woman nursing\nan infant, while a harper and singer are furnishing music, possibly to\nlull the child to sleep; in almost all these paintings the singers are\nrepresented with one hand to their ear in order to catch the pitch of\nthe instruments more readily.\n\nBut the most interesting painting has been copied, in the folios of\nLepsius,[15] from a tomb of great antiquity; it represents a course of\n_musical instruction_ in the department of the singers and players of\nKing Amenhotep IV. (18th Dynasty). We see several large and small rooms,\nconnecting with each other; furniture, musical instruments and\nimplements are seen all around, especially in the small rooms or\nclosets. In the large rooms are the musicians, engaged in practising and\nteaching; one teacher is sitting, listening to the singing of a young\ngirl, while another pupil is accompanying her on the harp; another girl\nstands attentively listening to the teacher\u2019s instructions, (_class\nsystem_ evidently); in another part two girls are practising a dance,\nwhile a harper accompanies; other musicians are variously engaged. In\none room is a young lady having her hair dressed, and in another, a\nyoung miss has leant her harp against the wall, and is sitting down with\na companion to lunch. This certainly gives a fair insight into the music\nlife of old, and we leave Egyptian music, of which _as music_ we know\nnothing, with more satisfaction after this glance at the _Royal Egyptian\nConservatory of Music_.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER III.\n BIBLICAL AND HEBREW.\n\n\nThe earliest scriptural mention of music is in Genesis, Chapter IV.\nwhere Jubal is spoken of as \u201cFather of those who handle the harp and\norgan.\u201d But harp and organ must by no means be confounded with our\nmodern instruments of the same name. The harp was probably an instrument\nof three strings, while all the very ancient references to an organ,\nsimply mean a \u201cSyrinx\u201d or Pan\u2019s pipes. The music of Biblical History is,\nas is almost all the music of ancient nations, combined to a great\nextent with the dance; the dances of the ancients were what to-day would\nbe called pantomimes, expressing joy, sorrow, fear, or anger, by the\nmotions and expressions of face and body, rather than by the feet.\n\nThe real character of the ancient Hebrew music, as well as of many of\nthe musical instruments, is involved in utter obscurity, and no clues to\nenlighten the investigator, remain in the modern music of this usually\nmost conservative of peoples; much of their musical system was borrowed,\nuntil David\u2019s time certainly, from the Egyptians.\n\nThe music of the modern Jews is tinged in almost every instance with the\ncharacter of the music of the people around them; thus the same psalms\nare sung in a different manner by German, Polish, Spanish, or Portuguese\nJews.\n\nOne little trace of their primitive music remains; on the occasion of\ntheir New Year, a ram\u2019s horn is blown, and between the blasts on this\nexcruciating instrument the following phrases are addressed to the\nperformer,\u2014\n\n _Tahkee-oo, Schivoorim, Taru-o._\n\nThese words, which also have a reverential meaning, may possibly at one\ntime have been addressed to the ancient musicians, to give to them the\norder of the music. Strong presumptive proof that this blowing of the\ntrumpet is the same as it was in King David\u2019s time is found in the fact\nthat it is blown in the same rhythm, by the Jews _all over the world_.\nIt certainly requires no forced interpretation to call the Ram\u2019s horn\n(Schofer) one of their early instruments, as it would be their most\nnatural signal-call both in peace and war.\n\nIn all the Jewish theocracy, the music naturally took a theosophical\ncharacter, and is seldom detached from religious rites; we shall find\nthe same spirit running through other of the ancient civilizations, even\nbarbarians seeming to share in the almost universal impulse to praise\nthe Deity with this art, and this should prove to supercilious critics\nthat however ill-sounding the music of other races may appear to our\nears, to _them_ it was a highly considered art, and as such, merits our\nattention.\n\nDavid may be regarded as the real founder of Hebrew music. He must have\npossessed great skill even in his youth, as the instance of his being\nable to soothe Saul\u2019s crazed mind with his music, proves. This may be\nregarded as one of the earliest notices of the effects of music in\nmental disease. What the nature of his inventions and reforms in music\nafterwards were, and how far he remodelled the style which had been\nbrought from Egypt, cannot now be known, as Jerusalem has been pillaged\nnearly twenty times since his reign, and every monument, or inscription\nwhich might solve the enigma, has long been destroyed.\n\nThere are still marks and inflections in the Hebrew Scriptures which are\nevidently intended to show the style in which they were to be chanted.\n\nRegarding the instruments spoken of in Scripture as being used in the\nTemple there is also no certainty. In the Talmud there is mention of an\norgan which had but ten pipes, yet gave one hundred different tones;\nthis instrument is placed about the beginning of the Christian Era, and\nis called _Magrepha_; it is said of it, that its tones were so powerful\nthat when it was played, the people in Jerusalem could not hear each\nother talk. Pfeiffer conjectures that it was probably not an organ, but\na very loud drum. There are other authorities who have endeavored to\nprove that the _Magrepha_ was simply a _fire shovel_; they contend that\nit was used at the sacrifices of the Temple to build up the fire, and\nwas then thrown down, with a loud noise, to inform people outside how\nfar the services had progressed. The reader has liberty to make his own\nchoice, for the authorities are pretty evenly balanced,\u2014_organ_, _drum_,\nor _fire shovel_.\n\nWe must make some allowance for Oriental exaggeration in musical\nmatters, for when Josephus speaks of a performance by 200,000 singers,\n40,000 sistrums, 40,000 harps, and 200,000 trumpets, we must imagine\nthat either Josephus\u2019 tale, or the ears of the Hebrews, were tough. All\nthese statements only enlarge a fruitless field, for in it all is\nconjecture.\n\nThe flute was a favorite instrument both for joy and sorrow: the Talmud\ncontains a saying that \u201cflutes are suited either to the bride or to the\ndead.\u201d\n\nThe performance of all these instruments seems to have been always in\nunison, and often in the most _fortissimo_ style.\n\nCalmet gives a list of Hebrew instruments including viols, trumpets,\ndrums, bells, Pan\u2019s pipes, flutes, cymbals, etc., and it is possible\nthat these have existed among them in a primitive form.\n\nThe abb\u00e9 de la Molette gives the number of the chief Jewish instruments\nas twelve, and states that they borrowed three newer ones from the\nChaldeans, during the Babylonian captivity.\n\nAccording to records of the Rabbins, given by Forkel, the Jews possessed\nin David\u2019s time, thirty-six instruments.\n\nSome of the instruments named in the Scriptures are as\nfollows:\u2014_Kinnor_, usually mentioned in the English translation as a\nharp, so often alluded to in the Psalms, (\u201cPraise the Lord with harp,\u201d\netc., xxxiii:2,) was probably a lyre, or a small harp, of triangular\nshape: that the Hebrews possessed a larger harp is more than probable,\nfor they were in communication with Assyria and Egypt, where the harp,\nin a highly developed state, was the national instrument, but it is a\nmatter of much dispute, as to which of the musical terms used in the\nScriptures was intended to apply to this larger harp.\n\nThe _Nebel_, or _Psaltery_, was a species of Dulcimer.\n\nThe _Asor_;\u2014When David sang of an \u201cinstrument of ten strings,\u201d he\nreferred to the asor, which is supposed to have been a species of lyre,\nwith ten strings, and played with a _plectrum_, a short stick of wood,\nor bone, usually black, with which the strings were struck.\n\nThe _Timbrel_ or _Taboret_, was a small hand drum, or tambourine,\nprobably of varying shapes and sizes; the hand drum was derived from\nEgypt, for it was customary for women to dance in that country entirely\nto the rhythm of drums and tambourines; the military hand drum had the\nshape of a small keg with parchment over the ends; that is to say, the\ndiameter at the middle was greatest.\n\n_The Organ_;\u2014as before stated this was simply a set of pandean pipes.\n\n_Cymbals_;\u2014there seems to be no doubt that the Hebrews possessed various\ninstruments of percussion of divers shapes.\n\n_Trumpets_;\u2014apart from the ram\u2019s horn, and other curved horns which were\ncalled trumpets, there also existed a straight trumpet of more\nartificial construction. \u201cMake thee, two trumpets of silver: of one\npiece shalt thou make them.\u201d Numbers ix:2.\n\nIt is probable that the sistrum, the guitar, and pipes, were also\npossessed by this nation; about nineteen instruments are mentioned in\nthe scriptures, but some of the meanings are so dubious that they have\nbeen translated by the general terms, harp, lute, psaltery, timbrel,\netc.\n\nHow many different opinions are held, upon Hebrew music may be judged\nfrom the fact that the word \u201c_Selah_,\u201d which was probably a musical\nterm, and is found in so many of the psalms, has given rise to the most\nvehement and fruitless controversy. Hesychius says that it means a\ncharge of rhythm, in the chanting; Alberti denies this, as it sometimes\noccurs at the end of a psalm, where certainly no change is possible:\nsome have suggested that it meant a modulation from one key to another;\nForkel, however, thinks that the Hebrews were not so far advanced in the\nscience of music as to understand modulation, but Fetis upsets Forkel by\nremarking that the modulations, though not harmonic, might have been\npurely melodic, by the introduction of tones, foreign to the key, as\noccurs in many eastern melodies.\n\nHerder says also \u201cthe Orientals even of our day, love monotonous chants,\nwhich Europeans find doleful, and which at certain passages or phrases,\nchange totally and abruptly their mode and time: the word _Selah_ was\nwithout doubt an indication of such a change.\u201d The last part of this\nopinion, Fetis sets down as pure hypothesis.\n\nTwo ancient Greek versions of the Old Testament give the meaning of the\nword as \u201cforever,\u201d and as \u201cfor all ages.\u201d\n\nAlberti thinks the word is a recapitulation of the chords of the psalm:\nRosenm\u00fcller proves that this is impossible in some cases.\n\nAugusti thinks it is an expression of joy similar to \u201cHallelujah.\u201d\n\nDavid Kimchi thinks it a sign of elevation of the voice; Mattheson and\nPfeiffer agree in the opinion that it signifies a _ritornella_, or short\nsymphony between the verses, to be played by the instruments alone.\n\nEichhorn thinks it means _Da Capo_, but Rosenm\u00fcller and Gesenius, (the\nlatter treats the matter with great erudition, and his opinion is\nentitled to respect,) both think that it signifies a rest in the song\npart, as we might write _Tacet_.\n\nGesenius has found almost the only corroborative testimony of the whole\ncontroversy in the fact that the grammatical root of the word Selah, is\nrepose, or silence.\n\nLa Borde has boldly, not to say audaciously, given a unique\ninterpretation. He says \u201cDavid invented the art of shading the sounds;\nthe word _Selah_ is equivalent to the Italian word _smorzando_,\nextinguished, dying away.\u201d And then he gives a highly colored picture of\nthe beauty and grace of the effects produced, though all that he proves\nis that he has a little stronger imagination than the others. We must\nalso give the curious opinion of Wolff, who thinks that \u201c_Selah_\u201d has no\nsense whatever, and was only added to fill up the metre of a verse.\n\nSeveral other eminent writers, including Fetis, who gives a full account\nof this war of opinions,[16] decline to hazard an opinion in so dark a\nmatter.\n\nAnother conjectural description of the mode of singing among the ancient\nHebrews, is the commentary of Herder on the song of Deborah and Barak,\nJudges v.; he says, \u201cprobably verses 1-11 were interrupted by the shouts\nof the populace; verses 12-27 were a picture of the battle with a naming\nof the leaders with praise or blame, and mimicking each one as named;\nverses 28-30 were mockery of the triumph of Sissera, and the last verse\nwas given as chorus by the whole people.\u201d\n\nOne cannot fail to observe some resemblance between this music and the\nslave music of some sections of the southern states: in the\ncamp-meetings, and religious services, a tune which is well known to all\nis chosen, and as the spirit moves, often a whole song appropriate to\nthe occasion is improvised. Of some such description must have been\nMiriam\u2019s song, after the downfall of Pharaoh\u2019s host; she probably chose\na tune which was familiar to the people, and improvised, while the\npeople kept the rhythm, or sang refrains.\n\nOf course the element of poetry was immeasurably greater among the\nIsraelites than among the Negroes, but the similarity of improvisation\nand religious fervor is noticeable.\n\nWhen Miriam sang, there was as yet no distinctive style of Hebrew music;\nwe must remember that she had obtained an Egyptian education, and that\nup to David\u2019s time the music was an imitation of the Egyptian school.\n\nThe raptures of some commentators as to the exceeding beauty of the\nmusic of David, are quite safe, for it is easy to affirm where no one\ncan bring rebutting evidence, but if it partook of the loudness of most\nancient and barbarous music,\u2014\u201cPlay skillfully, and with a loud noise,\u201d\nPsalms xxxiii:2\u2014our modern music may after all be some compensation for\nits utter loss and oblivion.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER IV.\n ANCIENT GREEK MUSIC.\n\n\nThe mythology of Greek music is too well known, for us to go into any\ndetails upon the subject; with this people every thing relating to\nmusic, was ennobled and enriched by an applicable legend, or a finely\nconceived poem. In fact music (mousik\u00e9), meant with the Greeks, all the\n\u00e6sthetics, and culture that were used in education of youth, and the\nstrictly _musical_ part of the above training had special names, as\n_harmonia_, etc., to designate it.\n\nThe subject of Greek music has given rise to more commentary and\ndispute, than any other in the entire realm of musical history.\n\nThe mode of notation employed was peculiar; it consisted in placing the\nletters of the alphabet in various positions, straight, sideways, etc.,\nand sometimes even, fragments of letters were used.\n\nThere are in existence but three authentic Greek hymns[17] with music,\nviz: hymn to Calliope, to Apollo, and to Nemesis; there is also in\nexistence, some music to the first eight verses of the first Pythian of\nPindar, which Athanasius Kircher claimed to have discovered in a\nmonastery near Messina, but the best authorities reject this as\nspurious. The copies of the above hymns are not older than the fifteenth\ncentury, and have probably been much perverted by the ignorance, or\nhalf-knowledge of the transcribers, who seeing a fragment of a letter,\nwould restore the whole letter, or change its position, thereby greatly\naltering the character of the music.\n\nTo this fact is to be attributed the dense fog, which has prevented us\nfrom fully understanding the ancient Greek music.\n\nOn this slight foundation however, learned writers have built an edifice\nof erudition which consists of countless volumes of pedantry and\ningenuity, mixed with a large amount of abuse for those who did not\nagree with their solution.\n\nAs we intend to deal, in these articles, more with curious musical facts\nthan with musical systems, we will dismiss this branch of the subject\nentirely by referring the reader to the best representative works of\nthis monument of research, which are Chappell\u2019s History of Music, vol.\nI., Ambros\u2019 Geschichte der Musik, vol. I., pp. 218-513, Fetis\u2019 Histoire\nGenerale de la Musique, vol. III., pp. 1-418. Kiesewetter, and Drieberg\nalso have written profoundly on the subject. These will give the\ndifferent opinions held in the matter.\n\nThe _scale_ of the Greeks, is however, definitely known, and was similar\nto our minor scale, although it contained no sharp seventh. Play on any\npianoforte the notes, A B C D E F G, and you have played the Greek one\noctave diatonic scale.\n\nThe nomenclature was however different, and some commentators have\nforgotten to explain the fact, that what the Greeks called the _highest\nnote_, meant the longest string of the instrument, and consequently the\n_lowest_ tone.\n\nAnother fact which has given rise to much controversy is the pitch of\nthe lyre or phorminx; it seems that the mode of tuning this instrument\nvaried in Greece at different epochs, and even in different localities\nat the same epoch.[18]\n\nThe word harmony (harmonik\u0113) has also been misunderstood, as it does not\nmean harmony in our sense of the word, but the arrangement and rhythm of\na melody. Whether the Greeks understood harmony or not, in the modern\nsense, has been the chief cause of the before-mentioned \u201cBattle of the\nBooks.\u201d\n\nThe lowest note of the scale was called Proslambanomenos, and had not\nthe importance of the middle note, called Mese, which really became the\nprincipal note of the scale.\n\nThe Greek music practically, was very like our present minor modes, and\nthe singing of some young Greek of two thousand years ago, would\nprobably have sounded pleasantly to modern ears.\n\nThe earliest Greek scale had but four tones, and was probably used to\naccompany hymns. It might still suffice for many church chants.[19]\nPeople seldom think how much music can be manufactured from three or\nfour notes; Rousseau gave a practical illustration of it in the last\ncentury, by writing a not very monotonous tune, on three notes. But an\ninstrument founded on so few notes might also have been used to give the\npitch to the voice in reciting, or half-singing a poem. We must remember\nthat the poems of Greece were chanted in public; and even in modern\ndays, orators pitch their voices higher than in conversation, when\naddressing an assembly.\n\nEarly Grecian music experienced its first real onward movement, when\nEgypt was thrown open to foreigners. Up to the reign of Psammetichus I.,\n(664 B. C.) Egypt was closed to aliens, exactly as China has been closed\nin days not long gone by. Psammetichus first opened his kingdom to the\nGreeks, and Pythagoras learned enough in Egypt to greatly change the\ncharacter of Greek music. Though some Greek writers with an excess of\nzeal, have made the statement that he taught the Egyptians, by bringing\nto them the seven-stringed lyre. Considering the fact that the Egyptians\nhad as many as twenty-two strings, the claim is rather audacious.\n\nBut what placed the Greeks in advance of all other ancient nations, in\nmusic, was the fact that they early recognized its rank as a _fine art_.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER V.\n THE PUBLIC GAMES OF GREECE.\n\n\nThe public games of Greece in which music and musical contests were a\nfeature, gave to the art a decided impetus, for when competition began,\nmusical study must have preceded.\n\nThe Olympic games were celebrated at Olympia every fifth year, in July,\nand lasted five days. They were dedicated to Zeus (Jupiter), and were\nestablished (according to some re-established, having existed in\nMythical ages) by Iphitos, king of Elis, in the ninth century before the\nChristian era.\n\nFor a long time none but Grecians were allowed to compete in them. If\nthere existed internal war in Greece at the time, an armistice was\neffected during the games. The contestants were trained for ten months\nprevious to the contest. The prizes awarded to the victors were wreaths\nof wild olive twigs, cut from a sacred tree which grew in the\nconsecrated grove of Olympia, and the victors were presented to the\nspectators, while a herald proclaimed the name of each, his father, and\nhis country.\n\nThe first day opened with a sacrifice to Zeus, after which a contest of\ntrumpeters took place. This contest was not regularly instituted until\n396 B. C., but after that period it was not interrupted. There are still\nannals left of the most celebrated contestants; Archias of Hybla, gained\nthe prize for three successive Olympiads; and Athen\u00e6us says that\nHerodorus of Megara, a most famous trumpeter, gained the prize _ten\ntimes in succession_. Pollux says he gained _seventeen_ victories, which\nis well-nigh incredible, but both agree in saying that this remarkable\nperformer was in one year crowned in the four great sacred games, the\nOlympian, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian. His music was so loud that the\naudience were sometimes stunned by the concussion. Other anecdotes of\nthis wonderful trumpeter remain. He was of giant stature, and slept upon\na bear skin, in imitation of Hercules and the lion skin. He could play\nupon two trumpets at the same time, and when he did so, the audience had\nto sit farther away than usual, on account of the immense sound. His\nperformances were of great use in military affairs. Once at the siege of\nArgos, the troops were giving way when Herodorus began to sound his two\ntrumpets, which so inspired the warriors of Demetrius, that they\nreturned to the fight and won the victory.\n\nThe trumpet cannot really be classed among Grecian musical instruments,\nas it was rather a signal than any thing else. It was blown when heralds\nmade any proclamation, in military movements, etc., and seems to have\nbeen appreciated only by the loudness with which it was blown.\n\nIt was also frequently played at the Olympic games during the\nhorse-races, to inspirit the animals.[20]\n\nIn fact at the public games the music had a most noisy character, and\ntrumpeters were proud of bursting a blood vessel, or otherwise injuring\nthemselves by excess of zeal.\n\nThe contest of trumpeters was the only musical (?) one of these games,\nthough flute-playing took place on the fourth day, when according to\nKrause,[21] the _pentathlon_ took place. This was a set of five athletic\ngames; leaping, running, throwing spear, throwing _discus_, and\nwrestling. Here flute-playing also served to animate the contestants.\nThe flutes too, considering the purpose for which they were used, must\nhave been played in a violent manner.\n\nHarmonides, a young flute-player, on his first appearance at the games\nwishing to _astonish_ the audience, began by giving such a tremendous\nblast on his instrument, that he expired on the spot, probably having\nburst a blood vessel, and having literally blown himself out with his\nfirst note. The audience was probably astonished.\n\nThe sacred games next in importance, were the Pythian. These games were\nat first celebrated by the Delphians, every ninth year, but about 590 B.\nC., the Amphyctions (another Grecian tribe) obtained the control of\nthem, and instituted them every fifth year. They took place on a plain\nnear Delphi, and were in honor of Apollo, commemorating his victory over\nthe serpent Python; the good principle defeating the evil principle, as\nin Egyptian, and most other mythologies. Pindar\u2019s odes have celebrated\nthe victories at some of these games. Being dedicated to Apollo, it was\nbut natural that music, (under this head, the Greeks understood most of\nthe accomplishments of the muses,) should play the most important part.\n\nReligious poems were chanted, with an accompaniment upon the lyre or\nphorminx. The first poet-musicians who gained the prize were\nChrysothemis,[22] Philammon, an earlier poet-musician than Homer, and\nThamyris. According to Pausanius, all these singers were probably\npriests of Apollo. The Amphyctions first established prizes for songs\nwith flute accompaniment, and for flute _solos_. Cephallon obtained a\nprize for songs accompanied by Kithara, a small lyre, and Echembrotus\none for songs with flute, while Sacadas of Argos took the prize three\nconsecutive times for his flute solos. After him came Pythocritus of\nSicyon, who won the prize at these games six consecutive times, which\ncovers an interval of _thirty years_ of triumphs.\n\nAthletic sports also were introduced later. The prizes were, as at\nOlympia, wreaths only.\n\nThe use of the flute both as solo instrument, and as accompaniment, was\nhowever, soon abolished, it being used as funeral music, and for dirge\nplaying among the Amphyctions, and therefore having too many melancholy\nassociations to allow of its use in these festive games. Finally _solos_\non the small lyre (kithara) were allowed prizes.\n\nIt is said that at one of these contests a flute player gained the prize\nin a singular manner. He was playing the straight flute, when the reed\nin the mouth-piece became closed by accident, on which he instantly\nchanged the position of his instrument, and played it as an _oblique_\nflute; his presence of mind was rewarded, by winning the prize.\n\nThe Nemean games were commemorative of the slaying of the Nemean lion,\nby Hercules. There was no musical contest in the games, but flutes were\nused, to stimulate the athletes, and were probably allowed prizes.\n\nThe Isthmian games celebrated upon the Isthmus of Corinth, whence their\nname, were similar to the Nemean; music not being of any importance in\nthem.\n\nIn Chios there has been found a stone on which the names of the victors\nin the musical contests are inscribed. From it we learn that prizes were\ngiven for reading music at sight, rhapsodizing, accompanying the voice\nwith a small harp played with the hand, and accompanying with kithara\nplayed partially with the fingers of the left hand, and partially with a\n_plectrum_ held in the right hand.\n\nThe lesser games of Greece were also not inconsiderable. The great\nfestival of Athens was the Panathen\u00e6a, held in honor of Athene the\npatron goddess of the city. It was established according to tradition,\nabout 1521 B. C., and was at first intended for the citizens of Athens\nonly. It took place about the middle of July.\n\nAt the later Panathen\u00e6a, the people of all Attica used to attend. There\nseem to have been two divisions of this festival, a greater and lesser\nPanathen\u00e6a, the former being celebrated every four years, the latter\nevery year. The lesser Panathen\u00e6a consisted of recitations, gymnastics,\nmusical competitions, and a torch race in the evening, the whole\nconcluding with the sacrifice of an ox. The greater, was even more\nextensive. The Homeric poems were sung, dramatic representation took\nplace, magnificient processions marched to the temple of Athene Polias,\nand the whole city was full of mirth and gayety. The prizes were jars of\noil made from the sacred tree on the Acropolis.\n\nPericles, (fifth century B. C.,) gave to music a greater prominence than\never before in these games, by erecting a structure especially for\nmusical entertainments and contests, the Odeum, in the street of the\nTripod; this edifice was very well adapted in its acoustical properties,\nfor according to Plutarch\u2019s description, the roof was dome-shaped, or\nnearly so, and vast audiences could hear solos distinctly.\n\nIn Sparta, in the month of August (Carneios) there were celebrated the\ngreat Carneian games, which lasted nine days. In these games musical\ncontests also took place, and dances of men, youths, and maidens, as\nwell as gymnastic exercises. Sparta also had a special building for\nmusical purposes. Theodore of Samos erected the Skias, a building for\nmusical uses, in the market place. Sparta was in fact, the cradle of\nGrecian music.\n\nIn the early days, songs were learned and transmitted down, from mouth\nto mouth. Homer\u2019s poems were preserved in this manner for five hundred\nyears. In Sparta however, they first began to crystallize into form and\nregularity. Yet strange to say, Sparta gave birth to no musicians of\neminence, even though she was so long the arbiter, and director of\nGrecian musical taste.[23]\n\nTerpander of Lesbos, one of the founders of Greek music, came early to\nSparta. He is reported to have gained the prize at the first musical\ncontest of the Carneian games, B. C. 676, and is said to have studied in\nEgypt, but he certainly could not have done so before his first advent\nin Sparta, for Egypt was at that date still closed to foreigners, and\nhad even guards set to prevent the landing of strangers by the sea.[24]\n\nTerpander gained the Pythian crown four times in succession, and was the\nmost famous poet-musician of his time. His fame spread through all\nGreece, but it was especially in Sparta that he won renown, for his\nhigh, manly and earnest strains awoke a sturdy and manly response in the\nbosoms of the rugged Spartans. It is probable however that at the first\nvisit to Sparta, his songs were not so powerful. At that time, (676 B.\nC.) he probably sang chiefly the poems of Homer. We say _sang_, but it\nis not even sure that they had, what we should call a tune, attached to\nthem; they were possibly recited in a musical pitch of voice, which\ncould not be called even a chant.\n\nThere was at this time, little music among the Spartans, and that of\nrather martial, or else of religious character; as for example we learn\nthat the Spartans marched into battle to the sound of many kitharas, as\ndid also the Cretans, and it was supposed to have been in honor of the\nGods, that they did so; though Thucydides, more practically, says that\nit was only that they might move forward regularly and in time. On\nTerpander\u2019s second visit to Sparta, he changed the entire mode of\nSpartan music, and enlarged it. The return happened in this wise:\u2014\n\nAt the beginning of the second Messenian war Sparta was in great\nperplexity. Messenia by alliances with other tribes threatened\ndestruction from without. Within all was dissension; agriculture\nprostrate, antagonism between those who had lost their lands through the\nwars and those who possessed them, a demand for a new distribution of\nland, and prospective anarchy. At this juncture, the Oracle of Delphi\nwas consulted, and gave reply that \u201cdiscord would be quelled in Sparta\nwhen the sound of Terpander\u2019s harp was heard there,\u201d and told the\nSpartans, also to call the counsellor from Athens. So Terpander was sent\nfor, and also the counsellor Tyrtaeus from Athens.\n\nThe effect of Terpander\u2019s songs upon the populace on this occasion is\ndescribed as something remarkable; men burst into tears, enemies\nembraced each other, and all internal dissension was at an end.[25]\n\nIt is recorded therefore, that Terpander with his harp had quelled all\ndissension in Sparta, but by this anecdote we may see that in what the\nancient Greeks called music, the words really played the most important\npart. To show this yet more clearly, we will here give an instance from\nlater Athenian history where the same power was exerted for a similar\npurpose. A war between Athens and Megara, for the possession of the\nisland of Salamis, had resulted in such continued disaster to Athens,\nthat the Athenians had left the island to its fate, and it was forbidden\nupon penalty of death to broach the subject to the public again. Solon\nhowever, attired himself as a messenger from the island to the\nAthenians, and in this character sang a song which roused such a martial\nspirit, that on the instant a large body of volunteers was formed, who,\nunder Solon, effected its reconquest.\n\nTerpander and Tyrt\u00e6us composed most of their songs in march rhythm, and\nafter this the Spartans sang hymns, while marching into battle to the\nsound of many kitharas, which were afterwards displaced by the more\npenetrating flute.\n\nTerpander also composed love songs, and banquet songs as well as nomes\nor hymns, and his choruses were sung at all Spartan festivals and\nsacrifices, they were taught to Spartan youths and maidens, and all\nseemed to vie in doing him honor. He had really helped the music of\nGreece to a higher plane, for it is said that he enlarged the lyre or\nphorminx from four strings, to seven, and also made improvements in the\nscale.\n\nContemporary with this poet-musician was Olympus, who must not however\nbe confounded with an Olympus who lived six hundred years previously,\nthat is, about 1250 B. C. Plato says that the music of Olympus was\nespecially adapted to animate the hearers. Plutarch says that it\nsurpassed in simplicity and effect, all other music. He is said to have\ncomposed the air which caused Alexander to seize his arms, when it was\nsung to him; according to Aristotle his music filled all hearers with\nenthusiasm. Much relating to Olympus must however be relegated to the\nland of myths. It has even been doubted whether he ever really existed,\nthough that is carrying scepticism too far.\n\nAmong the other characters which existed on the borderland of Greek\nmusical history, may be mentioned Polynestos, and Alcman who brought to\nSparta in its full glow, the love song, (Lydian measure). Alcman seems\nto have been easily aroused to sing of female beauty, and composed some\nchoruses especially for the\n\n \u201cHoney-voiced, lovely singing maidens,\u201d\n\nwhich were sung by female voices only.\n\nThe fragments which remain of Alcman\u2019s verses do not justify the immense\nfame which he seems to have enjoyed in Greece. Alcman was preceded by\nThaletas of Crete, who was sent for by the Spartans 620 B. C. to sing to\nthe Gods, in order that Sparta might be freed from a severe plague,\nwhich was then ravaging the state. The plague ceased, and Thaletas for a\ntime stood at the head of all Spartan music. That country as above\nmentioned, either would not, or could not encourage home talent.\n\nSacadas of Argos came soon after with a yet more luxurious style, and\nintroduced the flute as an accompaniment to chorus music.\n\nTo this foggy period of history, also belongs Tisias of Himera, who made\nan indelible impression on Greek music. He was the first who regulated\nthe motions of the chorus, and who reduced chorus singing to a settled\nsystem; from the fact that at one period of the song, (the _epode_, or\n_finale_) he made the chorus stand quiet, instead of dancing he received\nthe nickname of \u201cStesichorus.\u201d In some of the works of Stesichorus, one\ncan easily see the germ of the choruses of \u00c6schylus or Sophocles.[26]\n\nIf in the ancient Grecian music, the composer, poet, and performer seem\nto be spoken of in common, the reader must recollect that in those days,\n_all three_ branches of the art were united in one individual. It will\nalso aid some readers, if we define here what the functions of the Greek\nchorus were. In the earliest days, the whole chorus simply sang refrains\nafter the solo of some cultivated singer; gradually whole compositions\nwere entrusted to their charge. Pantomimic action probably always\nexisted in connection with their songs, as with almost all ancient\nsinging. Stesichorus first gave them different historical or\nmythological subjects to act, in a dramatic manner. At a later epoch the\nchorus entered in a peculiar manner into the action of the drama. They\nstood upon the stage as interested spectators of the various events;\nthey advised the Protagonist or only individual character[27] as to his\ncourse of action, and when some startling incident, a murder for\nexample, had taken place, they would strongly express their feelings,\nhorror, dismay or fear, and thereby intensify the effect upon the\naudience.\n\nAn imitation of the Greek chorus may be found in Schiller\u2019s \u201cBride of\nMessina.\u201d\n\nStesichorus was deservedly honored as the founder of Greek chorus music,\nand a statue was erected to his memory. Among those next following his\nera we find Ibycus, a poet-musician attached to the court of Polycrates,\ntyrant of Samos. This mighty sea king and despot had a considerable\nliking for music; for we learn also that he kept a choir of beautiful\nboys, whose duty it was to sing sweet Lydian melodies during his meals.\nAbout 580-70 B. C. Alc\u00e6us and Sappho became leaders in Grecian musical\nculture, or poetry, for the two are inseparable. The two poets seem to\nhave formed a mutual friendship. Of Sappho we have remaining an ode to\nAphrodite which makes it a matter of regret that the remains of her\npoetry are so fragmentary.[28] At Mytilene she seems to have gathered\naround her a large and elegant circle, composed entirely of females to\nwhom she taught poetry and music; in fact her house must have been a\nmusical university for her list of scholars embraces names from all\nparts of Greece. Ottfried M\u00fcller[29] compares her life, surrounded by\nall these fair followers, with that of Socrates surrounded by the flower\nof Athenian youth.\n\nSappho\u2019s career is the more wonderful from the fact, that among the\nancient Greeks, the entire mission of woman was supposed to consist in\nrearing her family, attending to the first education of her sons, who at\nan early age passed into the hands of their teachers, teaching\nhousewife\u2019s duties to her daughters, and attending to them herself;\naccording to Pericles, that woman was most to be prized of whom no one\nspoke, either in praise or blame.\n\nSappho\u2019s poetry had great effect even on the rough character of Solon,\nthe law giver; hearing for the first time one of her songs, which his\nnephew sang to him, he vehemently expressed the wish that he might not\ndie before he had committed to memory so beautiful a song.\n\nSappho\u2019s name is almost the only female one in the whole realm of\nancient Greek music, which was pure, noble, and uncontaminated.\nLatterly, even her character has been assailed, but the accusation has\nbeen refuted by Herr Welcker, of Bonn, (in the _Rheinisches Museum_,)\nOttfried M\u00fcller and other learned writers. After her, music as practiced\nby the female sex, was handed over to the most degraded, (the _Hetarae_)\nand seems to have borrowed from Egypt many lowering qualities,[30]\nincluding dancing girls and ribald songs.\n\nAnacreon of Teos, introduced into Greece the light, airy songs, in\npraise of woman, wine, etc., \u201cIt is no great stretch of fancy,\u201d says a\nthoughtful writer,[31] \u201cto imagine his songs as expressing our modern\n_Allegretto Grazioso_, _Andante Scherzoso_, etc.\u201d\n\nFrom precisely this point however (the lack of signs of expression in\nall Greek music) another writer[32] deduces the opinion that Greek music\nmust always have been in a crude state, and by no means of the beauty\nwhich some enthusiasts ascribe to it.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER VI.\n THE PHILOSOPHERS, AND GREEK SOCIAL MUSIC.\n\n\nFrom the sixth century B. C., music may date its entrance into the\npositive sciences, for Pythagoras, born about 570 B. C., first began to\nanalyze music from a scientific point of view, and to ascertain how far\nit rested upon natural laws. Pythagoras is said to have been the son of\na wealthy merchant. He was as before mentioned, one of the earliest\nGreeks in Egypt, and after having been instructed for some time by the\npriests, had at last the honor of being admitted into the Egyptian\ncollege of priesthood.\n\nAfter remaining in Egypt twenty-two years, he spent some time among the\nChaldeans, and at last returned, full of wisdom, to his native Samos.\nBut here the sensuality of the court of Polycrates was so little to his\ntaste, that he departed to the city of Croton in southern Italy, where\nhe founded the order of Pythagoreans.\n\nWith the order itself, we have little to do, but when we consider that\nits founder was the pioneer of scientific musical research, its\nproceedings become in some degree interesting.\n\n\u201cAll is number and harmony\u201d was the fundamental maxim of this\nphilosopher,[33] and he sought for the laws in music, therefore, in\nnature. This led to some mistakes of course, for the laws of nature had\nnot been made clear enough for thorough guidance, in that era. It is\nsaid that Pythagoras one day, passing by a blacksmith\u2019s shop heard the\nblows of different hammers sound the fundamental, fourth, fifth, and\noctave, and entering, he weighed the different hammers, thereby\nobtaining the proportion of these intervals to each other.\n\nThis story has been proved to be a silly myth, for the proportions given\nare wrong. He should have weighed the anvils not the hammers, and anvils\nof such difference in size as would be requisite to produce these\nintervals would not be seen in blacksmiths\u2019 shops.\n\nPythagoras taught that not the ear, but mathematics, should be the guide\nin music. He held that the universe was constructed on a musical plan,\nand was probably the first to introduce among the Greeks the theory of\nthe music of the spheres. The fact that man could not hear this\nmusic,[34] was explained by the statement that the sounds were either\ntoo deep or too high for our ears. The reasoning was plausible enough,\nand has been confirmed by science, for sounds of less than sixteen\nvibrations in a second are inaudible on account of their depth, and\nthose exceeding 38,100 vibrations in a second are too high for the human\near to perceive.[35] Starting from this premise Pythagoras formed a\nscale founded on the seven planets, as known to the astronomers of that\ntime. This was its form:\n\n Moon. Mercury. Venus. Sun. Mars. Jupiter. Saturn.\n E F G A B C D\n\nThe sun was Mese, the controlling middle note, around which all the\nothers circled.\n\nThe order of Pythagoreans were held together by the firmest ties, and\nPythagoras has been, not inaptly, compared in this capacity with\nIgnatius Loyola. His adherents, who numbered about three hundred were,\nin most cases, wealthy and noble, and the power of the society was\nalways upon the side of aristocracy.\n\nPythagoras was very select in the admission of members, exercising great\nvigilance lest improper or undesirable persons should be allowed to\nenter; in this he was guided not a little by his skill in Physiognomy.\nThe initiates had, it is said, to pass through a most rigorous and\nlengthy period of probation, they were obliged to maintain silence for\nfive years,[36] and in other ways had their powers of endurance,\nseverely tested. After entering the brotherhood,[37] the mode of life\nwas entirely dictated by Pythagoras. The members were clothed in pure\nwhite. They were forbidden all animal food, and beans. They had\ndifferent grades of advancement among themselves, the highest being\nundoubtedly instructed in a purer religion than that which obtained\naround them, though outwardly they conformed with the religion of the\npopulace. Mathematics, music, and astronomy were studied, and gymnastics\nregularly practised.\n\nPlaying upon the lyre was obligatory, and none of the order went to\nsleep at night, without having previously purified his soul, and set it\nin harmony through music; and at rising in the morning, the strength for\nthe day\u2019s labors and duties, was sought for in the same manner.\nPythagoras wrote many songs as correctives to undue excitement and\npassion; he is said once to have brought to reason a young man beside\nhimself with jealousy and wine, by the power of a song.\n\nClinias, a Pythagorean, took up his harp and played whenever any passion\narose in his breast; to a person who asked him the reason of the action,\nhe replied, \u201cI play to compose myself.\u201d\n\nWhile the music of Terpander, Olympus, etc., was intended for high state\nand religious purposes, that of Pythagoras was intended to bring the art\ninto domestic and inner life. Choruses were, however, also chanted by\nhis followers, and were adapted to various occasions, as for example, at\nthe opening of Spring, the scholars would gather in a circle around the\nharper, who played the accompaniment, and sing p\u00e6ans of welcome to the\nopening season. Other philosophers also allowed music to enter into\ntheir teachings, though not to so great a degree, but almost all of them\nunderstood enough of music to form an opinion.\n\nPlato seemed decidedly to object to instrumental music, for he says \u201cthe\nusing of instruments without the voice is barbarism and\ncharlatanry.\u201d[38]\n\nAristotle was disposed to allow more freedom, for he spoke of music as a\ndelicious pleasure, either alone (instrumental) or accompanied with\nvoice; but in instrumental solos he admitted the lyre and kithara only,\nand rejected the flute, which he thought not to be a moral instrument,\nand only capable of inflaming the passions.\n\nThe philosophers as a class were really not very advantageous to musical\nprogress, for they fought tooth and nail for the old school of music.\n\nThey sought only moral effects by the means of great simplicity, and any\nintricate innovations displeased them; but in spite of their resistance\nthe art began to improve.\n\nThe Skolion, or banquet song had a great influence on the music of\nAthens. At the banquet, or symposium, the harp was passed from hand to\nhand, and each person who made any pretence to education or good\nbreeding was expected to be able to improvise or at least to sing a good\n_skolion_.\n\nThere was certainly in the time of Pericles, music enough to choose\nfrom, for there is much evidence that the Athenians of that day\npossessed an extensive library of music;[39] and it was in this era, the\nearly part of the fifth century B. C., that the social music reached its\nheight.\n\nThemistocles once being present at a banquet had the harp (kithara)\npresented to him, and was desired to sing his _skolion_; full of\nconfusion and shame he was obliged to acknowledge his ignorance of\nmusic, and we can judge of the value in which the art was held, by the\nsneers and jests which were pointed at him. At last stung to the quick\nby the sharp witticisms, he retorted, \u201cit is true I do not know how to\nplay the kithara, but I know how to raise an insignificant city to a\nposition of glory.\u201d\n\nThe _skolion_ was a really poetical and worthy song, and must not be\nconfounded with those lower and vulgar songs which were sung to the\nguests by hired jesters and buffoons.[40]\n\nThe subjects of the _skolion_ were sometimes of rather a lofty style;\npraise of heroes,[41] calls to the gods, rules of life, often joyous,\nsometimes sedate; but in all of them a less exact rhythm and style were\nallowed than in other compositions. A few have been preserved to our\nday; one begins, \u201cmy kingdom is my spear and sword,\u201d another composed by\nChilon contains the following beautiful thought; \u201cGold is rubbed upon\nthe touchstone, and thus is tested, but the soul of man is tested by the\ngold, if it be good or evil.\u201d But the kithara, although used in the\n_skolion_, was not the only instrument of the fashionable young men of\nancient Athens, for the flute found great favor among them; in fact\nflute playing grew to be quite a mania for a time. It was part of the\nmusical education of youth. Most of the teachers of the instrument came\nfrom B\u0153otia.\n\nFlute players of ability were held in high honor; the art of flute\nplaying received such an impetus that different flute schools were\nestablished in Athens; even rival methods of playing and teaching\nexisted.[42]\n\nFlutes were played in almost every place where music was required, to\naccompany hymns, at worship, and even sometimes the Greeks represented\nthe combat of Apollo and the Python on this instrument, with kithara\naccompaniment; this may be considered as the earliest \u201csong without\nwords\u201d in existence.\n\nThe ancients had some other attempts at tone pictures. Once an Athenian\nkitharist played to Dorian, a representation of a storm at sea; on being\nasked how he liked it, that ancient wit answered, \u201cI have seen a better\nstorm in a pot of boiling water.\u201d This would make the origin of the\nphrase \u201ca tempest in a teapot,\u201d over two-thousand years old.\n\nSometimes all Athens was divided into cliques for this or that flute\nplayer; and the price paid for flutes were appalling, some being sold as\nhigh as three thousand dollars, many flute-makers becoming immensely\nwealthy.\n\nIt received a slight check however, when Alcibiades, about 409 B. C.,\ndeclined to play it, alleging as a reason, that it spoilt the shape of\nthe mouth. Alcibiades stood at the head of the fashion as well as of the\nstate, and after such a _dictum_ the _beau monde_ of Athens laid aside\nthe flute; but some ingenious flute maker took alarm, and invented a\nmouth-piece which obviated the difficulty, and which Alcibiades found\nmore to his taste, on which it resumed its place in popular favor.\n\nIn Sparta it led the chorus, and was the military instrument, but the\nSpartans disdained to make it a study, and only felt bound, at this era,\nto discriminate between good and bad music.\n\nIn some Ionian cities, the human victims were led to the sacrifice, or\nto their execution to the sound of flutes; and this dead march (called\nthe Nome of Kradias) was said to be peculiarly depressing.\n\nPlutarch makes a warm defence of the flute, against the criticisms of\nPlato and Aristotle. \u201cThe flute\u201d he says \u201ccannot be spared from the\nbanquet, leads the hymns to the gods, and with its rich and full tones\nspreads peace and tranquillity throughout the soul;\u201d but we must\nremember that this was written at a much later epoch, when flute playing\nbecame more universal than in the days of Pericles, and when the\ninstrument had probably been altered and improved.\n\nFlute players sometimes made large fortunes. Nicomachus was known for\nhis wealth in jewels acquired by his skill on the instrument.\n\nLamia was one of the most famous of Athenian flutists. This female was\ncelebrated through Greece and Egypt for her skill, as well as for her\nwit and beauty. The latter was not overrated, for a portrait of her has\nbeen discovered in a signet, which amply confirms the accounts of her\ncharms. Although born in Athens, she went early to Alexandria, in Egypt,\nto study her art; somewhat as our modern musicians go to Italy or\nGermany. She was received with open arms at the Egyptian court, and was\ndetained for a long time. Captured by Demetrius Polyorcetes, she soon\nsucceeded in conquering her conqueror, and on her return to Athens, a\ntemple was built to her, and she was worshipped under the name of _Venus\nLamia_. Her powerful \u201cfriend\u201d Demetrius, may have had something to do\nwith this deification, but at all events, there were still left some\nGreeks (Lysimachus for example) who had the manliness to protest against\nthe desecration, for the character of Lamia was far different from that\nof Sappho.\n\nIt was not flute players only who earned immense salaries, for we learn\nthat Amab\u0153us the kitharist, received nearly one thousand dollars for\neach performance, and all flute-players, and kitharists, were welcomed\nand honored at the courts of Greece, Egypt and Asia.\n\nPtolemy Philadelphus gave a large musical festival in Alexandria, Egypt,\nabout 280 B. C., at which six hundred skilled singers, kitharists and\nflutists assisted; there have been larger festivals in point of numbers\nin ancient times, but few, where so much educated talent assisted.\nPtolemy Physcon[43], an amiable Egyptian ruler, 146 B. C., who married\nhis brother\u2019s wife, killed his baby nephew, or step-son on the wedding\nday and afterwards married his niece, or step-daughter (for he made the\nrelationship very mixed) winding up by killing all the progeny as\n_finale_, seems to have patronized and enjoyed music, in spite of his\nfamily troubles.\n\nPtolemy Auletes, 80 B. C., was known as the \u201cflute lover,\u201d and though\nking of Egypt was yet a very skilful virtuoso on this instrument.\n\nWe must not omit here to mention a species of Greek music which was an\noutgrowth of the sacred games.\n\nWe have already stated how great the honor of achieving a victory at\nthese games was considered; and it was very natural that when a whole\ncity celebrated with joy the triumph of one of its sons, the poets would\nalso sing in high strains, the praises of the successful hero. These\npoems soon became a necessary adjunct to the festivities, and may be\nsaid to form a school of their own. They were chanted by a chorus under\nthe direction of the composer; and although at first they may have been\nspontaneous, yet afterwards they became entirely a matter of purchase.\n\nWhen a young man had carried off the victor\u2019s wreath, he would\nfrequently send word at once to some famous poet-musician, to write a\nchorus in his honor. Sometimes the city itself would order the poem, and\nin Athens about 540 B. C., statues began to be erected to the victors\nwho were natives of that city.[44] Simonides, born about 556 B. C., may\nbe regarded as the founder of this style of composition, and he\ncertainly was the founder of the custom of receiving pay for laudatory\nverses.\n\nHis contemporaries sneered greatly at him for this, and Pindar proves\nhim to have been very avaricious, but it really seems to have been no\nmore than just that the poet should have been compensated for his\nexertions, as he not only had to write the poetry and music for the\noccasion, but also to drill the chorus and lead the singing.\n\nThe ceremony of praise to the victor was either celebrated at the\nconclusion of the games, upon the spot, or upon his return home;\nsometimes also in after years, to keep alive the remembrance of past\ntriumphs.\n\nThe festivities were both religious and social. They began with a\nprocession to the temple, after which sacrifices were offered, either in\nthe temple, or in the victor\u2019s house; this was followed by a banquet, to\nwhich came the poet with his chorus, and intoned the triumphal ode, the\nlatter being considered the greatest event of the occasion.[45]\n\nSimonides seems to have been in the market for all kinds of Epinikia, or\ntriumphal odes. Leophron of Rhegion, having won a race with mules at one\nof these games, ordered a chorus on the subject from the poet; Simonides\nfelt a little indignant at the proposal and replied, curtly \u201cI don\u2019t\nsing about mules,\u201d but Leophron being very anxious in the matter,\noffered a large price, upon which Simonides reconsidered his\ndetermination, and wrote the ode. It began by saluting the mules in an\ningenious manner, only noticing one side of their ancestry,\u2014\u201cHail! oh ye\ndaughters of the stormy footed horse.\u201d\n\nSimonides was not wholly, however, in this lower line of poetry; he\noften competed in public musical, or poetical contests, and won\nfifty-six oxen and tripods by such means. Even at eighty years of age he\nadded another to his lengthy list of victories. He was also considered\nas very learned, and was sometimes reckoned among the philosophers.\n\nOne of his chief competitors at Athens, was Lasus of Hermione, who was a\npractical and theoretical musician of some eminence.\n\nAmong the works of Lasus, there are some which are curiously\nconstructed. In his hymn to Diana, and in the Centaurs, the letter S\n(sigma) is entirely avoided. The flute-players who accompanied the\nchoruses greatly disliked the hissing sound of S. as it did not blend\neasily with their playing, and it was this fact which probably led Lasus\nto so curious a style of poetry.\n\nAmong the scholars of Lasus was Pindar, (born in the spring of 522 B.\nC.,) who came from a noble Theban family. Pindar\u2019s parents were musical,\nand there were several flute-players in his family, but he soon became\nfar more than a mere flute-player. He came to Athens, to study music, at\na very early age, for after his return to Thebes he began a further\ncourse of studies under Corinna and Myrtis, two famous poetesses, then\nin B\u0153otia, all of which was done before his twentieth year.\n\nHe strove in public contests with the two latter, but always\nunsuccessfully; Corinna defeated him five times, which result, Pausanius\nthinks, may have been partly due to her personal charms.\n\nCorinna once offered to beautify Pindar\u2019s early efforts with\nmythological allusions, but on his bringing her a poem, the first six\nverses of which touched on every part of Theban Mythology, she smiled\nand said: \u201cOne must sow seed by handsfull, not by bagsfull.\u201d\n\nPindar\u2019s poetic career began very early, for at twenty years old he\nwrote his first Epinikion (triumphal ode), in honor of a youth of the\ntribe of Aleuads.[46] His services were soon sought for throughout all\nHellas; for although he imitated Simonides in writing for hire, yet his\nmuse was unquestionably a nobler one, and his _Epinikia_ bear an air of\nheartiness which seems to be unfeigned. His songs were bolder and truer,\nand not altogether composed of flattery, and he seems to have been an\neye-witness of many of the triumphs which he describes.\n\nHe also was engaged as poet to Hiero, of Syracuse, Alexander, (son of\nAmyntas of Macedonia,) Theron of Agrigentum, Arcesilaus, King of Cyrene,\nand for several free states; with the two former he was an especial\nfavorite, and yet his position never seemed that of a parasite, or a\ncourtier, for he told them the truth bluntly when occasion demanded. His\nlife was chiefly spent in the courts of his various royal friends. He\nonce resided at the court of Hiero, at Syracuse, for the space of four\nyears.\n\nHe died at the advanced age of eighty years.\n\nThe names of Simonides and Pindar may be considered as the greatest in\nthis branch of Greek music and poetry; and although the subjects were of\nlocal interest only, yet Pindar has invested them with such beautiful\nimagery that he has shown us (to alter the phrase of an ancient,) that\nit is better to be a great man in a small art, than a small man in a\ngreat one.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER VII.\n GREEK THEATRE AND CHORUS.\n\n\nAmong the many institutions which contributed to that polished\ncivilization which was the glory of ancient Greece, none were higher in\naspirations, or more prolific in results, than the Tragedies and\nComedies which were at certain intervals presented in the Theatre at\nAthens. The Athenians were by this agency, brought to a cultivated\ndiscrimination in music and poetry, and as we shall see later, the\nchoruses being chosen from the body of the people, and demanding an\namount of musical ability in the members, caused the study of music to\nbecome almost a necessity to all.[47]\n\nIn its early days the Drama, (if it be worthy of the name,) must have\nbeen a mere masquerading on any raised platform. It had its origin in\nthe festivities of Dionysius (Bacchus), for at the earliest Dionysian\nfestivals, the populace smeared their faces in wine lees, and thus\ndisguised, sang choruses in honor of this god of mirth.\n\nIn later times, linen masks were substituted, but only in the days of\nThespis, did the art assume some regular shape.\n\nComedy may be said to have arisen about 562 B. C., when Susarion and\nDolon travelled around, caricaturing the vices and follies of their\ntime, from a rude scaffold.\n\nThe first Tragedy was acted in Athens, by Thespis, from a wagon, in the\nyear 535 B. C. In the same year Thespis received a goat as reward for\nplaying \u201cAlcestis\u201d at Athens. Goats were frequently given as rewards for\nthis kind of composition, and the word Tragedy is derived by some, from\nthe words Tragos, a goat, Od\u00e9, a song, literally a \u201cgoat-song.\u201d\n\nThe earliest attempt at dramatic action, with a plot, or incident to\ngive it connection, was the representation of the gift of the grape to\nmankind, by Dionysius; this required three _dramatis personae_,\ntherefore Thespis changed his linen mask three times.\n\nSolon was not well pleased with the new art; striking his stick upon the\nground he said: \u201cIf this sort of thing were allowed and praised, it\nwould soon be found in the market-place;\u201d and to Thespis who was singing\na recitation in the character which he was acting, he said: \u201cAre you not\nashamed to lie so?\u201d\n\nSolon had probably forgotten that when he aroused the Athenians to the\nreconquest of Salamis, he had assumed the character of a herald from the\nisland. Solon had predicted right however, the drama became the most\ncherished institution of Greece; even in its earliest stages, the state\nfostered it, and it always attracted the peons for it was both a\nreligious, and popular enjoyment.\n\nThe sons of Pisistratus did much in these days to encourage and\nstimulate it. They arranged contests, rewards, etc., with profusion.\n\nThe tragedies of Thespis which he both wrote and acted himself, had but\none performer, who, rapidly changing his mask, assumed various different\ncharacters in the play. The monotony was soon felt, and in order that\ndialogues might be used, a chorus was introduced, and then much of the\naction consisted of duets between the solitary performer, or\n_protagonist_, and the chorus.\n\nPhrynicus, a few years later, allowed this single actor to take both\nmale and female characters; but the first thorough representation of\ntragedy, with its properties carefully attended to, is due to the great\ntragic poet \u00c6schylus, who instructed the actor and the chorus carefully,\nand gave attention to thoroughness in its every department so far as\nthen known.\n\nThe platform and auditorium were still uncouth wooden structures, until\na poetical contest took place between Phrynicus and others, when the\nbenches were so crowded that the whole structure gave way and many were\ninjured; after this the theatres were built of stone.\n\nThe performances were still regarded as belonging to religious rites;\nthe seats were at first built in a semi-circle around the altar of\nDionysius, and the theatre never became, as with us, an every-day\nmatter, but was only used at certain Dionysian festivals, which occurred\nabout three times each year. \u00c6schylus aimed very much at the terrible in\nhis tragedies, and the poets of this era never sought to \u201chold the\nmirror up to nature,\u201d but rather to represent something awe-inspiring\nand supernatural; therefore the actors had to prepare themselves in many\npeculiar ways for the stage.\n\nThe characters of tragedy were represented as much larger than human\nbeings; to effect this the tragedian wore a kind of stilt-shoes with\nvery high heels, called _cothurne_, padded out his body in proportion to\nhis height, lengthened his arms by adding an artificial hand, and wore a\nmask of large size, over his face. The stage upon which he appeared, was\nalso elevated above that on which the chorus stood, and the latter not\nbeing artificially enlarged, must have appeared as pigmies, beside these\ngigantic heroes.\n\nThe voice was pitched in a style corresponding to the magnitude of the\nbody; it has been suggested[48] that the large tragic mask may have\nconcealed some contrivance for strengthening the voice; however this may\nbe, it is certain that the voice of the tragedian needed to be metallic,\nsolemn and majestic, and that this, though partly a natural gift, had to\nbe strengthened by long and severe practice, and a vast amount of\nphysical strength was also required to move about naturally when so\nextremely bundled up.\n\nLucian in his \u201c_De saltatione_,\u201d ridicules the tragic actor\u2019s equipment.\nHe says: \u201cWhat a ridiculous thing it is, to see a fellow stalking around\nupon a pair of high heeled boots, with a terrible mask on, and a wide\ngaping mouth, as if he intended to swallow the audience,[49] not to\nmention the unseemly thickness of breast and body, all of which is done\nto hide the disproportion between his extravagant height, and his meagre\nbody. Bawling aloud, and writhing his body in a thousand odd gestures;\u201d\nand then he alludes to the better singing and acting of previous time,\n\u201cbut all sense of fitness is lost,\u201d he concludes, \u201cwhen Hercules enters\nsinging a mournful ditty, without either lion\u2019s skin or club.\u201d\n\nWith regard to the immovable mask, Ottfried M\u00fcller supposes that the\npicture is overdrawn, for facial expression had far less to do with the\naction of the drama of that day than we imagine; the character had not\nso many changing emotions to depict, as in modern plays; he says[50] \u201cwe\ncan imagine an Orestes, or a Medea, with a set countenance, but never a\nHamlet or Tasso.\u201d\n\nWe must also remember that the vast extent of the Athenian Theatre, made\nit next to impossible to distinguish much play of feature, and that the\nsame masks were not worn throughout the play, but changed at any great\nchange of emotion. Oedipus in the tragedy by Sophocles, after\nmisfortunes came upon him, wore a different mask from the one worn in\nhis days of prosperity.\n\nThe first plays represented were relative to the history of the gods,\nand demi-gods, but Phrynicus made a bold innovation by representing\ncontemporaneous events upon the stage. He once ventured to represent the\nconquest of Miletus, from the Athenians; the effect, according to\nHerodotus, was startling, the whole audience burst into tears, and the\nAthenian government forbade any further plays on that subject,\nprohibited the piece from ever being represented again, and fined the\npoet heavily.\n\nThe contests between rival writers, by simultaneous production of their\npieces was a fruitful source of jealousy. \u00c6chylus upon being vanquished\nin one of these by Sophocles, took his defeat so much to heart, that he\nleft Athens for some years, and took up his residence in Sicily.\n\nIn the plays of Thespis and Phrynicus, one actor only was employed;\n\u00c6chylus enriched his works by adding a second performer, called the\n_Deuteragonist_. Sophocles went beyond by adding the third, or\n_Tritagonist_, and desired even more, for in his Oedipus in Colonus, he\nfound that four players were a necessity, and wrote the tragedy for that\nnumber, but dared not publicly make the innovation, and therefore this\ngreat work remained unperformed until after his death.\n\nThe above mentioned three performers, had their distinct lines of duty,\nas we to-day have upon the stage, actors for each kind of character, but\nthe distinction was carried to great height on the ancient stage, for\nthe first actor always came on the stage from the right entrance, the\nsecond from the left, and the third from the centre.\n\nThe stage of the Athenian theatre was very wide but not deep, and the\nscenery was very simple; sometimes the house of the chief character was\nrepresented, sometimes the tent of a hero, but oftenest the entrance of\na palace, before which the entire action of some dramas could take\nplace. They were always exterior views, and no scenes of the interior\nparts of a dwelling were ever used. The whole active life of the Greek\nwas passed in the open air, so that it seemed more natural to him to\nrepresent his characters as living similarly. The female characters were\noften personated by boys.\n\nThere were many expedients to make the following of the action of the\nplay easier to the spectators, in such a vast space; programmes they had\nnot, opera glasses did not exist, so certain formulae took the place of\nboth; when standing on the stage of the Athenian theatre, and facing the\naudience, the harbor and city of Athens were on the left hand, and\nAttica on the right; a person entering from the right hand, was\ntherefore presumed to be a stranger who had come over land; and from the\nleft as coming from the city.\n\nThe stage also possessed some mechanical effects, such as chariots\ndescending from the skies, birds or even immense beetles soaring aloft\ncarrying persons with them, forms arising from the deep, thunder,\nlightning, etc. The chorus was an immense help to the audience in\nfollowing the events of the piece, and we must now describe this\ncharacteristic part of Greek tragedy.\n\nThe dramatic chorus probably appeared first as Satyrs, the natural\nattendants of the jolly god Dionysius, in the plays of Thespis, and were\nthen numerous and ill disciplined.\n\n\u00c6chylus lessened the part of the chorus in his tragedies, and they no\nlonger sang an unceasing duet with the Protagonist, for the addition of\na second actor, made dialogues possible without their assistance.\n\nThe number of _Choryeutes_ (chorus players) in \u00c6chylus\u2019s tragedies was\ntwelve; Sophocles, and Euripides had usually fifteen.\n\nIn the tragedy of the \u201cEumenides\u201d there was a special chorus of fifty\nmembers; these were apparelled as the hideous furies of that name, all\nin black, with angry countenances, snakes twining in their hair, and\nblood dripping from their eyes; and suddenly these frightful apparitions\nappeared on the stage: the effect was terrible, women shrieked, and fell\nin convulsions, and several children died of fright. This event proves\nthat the stage effects were rather realistic in those days.\n\nThe chorus was felt as an inconvenience by Euripides, who yet could not\nbreak the shackles of custom sufficiently to do away with it.\n\nThe arrangement of the chorus was changed when it was transplanted from\nlyric to dramatic use. The dithyrambic chorus stood around an altar\nsinging hymns, and was wholly occupied with its music: the dramatic\nchorus stood in the shape of a square, the director taking good care to\nplace the best dressed and handsomest choryeutes in front.\n\nThe songs were accompanied with well regulated movements, usually of a\nstately and dignified character, such as befitted the characters which\nthey were representing, the parts which they performed usually being\nthose of Matrons or Patriarchs, who were best suited to give counsel,\ncomfort, or admonition to the acting characters of the drama.\n\nThe formation of choruses, was a matter of legislation. The archon of\nthe city, gave the task of forming the choruses, to some of the wealthy\ncitizens, who had the title of _Choregus_. This person was not the\nchorus leader, but the founder of it. He had authority from the archon\nto receive and select able singers; when he had the organization formed,\nhe engaged a _choryphaeus_ or director, to instruct the members in\nsinging and dancing; he engaged flute-players[51] to accompany them, and\npaid a regular salary to them all, that of the flute-players being\nhigher than that of the singers. He had to board and lodge them; to\nsupply them with good beverages during rehearsals; to see that they\nreceived nutritious food, and such as was good for their voices; to\nsupply them with masks, and costumes for their parts, and other duties\nall tending to the well being of the chorus. The choregus received no\npay for this, but if in a dramatic contest his chorus was adjudged to be\nthe best, he received a wreath as a reward.\n\nExpensive as this honor was, yet it was sought after by all the richer\nclass of Athens, as it was an ostentatious manner of showing their\nmunificence, for the tragic choruses vied with each other in the\nsplendor of their attire, their costumes being superb mantles of gold,\nand purple. So costly was it that the saying became a well known jest,\nthat the way to ruin a man, was to get him appointed choregus.\n\nThe costume of the actors was also rich, without much reference to the\npart they were playing. Hercules came on the stage in purple and gold\ninstead of with a lion\u2019s skin.\n\nThe poet who had just completed a tragedy, and succeeded in obtaining a\nhearing for it, applied to the Archon for a chorus; that functionary, if\nhe had confidence in the applicant, would assign him one of the choruses\nwhich had already been formed and on receiving the permission from the\n_choregus_, the composer would set to work, drilling them in their\nvarious songs, attitudes, and movements. The director did not use a\nstick for this purpose, as in modern days, but beat the time with a\nheavy pair of iron shoes which he put on for the purpose.[52] The chorus\nof comedy was a less expensive and smaller affair. The music which it\nsang was also less difficult and grand.\n\nThe comedy chorus consisted of twenty-four members, who came on the\nstage in detachments of six each.\n\nThe comedy costumes of both actors and chorus were something like what\nwe are accustomed to see in farce or pantomime; there was something\ncomical and exaggerated about them, which occasioned mirth of itself.\nThe masks were decidedly comic, and usually caricatured the countenance\nof some public person well known to the audience. The comedy, especially\nin the older days that of Aristophanes sought to teach the people by\nholding up to ridicule, all such persons or measures as seemed to the\npoet worthy of censure; therefore it dealt almost exclusively with the\nevents of the day, and such characters as Alcibiades, Socrates, Cleon,\netc., are constantly appearing, and in the most mirth-provoking manner.\n\nIt is a matter of regret, however, that Aristophanes wielded so much\ninfluence, for he brought it to bear against Socrates, whom he was\nnarrow-minded enough to take as the representative of Sophistry, and\nraised a popular feeling against him by his comedy of \u201cThe Clouds,\u201d in\nwhich he attributed the most interested motives to that grand\nphilosopher.\n\nIt is unfortunate for Cleon that the caricature of Aristophanes was\naccepted as a portrait, and he has come down to us only as the noisy\nimpudent demagogue, as portrayed in \u201cThe Knights;\u201d yet Cleon must have\nbeen a rough and sturdy leader of the populace, to have attained so much\npower.[53]\n\nAristophanes was aristocratic in his tendencies, and could not forgive\nthe tanner, for having risen from his humble sphere.\n\nIt required much courage however to attack the leader of the democracy,\nwith such boldness. Even the mask makers refused to make the comic mask\nof Cleon; and when the mask was obtained no actor dared to play the\ncharacter, so that Aristophanes was obliged to act it himself. Cleon\nembroiled Aristophanes in three lawsuits in consequence of his audacity.\n\nThe choruses of these comedies had sometimes to assume very odd parts,\nas in the two comedies of the \u201cBirds,\u201d and the \u201cWasps,\u201d where they\nrepresented those creatures. The masks were made to correspond to the\ncharacter assumed, and in \u201cThe Wasps\u201d each man had a short spear or\nsting, which they sometimes thrust out, or drew in, and the whole chorus\nwould sometimes move about quickly with a buzzing noise. The wasps were\na satire upon the swarm of Athenian magistrates.[54]\n\nOne is forcibly reminded in these plays of the recent inventions of the\nFrench _Opera Bouffe_.\n\nIn the later comedies, private intrigues began to form the plot, and\nthere was no great difference between these and the plays of modern\ntimes.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER VII.\n THE DANCES OF ANCIENT GREECE.\n\n\nThe dances of Greece were of considerable variety, and seem to have been\nboth refined and coarse in their character. The earliest were probable\nmerely military man\u0153uvres, which were performed to songs, or to\naccompaniment of flute or kithara: or festival dances at the\nBacchanalian or Dionysian revels. The chief dances may be classed as the\nPyrrhic, the Cordax, and the Emmeleia.\n\nThe chorus itself, in very early times, was, in some parts of Greece\nonly used to heighten the effect of a solo song, by its pantomimic\ndancing.\n\nIn Crete, youths and maidens joined hands and danced in a circle; in the\ncentre of such a circle sat the musician, who sang to the accompaniment\nof a kithara, while the chorus expressed by their actions, _not by\nsinging_, the various emotions which he chanted.\n\nThe Pyrrhic, or war dance, was the pride of all Greece, and all young\nmen studied it.\n\nIn Sparta there was a law that all parents should send their sons, above\nthe age of five years, to the public place, to have them instructed in\nthe armed dance; on these occasions they were led by the teachers who\nmade them sing hymns, etc., as they danced. The Pyrrhic was in fact, a\nmock battle, in four parts, representing the pursuit, overtaking,\ncombat, and capture of the enemy, and was used as drill, to make young\nmen proficient in the use of their weapons; it was accompanied by flute,\nwhich instrument was the one which the Greeks thought aroused the\nenergies most.\n\nThe origin of the Pyrrhic is given as follows,\u2014When Zeus, (Jupiter) was\nborn, his father Kronos, (Saturn) knowing that he should be dethroned by\nhim sought his life; he was hidden by the Corybantes, who on Kronos\u2019\ncoming near, fearing that the child would be discovered by its crying,\nbegan to dance about, and clashed their swords and shields, thus\ndrowning its voice and saving its life.\n\nDancing was equal, and often combined, with singing, and was held in the\nhighest estimation by the upper classes, and even the philosophers of\nancient Greece; though of course only in its higher branches, the lower\nbeing usually abandoned to paid performers, as we to-day draw a wide\ndistinction between a fashionable ball-room dance, and a ballet, though\nboth are called dancing.\n\nSkill in dancing, was a most envied accomplishment, for it meant both\ngrace, and the talent of expressing all emotions without words.\n\nLucian[55] says the real art of the dance is to express an action, and\ngives a long list of mythological and historical deeds which were suited\nto representation. \u201cThe dancer\u201d he says \u201cmust understand history,\nmythology, rhetoric,\u201d etc.\n\nOne person performed the whole dance, no matter how many characters were\nincluded in the action, and therefore he had to change his dress\nsometimes with much rapidity. The Proteus of the fables, is imagined to\nhave been only a dancer skilled in sudden changes.\n\nThe philosophers not only praised, but practised the art. Plato led a\nchorus of dancing boys; and considered those to be rough, uncouth churls\nwho disliked so pleasant a gift of the gods.[56]\n\nAlcibiades danced in public, arrayed in great splendor. Sophocles was a\ncelebrated dancer, and leader of dancing; while yet a boy, after the\nGreek victory at Salamis, he is said to have danced (according to some,\nnaked) before the trophies.\n\nSocrates often entertained his guests with dancing, and studied it\nhimself at an advanced age.[57]\n\nExact information respecting the dance is lacking, some commentators\ndeeming it to have been very like our modern ballet, others maintaining\nthat there was a vast difference; Czerwinski and Wieland hold the former\nopinion, and to all appearance justly. Some erudite writers have\nendeavored to give the most circumstantial accounts of the ancient\nmanner of dancing.\n\nMeibomius, one of the earliest writers on this subject, endeavored to\ndance an ancient Greek dance to an ancient Greek tune, before the court\nof Sweden, and Scaliger in the sixteenth century danced the Pyrrhic\ndance fully armed, before the Emperor Maximilian;[58] both assumed far\ntoo much knowledge in the matter.\n\nThere were undoubtedly numerous dancing schools, and possibly also some\nset figures prescribed in certain dances, but these figures had no names\nattached to them, and cannot be determined with certainty. The time was\nmarked as in chorus, by a leader, tapping on the floor with heavy iron\nshoes. There are indications that a dance similar to the Virginia reel,\nand other contra dances were known to them; also a dance which resembled\nthe game of \u201cfollow-my-leader,\u201d where all imitated the postures and\ngestures of a leader.\n\nMany variations were allowed; Cleisthenes having promised the hand of\nhis daughter to the most successful dancer among her lovers,\nHippoclides, of Athens, tried an innovation on the usual style; having\ndanced the Emmeleia, or tragic dance successfully, he ordered the\nattendants to bring him a table, upon which he sprang, and standing on\nhis head gesticulated with _his legs_. Cleisthenes indignant at this new\ndeparture, exclaimed \u201cOh son of Tisander you have undanced your\nmarriage;\u201d Cleisthenes caring more for his skill than for his marriage,\nreplied \u201cthat is perfectly immaterial to me.\u201d\n\nThe Emmeleia, was the stately dance belonging to tragedy, and was the\none most practised by the poets of that time, as they were often obliged\nto teach it to the chorus, thus adding the business of dancing master,\nto their already numerous duties.\n\nThe Sicinis was a dance of demi-gods, and was suited to the immense\nfigure of the heroes of tragedy, already described. There was also a\ndance representing Theseus wandering about in the labyrinth, the figures\nof which must have been very twisted and irregular.\n\nThere was a species of dancing at banquets and revels, by paid female\nperformers, at which the shape and form of the dancer were as lavishly\ndisplayed as in the modern ballet.[59]\n\nThe Cordax, or comic dance was throughout vulgar and unseemly, and no\nAthenian could dance it unmasked, without bringing down upon himself the\nreproach of the greatest impudence and immodesty. It was so outrageous\nthat the comic poets often tried to do without it. Aristophanes, in \u201cThe\nClouds\u201d prides himself that he does not use it in that comedy. The\n_cordax_ was a dance wherein the utmost vulgarity was not only allowed\nbut _demanded_.[60]\n\nLucian in his treatise \u201c_de Saltatione_\u201d intimates the existence of\nvarious other dances which in his day had fallen into desuetude, as the\ndance of the _Cranes_; also the Phrygian dance, which was only to be\ndanced when the performers were drunk, and jumped about, with uncouth\nirregular leaps to the music of the flute.\n\nLucian also gives a specimen of the raillery of the people, when the\ndancer was not suited to the part; when a small person undertook to act\nHector, they would call out, \u201cwe want Hector, not Astyanax.\u201d To a fat\ndancer, on making a leap they called \u201cbe careful, you\u2019ll break the\nstage;\u201d and to a lean, sickly looking dancer they cried \u201cgo home, and\nnurse yourself, never mind dancing.\u201d Such little remarks are not\nunsuited to the _gamins_ of the New York or London theatres.\n\nWe have dwelt rather long upon Greek Music, Theatre Chorus, and Dancing,\nbut the subject has more than usual interest, as in the Greek art, of\nall descriptions, we find the seeds from whence has sprung our own.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER VIII.\n ANCIENT ROMAN MUSIC.\n\n\nArt-love was not a distinguishing characteristic of the ancient Romans,\nand we are not astonished therefore, to find them borrowing music from\nEtruria, Greece, and Egypt; originating nothing, and (although the study\nwas pursued by the Emperors) never finding anything higher in its\npractice than a sensuous gratification.\n\nIn the earliest days of Rome, the inhabitants were exclusively farmers,\nor warriors, and their first temples were raised to Ceres, or to Mars.\n\nThe priests of Ceres came originally from Asia Minor, and were called\nthe Arval Brotherhood; flute-playing was a prominent feature in their\nrites, and they were all proficient upon that instrument. Their number\nwas limited to twelve.\n\nThe worship of Mars was conducted by the Salian priests, whom Numa\nsummoned to Rome, from Etruria. These also used the flute as an\naccessory to their sacrificial rites. In these primitive days of Rome,\nmuch was borrowed from the Etruscans, in style and instruments of music.\n\nThe earliest songs of Rome were in praise of Romulus, and told the story\nof the twin brothers, and the divine origin of the city. They were sung\nby choruses of boys. Similar songs were sung during meals by the elders,\nwith an accompaniment of flutes; these latter songs being especially\ndirected to the young men and inciting them to be worthy of the deeds of\ntheir ancestors.[61]\n\nUnder the rule of the Emperors, all these worthy compositions went to\ndecay, and were replaced by a much more degrading school of music. At no\ntime, however, was music considered a necessary part of the education of\nRoman youth.\n\nThere existed in the later days of ancient Rome, some music schools, but\nthe study was far less universally pursued, than in Greece, at the same\nepoch. The musical course, has been given by Quintilian, as follows,\u2014\n\n Theoretical\n 1st\n Arithmetic\n Physics\n 2nd\n Harmony\n Rhythm\n Metrics\n Practical\n Composition\n Rhythm\n Melody\n Poetry\n Execution\n Playing Instruments\n Singing\n Dramatic Action\n\nWhich makes a rather formidable array, even to modern eyes.\n\nAmong the Roman musical instruments, the flute was the most popular, and\nessentially national. We have already stated, that it was used in the\nworship of their two chief deities; it was in secular use to a yet\ngreater extent.\n\nThis flute (Tibia) was hooped with brass bands, and had an immense\nresonance. It was used by both sexes, but in public, and on most\nreligious occasions, was played by men.\n\nThe frequency with which it was used, made the art of playing it, a most\nremunerative one, and the flute-players soon formed themselves into a\nguild, or protective society. This guild had many privileges accorded to\nit, and existed for a period of some centuries. The \u201cGuild of Dionysian\nArtists\u201d was a society of later date, and was a Musical Conservatory,\nAcademy, and Agency all in one. It flourished greatly under the\npatronage of various Roman Emperors, and for a long time supplied\nsingers and actors to the Roman world.\n\nValerius Maximus[62] has given an anecdote which shows how powerful, and\nexacting the Guild of flute-players could afford to be.\n\nThey were one day excluded from the Temple of Jupiter, where they had\nbeen allowed, by ancient custom, to take their meals; upon which the\nentire Guild left Rome, and went to the village of Tibur near by. This\ncaused great embarrassment, no religious services could be held, and\nscarce any state ceremony properly conducted. The senate thereupon sent\nan embassy to induce them to return; in vain, the angry musicians were\ninflexible. The wily embassadors then called the inhabitants of Tibur to\ntheir aid, and these pretended to give a great feast, to welcome the\nflute-players. At this feast, the musicians were all made very drunk,\nand while asleep from the effects of their liquor, they were bundled\ninto chariots and driven back to Rome, where all their old privileges\nwere restored, and newer, and greater ones added.\n\nThey received the right to give public representations, and spectacles,\nin Rome; but at these they were always masked, the reason given, being\ntheir shame at the manner of their inglorious return to the city.\n\nFlutes were used at funerals, and it appears that at one time the luxury\nand pomp of Roman obsequies grew so excessive that a law was passed\nlimiting the number of flute-players on such occasions to ten.\n\nOnly at one time did the flute disappear from any public worship, and\nthat was when the worship of Bacchus was introduced into Rome. To this\nrite the kithara was used; but this worship which was somewhat refined,\nthough jovial, among the Greeks, became among the Romans so debauched\nand uxorious, that it was soon prohibited by law.\n\nThe flute was used in combination with other instruments at times.\nApuleius speaks of a concert of flutes, kitharas and chorus, and\nmentioned its deliciously sweet effect. It was also used as a pitch\npipe, to give orators a guide in modulating their voices when addressing\nan assembly; thus Caius Gracchus always on such occasions, had a slave\nbehind him, whose duty it was to aid him to commence his orations in a\nproper pitch, and when his voice sank too low, or became too shrill, to\ncall him to better intonation by the sounds of the flute.\n\nAlthough the flute was the favorite Roman instrument, it was by no means\nthe only one. Trumpets were used to a great extent. A one-toned trumpet\nof very loud voice, was used for battle signals. These were of very\nlarge size, usually of brass, and their sound is described as\n\u201cterrible.\u201d There was also a smaller, shepherd\u2019s trumpet of mellower\ntone.\n\nAnother much used instrument, of peculiar character, was the\n_sumphonium_ which did not differ materially from the modern\nbag-pipe.[63]\n\nInstruments of percussion, were few, and not indigenous to the Romans;\nsuch as were used came from the East, and were chiefly used in the\nworship of Eastern deities, at Rome. When the worship of Bacchus was\nprohibited, they passed away, with that licentious rite. The most\ncomplicated instrument of the ancient world, appeared in Rome during the\nfirst century of our era. It was an _Organ_, not as in the scriptural\ndays a mere syrinx, or Pans-pipes, but an undoubted organ somewhat\nsimilar in its effect to our modern instrument.\n\nThe instrument is said to have been invented by Ctesebius of Alexandria,\nin Egypt, who lived about 250 B. C. They did not appear extensively in\nRome however, until nearly 300 years later. This organ has given rise to\nmuch fruitless discussion. In the field of musical history especially,\n\u201ca little knowledge\u201d has proved \u201ca dangerous thing,\u201d for where slight\ndescriptions exist of instruments or music, latitude is left for every\nwriter to form his own theory, to fight for it, and denunciate those who\ndiffer from it.\n\nWe have seen what a battle was fought over the three little manuscripts\nof Greek music, what a host of differing opinions were held about the\nScriptural word \u201cSelah,\u201d and now about this hydraulic organ, each writer\nmounts his hobby horse, and careers over the field of conjecture.\nVitruvius, has given a full description of the instrument from personal\ninspection, but as his technical terms have lost all significance to\nmodern readers, and have been translated in various ways, and as his\nwork contained no diagrams, or illustrations of the various parts, it is\nuseless.\n\nSome writers[64] imagine the organ to have had seven or eight stops,\nthat is, so many different _kinds_ of tones, which would place them\nnearly on a par with our own. Others[65] think that they possessed seven\nor eight _keys_, that is so many _tones_ only. It has been a point of\ndispute as to what function the water performed in working it. Vitruvius\nis rather hazy on this point, saying only that it is \u201csuspended\u201d in the\ninstrument. The water, when the organ was played was in a state of\nagitation, as if boiling.\n\nThere are medals still in existence, which were awarded to victors in\norgan contests, on which this instrument is represented, with two boys\nblowing or pumping, but the representation is too small to clear up any\ndoubtful points.\n\nSo much is certain, the organs were very powerful in tone, being\ntherefore the instruments best adapted to the large amphitheatres of\nRome, and were extremely popular, for it was complained that young men\nforsook their other studies to learn to play them. The only possibility\nyet remaining that their construction may be known to us, is in the\nchance of discovering one in Pompeii.[66]\n\nThe functions of music in Rome were similar, though in a less degree, to\nits uses in Greece. At the sacrifice, the banquet, the contest, and the\ntheatre, music was always an important adjunct. Prophets sometimes\ninspired themselves by it, as in the east.\n\nThere were various games, public and private, at which competition in\nmusic took place. But it was not, as in Greece, an art of simplicity and\nfeeling; the love of the extraordinary, the colossal and _outre_, the\ndesire for the most vulgar modes and excess of obscenity, soon degraded\nthe art from the rude simplicity it possessed in the days of the\nrepublic.[67]\n\nThis desire for colossal effects was apparent in the Roman games. Seneca\nsays that in Nero\u2019s time, the chorus was more numerous than formerly the\nwhole audience. Hosts of trumpeters, flute-players, etc., crowded the\nstage. It is also well illustrated in the splendor of the Triumph.\n\nTriumphs were of two kinds, the lesser of which was called _Ovatio_, and\nwas decreed for unimportant or easily-gained victories.\n\nThe grand Triumph (for important victories) was the highest military\nhonor that could be bestowed.\n\nWhen it had been decreed by the Senate, the victorious General entered\nRome by the triumphal gate, where he was met by a procession of the\nentire Senate; here he gave an oration in praise of the valor of his\narmy, and entering his triumphal chariot, the procession began. The\norder was as follows:\u2014\n\nMusicians, singing and playing. These were chiefly trumpeters, and the\nsingers chanted triumphal songs.\n\nThe Senate and Magistrates.\n\nThe animals for the sacrifice, usually oxen, with their horns gilt, and\ndecked with garlands, accompanied by the priests.\n\nMusic, flute players, to assist at the sacrificial rites.\n\nWagons, filled with statues, plate, armor, ensigns, etc., the spoil\ncaptured from the enemy.\n\nThe tribute from various countries, usually golden crowns, or ornaments\nsent to grace the occasion.\n\nThe captive leaders, kings, or generals, with their wives, in chains.\n\nLictors with the fasces twined with laurel.\n\nMusicians and dancers dressed as Satyrs, crowned with gold. In the midst\nof these was a mimic, dressed as a female, who by his performance and\ngestures, insulted and burlesqued the captives.\n\nPersons sprinkling perfumes.\n\nThe victorious general, dressed in purple and gold, crowned with laurel;\nhe was seated in a circular chariot, drawn by four white horses. In his\nright hand he held a branch of laurel, in his left an ivory sceptre,\nsurmounted by an eagle. His face was painted of a vermilion color, and a\ngolden _bulla_ hung from his neck.\n\nSometimes the chariot was drawn by elephants.\n\nThe children of the victor were allowed to ride with him, and he was\nattended by many relatives and citizens dressed in white. Behind him\nstood a slave carrying a richly gemmed crown, whose duty it was to\nadmonish him constantly during the triumph, by whispering in his ear,\n\u201cRemember that thou art a man.\u201d\n\nThe Military Tribunes followed, and the procession closed with,\u2014\n\nThe whole army, horse and foot, crowned with laurel, and carrying\nvarious ornaments which they had won in the war.\n\nThey sang as they marched, the praises of their general, and of their\nown bravery; but sometimes (for it was a day of license and carnival)\nthey sang the coarsest ribaldry and jokes concerning their leader; thus\nthe army of Julius C\u00e6sar, sang some very personal and vulgar verses\nabout him, at his triumph.\n\nThe procession moved from the _Porta Triumphalis_, along the _Via Sacra_\nto the capitol.\n\nAll the shops were closed, the temples all open. The buildings along the\nroute were decorated. Stands and scaffoldings were erected for the\nconvenience of spectators. Banquets were spread before every house, to\nwhich all comers were welcome. It was in short a perfect carnival, but\nfar exceeding in its proportions that of modern Rome.\n\nWhen the procession arrived at the Temple of Jupiter at the Capitol,\nseveral of the captive leaders were taken from the ranks, and put to\ndeath, for ancient Rome was cruel even in her rejoicings; the oxen were\nalso sacrificed, and the wreaths, with which their horns were decorated,\nwere thrown into the lap of Jupiter\u2019s statue.\n\nIn the evening there was a grand banquet to the victorious General\n(Imperator), after which he was escorted to his home with music and\nsong.\n\nNothing better illustrates the cruel, coarse, and sensual character of\nRoman music than that employed at such a triumph. Loud trumpet tones, a\nvile and ungenerous musical pantomime, the sacrificial music, and rude\nimpromptu songs of the soldiery were the chief musical accessories of\nthe greatest popular festival.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER IX.\n MUSIC OF THE ROMAN THEATRE.\n\n\nIn Rome as in ancient Greece there was a school of music, which was\ndevoted to the stage; but it was not held in such high esteem, nor was\nit the work of the poet to supply it.\n\nIn the French _operas bouffes_ of our day we find the libretto and music\nto be the work of different persons, and in this respect the Roman\ncomedies resembled them, save that while we rank the music above the\ntext, the Romans valued the words far more than the music; but in other\nrespects there was also much resemblance between the Roman tragedies and\nmodern _Opera Seria_. They divided the music into parts, such as\ndialogues or duets, solos, and choruses.\n\nCicero says that a connoisseur could instantly determine by the style of\nthe music alone, what tragedy was being performed; this would indicate\nan amount of tone-painting, which justifies our comparison of the Roman\nwith the modern stage.\n\nThe theatres were, as usual, of immense size. The Emperor Trajan built\nan Odeum, or music hall, of which Apollodorus was the architect, which\nwas capable of seating twelve thousand spectators. These structures were\nusually built of stone, and in the most thorough manner; there is\nhowever one notable exception to the rule. In the reign of Tiberius an\namphitheatre erected by Atilius at Fiden\u00e6, fell in during a gladiatorial\ncontest, and twenty thousand persons lost their lives.[68]\n\nThe music of the stage, tended rather to virtuosity than to real beauty,\nthe natural result being, that while Rome possessed many skillful\nperformers, she had no musical composers of eminence.[69] The names of\nthe composers of music to the comedies of Terence and Plautus are still\nextant, but they seem to have enjoyed no special renown.\n\nQuintilian speaks of the weak and womanish music of the stage, and\nMartial in satirizing the Gaditanian female singers which were so much\nsought for in the later days of ancient Rome, says, that it was the\nsurest sign of a fashionable dandy, to hear a young man trilling out the\nlatest Gaditanian ditties.\n\nMany of the theatrical performers and singers were slaves, who were\nbought for the purpose, and the most stringent and cruel measures were\ntaken to prevent them from ruining their voices by any kind of\ndebauchery. Theatrical factions also existed for this or that singer, in\nwhich at times many lives were lost.[70] Laws were afterwards enacted,\nto guard against such riots.\n\nAnother and less tolerable branch of Roman public musical diversion was\nthe dance, which although most skillfully performed by talented\npantomimists, was so indecent in its general character, and choice of\nsubjects, that it received strong condemnation from many writers of that\nday.\n\nMany anecdotes remain, showing how well acted this art must have been.\n\nDemetrius, the cynic (in the reign of Nero) having reproached a dancer,\nthat his art was but an adjunct to music, the performer caused the\nmusical accompanists to cease playing, and enacted the subject of Mars\nand Venus without music, and in such a manner that Demetrius was obliged\nto retract, and said, \u201cEven your hands seem to speak.\u201d[71]\n\nThe professional dancers, or musical pantomimists, were most appreciated\nunder the luxurious reign of the C\u00e6sars. A prince of Pontus once came to\nthe court of Nero, where he was royally entertained; as he did not\nunderstand the Latin language, he could not appreciate theatrical\nrepresentations, but a celebrated dancer appearing, he was able to\nunderstand his actions from beginning to end. On his departure, when\nNero had given him presents, he said \u201cIf instead, you would give me this\ndancer, it would be the greatest favor of all;\u201d on being asked the\nreason, he replied that he had many barbarian neighbors, whose language\nhe did not understand, and that such an unfailing interpreter would be\nof incalculable value to him.[72]\n\nWe can learn how much these performers entered into their acting by the\nfollowing anecdote. A dancer once acting the part of Ajax, in a double\ncharacter dance, became so frenzied, that he tore the clothes off from\nthe time-beater, (or conductor of music) seized the flute of the\naccompanist and broke it over the head of Ulysses. The better class of\nspectators condemned such a novel exhibition, but the lower orders\napplauded vociferously. The performer afterwards became calm again, but,\non being desired to repeat the performance, he replied that it was\nsufficient for a man to make a fool of himself _once_.[73]\n\nThe dance in Rome was esteemed only as an amusement and sensual\nenjoyment, and was not studied by the respectable classes, save\nsometimes in connection with singing, in which case it was not driven to\nsuch excess as the pantomime dance described above; but neither song,\ninstruments, or dance were studied to any large extent among the masses\nof the Roman people.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER X.\n MUSIC OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.\n\n\nUnder the luxurious reign of the C\u00e6sars, music attained unusual\nprominence in Rome, but it was still the music of virtuosity, rather\nthan true art. Skillful performers multiplied, while talented composers\ndid not exist. The choruses were augmented to the utmost, their numbers\nexceeding all previous extent.[74] New instruments began also to appear,\nthe sumphonia, the hydraulic organ, and others. The study of music began\nto be fashionable (in some at least of its branches) and the emperors\nthemselves did not disdain to practise the art. It is a singular fact,\nhowever, that exactly those emperors who were the greatest rascals, took\nthe greatest interest in music. Domitian founded games in honor of\nJupiter, in which he introduced Kithara playing and other musical\ncontests to amuse the populace. Heliogabalus sang, danced, played the\nflute, organ, and pandura, and was proficient in giving musical\nrecitations with flute accompaniment. Caligula studied singing and\ndancing, and was so fond of the former, that when at the theatre, he\ncould scarcely ever refrain from following the melodies which the\ntragedians sang, by humming along with them. It is related of him,[75]\nthat during the height of his power and tyranny, he sent, one night, a\nsummons to three men of consular rank, to attend him at once at his\npalace; in fear and terror, the three hastened to obey, scarcely\ndoubting that the night was to be their last on earth; on arriving, they\nwere most agreeably surprised to hear the sound of flutes, and the\nemperor himself suddenly burst out before them, arrayed in full\ntheatrical costume, and sang them a song, after which he bowed and\nretired, upon which they were dismissed, and returned to their anxious\nfamilies; we can imagine that, under the circumstances, Caligula\nreceived very hearty applause that night.\n\nVespasian established musical games, and gave large sums to actors and\nsingers.[76]\n\nTitus was a good singer and player.\n\nIn the later days of paganism, when the music of the Christian church\nhad already manifested its power and superiority, the Emperor Julian\nendeavored to bolster up the religion of the ancestors, and fight the\nchurch with one of its own weapons. He therefore sought to make an\nextensive reform in the religious and sacrificial music. He endeavored\nto form music schools at Alexandria, in Egypt, where a new school of\nsinging and composition might be inculcated, and whence Rome might draw\nthe material for a better religious music than had formerly obtained. In\none of his letters, he says: \u201cI deem no study more worthy of attention\nthan good music. I desire that you select from among the population of\nAlexandria certain well born lads, who shall be supplied each with two\nEgyptian artabai per month, besides rations of corn, wine and oil, and\nbe provided also with clothes by the comptroller of the treasury. The\nboys are to be chosen for a definite time according to their voice.\nShould any give promise of further abilities to reach a high degree in\nthe science of music, let them be informed that we propose to offer to\nsuch, very substantial rewards. That the minds of these lads will,\nindependently of our encouragement, be benefited by that cleansing power\nwhich perfect music exerts, we may rest assured on the authority of\nthose who in past times have laid down excellent regulations on the\nsubject. So much for the new choristers. As for those now under the\ninstruction of the music master Dioscurus, make them act here all the\nmore diligently to their practice. Since we are prepared to assist them\nin whatever way they may choose.\u201d[77]\n\nThis beautiful scheme was frustrated by the death of its great\noriginator, about two years afterward.\n\nBut among all the Roman Emperors, none was a more passionate virtuoso,\nand devotee of skillful music than that incomprehensible monster, Nero.\nWe shall enter into considerable detail regarding this curious emperor,\nas he may stand as a type (although an exaggerated one) of the soulless\nand sensual musical _virtuosi_ of his era. In giving his history (so far\nas it relates to music) we follow mainly the version of Suetonius.\n\nHe studied music in his early youth, and first appeared publicly in the\ngames of the Roman youth, entitled the _Juvenalia_;[78] here he seems to\nhave made no remarkable impression, either by his voice or dramatic\naction. Immediately on his accession to the throne, he sent for the\nfamous harper Terpnus, and took the greatest pleasure in his\nperformances; it was his habit to sit with him after supper till late\ninto the night. At last he began to practice upon the instrument\nhimself; and at the same time he began to apply himself assiduously to\nthe cultivation of his voice, although it is the testimony of all his\nhistorians, that his voice was rather thin and husky.\n\nThe care he lavished upon the preservation of his voice, far out-does\nthat of any modern _prima donna_; he would lie on his back during part\nof each day, with a sheet of lead on his stomach, or chest; he used\nemetics and clysters copiously when it seemed at all out of order; his\nfood was always regulated with reference to its effect upon his voice,\nand he forbore from eating many fruits and pickles, because they were\nprejudicial to it.\n\nHe never delivered any addresses to his army because he feared that he\nmight thereby strain it; all his speeches to the soldiers were delivered\nby proxy, even though he were present. On all occasions, he had his\nvoice-master by him, to caution him whenever he should be in danger of\nover-straining, and this instructor was ordered, if the warning should\nby any cause be unheeded, to clap a napkin upon his mouth by way of\nenforcing his advice. Through the whole reign of this emperor however,\nthere was never less misery than while he was applying himself to his\nmusical education, or was upon his musical tours.\n\nEncouraged by the improvement (real or imagined) in his voice, he became\ndesirous of appearing upon the public stage. The unjust valuation which\nhe placed upon the art, being apparent by his remark that \u201cmusic\nunheard, was valueless and unregarded.\u201d\n\nHis first public appearance took place at Naples, A. D. 63; while\nsinging, the theatre was shaken by an earthquake, but Nero was not to be\nchecked, even by the elements, and sang to the end of his song.[79]\nAfter the theatre had been vacated, it fell in; and Nero composed\nlengthy hymns to the gods for his escape.[80]\n\nOn his return to Rome he was desirous of showing his skill in that\nmetropolis; at first he only sang to select audiences of friends at his\nown palace, but infatuated with the applause of this flattering circle,\nhe was only too glad to follow their suggestion that such a fine voice\nshould not be hidden.\n\nHe instituted games in his own honor, entitled the _Neronia_, which were\ncelebrated in imitation of the Greek sacred games, every fifth year; at\nthese games he had introduced contests of flute and organ-players; he\nwas too impatient to wait until the allotted interval should have\nexpired, but ordered that the games should be celebrated in advance of\ntheir accustomed time, and placed his name on the list of musical\ncompetitors;[81] the Senate sought to avert such a disgrace, by offering\nto decree the victory to him, without requiring him to compete, but Nero\nanswered, that he stood in no need of favor or protection; that he\ndepended entirely upon himself and upon his own merits; that he would\nfairly enter the lists, and that the decision should come from the\njudges.[82] When his name was called, he came on in his regular turn,\nattended by a suite of high military officials, one of whom bore his\nharp. After taking his place he announced that he would sing the story\nof Niobe; this he did, and kept it up for hours, but at the conclusion\nhe (suddenly changing from singer to emperor) deferred the awards of the\njudges for one year, as this afforded him an opportunity to appear again\nin that time.\n\nThe people gave on this occasion immense applause, but whether they were\nmost pleased by the music, or by the novelty of the whole affair, is\ndoubtful.\n\nBut Nero could not wait even the exceptionally short time which he had\nset, and appeared at numerous private shows, which were given from time\nto time by private individuals of wealth and station. For these\nperformances he was glad to be offered compensation, not from any\navaricious motive, but because it stamped him as a thorough and\nprofessional artist; of course many courtiers took advantage of this\nfoible and were very glad to pay him a princely _honorarium_. He was\noffered on one occasion 1,000,000 sesterces for one appearance; this sum\nbeing equivalent to $37,500 puts the enormous salaries of the modern\nprima donna to the blush.\n\nHe sometimes sang for two or three days in the same place, only pausing\noccasionally to take refreshments and recuperate, and seldom was any\nsong of his less than a day in length.\n\nThis in itself might have been an easily-avoided bore under ordinary\ncircumstances, but he prevented the possibility of a decreasing\naudience, by posting sentinels at the doors, and forbidding all egress.\nWe can judge of the terrible dullness of these occasions by the fact\nthat some spectators, at times, jumped from the windows, at the risk of\ntheir limbs, while others feigned death and were carried out for\nburial.[83]\n\nThere were spies scattered through the audience, and any inattention to\nthe emperor\u2019s singing was dangerous. The soldiers chastised every one\nwho did not applaud properly. If any of the lower classes presumed to\ngive adverse criticism, they were summarily dealt with, while those of\nthe upper rank who showed their weariness, were marked out for future\nvengeance. The emperor had in reality the life of any subject in his\npower, while seemingly only exerting legal authority; for he had\nhundreds of informers, spies and perjurers about his court who could\nfasten any charge on any person however high in station, and the\nawe-struck senate was always ready to condemn. Many when charged with\nany crime by the emperor\u2019s minions, at once committed suicide as the\nshortest way out of the scrape.\n\nAmong those who fell under Nero\u2019s displeasure for not appreciating his\nmusic, was the future emperor Vespasian, who during one of the songs,\nfell fast asleep. Nero was with difficulty persuaded to spare his life,\nbut finally contented himself with banishing him from the court. The\nscene must have been to some extent, ludicrous, when these poor, bored\nvictims of the emperor-musician, applauding vehemently, cried out for\nmore. Yet the applause did not always fall in the right place, and to\nobviate this difficulty, the emperor formed a corps of _claquers_ or\nprofessional applauders, whose duty it was to lead, and direct the\napplause at the proper moments. This army of _claquers_ consisted of\nmany fashionable young men, and five thousand commoners. They could\neasily be distinguished by their elegant attire and curled locks.\n\nThe system pursued was similar to that at present used in some of the\nParisian theatres; there was one chief, or leader, and several deputy\ncommanders; the force was divided into small parties, and mingled among\nthe _bona fide_ audience, and at a signal from their chief, there would\nbe applause of the required kind.\n\nNero lavished large sums on this _corps_, and was ever susceptible of\nflattery to his musical talents: on some Alexandrians singing some\nverses in his praise, he was so elated that he sent to Alexandria for\nmore singers and conferred many benefits upon them.\n\nOnce while singing in the Roman theatre, in the character of Orestes,\nthe murderer of his mother (which he certainly ought to have acted well,\nfor Nero killed his own mother) he came on the stage loaded with chains,\non which a young soldier rushed on the stage to deliver him; this\ncompliment to the reality of his acting was specially grateful to Nero.\n\nThe passion for acting and singing were with him almost monomania;\nduring the immense conflagration of Rome, which he himself had kindled,\n(and which burned for six days and seven nights) he stood upon the tower\nof Mecaenas, and was so impressed with the spectacle, that he hastened\nto his theatre, put on the appropriate costume, and sang \u201cThe\nDestruction of Troy:\u201d hence the proverb \u201cNero fiddled while Rome was\nburning,\u201d which might run more appropriately \u201cNero sang because Rome was\nburning,\u201d for it was not callousness, as has been implied, but rather\nthe reverse of it; a venting of the emotions caused by the grandeur of\nthe spectacle.\n\nThat he had implicit belief in his musical powers, there can be no\nmanner of doubt, for he had thoughts of possibly using it as a\nprofession; it had been foretold that the time should come when he would\nbe forsaken by all; on which he replied to the soothsayer \u201can artist can\ngain his livelihood in any country.\u201d\n\nIn Greece at the public games, the musical contests were still an\nimportant feature,[84] and the cities where they were celebrated,\nhearing of Nero\u2019s vanity in music, sent envoys to him with several\ngolden crowns, as tribute to his abilities in the art; Nero was\ngratified beyond measure, and said that the Greeks had the only proper\nappreciation of music. He gave a sumptuous supper to the envoys, after\nwhich they begged that they might be permitted to hear that divine\nvoice; Nero, nothing loth, consented, and as might be expected the\nGreeks went into ecstasies of applause. This determined Nero to make a\nmusical tour through Greece, and attend the sacred games there.\n\nHe started on his journey with a vast retinue, among which were the\nentire force of _claquers_. Arriving in Greece he ordered the games\nwhich did not fall in that year, to be celebrated out of course, and\nalso, contrary to all precedent, established musical contests at the\nOlympic games, that he might have the honor of appearing in them.[85]\n\nAt these games, he appeared with all his enforced boredom, none being\nallowed to leave the theatre, during his performances. The anxiety and\nearnestness he displayed in these contests are almost incredible. He\nbribed better artists to allow him to win, and he would address the\njudges, telling them that he had made all study and preparation, and\ntaken all the care necessary for so important a contest, but the issue\nwas in their hands, he hoped therefore they would not regard any purely\naccidental mishaps. The judges would thereupon mildly encourage the\ntimid contestant.\n\nHe always adhered strictly to the rules imposed upon the contestants; he\nwould never spit, or wipe the perspiration from his forehead; once on\ndropping his staff, he was greatly alarmed lest the accident should lose\nhim the prize, but was reassured by one of the contestants who told him\nthat he was sure that the judges had not perceived the occurrence; after\nthe conclusion of his song, he fell on his knees, stretching out his\nhands in humble supplication for the verdict of the judges. But when the\nvictory was awarded to him, (as it was always sure to be) his humility\nwas thrown to the winds; he then caused his own heralds to proclaim him\nas the victor, and soon set up statues of himself in the various cities,\nwith laudatory inscriptions, according to the custom of Greece. Not\ncontent however, with this, he also caused the statues of all previous\nvictors to be pulled down and thrown in the sewers.\n\nHe took the prize (of course) in every Greek contest in which he\nparticipated. Competition was freely invited, though not as freely\ntolerated.\n\nIn one of the Grecian contests a musician entered the lists against him,\nwho was very proud of his skill, and could not be bought; he contested\nthe prize so obstinately and skilfully, that Nero\u2019s soldiers also\nentered the contest by driving him to the wall, and killing him in sight\nof the audience;[86] the prize was awarded to Nero.\n\nHis return from the tour was made with grand pomp; on reaching Naples,\nhe had a breach made in the walls (according to Greek custom) and made\nhis triumphal entry into the city, through it. In the same manner he\nentered Rome and Antium. In Rome he arrogated to himself a full triumph,\nand entered in state; all his prizes to the number of eighteen hundred\nwere placed in chariots, and appeared in the procession, each one\nbearing an inscription as to where and when it was won. Statues were set\nup, and medals struck in honor of his unprecedented musical success.\nFrom this time forward, until his death he did not abate in his musical\nstudies or ardor.\n\nTowards the close of his reign, he took much interest in the water\norgan, of which we have previously given a description.\n\nWhen his affairs were at a crisis, soon to be followed by his death, he\nstill gave most of his time to his favorite study. One day when\nmessengers first brought to him the tidings of a new rebellion, it is\nrelated that he spent a few moments in consultation about these\nmomentous state affairs, and the rest of the day in showing to his\ncourtiers some new organs which he said he intended shortly to introduce\ninto the theatre.\n\nWhen apprised of the fact that the legions of Julius Vindex had\nmutinied, and that that able general had also declared against him, he\nwas sufficiently aroused to march against him, but, ever a maniac on the\nsubject of music, he declared that he intended to do nothing but appear\nin the camp of the rebellious legions, and weep and sing to them\npathetic songs, which should so affect them that they would at once\nreturn to their allegiance; the next day after the bloodless victory he\npromised to appear and sing songs of triumph in the theatre; and he\nthought it well that composers should begin to write the triumphal odes\nat once.\n\nIn preparing for the expedition, his chief care was not for instruments\nof war, but to provide safe carriage for his musical instruments; many\nwagons were filled with these, as he took along several water organs.\nBut the expedition never took place, and he never had the chance of\ntesting the effects of pathetic music upon the Roman legions, for all\nthe army declared against him and he suddenly found himself deserted by\nhis court, and proscribed by the senate. In his downfall nothing hurt\nhim more than that his enemies spoke of him as \u201cthat pitiful harper,\u201d\nand he constantly appealed to his attendants if any could excel him in\nthe art.\n\nHe at this crisis made a vow that, if his reign continued peaceably, he\nwould appear in the games he intended to give in honor of his success\nagainst the insurgents, and play the water organ, flute and sumphonia,\nas well as enact a play, and dance; but these inflictions the Roman\npeople were spared.\n\nIn one night his seemingly strong power vanished, and he was compelled\nto fly for his life, attended only by three or four persons. Having made\nhis way to the suburban residence of Phaon, one of his freedmen, it was\nsoon apparent that he could not escape, and that he must die, either by\nthe hands of the infuriated Romans, or by his own. Weeping and sobbing,\nwhile his attendants prepared his grave, almost his last words before\nhis suicide were \u201cAlas! what an artist the world is now to lose,\u201d thus\nin his latest moments, keeping up that egotism and infatuation for music\nwhich had been one of his ruling characteristics through life.\n\nThe musical side of Nero\u2019s character is certainly to some extent\nludicrous, but there were other and far darker sides to his hideous\ncharacter. These of course are not within our province to dwell upon,\nbut we have chosen to give a full description of his musical life that\nthe reader may clearly see how little of true art, or love of art could\nhave existed in so oppressive an atmosphere.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XI.\n HISTORY OF CHINESE MUSIC.[87]\n\n\nIn Brande\u2019s dictionary of arts and sciences, under the head of \u201cChinese\nmusic,\u201d the whole fabric of Chinese music is swept away in one short\nsentence, at the close of which, the compiler curtly says,\u2014\u201cWe ought,\nperhaps to apologize for saying _so much_ of it.\u201d\n\nNo right minded and just reader will echo so flippant an opinion; a\nnation which more than four thousand years ago, had studied music as an\nabstract science and which understood the laws of musical proportion\ncenturies before Pythagoras was born, certainly deserves more than a\npassing notice from the musical historian, no matter how barbarous its\npresent music may seem.\n\nThe Chinese life and character, while apparently full of fancy, is in\nreality quite emptily rational and pragmatic. In all the scientific\nfacts relating to music, the Chinese made early and thorough\ninvestigations, but in that inventive inspiration which is the soul of\nart, they seem to have been deficient. They possess a very full account\nof their music both of modern and ancient days. Their musical history\nteems with facts, and anecdotes, dating back far beyond every other\nnation except the Egyptian. Their literature contains a vast number of\ntreatises and comments on the musical art, many of which are, however,\ncouched in very mystical and ambiguous language. In the Imperial library\nat Pekin, there are four hundred and eighty-two books on this subject\nexclusively.[88]\n\nThe invention of music, is ascribed by the Chinese to supernatural\nbeings.\n\nThe emperor Chi-hoang-che, who reigned in the time of the spirits, is\nsaid to have invented the rules of pronunciation, the written characters\nof the Chinese language, and finally music.[89] A mythological character\nnamed Tong-how composed the earliest songs.\n\nKai-tien-chi, the ninth emperor of this spiritual dynasty, is credited\nwith many of the earliest songs. He also invented eight kinds of\ninstruments (which will be described later) the names of which are\ncertainly poetical enough,\u2014\n\n1. Love the people. 2. The black bird. 3. Don\u2019t cut the trees. 4.\nCultivate the eight different grains. 5. Chant the celestial doctrines.\n6. Celebrate the merits of the sovereign. 7. Imitate the virtues of the\nearth. 8. Recall the memory of all existing things.\n\nThese names were probably given to the instruments from the special\nsongs which each accompanied.\n\nTcho-yung, a successor of the preceding emperor, is said once to have\nlistened to the songs of the birds, while the empire was in a state of\nprofound peace, and their singing caused him to invent a music which\npenetrated every where, speaking to the intelligence, calming the\npassions of the heart, causing perfect equilibrium in the emotions,\nfacilitating and improving the use of all the senses, and prolonging the\nlife of man.\n\nThe name of this music was _Tsie-ven_\u2014\u201cTemperance and mercy.\u201d\n\nThis beautiful legend of the birds, seems almost Greek in its poetry,\nbut there exists yet another mythological bird in the Chinese tales,\nwhich is extraordinarily like the Egyptian Ph\u0153nix. The _Foang-hoang_ was\na bird whose nest and abiding-place was wrapt up in mystery; it appeared\nin China only at the birth of a good ruler, and its coming was always a\nhappy presage to the nation. The Chinese mythology, so far as it relates\nto music, is evidently a traditional history, and poetically relates\nactual occurrences, showing that, in all probability, their music\nexisted, and was highly esteemed in pre-historic times.\n\nThe authentic history of Chinese music may be said to begin with Fo-hi,\nthe first of the Ty dynasty, and the founder of the Chinese empire. He\nreigned about 2950 B. C.[90] All good qualities seem to have been united\nin this beneficent ruler; in all ways he sought to benefit his race.\n\nIt was not as an amusement, but as a means of popularizing his thoughts\non all sciences, that he regulated and arranged the system of music. His\nfirst song celebrated his triumph over ignorance and barbarism; soon\nafter he composed the \u201cFisher\u2019s song\u201d in which he relates how he had\ntaught modes of fishing to the natives. He invented the kin, a stringed\ninstrument in the style of the modern zither, but with cords of silk,\nand in it he symbolized all manner of things.\n\nHe rounded the upper part to represent Heaven; he flattened the lower\npart to resemble the earth; one part of the instrument was called \u201cThe\nabode of the dragon\u201d (representing the breezes of Heaven); another part\nwas entitled \u201cThe nest of the Foang-hoang\u201d (to betoken the seasons of\nthe year). By means of this instrument he could regulate his heart, and\ncurb his passions.[91]\n\n\u201cThose who would play the Kin,\u201d says the Chinese commentator, \u201cand draw\nsounds from it which can charm, must have a grave countenance and well\nregulated interior, they should pick it lightly, and give a tone neither\ntoo high, nor low.\u201d[92]\n\nMany Chinese writers attribute some of the inventions which are credited\nto Fo-hi, to his wife Niu-va, a supernatural personage who was regarded\nas a holy and miraculous virgin in the Chinese annals.[93] The truth\nabout Fo-hi seems to be that he was a remarkably good man and a\nbenefactor to his race, and therefore many useful inventions, and\nwonderful adventures are attached to his name, which cannot be\nauthenticated. Some writers consider him a myth, which is scarcely a\ntenable position; others have endeavored to prove him to be neither more\nnor less than the Noah of the Bible. There is little doubt that he made\nimprovements in Chinese music, and, by exaggeration, was called its\ninventor. A Chinese writer in giving to the invention a greater\nantiquity, beautifully says \u201cMusic had its cradle in the heart of man.\u201d\n\nChin-noung, successor of Fo-hi, was also a good ruler; his chief works\nin music seem to have been some alterations in the _Che_ (a sort of\n_Kin_) and he was able by his playing to turn the heart of man, from\nintemperate life, to celestial truth.\n\nHoang-ti, the next emperor, had music scientifically investigated and\nestablished natural rules to the art. The reign of Hoang-ti is supposed\nto have been about 2,600 B. C. In his day music though practised, was\nnot understood in its natural elements.\n\nThe Chinese even at that day, based all other sciences on music, and\nsought to make this art (in a mystical and hyperbolical way) the\nfoundation of all others. The emperor therefore ordered Ling-lun to give\nhis attention to the development of the laws of music. The fables on the\nsubject of his researches are innumerable; he travelled to the\nnorth-western part of China and took up his abode on a high mountain,\nnear which was a large growth of bamboos. Ling-lun took a bamboo, which\nhe cut between two knots; he removed the pith, and blowing in the tube,\na sound resulted which was of the exact pitch of the human voice when in\nits normal state. Not far off was the source of the Hoang-ho, and\nLing-lun found that the tone of his tube was similar to the sound given\nby the waters of that river in bubbling from the earth; thus was\ndiscovered the first _Lu_, (or Li) the fundamental tone.\n\nLing-lun was pursuing his investigations further, when the Foang-hoang\nappeared with its mate and perched upon a neighboring tree. The male\nbird sang in six different tones, while the female also used six, but\ndifferent from the preceding. The first note of the mystical\nFoang-hoang, was precisely in unison with the reed which Ling-lun had\ncut from the bamboo.\n\nOn ascertaining this, the fable continues, Ling-lun cut twelve pieces of\nbamboo and pitched them according to the notes of the two songsters; he\nfound by alternating the sounds of the male with the female bird, that\nhe had a chromatic scale. The six tones of the male were called the\n_li-yang_ (masculine tones) the other six _li-yn_ (feminine tones), and\nthroughout all Chinese music, the distinction between the male and\nfemale tones of the scale still exists. This was the first Chinese\ndiscovery of the proportions of sound, the first step in the science of\nAcoustics, and though covered over with fable and allegory, it really\npreceded the discoveries of Pythagoras by many centuries; Ling-lun went\nback to the emperor\u2019s court and there measured and fixed the pitch of\nthe Chinese scale forever. Bells were also made of the official pitch,\nthat it might easily be perpetuated.\n\nHoang-ti also had immense trumpets made which imitated \u201cthe voice of\ndragons,\u201d and drums which sounded \u201clike thunder.\u201d This monarch was as\ngreat and good in all arts and sciences, as he was in music. He seems to\nhave been a Chinese \u201cking Alfred.\u201d After him, came Chao-hao, at whose\naccession the Foang-hoang again appeared, intimating thereby another\nprosperous reign in this line of good and musical emperors. Chao-hao\ninvented the idea of marking the divisions of the night by strokes of a\ndrum, and also had founded a set of twelve copper bells, to represent\nthe twelve months of the year. He used all his efforts to make music\npopular, and invented new modes of playing, making the _yang_ and _yn_\nless distinct from each other, that is uniting the more powerful tones\n(male) with the weaker (female). It is said that he first introduced\nsongs in honor of the ancestors, which play a very important part in\nChinese music, and that these hymns were performed for the first time,\nin honor of the amiable emperor Hoang-ti.\n\nThe emperors next following, all protected and encouraged music. The\nfirst songs, that is of a secular style, were composed about 2456 B. C.\nAt this time also, many new instruments were invented, and old ones\nimproved. With the reign of Yao, 2357 B. C., the chronological record of\nChinese emperors and their doings becomes much clearer. Under this\nemperor, China had a season of great peace and prosperity. He invented\nthe instrument of musical stones, called the _king_, (to be described\nlater) and received the stones specially adapted to its manufacture, as\ntribute from various provinces.\n\nChun, who succeeded him, though of low birth (he was nominated to the\nthrone by Yao) continued to advance the progress of music, and used it,\nas the Greek philosophers did later, to prepare himself for public\nbusiness.\n\n\u201cIt was to the sound of the _kin_,\u201d says the Chinese historian,[94]\n\u201cthat the great emperor Chun prepared to deal with the affairs of the\nempire, and to the melody of the _kin_ is due the love and care which he\nconstantly gave to his people.\u201d Chun composed the following song, words\nand music, on the above instrument; it may be taken as a specimen of\nvery early Chinese improvisation.\n\n\u201cThe breeze of midday brings warmth and dispels sorrow; may it be the\nsame with Chun; may he be the joy and the consolation of his people. The\nbreeze of midday causes the grain to grow, which is the hope of the\npeople; even so Oh, Chun! be thou the hope and the wealth of thy\nsubjects,\u201d etc.\n\nChun also wrote a song in praise of agriculture. In the year 2284 B. C.,\nhe established uniformity of weight and measure, as well as a fixed\ndiapason throughout the empire, and endeavored to have all the bells\nmade in just proportions to each other. He also caused to be composed, a\nmelody celebrating the nine principal virtues; it was accompanied with\ndances, in nine parts and contained nine modulations; it was named\n_Siao-chao_ from the instruments which the dancers held in their hand.\n\nChun established five grand ceremonials, in each of which music bore a\npart. First, a ceremony of rejoicing, in honor of Chang-ti (the supreme\nbeing) and of the celestial spirits. Second, a festival in honor of the\nancestors. Third, a military celebration, in honor of the former\ndissensions of the empire having given way to a tranquil peace. Fourth,\na feast dedicated to courtesy, when the beauties of concord and goodwill\nwere sung. Fifth and last, a ceremony in which the inter-dependence of\nman was remembered, and the manifold blessings accruing by mutual\nbeneficence, chanted.\n\nChun also appointed a superintendent of music, who was to see that the\nart was always exercised in its proper direction.\n\nKouei was appointed censor, and the instructions of the emperor to him,\nare full of good sense. \u201cMusic should follow the sense of the words.\u201d\n\u201cIt should be simple and unaffected.\u201d \u201cMusic is an expression of the\nsoul of the musician;\u201d such sentiments as these show a keen appreciation\nof the art, which seems all the more singular when we think of the\npeculiar music to which it relates. The music of the time of Chun, is\nrapturously eulogized by Confucius.\n\nYu, the great, only followed the example of his predecessors in setting\nto music the most moral precepts and praising virtue, in song. It may\nperhaps have been this association of high thoughts and ideas, the noble\ncharacter of the poetry, which gave music such a charm in the eyes of\nthe ancient Chinese. Yu made use of some primitive instruments, in a new\nand very laudable manner;[95] desirous of being easily accessible to all\nhis subjects, he caused to be placed at a gate of his palace, five\ninstruments of percussion, which were to be struck by any applicant,\naccording to the nature of his business with the emperor.\n\nA large bell announced a person who desired to complain of an injustice;\na drum signified a communication respecting the manners of the empire;\nand a small bell, private or confidential business; a _tam-tam_, a\npublic or private misfortune; a tambourine, an accusation of crime which\nwas appealed from some lower tribunal to the adjudication of the\nemperor.\n\nThis kindly emperor, regulated what was still deficient in music, and\ndid it so thoroughly that no further changes were necessary until the\nHia dynasty became extinct. The last of the above mentioned dynasty was\n(for a change) a most vicious emperor. Kie was, according to the\nchroniclers, a sort of Mongolian Caligula, and his memory is execrated.\n\nThe next dynasty, called Chang, after a prosperous series of emperors,\nalso ended with an atrocious tyrant called Tchow, who invented a\nluxurious style of music, and is said to have first established the\nfeast of lanterns. He was deprived of throne and life by violence.\n\nOu-wang a later ruler, is chiefly celebrated for his military music, for\nwhich he seems to have had a _penchant_ and of which he composed\nconsiderable. One of his pieces was intended for performance while the\narmy formed itself in order of battle.\n\nIn his day, the discipline of music was very thoroughly attended to.\nEvery ceremony and rite had its appropriate music attached; the\nmusicians had to undergo two examinations each year, and all innovations\neither in composition, or in the shaping of musical instruments was\njealously guarded against. No special features appear in the musical\nhistory of China during the next few reigns.\n\nIn the reign of Koang-tsee, a valuable treatise on music was published,\nwhich is still highly esteemed. At this era also were established\nMandarins of music and of the dance. At this epoch flourished the great\nKong-fu-tsee, or Confucius, the leader of Chinese thought and\nphilosophy.\n\nThis sage\u2019s name was simply Kong, but his disciples added the title,\n_fu-tsee_, which makes the meaning of the whole, Kong, the instructor,\nor master. This was Latinized by the Jesuit missionaries into Confucius.\nThis philosopher cultivated the study of music and seems to have\nesteemed it as highly as the Greek philosophers did a century later. He\nrevised and arranged many of the old books on musical ceremonies and\nrites. He learnt the art in a distant province, as in his native place\nmusic was but little known.\n\nWhile in the kingdom of Tchi, Confucius heard some of the ancient music\nof the days of Chun performed. The effect on him was so marvellous, that\nfor three months he scarcely could eat, for thinking of it. \u201cI should\nnever have believed,\u201d he said, \u201cthat composers could reach such a\npinnacle of perfection.\u201d[96]\n\nIt is also said that Confucius was an excellent performer on the musical\nstones of the _king_. Once while playing on this instrument a passer by\nstruck with the beauty of his performance, paused to listen, and\nexclaimed \u201csurely one who can play thus, must have his soul occupied\nwith great thoughts.\u201d\n\nIn the later days of his wanderings, when he was reduced to the\nextremity of poverty and starvation, he sang and played as usual,\nshowing no signs of depression or despondency. One of his disciples\nventured a reproach, asking how he could sing when they were all\nfamishing; he replied; \u201cthe wise man seeks by music, to strengthen the\nweakness of his soul, the thoughtless one uses it to stifle his fears.\u201d\nThe facts relating to Confucius, his wanderings and life are full of\nanecdotes relating to his extreme love of the art, and are probably\nauthentic. The family of Confucius still exists in his native province,\nhaving passed intact through sixty-eight or sixty-nine generations; they\nare honored by special privileges and distinctions and are the most\nnotable hereditary aristocracy of China. It may be mentioned here, that\nall the philosophers and literati of the empire were musicians as well:\nin this respect strongly resembling the sages of Greece.\n\nThe theatre began to progress greatly in this era, (sixth century B.\nC.), and one emperor was censured for devoting too much time to his\ncomedians, and too little to the worthy celebration of the ancestral\nfeast. The arts received a severe check when the Tchin or Tsin dynasty\nobtained control of the entire realm. These were in reality the first\nwho united the various provinces under one rule, and who bore, with\nright, the title of Hoang, or emperor. It is from this dynasty that\nChina takes its name (Tchina or Tsina). One of this set of conquerors,\nTchi-chi-hoang-ti, desirous of obliterating the memories of former\nglories, which might prove prejudicial to his own, attempted, in 245 B.\nC., a proscription of all science and art.\n\nHe commanded all ancient books to be burnt, and especially caused strict\nsearch to be made for the books which Confucius had collected and\nrevised. Only works on agriculture and medicine were to be spared. A\nlarge number of literary persons who had concealed part of their books\nwere put to death; yet many continued to risk their lives to preserve\nthe fruits of ancient culture. Books were hidden in walls of houses, in\ntombs, and buried in the earth, whence they were long afterward\nrecovered. The emperor in proclaiming this war on literature gave as his\nreason that the ancient books did not suit that era, that they were a\nhindrance to progress, that they caused the people to neglect\nagriculture which was the only substantial happiness of a nation, and\nthat they gave to the people liberty to censure the sovereign, and by\nconsequence, fostered disobedience and rebellion. Of course in this\nuniversal persecution, music did not fare better than the other arts.\nAll instruments were ordered to be destroyed and made over after new\nmodels. The bells which had given the standard pitch up to that time,\nwere melted down, and many of them used for the purpose of founding\ncolossal statues to deck the entrance of the imperial palace. But,\naccording to La Fage,[97] it was much easier for the musicians to evade\nthe emperor\u2019s decree, and save their instruments, than for the literati\nto save their precious books. There were few instruments and they were\nless rigorously sought after, and it was an easy matter to conceal bells\nor the _kings_ (musical stones) by burying them in the earth whence they\ncould be exhumed intact at any later period. Therefore in spite of the\nexertions of the emperor, the ancient traditions and arts could not be\nwholly extinguished; a spark still remained from which the torch of\nscience and art could be re-lit.\n\nIt was this despotic emperor, however, who built the _Wan-li-chang_ or\ngreat wall of China, therefore his influence upon the empire was not\nwholly exerted for evil, but rather directed towards the establishment\nof himself and descendants as permanent rulers of China. The rule was\nshort however, for in 206 B. C. the _Han_ dynasty governed the empire.\nThe first of this family, named Kao, endeavored to repair the ravages\nmade in the field of learning by the Tsin despots.\n\nHe caused extensive search to be made in order that the ancient pitch,\ndivision of tone, and system of modulation might be discovered. It was\npartially unavailing, for we learn that though music was established in\nall its splendor under the subsequent reign of Vow-ti, yet many writers\nof that era (about 140 B. C.) assert that the art of regulating the\nheart by means of music, was irretrievably lost, and that it only seemed\nto inflame the baser passions.\n\nIn fact at this time, music was chiefly an adjunct of the theatre, and\neach day brought forth new comedies, concerts, or ballets. A terrible\nscandal was created in the reign of Tching-ti (an emperor who reigned\nshortly after) by that sovereign taking one of his beautiful _corps de\nballet_, to wife.\n\nThese ballet dancers seem also to have been talented singers, and were\nof similar station, though far inferior in talents, to the _Hetar\u00e6_ of\nancient Greece. In the time of the last named ruler, there were found on\nthe bank of a river, sixteen ancient musical stones or _kings_, and the\nfact that the sovereign esteemed this one of the most glorious events of\nhis reign, shows how earnest and persistent was the endeavor to reclaim\nthe old school of music from oblivion.\n\nBetween the years A. D. 8, and 23, many books relative to music were\nwritten; the Chinese, however, assert that all of these were founded on\na false system and contained many errors. About A. D. 60, the president\nof the tribunal of rites and music, made great efforts to collect the\nremains of ancient knowledge, and place music once more upon its old,\npure basis. The work written by him was highly esteemed by the literati\nbut unfortunately, the musicians had become used entirely to the newer,\nand less pure style of music, and were too lazy to care about learning\nany new modes; therefore all manner of difficulties were placed in the\nway of Pao-y\u00e9, and the reform was unsuccessful.\n\nTching-ti, A. D. 280, had at his court ten thousand women, who were all\nproficient singers and players. Ngai-ti, one of his successors, tried to\nremedy the luxury and effeminacy which had crept into every department\nof music. He dismissed all his musicians, except those who performed at\nsacred rites, or in military music (these being countenanced by ancient\nusage) and all the troupes of singing girls were also broken up. The\npoor musicians thus thrown out of employment numbered four hundred and\nforty. The singing girls were yet more numerous.\n\nThese reforms seem to have been of short duration, for almost always,\nafter an emperor who enthusiastically attacked these abuses, came one\nwho with equal fervor, protected them.\n\nOne sovereign, A. D. 289, had at his palace five thousand actresses, and\nthe fourth successor of the reformer who dismissed his musicians, named\nTsin-ou-ti, although a lover of music, was also a great lover of luxury.\nHis greatest delight was to enervate the officials of high rank by\ninviting them to carousals which he would extend far into the night, and\nwhen the censors remonstrated with him on his course, he heard them\npatiently; he would then invite them to dinner for the same day, and\nthere cause them to drink so copiously that they had to be carried\nhome.[98]\n\nAn emperor who reigned about 503 A. D. banished comedy and music from\nthe palace, and also established the funeral festival in honor of\nConfucius, in which sacred music played a part.\n\nTay-tsung, who ascended the throne A. D. 626, was an active and thorough\nreformer in music as in all other arts which needed his helping hand. In\nthe year 640, he turned his attention, after having brought the empire\nto a state of peace, to bringing music back to its ancient and pristine\nglory. In pursuance of this design, he ordered that everything relating\nto ancient music, books as well as instruments, should be sent to his\ncourt. An immense quantity of books, fragments, memoirs, old and new\ninstruments, etc., were discovered and collected, which were handed over\nto a committee of _savans_, whose duty it was to retain the good, reject\nthe bad, and systematize the whole. Much was discovered by this means;\nbooks were printed and the art of music received a strong impetus; but\nstill the Chinese held that the full beauty of the ancient art could not\nbe unearthed, perhaps because they could find nothing in it equaling\ntheir expectations: but Tay-tsung for his efforts in the matter, was\never after held in the highest esteem by the Chinese, who rank him with\nthe great and good rulers, Hoang-ti, Yao, etc.\n\nTay-tsung also composed, or caused to be composed, a war dance,\naccompanied with the appropriate music; it was intended to inspire the\nsoldiers with virtue and courage, and to make them emulate heroes.\n\nUnder the emperors who came immediately after, comedy and theatrical\nrepresentations flourished. The musicians were always kept within the\nlimits of their caste however. A chief comedian once permitted himself\nto make an allusion to state affairs, in a play; the emperor listened to\nhim with much attention, (the Chinese politeness is such that they will\naccord the most respectful attention to a person whom they would like to\nstrangle,) but after the performance called the actor aside and told him\nthat he kept his troupe to amuse, not to advise him, and sent the poor\nfellow into exile.\n\nAnother time a very talented musician committed a murder, and was\nsentenced to death therefor; several officials endeavored to obtain his\npardon, and a number of musicians presented a petition to the emperor\nacknowledging that the culprit was very guilty and fully deserved his\nfate, but that his talents in music could not be replaced, and that\ntherefore his life should be spared. The emperor\u2019s reply was a worthy\none, \u201cyou fear damage to the art of music\u201d said he, \u201cbut I fear damage\nto the laws and government of the empire.\u201d The sentence was executed.\nOne emperor dared to raise a musician to special rank, and thus defied\nthe strong respect for caste, which existed in China.\n\nY-tsung, the causer of this great scandal, had in his service a great\nperformer, named Li-ko-ki, who was an especial favorite. One day when\nLi-ko-ki had composed a specially agreeable song, the emperor, without\nconsidering his profession, gave him the post of captain of the guards.\nIt caused an immense excitement among the sticklers for etiquette, for\nall previous emperors, when they gave office to their musicians, first\ncaused them to renounce their profession, while Li-ko-ki still continued\nin the practice of music; the emperor however carried his point. Y-tsung\nalso showered other unusual honors upon the members of this profession,\nfor it was his custom to give a dozen festivals each month, when the\nmusical _corps_ were allowed to eat at his own table.\n\nIn traveling, of which he was very fond, he rarely took along less than\nfive hundred musicians.\n\nUnder the last prince of the Tang dynasty there came many disasters upon\nthe Chinese empire, and the successful inroads of the Tartar invaders,\nwere most of all prejudicial to music; at one time the emperor was\nforced to fly from the capital, his palace was pillaged, and the musical\ninstruments in it, either destroyed, or carried off to Tartary. When\npeace had been concluded and tranquillity reigned again, there was an\nearnest effort made to manufacture new instruments, but in doing this,\ngreat obstacles had to be surmounted, the models were dispersed or lost,\nand the official pitch was uncertain. A great search was made for the\nset of bells which represented the authorized ancient scale, but in\nvain; large sums were offered to the Tartars if they would make\nrestitution of those which had been carried off at the sacking of the\nimperial palace, but these savages, after long delays, replied that they\ncould not ascertain what had become of the captured instruments.\n\nThus another disturbing influence was imported into the Chinese music;\nbut it was still as highly-prized an art as of old, for soon after these\ncalamities came rulers who were passionately devoted to it;\nTchowang-song, gave two provinces to a pair of favorite musicians; and a\nsubsequent emperor (_a la Nero_) took to the stage himself, in spite of\nthe horror of his remonstrating censors.\n\nMusic and art took a new impetus under the Song dynasty (A. D. 960 to\n1279), and very many books were written, on music especially, but alas!\nthere was now so much uncertainty in the field of ancient (and therefore\nin Chinese eyes correct) music, that the commentators fell into the same\npit which engulfed the modern decipherers of ancient Greek music, i. e.,\nthey speedily came to all kinds of varying and irreconcilable\nconclusions. One thing they resolved however, which was that the bells\nwhich gave the official scale were not correct; they therefore founded a\nnew set, which were so satisfactory to the emperor and his advisers,\nthat the former ordered his own official bells to be given to the\nfounders for recasting. The musicians were very ill pleased with the new\nsystem, although obliged to conform to it, and yet determined that all\ntrace of the ancient scale should not be lost. They managed by\nconnivance with some officials to save a complete set. The bells were\nindeed removed from the tribunal of music and rites, but instead of\nbeing thrown into the furnace, they were with the tacit consent of high\nauthorities, buried in a court-yard of the palace, and long afterward\nexhumed.\n\nTsai-yu, one of the later emperors, studied deeply to place music on a\nsecure footing,[99] and it is remarkable that his researches into the\nproportions of tones, led him to the same results that were _afterwards_\ndiscovered by the best acousticians of Europe.\n\nKang-Hi, in the year 1678-9, worked for the art in an extraordinary\nmanner; he founded an academy of music, and made his third son president\nof the institution; he wrote a work, \u201cThe true method of the Ly-lu,\u201d in\nfour books, and had a fifth added \u201c_concerning European music_.\u201d[100] In\na proclamation concerning the diminution of the number of\ncourt-musicians, Kang-hi says, \u201cMusic has power to quiet the heart, and\ntherefore was beloved by our sages. They also could while enjoying\nthemselves at its practice, benefit themselves, because the fundamental\nprinciples of government are contained in the art of music. But such a\ncomparison scarcely is suitable to virtuosity. Why, therefore, expend\nmoney on it? I approve of the action of Ngai-Ti, (a former emperor) in\ndischarging them.\u201d\n\nThe knowledge of European music, which this emperor attained, in\nopposition to all previous custom in China, came through the Jesuit\nmissionary Pereira, a Portuguese by birth; and Grimaldi, a missionary of\nthe Propaganda. He found it (contrary to the custom of the Chinese)\nquite to his taste.[101] He was particularly astounded by the ability of\nFather Pereira to set down in notes, and sing any melody, after a single\nhearing. He begged his two guests to prepare a work containing the\nelements of European harmony, and on their completion of it, he had it\nprinted at his palace in a sumptuous manner, and as an especial honor,\nhe had his own name added to it as their coadjutor. He now forced his\nmusicians to learn and to play French, German and Italian music; they\ndid so quite exactly, but most mechanically and with much unwillingness,\nfor it was contrary to all their ideas of art or propriety. Kang-hi saw\nthat the effort would be useless unless he used severe measures in\nenforcing his reform, and like a wise man he yielded and allowed his\nperformers to return to their own beloved style of music. But the spirit\nof reform was yet in him, and so far as he was able, he introduced many\ninnovations and many alterations into all departments of Chinese music.\n\nHe made a proclamation saying that the old instruments though very good\nwere quite worn out, and that as new ones were necessary, he had\nprepared a list of the ones required. One of these _instruments_, can\nscarcely be called a musical one, as it was simply a flag, which was to\nbe displayed during the continuance of the musical performance.\n\nKang-hi is spoken of with much rapture by the Jesuit missionaries, for\nhe was not only European in his taste for music; he not only tolerated,\nbut greatly favored Christianity, and at one time it was feared by his\ncourt, that he was about to embrace that faith. The real secret of his\nintimacy with the Catholic missionaries, seems to have been only a great\ndesire on his part, to acquire new information.\n\nHe was greatly interested in the mechanism of a clavichord, which the\nfathers brought with them to China, and ordered two of his musicians to\ntake lessons from them, upon the instrument; the pupils made very little\nprogress, as they were rather unwilling students.\n\nIt was not only in the emperor\u2019s court, at this epoch, that European\nmusic began to be known; many persons throughout all the empire, sought\nto pave the way to Imperial favor by studying the new art. The method of\nFather Pereira had been sent into each province by the emperor, and the\nancient _Li_ were for a time eclipsed by the _Do, re, mi_, etc., of the\n\u201cwestern barbarians.\u201d It might have been a permanent reform, but for the\nfact that the Chinese had always been accustomed to associate their\nmusic in a peculiar manner, with virtue and morality; each tone\nrepresented some moral precept, each species of the eight varieties of\nsound represented to their mind some high thought or noble virtue; it\nwas this association of ideas, which evoked the eulogies of Confucius,\nand it was this time-honored custom which prevented European music from\nobtaining any foothold among them. When, a short time after, Amiot\nendeavored to ingratiate himself with the Mandarins by means of his\nmusic, he failed utterly, through the same cause.\n\nHe thus relates his effort:\u2014\n\n\u201cI understood music passably well; I played the traverse flute and the\nclavichord; I used all these little talents to make myself welcome to\nthe Chinese. On different occasions during the first years of my stay in\nPekin, I never failed to endeavor to convince those who heard me, that\nour music, excelled that of their own country.\u201d\n\nIt is to be remembered that these were educated persons, able to compare\nand to judge; persons of the first rank, who honoring the French\nmissionaries with their kindness, came often to their abode to entertain\nthemselves with them, with various matters relative to the sciences or\narts cultivated in China.\n\n\u201cThe cyclops,\u201d \u201cThe savages,\u201d[102] the most beautiful sonatas, the most\nmelodious airs of the flute, none of these made any impression on the\nChinese.\n\n\u201cI saw upon their countenances only a cold and vacant look, which\nannounced to me that I had not touched them in the least. One day I\nasked them how they liked our music, and begged that they would tell me\nfrankly what they thought. They answered in their politest way, that\n_our melodies were not made for their ears, nor their ears for our\nmelodies_, it was not therefore surprising, they could not find beauties\nin our melodies, as they could in their own.\u201d\n\n\u201cThe melodies of our music,\u201d said a distinguished doctor (in the service\nof his majesty, the emperor); \u201cthe melodies of our music pass from the\near to the heart, and from the heart to the soul. We feel them, and we\nunderstand them; those which you have just played, have no such effect\nupon us. The airs of our ancient music were something quite different;\none needed but to hear them, to be ravished with them. Our books give to\nthem the most pompous eulogies; but they tell us at the same time, that\nwe have, in a great measure, lost the excellent method by which the\nancients produced such marvellous effects.\u201d[103] It is interesting to\nplace these remarks beside the reiterated opinion of many writers that\nthe Chinese music is not worthy of being called \u201cmusic\u201d at all; and then\nto turn to that most proper definition of the art,\u2014\u201cMusic is the art of\nmoving the feelings by combinations of sounds.\u201d\n\nThe same obstacles exist to-day against change in the music of the\nChinese, as in the days of Kang-hi.\n\nThis emperor, in his later days added to the long list of his musical\nefforts, a volume treating of dances, and also a collection of the most\ncelebrated ancient songs. The missionary who mentions this latter\nwork,[104] assures us that he dares not translate it, lest he should be\naccused of placing the sentiments of the most noble psalms in the mouth\nof the Chinese.\n\nDuring Kang-hi\u2019s reign the flute became quite fashionable in China, the\npeople becoming infatuated with it; Kang-hi himself became proficient in\nits use, but on finding, later, that he had not benefited himself in any\nway by its use he gave up the practice.\n\nYoung-tching, his successor, published new rules for music and assigned\na special music in honor of agriculture and husbandry, which was to be\nperformed each year. He did not take to the Jesuits as kindly as his\npredecessor, for from A. D. 1724 to 1732 he was busily engaged in\nexpelling them from China.\n\nKhian-long, his son, succeeded him in 1736. There is nothing remarkable\nin the history of Chinese music from his day to the present time.\n\nLord Macartney\u2019s embassy (1793) took place during the long reign of this\nemperor. Many persons were attracted to the embassy\u2019s rooms by the\nEuropean band which each evening gave a concert. Among the most\nassiduous of these visitors was the chief of the emperor\u2019s orchestra;\ncharmed with the sound of some of their instruments, yet absolutely\nrefusing to accept of them as a present, he sent several painters to\ntake designs of them on paper. These artists laid clarinets, flutes,\nbassoons, etc., on immense sheets of paper, on which they traced the\nexact shape and size of each, while underneath they wrote remarks giving\nthe exact dimensions of each aperture, valve and tube.\n\nThe chief announced his determination of making similar instruments from\nthese models, but in different proportions, which he proposed to fix for\nhimself. The result of the experiment is unknown.\n\nThe later emperors have all had long reigns, and left music in _status\nquo_, the last emperor Hien-fung being only remarkable for his constant\ndrunkenness. Let us now examine more minutely the order of music which\nhas inspired such disgust to European ears, and such rapture to the\nChinese from the earliest ages down to the present time.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XII.\n CHINESE MUSIC AND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.\n\n\nThe Chinese have from the very earliest times divided musical sounds\ninto eight classes, and imagined that in order to produce them, nature\nhad formed eight kinds of sonorous bodies. They divided them as\nfollows:\u2014\n\n1. The sound of skin, produced from the tanned skin, or parchment of\nvarious animals. 2. The sound of stone. 3. Of metal. 4. Of baked clay.\n5. Of silk, used in the form of strings as we use cat-gut, or wire. 6.\nOf wood, used often in instruments of percussion. 7. Of bamboo, used in\nflutes. 8. Of calabash, a species of gourd, out of which a peculiarly\nconstructed instrument was manufactured.\n\nOf the skins of animals, many different instruments are made, all of\nwhich may be designated under the general name of drums, but the Chinese\npossess various kinds of drums of all shapes and sizes.[105] The most\nancient variety of these was the _Tou-kou_, which signifies earth drum,\nso called because its body was made of baked clay, over each end of\nwhich was drawn the skin. An instrument of this description was both\nfragile and unwieldy; its disadvantages soon caused the clay to be\nreplaced by wood, out of which all subsequent drums were made, the size\nand shape being varied according to the uses for which they were\ndestined. Nothing is said in the ancient writings as to what varieties\nof wood were used in the manufacture of the earliest drums, but\ntradition has it, that at first the wood of the cedar and mulberry, as\nalso sandal wood, were the most used.\n\nThe Chinese possess eight kinds of drums. 1. The _tsou-kou_, which had\nthe shape of a barrel, and was fixed upon a pole which ran through its\nbody. 2. The Yn-kou, similar to the above, but the body more elongated,\nand the staff or pole which supported it usually thrust into the earth\nto keep it firmly in position, while that of the tsou-kou stood upon a\ncross piece at its base.[106] 3. A variety of the _tsou-kou_ called\nhiuen-kou, of very large size; on each side of this drum is attached a\nsmall drum, in shape like a kitchen pot, one of which is to be struck\nlightly, the other heavily. 4. The kin-kou, another keg-shaped drum\nmounted upon a pedestal; it is about six feet long, and six feet in\ndiameter. It receives different names according to the way it is\ndecorated; thus, if it bears on its case paintings of storms, it would\nbe called lei-kou; but if it is ornamented with birds of good omen, such\nas the _foang-hoang_, or white swans, it is called _lou-kou_.[107] 5.\nThe great tao-kou, which is still used to give the signal for the\ncommencement of a song, is about one foot in length and diameter. 6. The\nlittle tao-kou, a cross between a drum and a baby\u2019s rattle, is about\nseven inches long, mounted upon a stick, and through the centre of its\ncase a string is passed; at each end of this string are knots; when this\ndrum is played, the performer twirls it about rapidly, the knots fly\nagainst the skin, and produce a sort of rattle or drumming. This drum is\nused to show the completion of a verse or division of any musical\ncomposition. It is also used in funeral processions and at commemorative\nceremonies.[108] 7. The _ya-kou_, a small drum which is filled with rice\ngrains. The skin of this drum is not only tanned but is boiled\nafterwards in pure water. The sound of this instrument is soft and\npleasant. 8. The _po-sou_ is a drum of cylindrical shape, and is placed\nupon a small table; it is played sitting; in all other respects it is\nlike the _ya-kou_.\n\nThese are the eight varieties of drums known to the Chinese; many of\nthem are still in use; there are also some varieties of military drums\nwhich do not differ much from the preceding.\n\nIt is customary to cover not only the case, but the faces and sticks of\nthe drums with paintings.\n\nDrums are used in China to give the hour at night, to announce persons\ndesiring audience, at some palaces, and for many other purposes as well\nas for music. The Chinese also sometimes muffle their drums (in all\nreligious ceremonies which take place in presence of the emperor)\neffecting this not in our manner, but by covering the instrument with\nornamented draperies of cloth, which absorb part of the sound.\n\n\n OF THE SOUND OF STONE.\n\nThe custom of making a systematic use of stone, in music, is peculiarly\na Chinese institution. In the _Chouking_, one of the most ancient of\nChinese chronicles, we read that already in the almost mythological days\nof Yao and Chun, the Chinese had observed that certain kinds of stone\nwere adapted to giving out musical sounds, and that these tones occupied\nthe place between the sound of metal and of wood, being less sharp and\npenetrating than the former, and more sonorous than the latter, and more\nbrilliant and sweet than either.\n\nEven in those days they carved and shaped the stones, in order to\nextract from them the regular notes of their scale, and made instruments\nof them which even to-day are used in China, and are named _king_.\n\nThese musical stones were highly valued, and received as tribute as\nearly as 2250 B. C. Those found on the surface of the earth, and near\nthe banks of the rivers, were most esteemed, as it was supposed that\ntheir exposure gave clearness and purity to their tone.\n\nThese stones, called _Yu_, are found near the mountain streams and\ntorrents of Yun-nan. They are of extreme hardness and are polished in\nthe same manner as agate and precious stones. Large specimens are\nextremely rare; those which Amiot saw at the Imperial palace, were three\nfeet by one foot eight inches in size, but they were considered unique.\n\nTheir weight (specific gravity) is also very wonderful, for stones which\nseem to be not too heavy a burden for one man, require four men to move\nthem.[109] Those in the palace were of many colors, milk-white,\nsky-blue, indigo-blue, yellow, orange, pale green, sea-green, red and\ngray. Those most esteemed were of a single color throughout, though when\nfive colors blended, it was considered a valuable specimen. It may be\nmentioned in this connection that the number five seems to acquire a\nmystical significance among the Chinese, for their music has five\nprincipal tones, they recognize five elements, five virtues, five\nsenses, five duties, and five principal ceremonies.[110]\n\nSome of these stones resemble marble, and others seem to be\npetrifactions of some sort. We are unaware whether those belonging to\nthe emperor have been examined by any recent geologist. The Duke de\nChaulnes in the last century, came to the conclusion that the stone was\nmarble, but that its organization differed in some respects from ours;\nand that iron entered into its composition.\n\nIt is very difficult to complete an octave with the best of musical\nstones. In carving and ornamentation they require most skillful\nmanipulation lest the pitch be endangered.\n\nUnder the Han dynasty a most harmonious _king_ was presented to the\nemperor. The designs traced upon the stones were not quite satisfactory\nto that potentate; on endeavoring to alter slightly the fashion of the\nstones, the pitch of the instrument was irrevocably lost, and its\nharmony destroyed forever.[111] The _king_ has from time immemorial been\nplayed by striking the stones with a stick or mallet of hard wood. The\nskill of the player is shown in the degree of shading he can impart to\nthe tones, by varying the force of his blows. Of all instruments, the\nChinese claim that the _king_ blends best with the human voice. The\nentire Chinese chronicles teem with praises of this peculiar instrument.\nConfucius was thrown into ecstatic bliss on hearing it for the first\ntime. The musical work entitled _Li-ki_ says: \u201cthe harmonious sound of\nthe _king_ invites the sage to think of the end of life. When he hears\nit, he thinks of death, and fortifies himself in his love of duty.\u201d But\nthis passage refers only to the great _king_ made of _Yu_ (the finest\nmelodious stones), which was only played on great religious occasions;\nit is not singular that this instrument should be associated with\nreligious thoughts. There were other kinds of _kings_ which were used on\nlesser occasions. In the imperial palace were several of smaller size,\ncalled _pien-king_, which were composed of sixteen stones each. The\n_tse-king_ consisted of one large stone, and is used to give the pitch\nto other instruments, to signalize the commencement of a tune, and\naccording to some writers, was anciently used to beat the time\nthroughout a composition.\n\nThe shape of the stones is much like a carpenter\u2019s square; and if\nsixteen of these tools were suspended from a clothes horse, the shape at\nleast of the _king_ would be attained; but in the most ancient specimens\nthe stones are shaped with much more diversity, fishes, bats, and other\nquaint forms appearing with much ingenuity in the different pieces. The\nonly modern instrument of similar style to the _king_, which is known to\nAmerican readers, is the glass-harmonica, where short strips of glass,\nbeing struck by a mallet, give out a melodious, but not very manageable\ntone, and any person performing on the _musical glasses_, not by\nfriction, but by percussion, can give a fair representation of the music\nof the favorite instrument of China.\n\n\n OF THE SOUND OF METAL.\n\nBells have been in China from the earliest ages the most esteemed of\ninstruments. At first their duty was to be a sort of tuning fork; one\nbell being made for chief or fundamental tone, and eleven others giving\nthe various semitones. These bells were much different from our church\nand tower bells; they rather resemble large hand bells, but were of\nsomewhat greater weight. The smallest bells were used in an instrument\ncalled _Pien-tchoung_, which consisted of sixteen of them, tuned in\nunison with the sixteen stones of the king. We have already spoken of\nthe efforts made to suppress the bells, and through them, the authentic\npitch of Chinese music, by one of the conquering emperors.\n\n\n OF THE SOUND OF BAKED CLAY.\n\nOf this the Chinese made a deep-toned whistle, with five to seven\napertures called _Hiuen_. This was probably the primitive instrument in\nChina, as it is mentioned as already existing before the reign of\nHoang-ty, about 2637 B. C. An ancient Chinese Dictionary speaks of the\ntwo varieties of these, saying, \u201cthe larger hiuen should be of the size\nof a goose egg, the smaller, of that of a hen.\u201d\n\n\n OF THE SOUND OF SILK.\n\nUnder this head come all Chinese stringed instruments, for where we use\ncatgut, the celestials use silken cords. Even in the semi-mythical age\nof Fo-hi, they made a simple instrument by extending threads of silk\nupon a board of light wood. Little by little the board was shaped to its\npurpose better; gradually also, the strings were laid with more\nprecision and exactness, and the cords gave out tones deep or high,\naccording to the tension to which they were subjected, or the number of\nthreads of which they were composed; thus by insensible degrees came\ninto existence the _kin_, the leading stringed instrument of the Chinese\nempire. In size, it is larger than all Eastern stringed instruments\nexcept the harp, its length being five feet, six inches. It has seven\ncords which are tuned as follows:\u2014\n\n DO, RE, FA, SOL, LA, DO, RE,\n\ngiving it only five tones. The pentatonic character of this instrument\nis observable in all Chinese music, and causes a slight resemblance\nbetween that music and the Scotch. There are several varieties of the\n_kin_. The large, medium, and small, only differ in their size, and have\neach seven cords, but there is a much larger instrument of the same\nspecies, which is called the _che_, which has twenty-five strings, and\nis nine feet long; it is said that in ancient days there were _ches_\nmade which had fifty strings.\n\nBoth the _che_ and _kin_ were, in true Chinese fashion, made to convey\nnumberless morals and symbols. The breezes of Heaven, the four seasons,\nthe five elements, and the universe were all in some manner dragged into\nthe formation of these instruments. The _kin_ represented life, the\n_che_ death, and before performing upon either, the player went through\ncertain ceremonies to fit himself for the task, and lighted some\nperfumed tapers, which were kept burning throughout the performance. To\nperform on the _kin_, the Chinese held that one must be well advanced in\nwisdom and sagacity. Of the _che_, there exist four different kinds, the\ngreat, medium, small and very small; all these differ in size but not in\ntheir number of strings, each possessing twenty-five. Amiot[112] found\nthe _che_ to be a more agreeable instrument than any known in Europe in\nhis day (1750 circa), as the softer sounds of the silken cords were\npreferable to the metallic sound of the wires of the clavichord.\n\nWe have no instrument in our music which corresponds to the _kin_, or\n_che_; but the zither if trebled in length, and strung with silk instead\nof wire would give a very exact idea of this finest of Chinese\ninstruments.\n\n\n THE SOUND OF WOOD.\n\nThe Chinese have from remotest antiquity, used wooden instruments of\npercussion; it is most natural that the earliest of instruments used by\nman, should have been of wood, but it is also natural that most nations\nshould have laid aside these primitive and toneless instruments. Not so\nthe Chinese however; their wooden instruments are still used as they\nwere four thousand years ago; for the historians date their invention\nfrom the mysterious reign of Fo-hi.\n\nThese instruments are the _tchu_, the _ou_, and the _tchung-tou_, all of\nwhich celebrate and typify the most profound moral precepts, _a la\nChinois_.\n\nThe _tchu_ is a plain wooden box, about a foot and a half deep, in which\na hammer is fastened; by introducing the hand into a small aperture,\nmade for that purpose in the side of the instrument, the hammer is\nagitated, and swaying from side to side, produces a sort of tattoo on\nboth sides of the box. This scarcely can be called _music_ for it is\ndoubtful if the sound is even rhythmic; but it is not the sound alone\nwhich captivates the Chinese ear, the symbol attached to it moves the\nChinese heart, for the sages assure us that this clatter represents (in\nsome mysterious way) the advantages of the social intercourse of men,\nand the mutual benefits of society. The _tchu_ is placed at the\n_north-east_ of the other instruments and is played at the commencement\nof a composition.\n\nThe _ou_ is an image of a sleeping tiger, and is a symbol of the power\nwhich man has over all other creatures. It is placed at the _north-west_\nof the other instruments, and is played at the close of a piece of\nmusic. Along the back of this image is a row of pegs; when the\ninstrument is well played, six tones can be extracted from these wooden\npegs, but usually the performance is ended by the player running the\nstick, by which the pegs are struck, swiftly along the whole row, and\nfinishing with a couple of blows upon the tiger\u2019s head. This is repeated\nthree times as _finale_.\n\nThe _tchung-tou_ cannot really be classed among musical instruments,\nsince they are only the wooden plates upon which music was sometimes\nwritten; their moral is obvious; they bring back to memory the great\ninvention of communication by means of written characters. But they also\nparticipate somewhat in the general clatter produced by the other wooden\ninstruments; they are about fourteen inches long, and one inch wide, are\ntwelve in number, to commemorate the twelve sounds of the scale, and\nserve to beat the measure of the music, by being struck lightly against\nthe palm of the left hand. The twelve pieces are attached to each other\nby means of cords.\n\nThere is besides, a military instrument of wood (though also scarcely to\nbe classed as musical) which is carved in the form of a fish, and is\nsuspended in front of the general\u2019s tent. When any person requires to\nsee that official, he has but to strike this fish with two wooden sticks\nwhich are lying near by, and the audience is immediately granted; so\ngreatly have the Chinese reduced language to various musical sounds,\nthat by the mode of striking with the sticks, the applicant intimates,\nin a general manner, concerning what description of business the\naudience is requested.\n\nThere also exist in China a few other instruments of wood, from which\nregular series of tones can be produced, and upon which tunes can be\nplayed, but these latter seem not to be really Chinese in their origin,\nand are spoken of by the musical commentators of the country, as\n\u201cstrange instruments which have come into use in China.\u201d\n\n\n THE SOUND OF BAMBOO.\n\nIt seems, at first sight, as if this class of instruments should be\nplaced under the head of \u201cwood;\u201d but the Chinese draw a very wide\ndistinction between wood and bamboo, holding the latter in especial\nesteem, as being of all vegetation, the most useful to man; and they\nclaim that nature in producing it, fitted it especially to the art of\nmusic. It is true that it required no great inventive faculty to extract\ntones from the hollow sticks of bamboo, and it is possible that music\ndrawn from the bamboo was the earliest of the Chinese empire. One of the\nmost famed of instruments made of this reed, is called the _Koan-tsee_.\nThis is simply a set of pan\u2019s pipes, arranged according to Chinese\ntonality; the superior (male) tones, called _yang_ being given to one\ninstrument, and the inferior (female) called _yn_ to another, so that to\nhave a melody in any modulations performed, two instruments and two\nmusicians were required. This arrangement was too awkward to last\nforever; finally the two instruments were united in one, and instead of\nbeing weakly bound together by cord, as were the twelve pipes of the\n_koan-tsee_, two strips of thin board held the tubes in place; the\nnumber of pipes was also increased from twelve, to sixteen, and the new\ninstrument called the _siao_.[113]\n\nOf course the Chinese possess flutes, as well as other instruments of\nbamboo. The _yo_ and _ty_ are in some respects similar to our flutes,\nsave that they have usually but three holes, and the tones have\ntherefore to be produced by a more skillful use of the breath than is\nrequired on the European flute. An instrument of the flute family the\nuse of which has become somewhat obsolete, is the _tche_. This is\ndifferent from all other flutes, and is now but little played in China.\nThe _embouchure_ is exactly in the middle, both ends are stopped, and on\neach side of the _embouchure_ are three holes. It was considered the\nmost difficult of all flutes to play.\n\n\n THE SOUND OF CALABASH.\n\nThe calabash is a gourd of pumpkin shape, but somewhat smaller. In the\ninstrument which we are about to describe, we shall see that the\ncalabash (called _pao_ by the Chinese) really emits no sound, but serves\nonly as an air reservoir for one of the most wonderful instruments of\nancient times. The _cheng_, which is the only instrument in which the\ncalabash is used, is in fact a _portable organ_, and when we consider\nthat this intricate instrument was invented about four thousand years\nago, we are lost in astonishment that the invention did not lead to\ngreater results; yet the Chinese have frequently, in other sciences as\nwell, advanced to the threshold of great discoveries.\n\nWe will not detail to the reader, all the legends, symbols, and\nmythology attached to the _cheng_; suffice it to say that animal,\nmineral and vegetable nature is represented by it, and that to each part\nof it is appended some mystical meaning. The gourd is pierced and\ncleaned, and an aperture made for the air to enter, then the ends of\nfrom thirteen to twenty-four pipes of bamboo are inserted into as many\nholes cut in the gourd; each of these pipes contains in it a tongue of\ncopper or gold, the vibration of which causes the sound; beneath this is\na hole cut in the bamboo, through which aperture the air rushes without\ngiving any sound, but when the hole is stopped by pressing a finger upon\nit, the air having no other outlet, is forced up the pipe, and striking\nthe metallic tongue, gives out an agreeable reed sound. A curved\nmouth-piece through which the performer is to blow, is introduced at the\ncentre of the gourd. The _cheng_ contains all the elements of the reed\norgan, and it would be a simple matter to produce harmonies with it, and\nyet with this instrument in the world for four thousand years, it\nremained for moderns (comparatively speaking,) to discover the art of\ncombining different sounds; but the invention of so well-conceived a\nreed instrument in such remote ages, certainly entitles the ancient\nChinese to the utmost respect of their unconscious imitators, the\nEuropeans.\n\n\n MISCELLANEOUS INSTRUMENTS.\n\nThere exist in China, some instruments which are not classed with either\nof the above eight kinds of tone. These we have thought best to group\nunder the head of \u201cmiscellaneous,\u201d though they are quite as important as\nany of the preceding, except perhaps, the _king_, _cheng_, and _kin_.\nThe Chinese have long possessed a peculiar variety of fiddle, which at\nfirst appearance much resembles a mallet with cords stretched from the\nhead to the handle; but the head of this primitive fiddle is hollow, and\nholds a sounding board, though a very small one, of gazelle\u2019s skin. The\nsounds drawn from this oriental fiddle are said to set one\u2019s teeth on\nedge; it is said to be the most execrable of all Chinese instruments.\nThe invention of this fiddle cannot be ascribed to the Chinese, as it\nprobably came from India originally. There also exist several Chinese\ninstruments of a kind much resembling our guitars or banjos. The number\nof strings on these are variable.[114]\n\nFrom remote antiquity, the Chinese have understood the ductility of\nmetal, and it is not surprising that the trumpet is, with them, one of\nthe oldest of instruments. These trumpets are made of all sizes and most\npeculiar shapes.[115] It appears that they are intended to give but two\ntones each, although being made of all sizes, a complete scale can be\narranged by collecting ten or twelve of them. The music of them (as with\nthe ancient Greeks) is judged only by the degree of loudness with which\nit is given, and even when several play together, there is no attempt at\nharmony, but each trumpeter repeats his two notes with vigor and\npersistency; the result is said to be most distressing to European ears.\nYet it is possible to extract beautiful music even from single-toned\ntrumpets, for in Russia, most exquisite melodies are rendered by bands\nof trumpeters, each of whom performs but one note, in the same manner as\ntroupes of bell-ringers give whole pieces of music with small hand\nbells.\n\nTom-toms and gongs also appear frequently in the music of the empire;\nthese are chiefly used to keep the time of the orchestra; there is also\nan instrument analogous to these, which consists of a series of metal\nbasins, (usually of copper) from eight to ten in number, set in a frame.\nThe whole instrument looks not unlike a cooking range with all its\nutensils. These basins are struck with a mallet, and produce sounds\nsimilar to, but less harsh than the gongs. The name of this unique\napparatus is _yin-lo_.\n\n\n THE SOUND OF THE VOICE.\n\nSingular to relate, the Chinese have in their classification of eight\nmusical sounds, utterly omitted to make any mention of the sound of the\nhuman voice. In all their great ceremonies, such as hymns of praise to\nHeaven, and commemoration of the ancestors, songs are used, but never,\non these occasions are female voices allowed. In fact, the female, in\nmusic, occupies about the same position in China, as she once did in\nancient Greece; the better class of respectable matrons do not study any\nart whatever; and the less respectable and the slaves, are allowed to\nperfect themselves in many arts of pleasing, among which a study of the\nlower branches of music, as well as a certain degree of general\neducation is included. A slave is far more marketable with musical\ntalents than without. But women always participated in orchestral music,\nand in a manner rather astonishing to us; they sometimes played the wind\ninstruments. The singular custom of allowing the weaker sex to play the\npart requiring the strongest lungs was quite universal among ancient\nnations, and the Chinese may be regarded as a nation who have kept their\nancient usages almost intact. It is seldom however, that women assist in\nany concerts whatever; the instrumental playing as well as the singing\nbeing almost always wholly rendered by men.\n\nFew travellers have heard a musical Chinese lady sing, and those who\nhave enjoyed this rare event, say it is the most torturing of all\nChinese music; from the _nose_ and throat issue the most droning and\nhideous sounds, and they seem to pile Ossa upon Pelion in the way of\nunnatural tones.\n\nAlthough the female voice is therefore lacking in the concerted music of\nthis singular people, the parts sometimes run very high for male voice\nand the singers for these parts are procured in the same manner in which\nthe papal choir in the last century, procured its highest male\nvoices.[116]\n\nOf the divisions of the vocal parts in singing, very little is as yet\nknown, although many books must exist upon the subject, which have\nhitherto been inaccessible to foreigners. The natural voice of the\nChinese is rather high, and very high tenors are not at all rare in the\nempire.\n\nThe voice in China is trained to much flexibility by the exigencies of\nthe language, for the Chinese is in one sense, the most musical of\nlanguages, as a word acquires half a dozen different significations\naccording to the pitch of voice, or inflection with which it is\npronounced.\n\nThe number of different words in the whole Chinese tongue does not\nexceed three hundred and fifty; all the additional ones, are simply\nvariations of these by lowering, or raising the voice. This leads the\nforeigner into endless complications and misunderstandings; for example,\nthe word _tchu_ pronounced clearly with the vowel of medium length,\nmeans \u201cmaster,\u201d but by extending the vowel a trifle it signifies \u201chog;\u201d\nit also means \u201ccolumn,\u201d and \u201ccookery.\u201d The syllable \u201c_po_\u201d has eleven\ndifferent meanings\u2014\u201cglass,\u201d \u201cboil,\u201d \u201ccaptive,\u201d \u201cprepare,\u201d etc., each of\nwhich must be pronounced with a different pitch and inflection.[117]\nAmong the original words are some which decidedly are taken from nature,\nsuch as \u201c_tchung_,\u201d\u2014\u201cbell,\u201d \u201c_miaou_,\u201d\u2014\u201ccat,\u201d but these are very few.\n\nSome authors have endeavored to show from these facts, that the Chinese\nis in all respects a musical language, but this can hardly be conceded,\nfor the inflections spoken of, are so slight as to escape the European\near, which surely would not be the case if they were really musical\nnotes, since we have seen that Father Pereira, in the last century, was\nable to note down at first hearing, and imitate any Chinese song. The\npeople in conversation give the voice a flute-like sound, but this has\nscarcely arisen from any special musical quality in the language itself.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XIII.\n CHINESE MUSICAL COMPOSITIONS AND CEREMONIES.\n\n\nThe most ancient music with the Chinese as with all people, seems to\nhave consisted of hymns to the Deity, rendering thanks to Him for the\nbenefits given to man in the various departments of labor. These were\ndivided according to the class which used them, into agricultural,\nmilitary, piscatorial, etc. Very soon after these, there came into\nexistence that reverential ceremony in memory of the ancestors, which is\nso characteristically Chinese, and which became, of all their festivals,\nthe most important and the most musical.\n\nThis ceremonial as conducted by the emperor is as follows. In the\nvestibule of the hall are retainers who bear a particular kind of\nstandards, which show that the coming of the sovereign is expected. Here\nalso are seen bells, drums, and musicians, as well as officers of the\nguards, all standing in symmetrical figure, and motionless in their\nposition. On entering the hall one sees, right and left, the performers\non the _cheng_ and _king_, and the minor instruments, all arranged in\ntheir proper order. In the middle are placed the dancers, in uniform and\neach holding in hand the instrument which they are to use in their\nevolutions. Near the end are placed the players of the _che_ and _kin_\nas well as the performers on the style of drum called the _po-sou_, and\nthe singers. Finally, at the lower end of the hall are seen the\nrepresentations of the ancestors themselves, either in the form of\nportraits, or of simple tablets bearing the name of each. Before these\nis a table on which stand flowers and libations. Each performer and\ninstrument is placed in an allotted position. For example, the bell is\nat the south-west, the _cheng_ at the north-west, the drum at the\nsouth-east, the flute at the north-east, and the table at the south; and\nthis arrangement is never departed from.\n\nWhen the signal announcing the approach of the emperor is heard, the\nsingers and musicians, slowly and with great majesty, begin the hymn of\nhonor, while the emperor, with stately and dignified tread, advances to\nthe table at the south of the hall.[118] It is a moment of holy awe\n(somewhat akin to the instant when the Host is elevated in Catholic\nchurches) for the spirits of the departed are supposed at this time to\ncome down from Heaven to their descendants. We give here an English\nparaphrase of the words of part of this hymn, which we have translated\nfrom the version of Father Amiot.\n\n\n Hymn to the Ancestors.[119]\n\n When\u2019er I think of you\n Oh ancestors so great,\n Then to the highest Heaven\n My soul I elevate.\n There in th\u2019 immensity\n Of the eternal springs\n Of Fame which cannot die\n And constant happiness\n Are your immortal souls.\n The vision transport brings\n Your valor has reward\n Your virtues Heaven doth bless\n Around your joyous souls\n Each new delight it flings.\n Ineffable your joy\n Your constant happiness.\n If I in spite of faults\n And of insufficience\n Am called on by the high\n Decrees of Providence,\n To fill upon the Earth\n The very highest place\n \u2019Tis but because I am\n Descendant of your race.\n Although I never may\n In your great footsteps move\n Yet I will care display\n Throughout my life\u2019s high course\n That every act of mine\n Shall to descendants prove\n That I lived not in vain\n And need not feel remorse.\n\nIn giving this, necessarily weak, translation of the opening part of the\nhymn, we have endeavored to preserve the short Iambics of the Chinese\nversion; but in the Chinese there are only eight lines to the first\ndivision, therefore four lines of the translation correspond to one of\nthe original. After the chorus has sung as far as this, which is only an\nexordium, or manner of worthily preparing for the following exercises,\nthe emperor prostrates himself three times, touching his forehead to the\nearth each time, and then taking the libations, offers them up to the\ndeparted: meanwhile the chorus sing the second part of the hymn, still\nin the name of the emperor.[120] In this he again alludes _per_ chorus,\nto his noble descent, and thanks them for leaving their abode of bliss\nto visit him, and humbly prostrated, begs to render homage to them, and\nentreats that they will accept the libations offered, as a testimonial\nof profound respect and perfect love.[121] After offering these, the\nemperor prostrates himself nine times to the earth, and then resumes his\nposition in front of the table, while the chorus sing the third part of\nthe hymn. During this final division of the music, the spirits which\ndescended at the first part are supposed to be reascending to Heaven. In\nthe third part the emperor (still by proxy) states how mean and pitiful\nhe feels, after such illustrious predecessors, and tells how heavy the\nburdens of state are to him, and thanks his ancestors for their\nspiritual assistance. He concludes with the statement that he can do\nvery little to testify his appreciation of all their benefits, but what\nhe is able to do he has done.\n\n\u201cThree times with respect, have I offered the triple sacrifice; not\nbeing able to do more, my vows are satisfied.\u201d The hymn being finished,\nthe emperor retires with his ministers and _cortege_ in the same order\nin which they entered the hall. The music continues until he has reached\nhis own apartments. Dancers participate in this ceremony and are\nsumptuously clad and really assume a _role_ of much importance. As with\nthe ancient Greeks and Romans, they are not to be thought of as being\njumpers or twirlers; they express by their motions the sentiments which\nactuate the emperor as he eulogizes his ancestors, expresses his own\nunworthiness, his gratitude, pride, and other emotions. The music of\nthis august ceremonial, is entirely written in whole notes, without any\nchange of rhythm whatever. It is rather monotonous than distressing to\nour ears.\n\nThis is not the case with other vocal compositions of the Chinese;\nnearly all travellers agree in saying that their music, in this branch\nespecially, resembles far more the cries of the nocturnal cat than the\nhuman voice. The composers seem to have an aversion to progression by\ndegrees, in their songs, and a decided _penchant_ for long skips. We do\nnot intend a slur upon the Scotch music when we say that there are\npoints of resemblance between the Chinese music and the former. Some\nChinese airs (given by Irwin and Barrow[122]) show this resemblance\nstartlingly. Although the Chinese understand the division of the\nchromatic scale perfectly well, yet they never use it; five tones are\nall they ordinarily employ; these are\n\n FA, SOL, LA, DO, RE,\n\nomitting even the semitone of our diatonic scale. Some of their most\neminent theorists have maintained that the notes pienkoung (si) and\npienche (mi) are as useless to music as a sixth finger would be to the\nhand.\n\nIt will be observed that the semitone progression is not used in China,\nand though known, is universally proscribed and avoided; it is this\nwhich occasions the peculiarities of Chinese music. On this subject we\ncannot refrain from re-quoting an article on Chinese music, which\nappeared in the \u201cChina Mail,\u201d a Hong-Kong newspaper, in 1845.[123]\n\n\u201cOne possessed of a musical ear, and at all conversant with the musical\nart, cannot fail, on his arrival in this country, to be struck with the\npeculiarities of what is esteemed music here. He notices at once, that\nthe characteristics of western melody, are almost wholly wanting. Nearly\nevery note seems out of place, and there is neither beginning, middle\nnor end, to the airs he listens to. Instead of a theme which is\ndeveloped and embellished by the whole performance, he hears a\nhurry-skurry of notes, apparently flung together without link or\naffinity; and even the confusion of sounds to make it worse, instead of\nfinishing in a quiescing cadence, passes beyond what is looked for as\nthe last note, and sometimes ends with what we should call a flatted\nkeynote, leaving the listeners in a most uncomfortable state of suspense\nand uncertainty as to what may follow. For my own part, I have not been\nable as yet to discover whether the Chinese recognise such a thing as a\nkeynote among the parts of song, or whether their composers begin,\ncontinue, and end their tunes _ad libitum_.\u201d\n\nWe have inserted the above that the reader may judge how strongly the\nmusic distresses the musical European at first hearing; but it is also\nnot to be forgotten that the Eastern, (Hindoo and Arabian) music had a\nsimilar effect upon persons who a year later were obliged to acknowledge\nthat they had begun to find beauty, and take pleasure in it.\n\nOf other court musical ceremonies, the emperor\u2019s birthday, the harvest\nsacrifice, the feast of agriculture, and the fifteenth day of the first\nmoon, are the most important. The first occasion is described by Lord\nMacartney, who heard it on the 17th of September, 1793. It began with a\nslow majestic sound of deep-toned bells and muffled drums, in the\ndistance. This impressive music was occasionally interrupted by sudden\npauses; with equal suddenness the whole force of singers and\ninstrumentalists would burst out with their utmost strength, while the\nentire court bowed their faces to the earth as often as the refrain was\nsung:\u2014\u201cBow down your heads ye inhabitants of the earth, bow down your\nheads before the great Kien-long.\u201d\n\nThe emperor was not visible during these ceremonies.\n\nAmong the secular pieces, collected by Amiot, is one which demands\nespecial notice; it is an instrumental representation of a battle. It\nwill be recollected that fifty years ago, many popular European\ncompositions took this shape. \u201cThe battle of Navarino,\u201d \u201cthe battle of\nPrague,\u201d \u201cWaterloo,\u201d etc., were the out-crops of this mania: the Chinese\ncertainly have better instruments than we had, wherewith to represent\nthe din of combat.\n\nIn the accompaniment of songs, the Chinese seem to stand, as regards\ntheir harmony, about where Europe stood in the middle ages, for they use\nas sole and only harmony, when playing on the _kin_, a succession of\n_fourths and fifths_.[124]\n\nThe constant use of instruments of percussion, in slow and monotonous\nsongs, is one of the most tiresome institutions of the Chinese music;\nalmost all the tunes are taken at an _andante_ or _adagio_ pace, and it\nis but just to say, that the Chinese chiefly dislike European music\nbecause it is often played quickly.\n\n\u201cTo what purpose\u201d they ask, \u201cshould one dance and hurry in this manner,\nand how can such things penetrate to the soul? With us\u201d they add\nproudly, \u201call is done calmly, and without precipitation.[125]\u201d\n\nIt must be acknowledged, that the Chinese love, and take pride in music,\nthat is, in their own kind. In every great state ceremony, in theatres,\nin religion, it everywhere plays the leading _role_.\n\nOne of the nine tribunals which have charge of the general affairs of\nthe empire, is charged with the care of music, rites, and ceremonies;\nand the mandarins of music are considered of much higher rank than the\nmandarins of mathematics, and have their college in the enclosure of the\nimperial palace.\n\nThe fondness for the art is apparent in all classes, and music is used\non almost every occasion of festivity, high or low. The streets of the\ncities are full of peripatetic musicians, who earn their living by\ncatering to the general public, somewhat as the organ grinders do with\nus.\n\nThe feast of lanterns is the greatest of all popular Chinese festivals;\nit takes place on the fifteenth day of the first moon, and corresponds\nto a New Year\u2019s feast. On this occasion every part of the immense cities\nof the empire glows with the light of innumerable lanterns, while\nfire-works and decorations are seen on all sides. In the streets are\nseen large _Lantern Theatres_, that is to say, edifices made of paper;\non the inside, which is brightly illuminated, is a stage whereon actors\nand singers give plays and concerts. Another great festival, where music\nplays a leading part, takes place on the fifteenth day of the eighth\nmoon. On this evening the Chinese imagine that a _hare_ is seen in the\nmoon, and to the sound of many instruments, the entire population turn\nout to look at it. It is customary for friends to send each other cakes,\non which the figure of a hare is moulded, in sugar. Concerts are an\nimportant accessory to this festival with both rich and poor; the former\nmake every effort to secure the best singers and performers for their\nentertainment on this holiday; the latter, not being able to have the\nmore delicate instruments content themselves with a clatter of basins,\npots and frying-pans, and make with these a sort of burlesque concert.\n\nAt each full moon there takes place a festival in which gongs and\ncannons rather than musical instruments are heard. Besides these\nfestivals which are celebrated throughout the empire, there are also\nlocal ones, which are numberless. The richest class generally keep their\nprivate troupe of musicians, whom they own almost as slaves. Often also\nthey educate young children of both sexes, in the musical art with the\nutmost care, in order that when grown up they may swell the ranks of\ntheir musical retinue. Among these are often special artists whom they\nwill not allow to appear on ordinary occasions, but reserve to perform\nbefore their own family, or intimate friends to whom they wish to show\nespecial honor; at such times, the ordinary performers are sent away.\n\nAmong the strolling musicians, there are many who make their living by\ngoing to private festivals of the middle classes, such as weddings,\nbirthdays, and other rejoicings, even when uninvited; these are similar\nto our ball room musicians, but also bear some resemblance to the\nitinerant performers of early Eastern nations. In Poland there still\nexists a similar class.\n\nFor the poorer class, there are also, numerous blind musicians, who\ntravel from house to house, sometimes in bands, sometimes alone. We have\nalready compared these to our own organ-grinders, but they differ from\nthem in one particular; they do not rely so much upon making music\nindiscriminately, but go, with much tact, to those places where their\nservices are likely to be required.\n\nIn China the custom of celebrating the birthday anniversary is\nuniversal; these wandering minstrels recollect the date of the birth of\neach individual for miles around, with unerring exactness, and when a\nbirthday _fete_ occurs in any family, they may calculate with some\ndegree of certainty that the music will come without being sent for.\n\nThere are other occasions, where these shrewd disciples of the muses can\nturn an honest penny; if a skillful physician has saved the life of the\nwife or child of some rich man no higher compliment can be given to him\n(besides his fee) by the grateful nabob, than to invite him to a great\nfeast, and to send an escort of eight musicians to convey him thither,\nbesides bringing him numerous presents.\n\nMusic is employed at funerals, but the friends of the deceased, are not\nallowed to perform it; for months after, etiquette forbids their\ntouching any musical instruments.\n\nThe mourning for a parent, or grandparent is very strict and protracted.\nIn China filial love and obedience are the virtues most insisted upon.\nIf the descendants give forth any musical sounds at all it is only to\nhowl dismally a chant respecting the virtues of the defunct; there are\nmany of these compositions, or \u201clamentations\u201d in existence, of which the\npoetry is by no means despicable. When the funeral ceremony is taking\nplace, some trumpets and a drum placed at the door, announce the arrival\nof visitors who come with their condolences to the afflicted family.\nAfter the body is buried with the ancestors, the _bonzes_, (Chinese\npriests) chant the office of the dead, for nine days, and in the\nprocession itself drums, trumpets, tam tams, flutes, etc., play a\ndiscordant dirge.\n\nWe have already mentioned the wooden fish suspended at the tent door of\nmilitary commanders to summon them to audiences concerning public and\nprivate affairs. Mandarins have, in like manner, a drum in the outer\nhall of their palaces, by means of which they can be summoned to give\naudience to any applicant; they are obliged to give immediate attention\nto the complaint of any person beating the drum, but woe to the\naudacious drummer who does not have some very especial wrong to complain\nof; he is immediately soundly bastinadoed.\n\nAt eclipses of the moon, the Chinese use their musical instruments in a\npurposely hideous manner. This is done to frighten away the dragon which\nis supposed to be eating up the orb of night. Instruments of percussion\nare chiefly used on this occasion. The same instruments (i. e. gongs,\ndrums, trumpets and tam-tams) are used to aid the marching of the army.\n\nThe _musical language_ such as we use in directing the movements of\ncavalry and artillery, is much more extended, though differently used in\nChina; such musical signals are used in commanding civil as well as\nmilitary personages. Various trades have their especial songs also,\nwhich they sing at their work.\n\nBut the music of China, although extending into every department of\nsocial and official life, is totally incapable of any advancement.\nMusical martinets are continually exclaiming against the changes in\nstyle of composition, which innovators are constantly introducing into\n_our_ art,[126] but it is these changes which give the surest signs of\nreal life and intrinsic merit to modern music.\n\nIn China, precisely as formerly in ancient Egypt, no such changes are\npossible; the music for each and every event is as carefully mapped out\nand adhered to, as is the cut of the garments, or the exchange of\ncivilities among this precise people.[127]\n\nIf ever change takes place in their musical system it will assuredly be\na gravitation towards the European, as they have in a certain measure a\ncomprehension, theoretically at least, of our system of semi-tones, but\ncould by no means conceive of, and accurately produce the third and\nquarter tones of Indian music. We have already related the ineffectual\nmovement towards western style, made in the last century; during the\nembassy of 1793, Macartney observed many indications of inclination for\nour system, such as the use of the violin,[128] the notation of music\nupon ruled paper, and interest in the band concerts given at his rooms\neach evening. He also found in the emperor\u2019s palace at _Yuen min-yuen_,\nan English musical clock, made by Geo. Clarke, Leadenhall Street,\nLondon, which played many selections from the \u201cBeggar\u2019s Opera.\u201d[129] It\nis certainly not too venturesome to predict, in spite of the jarring of\ntheir music upon us, that they may yet develop a taste for some of the\ncoarser branches of ours.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XVI.\n THE CHINESE THEATRE AND DANCES.\n\n\nAlthough the Chinese are passionately fond of plays, yet they do not\npossess a good fixed theatre in their chief cities; for those edifices\nwhich are regularly used for this purpose are never of a good class, and\nmany of them are even considered disreputable. The cream of the\ntheatrical troupes are reserved for private entertainments; when a\nnumber of people of the middle class desire a comedy, they club together\nand engage a troupe. The upper classes, as already stated, have always\ntheir private comedy company. They have also their private halls for\ndramatic representations.\n\nThe Chinese, have like ourselves, Comedies, Tragedies, Farces, Ballets,\netc., and the music attached to them is always of the style of the play.\nThere is an excellent description of the ceremonies and social etiquette\nused at a private dramatic entertainment, given by Du Halde.[130] He\nsays, ... \u201cIt was then, four or five of the principal comedians were\nseen entering the hall, in rich costumes; they made a profound bow all\ntogether, and struck the earth four times with their forehead.... They\narose and their chief addressing one of the principal guests, presented\nto him a book composed of long tablets, on which were written, in golden\nletters, the names of fifty or sixty comedies, which they knew by heart,\nand any of which they were ready to perform on the spot if desired; from\nthis book they begged the guest to make a choice. The guest excused\nhimself and handed the volume politely to a second guest, with a sign of\ninvitation; the second guest passed it to the third with the same\nceremonies, the third to the fourth, etc. All excused themselves, and\nfinally the book was returned to the comedian, who yielded at last,\nopened the book, and ran his eye over the list a moment, and then\ndecided upon a comedy which he thought would prove agreeable to all the\ncompany. Should there be any inconvenience in producing any particular\nplay, the comedian-in-chief is expected to announce it; one of these\ninconveniences would be, for example, that one of the chief characters\nof the play bore a name similar to that of one of the guests. After the\nchoice the comedian shows to the guests the name of the play which he\nhas chosen, and each one signifies by a nod of the head, his approval.\nThe representation begins with some music which is essentially Chinese\nand noisy. It is performed with metal basins, drums, flutes, fifes, and\ntrumpets. The play is often performed at a banquet, and after the guests\nhave finished their meal, the comedians take their places at the table;\nafter a short refreshment the guests are recalled and the play proceeded\nwith, or a new farce is chosen and performed as dessert.\u201d\n\nMany of the plays are not destitute of poetry and plot. It may not be\nuninteresting to give a short sketch of the style of incidents woven\ninto their plays by Chinese authors.\n\nThe following is an outline of the plot of a play performed before the\nEnglish embassy, Lord Macartney\u2019s, in the latter part of the last\ncentury; it was given in a private theatre, by a private troupe.\n\n\u201cAn emperor of China and his empress are living in supreme felicity,\nwhen on a sudden his subjects revolt. A civil war ensues, battles are\nfought; and at last, the arch-rebel, who is a general of cavalry,\novercomes his sovereign, kills him with his own hand, and routs the\nimperial army.\n\nThe captive empress then appears upon the stage, in all the agonies of\ndespair, naturally resulting from the loss of her husband, and her\ndignity, as well as the apprehension of that of her honor. Whilst she is\ntearing her hair, and rending the skies with her complaints, the\nconqueror enters, approaches her with respect, addresses her in a gentle\ntone, soothes her sorrows with his compassion, talks of love and\nadoration, and like Richard the Third with Lady Anne, in Shakespeare,\nprevails, in less than half an hour, on the Chinese princess to dry up\nher tears, to forget her deceased consort, and to yield to a consoling\nwooer. The piece concludes with a wedding and a grand procession.\u201d[131]\n\nEngel, who quotes the above plot, well says[132] \u201chow interesting would\nit be to the student of national music, to possess an exact notation of\nthe music belonging to this scene \u2018(the empress complaints)\u2019 and to\nascertain in what manner the intense emotions and vehement passions\nrepresented are expressed in the Chinese musical compositions.\u201d\n\nThe above plot is curious in its Shakespearian resemblance, and seems to\nbe a drama of the superior order, for Lord Macartney was shown the\nhighest and best side of Chinese life and art; the comedies of the\npeople are less refined and of broader touches. We give as companion\npiece to the above, a comedy plot which is a favorite one with Chinese\nauthors as well as the public.\n\nThe emperor Vouti, having lost one of his wives, whom he tenderly loved,\nhad recourse to a celebrated magician, who assured him that his spouse\nwas not dead as supposed, for she had bought of him the elixir of\nimmortality; she still existed, but lived chiefly in the moon from\nwhence the magician promised he could cause her to descend as often as\ndesired. The emperor caused to be erected, under the superintendence of\nthe magician, a very high tower, to facilitate her descent; he also\noften assisted at the incantations of the wizard, but as the fair\nimmortal did not respond, the imposter, fearing the anger of his royal\nmaster, invented a new stratagem to avert this unpleasant conclusion. He\nwrote upon a piece of silk a counterfeit letter from the dear defunct\ngiving various pretended reasons as to why she could not return\npersonally to the royal lover; this letter is given by the sorcerer to a\ncow, who is then led by him to the emperor to whom he confesses that\nsome involuntary crime has, for the present, interrupted his intercourse\nand influence with the immortal beings, but that in the stomach of the\ncow he has perceived something; Vouti commands that the animal be opened\non the spot, and the silken message is discovered; the magician is\nalready enjoying his triumph when it is perceived that the characters of\nthe communication are in his own handwriting. He is at once condemned to\ndeath, and the emperor thenceforth renounces magicians, immortal\nelixirs, etc., etc.[133]\n\nIt is well known that the Chinese often give, on the stage, a\nrepresentation of the life of the hero of the play from early infancy\n(sometimes even _from birth_) to death, and these representations last\nweeks in their performance; every action being done deliberately; for\nexample, if a performer smokes a pipe, he does not give a whiff or two\nand then go on with the action, but calmly and placidly smokes it out to\nthe last puff.\n\nFairy spectacles, the Chinese also possess, in which Genii appear and\ndisappear, as well as birds and beasts endowed with the power of speech.\nTheir farces are of a much broader character, and often in these, the\nclownish, awkward character is a European or an American; they heartily\nenjoy all his mishaps, even his manner of lifting his hat and bowing,\nbeing held up to ridicule; it is very much the same kind of pleasure as\nwe \u201cwestern barbarians\u201d enjoy in seeing such farces as \u201c_Ici on parle\nFrancais_\u201d or \u201cThe Perplexed Dutchman,\u201d where the habits of a Frenchman,\nand German, are the mirth-provoking element; or of a piece with the\ncharacter of Sir Hugh Evans and Dr. Caius, in Shakespeare\u2019s \u201cMerry Wives\nof Windsor.\u201d\n\nThere is another point of resemblance in Shakespeare, to the Chinese\ndrama: his following of the life of Henry VI. so closely and extensively\n(through three parts) suggests the more extensive life-history-dramas of\nthe celestial empire. But the Chinese also give the \u201coutside barbarians\u201d\na thrust, _au serieux_; for in their plays the devil often appears,\ndressed as a European.\n\nIn the music of their dramas, the Chinese are decidedly Wagnerian, for\nnot only do they use a great many loud instruments (chiefly of\npercussion) but they illustrate with them the action of the drama; when\nan actor enters into a combat at arms, the orchestra pound away at their\ninstruments with redoubled vigor. The characters often sing long _arias_\nto the accompaniment of these voice-drowning instruments.[134] There is\nmuch spoken action as well as song in these dramas, which therefore\napproach more nearly to our _vaudevilles_ than any thing else.\n\nChoruses are few in Chinese pieces, but sometimes the air is sung by\nmany voices, in order to emphasize it, and make it more plainly\nperceptible above the racket of the orchestra.\n\nThe Chinese have also many tragedies and comedies wherein no music\nwhatever is employed. The actors in these, assuming the ordinary\nconversational tone.\n\nConjugal infelicity and infidelity, form a staple plot with these, and\nthe same inappropriate and ludicrous entering into detail is apparent in\nthem.[135]\n\nMovable scenes are not used, and the most infantile devices are used\nwhen a rapid change is necessary; a general having to depart on a\ndistant expedition, mounts a hobby horse, or even a cane, and using a\nsmall whip with one hand, imitates riding, (three or four times around\nthe theatre being sufficient) and then, announcing that he has arrived\nat his destination, goes on with his speeches without any embarrassment.\nThis is but one example of the many where the dramatists draw heavily\nupon the imagination of their audiences.\n\nThe actor on entering (in the play) begins by announcing his name and\ntelling the audience why and wherefore he has come; this is done to\nsimplify the following of the action, as in some dramas there are hosts\nof characters and one player often assumes many _roles_.\n\nSuch puerility is caused partly by the small size of the stages, which\nwould not admit a host of performers, and partly by the fact that many\nof the characters in a Chinese play are comparatively unimportant,\nappearing once, and then vanishing forever; in fact at the end of some\nof the Chinese dramas, one is considerably mystified as to the fate of\nmany of the characters, as the author, unlike the European and American\ndramatists, who make everybody (except the villain) happy in the last\nact, only deems it necessary to follow out closely the career of his\nhero and heroine, and they being once dead, the other characters are\nallowed to wind up in a very sudden and, to us, very unsatisfactory\nmanner. The musical part of these dramas is often quite long, and\nwhenever the actor desires to express much feeling, he falls into music.\nSometimes it is introduced in a most unnatural manner; in one tragedy, a\nwife having murdered her husband is sentenced to be _flayed alive_;\nafter the execution of the sentence, she returns to the stage wholly\nbereft of her skin, (this is depicted with true Chinese realistic\neffect, the body of the performer being painted in exact imitation of\nnature in such a hideous plight) and she then and there sings a song to\nexcite the pity of the infernal spirits. The song is full of screeches\nand howls, and lasts half an hour.[136] Let us not be too hasty in\nsmiling at such absurd stage effects; there is an opera still performed\non our own stage, where an innocent Jewess is boiled in oil, as\n_finale_, and as to the inappropriateness of a long song, under such\ncircumstances, there is a long chorus in a French opera of the last\ncentury, where the mayor of the village having fallen into the water,\nthe anxious choristers sing for many minutes, that \u201che will he drowned\nunless he is speedily helped out;\u201d decidedly we must not smile too\nbroadly at the Chinese, as yet.\n\nSir John Barrow[137] speaks of the theatre, which he visited, as a mere\n\u201cShed of Bamboo.\u201d He says: \u201cIn the farther division of the building, a\nparty of comedians were engaged in the midst of an historical drama,\nwhen we entered; but on our being seated they broke off, and coming\nforward, made before us an obeisance of nine genuflexions and\nprostrations, after which they returned to their labors, keeping up an\nincessant noise and bustle during our stay. The heat of the day, the\nthermometer standing at eighty-one degrees, in the open air, and at\nleast ten degrees higher in the building, the crowds that thronged to\nsee the strangers [this was in 1792, when Europeans were great rarities\nin China] the horrible crash of the gongs, kettle drums, trumpets, and\nsqualling flutes, were so stunning and oppressive that nothing but the\nnovelty of the scene could possibly have detained us a moment.\u201d\n\n\u201cThe most entertaining, as well as the least noisy part of the\ntheatrical exhibition, was a sort of interlude, performed by three young\nwomen, for the amusement it would seem of the principal actress, who sat\nas a spectator, in the dress and character of some ancient queen, whilst\nan old eunuch, very whimsically dressed, played his antic tricks like a\nscaramouch, or buffoon in a Harlequin entertainment.\u201d\n\n\u201cThe dialogue in this part, differed entirely from the querulous and\nnearly monotonous recitation of the Chinese, being light and comic, and\noccasionally interrupted by cheerful airs, which generally concluded\nwith a chorus. These airs rude and unpolished as they were, appeared to\nbe regular compositions, and were sung in exactly measured time. One in\nparticular attracted our attention, whose slow, melancholy movement\nbreathed the kind of plaintiveness so peculiar to the native airs of the\nScotch, to which indeed it bore a close resemblance.\u201d [We have before\nspoken of this resemblance, which proceeds from both scales, Chinese and\nScotch, being pentatonic, or five toned.] \u201cThe voices of the women are\nshrill and warbling, but some of their cadences were not without melody.\nThe instruments at each pause gave a few short flourishes, till the\nmusic gradually increased in loudness by the swelling and deafening\ngong. Knowing nothing of the language we were of course as ignorant of\nthe subject as the majority of an English audience is at an Italian\nopera.\u201d Thus speaks Barrow of his first impressions of a Chinese\ntheatre, but he probably fell into two errors; the _women_, whom he\nmentions were in all likelihood, eunuchs; and the theatre itself, being\npublic, was of inferior style to those private establishments which are\nthe pride of the rich mandarin class.\n\nIt is singular, however, that the noise of the gong, tamtam, trumpet,\netc., are inseparable from all Chinese dramatic performances: although\nthe noise is deafening, and the voices of the actors are sometimes\ndrowned in spite of their shouting themselves hoarse, yet this\npandemonium only gives tranquil delight to the Chinese spectator whether\nhe be of high or low class. It is so extraordinary a fact that\nphysiologists and anatomists have endeavored to prove that the cause is\ndue to a peculiar formation of the Chinese ear.[138]\n\nCertain it is that the Chinese are so passionately fond of the drama,\nthat they will sometimes pass many hours in succession in this noisy\nentertainment.\n\nThere is a tremendous number of comedians in China; most of them are\npurchased in early infancy by the chiefs of troupes, and by them trained\nin music, singing, declamation, pantomime, and dance. It is a species of\nslavery, not very unlike that of old Rome, but is not always life-long.\n\nSome comedians, especially the chiefs, acquire large fortunes in the\nexercise of their calling, but the caste is so looked down upon, by the\ngeneral public, and the facility of confiscating their fortune is so\ngreat, that they seldom attempt to leave the profession, or make any\ndisplay of their wealth, lest it should be seized under any pretext by\nsome mandarin, in which case (in spite of the theoretical justice of\nChina) it would probably be beyond recovery.[139]\n\nWe may mention here, a peculiar mode of paying actors, in Cochin China.\n\nThe occasion described is an entertainment, the expenses of which were\nborne by the Quong, or provincial governor. An Englishman who was\npresent, thus speaks of the affair,\u2014\u201cThe Quong was there squatted on a\nraised platform in front of the actors, with a small drum before him,\nsupported in a diagonal position, on which he would strike a tap every\ntime any part of the performance pleased him; which was also a signal\nfor his purse bearer to show a small string of about twenty _cash_ to\nthe actors. To my taste this spoiled the effect of the piece; for every\ntime the _cash_ fell among them, there would be a silence, and the next\nmoment a scramble for the money; and it fell so frequently as almost to\nkeep time with the discordant music of the orchestra.\n\nThe actors were engaged by the day, and in this manner received their\npayment, the amount of which depended upon the approbation of the\n_Quong_, and the number of times he encored them by tapping his drum. I\ncould see that many of them paid far more attention to the drum than\nthey did to their performance; though I suppose the amount thrown to\nthem is equally divided. Sometimes the string on which the _cash_ was\ntied, unluckily broke, and the money flew in all directions; by which\nsome of the by-standers profited, not being honorable enough to hand it\nup to the poor actors.[140]\n\nThis was a public performance and took place in a large shed, before a\nnumerous audience. Often the theatrical performances are allowed to take\nplace in the Joss-houses or houses of worship, the _bonzes_ or priests\nbeing wise enough not to offer any obstacles to a mode of amusement so\nthoroughly loved and appreciated by all the Chinese.\n\nIt is somewhat singular, and yet in keeping with the custom of the most\nancient nations, that the Chinese should at the same time enjoy the\ndrama so keenly, and despise the performers of it. The comedians are\nkept as thoroughly within their caste as musicians were in Egypt, four\nthousand years ago. Parents in China have almost unlimited power over\ntheir children (filial love and obedience is the highest of Chinese\nvirtues,) they may sell them as slaves, or in some instances kill them,\nbut they are not allowed to sell them to the troupes of strolling\ncomedians, or to magicians. Any person so selling them is punished with\none hundred blows of the bamboo, and any go-between or middle-man, in\nsuch transactions, receives a similar dose; any person of free\nparentage, marrying an actor or actress, is punished in the same manner,\nin spite of the precedent of several emperors. The crime of intimacy\nwith actresses is punishable with sixty blows, but this is easily\neluded, and the law seems to be obsolete. This punishment is not\nattended with much infamy; the bastinado is in fact the lightest of\nChinese punishments. When the number of blows does not exceed twenty,\nthere is no disgrace whatever attached to the infliction: it is then\nconsidered only a paternal chastisement; the emperor himself often\norders this correction to be administered to high officials for slight\nfaults, and afterwards treats them as if nothing had happened. After\nsuch paternal punishment is inflicted, the victim goes on his knees to\nthe judge, bows his head three times to the earth, and _thanks him_ for\nthe care he has given to the education of his subject.[141]\n\nIt is significant that the \u201cState Gazette\u201d of Pekin, which will often\nenter into details concerning the death of a private soldier, and give\neulogies to the military valor of the most humble, does not even mention\nthe decease of the most brilliant and well-known comedian, no matter how\nmuch applause may have been accorded to him while living.\n\nIn such a country as China, it is easily imagined that there exists a\nlarge troupe of \u201ccomedians to the emperor.\u201d These although not more\nsuperbly costumed than those of some rich mandarins, are clothed in a\npeculiar manner. Of course it would not be allowable to turn their backs\nupon the emperor, and yet often the action of the play, might demand\nthat they turn around. This dilemma is overcome by allowing them to wear\ntwo masks, one on the face, the other at the back of their head, and\nthus, Janus-like, they can always face the emperor. Their clothing is in\nconsequence different from that of ordinary actors, having two fronts\nand no back.[142]\n\nThe _corps_ of singers, declaimers and musicians of all kinds belonging\nto the Imperial court, is of course very large.\n\nThe dances of China, are as with all Eastern or ancient nations, purely\npantomimical, there are few pirouettes and skips as in our _ballet_. The\nnames and subjects of some of the earlier dancers, will show this\nconclusively; \u201cThe labors of Agriculture,\u201d \u201cJoys of the Harvest,\u201d \u201cThe\nfatigues of War,\u201d \u201cThe pleasures of Peace,\u201d \u201cThe skill of Hunting,\u201d etc.\nThese all show a primitive style of the art, and are not far removed\nfrom the dances we shall find in vogue among the most crude children of\nnature, such as the Australians, the Bushmen, or the Tasmanians. The\nChinese possess (as did the Egyptians) a number of gymnastic\nperformances similar to our clog, ballet, and comic dances, but these\ncome a long way after the dance proper, in the estimation of the people;\nthe word _ou_ which signifies dance, does not apply to them. We cannot\nbe surprised if from earliest times the regulation of the dance has been\na matter of State legislation.\n\nThe ancient emperor was allowed eight dances, with eight performers to\neach, his full troupe containing sixty-four members. Kings of Provinces\nhad six dances of six performers, thirty-six in all; and thus through\nall the upper ranks, literary doctors being allowed only two dances of\ntwo performers each. Only certain instruments were allowed as\naccompaniment, and the direction of the whole was always to be in charge\nof various musical doctors. There also existed dances which were called\n\u201clittle dances,\u201d as they were taught to children at a tender age; the\nnames of some of these are interesting; \u201cthe Dance of the Flag,\u201d danced\nin honor of the spirits of earth and the harvests, so called because the\ndancers waved small banners; \u201cThe Dance of the Plumes,\u201d in honor of the\nspirits of the four quarters of the world, in which the young dancers\ncarried a plume of white feathers, attached to a short stick; \u201cThe Dance\nof the Foang-hoang,\u201d which was danced to induce the assistance of the\nmysterious bird (already described) in times of drought, and in which\nthe dancers held plumes of feathers of five colors; \u201cthe Dance of the Ox\nTail,\u201d in which each dancer swings an ox tail; \u201cThe Dance of Javelins,\u201d\nwhere this weapon was brandished in honor of river and mountain spirits;\nand finally, \u201cthe Dance of Man,\u201d in which the hands were quite free, no\naccessories being used.\n\nThe \u201cJavelin Dance,\u201d was not altogether pleasing to the great\nphilosopher Confucius. He condemns it as being too war-like, and the\ngestures accompanying it, as too savage; as a whole he thought it liable\nto inspire cruel sentiments. He preferred the \u201cDance of the Plumes,\u201d as\ncontaining all the chief elements of the \u201cJavelin Dance\u201d without\ntendency to cruelty. In the palace, the sons of the emperor only, were\npermitted to the \u201cDance of the Plumes.\u201d\n\nAt the epoch, when these dances were at their zenith, the emperors had a\npeculiar way of showing by them their approbation, or condemnation of\ntheir viceroys. When the viceroy was presented at court, if his\nadministration seemed good to the emperor, he was welcomed by numerous\nand lengthy dances; if, on the contrary his government seemed worthy of\ncensure, the dances were both short and few.\n\nThe following were the customs observed in presenting them:\u2014Long before\nthe dance began, a drum was sounded \u201cto dispel from the minds of the\nspectators any thoughts unsuited to the occasion.\u201d On the arrival of the\nperformers, they took three steps forward and put themselves in an\nattitude, calculated to impress the beholders; a sort of _tableau\nvivant_. The entrance was always accompanied with a slow movement of the\nmusic, which gradually augmented both in speed and volume, until the\n_finale_, when the climax having been reached, the music had attained a\npresto movement, and the dancers retired with precipitation in order\nthat the interest might not have time to flag.\n\nSometimes the dancers carried a small shield with bell attached.\n\nThe Chinese sages deeply regret the loss of these ancient dances; (for\nlike all excellent customs the modern writers claim that they were at\ntheir best in \u201cthe good old times,\u201d) it seems that the ancient Chinese,\nendeavored in the dance, to reproduce an easily-comprehended allegory of\nthe natural actions of men; the movements, gestures, attitudes, and\nevolutions, all to be natural and easily understood by the spectators.\nSince the days of Confucius, this simple style of dancing has fallen\ngreatly to decay.\n\nIn those days many of the emperors of China studied and understood the\nart of dancing. History shows many such \u201cDavids\u201d (although not so well\nknown as Israel\u2019s royal dancer) in the dynasties of the empire. Autumn\nwas the favorite season for the study of dancing, as the \u201cfeast of\nancestors\u201d takes place in the Spring, and the pupils were ready to\nexhibit their proficiency at that great event. The ancient practice of\nimperial dancing, was continued even as recently as 1719, when one of\nthe sons of Kang-hi, of the age of twenty, performed before the emperor\nand his court. There are also mandarins whose duty it is to dance before\nthe emperor; the pantomime of these is especially graceful and\ndignified. They advance slowly two by two, their limbs and bodies moving\ngently to the time of a tranquil music; they turn around without\nquitting their relative positions, and after a series of gestures made\nin perfect unison, and some symmetrical evolutions, they make the salute\nof honor, and retire. This dance seems to be only a formal expression of\nhomage to the emperor. The dress of these officials is uniform, and\nelegant, fine silk capes, caps, etc., the only difference of costume\nbeing the buttons, with which the top of the caps are ornamented; the\ndifferent color of these being indicative of greater or lesser rank.\nThis _corps_ of dancers is recruited from the wealthiest and greatest\nfamilies of the empire.\n\nIn the dances, every detail is strictly systemized and observed; the\nvery positions are calculated according to the points of the compass;\nthus one dancer is always placed at the north-west, another at the\nnorth-east, the entrance is to be made from a fixed cardinal point, the\nexit at another; all is rule and precision.\n\nThe number of dancers is not at present limited to that given above\n(sixty-four for the emperor, thirty-six for viceroys, etc.) as the\nancient standard. At times of great festivity, the dancers of the\nImperial court are reckoned by hundreds. Such _grandes ballets_, are\nalmost always symmetrical and in concerted movements; but there are also\n_solo_ dances; in these _pas seuls_ the dancer often accompanies himself\nwith both song and instrument. This proves how slow and majestic the\nmotions must be.\n\nIn dances, females very often appear, but in private only. Mandarins\nfrequently own female dancers and singers, whose performances are\nreserved for their own families. It is but rarely, and as a mark of\nespecial honor, that they allow some intimate friend to view the dancing\nof these slaves.\n\nSpectacular pantomimes, such as delight the theatre-goers at Christmas\ntime in Europe and America, find also a congenial atmosphere in China; a\nmost beautiful one was performed in the presence of the emperor, and\nLord Macartney, in 1793. In this representation the object seemed to be,\nto illustrate upon the stage, the wonders and fertility of the world, or\nan allegory of the intermarriage of earth and ocean. The earth gave\nforth in this pantomime, a large number of its animals, and products;\nelephants, tigers, dragons, ostriches and eagles, as well as oaks,\npines, bamboos, and other specimens of vegetation appeared upon the\nstage; while upon a lower stage, the ocean sent forth whales, dolphins,\nporpoises, and also vessels, rocks, weeds, sponges, and coral. Each of\nthese creations was true to life, and in many of them were concealed\nactors who represented the motions and habits of the animals in a manner\nquite natural. After these products of earth and sea had performed\nseveral evolutions separately, each division moving in a separate\ncircle, all united and came to the front of the stage, where a farther\nseries of movements was enacted; suddenly the entire mass of actors\ndivided, moving swiftly to the right and left in order to give place to\nthe whale, who seemed a sort of commander in chief. This immense fish\nthen advanced to the front of the stage, opposite the box in which the\nemperor was seated; on arriving here, he lifted his head and spurted an\nenormous mass of water, amounting to many barrels full, into the pit of\nthe theatre; where (holes having been bored to receive it) it swiftly\ndisappeared.[143]\n\nThis performance seemed to give the greatest delight to the Chinese part\nof the audience. The music attached to this spectacle, was as usual of\nthe most deafening character.\n\nOf the lower order of dances, such as tumbling, harlequinades, etc., the\nChinese have a vast variety; even puppet shows (_marionettes_) are\ngreatly used by them, and plays with simple plots, very skilfully given\nby their means. This is the story represented at one of them;\u2014An\nunfortunate princess is kept prisoner in a castle surrounded by dragons:\nto her comes a bold warrior, who after many combats with dragons, wild\nbeasts and other horrible creations, succeeds in killing, vanquishing\nand dispersing them. He is recompensed by receiving the hand of the\ngrateful princess, and the whole concludes with processions, tournaments\nand other festivities.[144]\n\nAs to the musical part of all these lesser performances, it is nearly\nalways present, and ever of the peculiar style which has filled every\ntraveller (so far as we know _without exception_), with utter distaste.\nThe juggling performances, of which there are many, both public and\nprivate, are accompanied throughout with the above described orchestra.\nFeats of skill, performed by troupes of children are especially admired\nby the Chinese, and much sought for. The children begin their training\nin these arts, very young.\n\nBoat races have also their music, which is evidently intended to\ninspirit the oarsmen. The following is a description of such an event,\n(so far as it relates to music).\n\n\u201cOn each side of the little mast that supports the national flag, are\ntwo men, who leave off striking the tum-tum, and executing rolls upon\nthe drum, whilst the mariners leaning over their oars, row on\nvigorously, and make the dragon junk, skim rapidly over the water.\n\nWhilst these elegant boats are contending with each other, the people\nthrong the quays, the shore and the roofs.... They animate the rowers\nwith their cries and plaudits; they let off fireworks; they perform at\nvarious points, deafening music, in which the sonorous noise of the\ntum-tum, and the sharp sound of a sort of a clarinet, giving perpetually\nthe same note, predominate over all the rest. The Chinese relish this\ninfernal harmony.\u201d[145]\n\nWe have dwelt with some detail upon the music of the Chinese, for we\nconsider these people, musically as well as ethnologically and\nphilologically a series of contradictions, and especially differing from\nall our conceived notions of right and propriety: a nation where music\nis heartily loved, and taught to youth,[146] and yet where musical\nprogress is almost unknown; where goodness and love are taught in the\nmost beautiful writings, and where greater cruelties are practised than\nanywhere else on earth. They differ from us on almost every point. We\nmourn in black, they in white; we respect crowns as badges of honor,\nthey the boots; we build solid walls, they make them hollow; we pull a\nboat, they push it; we place the orchestra in front of the stage; they\nbehind it; with us children fly kites, with them, men; we scratch the\nhead when puzzled, they, the antipodes of it, etc, etc.[147]\n\nA nation so strange cannot be judged flippantly or speedily; only a\nshort time since we held the Japanese in the rank of the semi-civilized;\nnow they are making giant strides on the highway of progress. Who dare\nsay that the Chinese may not yet experience a similar awakening? At\npresent their heaviest drawbacks, in music, as well as in all\ncivilization, seem to be, a senseless clinging to ancient usages; an\neducation of the head, and not of the heart; an etiquette which becomes\nboth ludicrous and burdensome in its requirements;[148] a totally false\nposition of woman; and a theoretically competitive, but practically\ncorrupt public service. There have recently been unmistakeable signs of\nprogress, and, once begun, it is more than probable that the reform will\nbe thorough and swift as it has thus far been with their neighbors. In\nsuch case, China will be of far higher interest to the world than she\nhas been to us in our describing her as\u2014a curiosity shop.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XVII.\n MUSIC OF JAPAN.\n\n\nIt is a singular fact, that while the Japanese have in all ages given a\ngreat deal of attention to poetry the kindred art of music has been\nsuffered to remain almost neglected. Their musical system has never been\ncarefully formed or elucidated, and although they may vie with the\nChinese in the beauty of their poetical effusions, in the field of music\ntheir research is nothing, when compared with the immense patience and\nstudy which the latter people have given to the subject.\n\nAlthough there are few treatises on the art, yet the practice of music\nis now deemed an essential part of the education of a Japanese young\nlady, for contrary to Chinese custom, we find that in Japan, the female\nsex are proficient in the art.\n\nAlthough at first glance there seems to be much affinity between\nJapanese and Chinese music, (so much so, that it seems natural to\nsuppose that the former was an outgrowth of the latter) yet, upon closer\nanalysis, these resemblances are found to be few, and the contradictions\nmany and irreconcilable.\n\nThe Japanese songs do not appear to have been founded on the Chinese\npentatonic scale, but rather upon the _chromatic_.\n\nIt is very possible, that the music of Japan had its rise long ago,\nwithin the limits of the island. Unfortunately, in this branch of\nhistory, we can as yet, come to no definite conclusion; the absence of\nall knowledge of the system (if there be one worthy of the name) on\nwhich their melodies are formed, and the very slight knowledge of the\nancient history of the people, confine us altogether to conjecture and\ninference. That China exerted some influence upon the musical style of\nJapan, is undeniable. In the year (A. D.) 57, an embassy was sent from\nthe island, to the Emperor of China, with presents. The return of this\nexpedition, brought to the (at that time) totally rude and uncultivated\npeople, the fruits of the older Chinese civilization, and it was\nprobably at that epoch, that the Chinese instruments, which still exist\nin Japan, were introduced.\n\nThe instruments of Japan, though resembling, are much cruder than their\nChinese, prototypes. The _che_, of China, is found under the name of\n_koto_. It is larger than the _che_, but has fewer strings; the latter\nare of silk, lightly lacquered. The _sam-sin_ is a guitar, with a very\nlong neck, and has three strings. These instruments are among the\nindispensable articles of the wedding outfit of every bride.[149]\n\nOf wind instruments they have many styles of flutes and a trumpet, made\nof a conch shell.[150] The _cheng_ (small mouth organ) is also possessed\nby them. It is called in Corean dialect _saing-hwang_.[151] Gongs,\ntamtams, and noisy instruments of percussion, the Japanese possess in\nprofusion; they have also a curious instrument, quite like the Egyptian\nsistrum,[152] formed of two sonorous metallic rings upon a light frame\nwork, which give forth a tinkling and jingling upon being shaken, or\nstruck with a small stick.[153] The _ko-kiou_ is a kind of violoncello\nplayed with a bow; the birva is a similar instrument, which is picked\nwith a _plectrum_. The same plectrum is used in performing upon the\n_sam-sin_. The clarionet is used very frequently; it is made of bamboo,\nlike the flute. There is also an eight-holed flageolet. Among the\ninstruments of percussion, are wooden rattles; stone drums like bowls,\nwhich stand on low frames; a musical drum made of leather; the\n_tam-tam_, or portable tambourine; gongs of all shapes, such as shields,\nfishes, tortoises, etc., producing all tones grave and piercing; bells,\nand kettle drums.\n\nThe tambourines which accompany the character dances, are sometimes\nplayed two at a time; one being held under the arm, the other in the\nleft hand.[154] There is a picture extant, representing a Japanese\nconcert, in which there is one melodious instrument (a flute) against\n_six_ instruments of percussion, such as bells, cymbals and drums.[155]\n\nThe Japanese ladies not only play the various instruments, but study\nsinging, assiduously. The language is well adapted to vocal efforts,\nbeing one of the most melodious and soft of the East; it approaches the\nItalian in its smoothness; it is monosyllabic,[156] but not varying with\nthe pitch of the voice, as the Chinese does. (The written characters\nhave been derived from the Chinese.) The very alphabet, or the nearest\nJapanese approach to it, is converted into a short song, which is\ncharacteristic of the materialistic views of the people.\n\nThe poetic setting of the \u201cIrova\u201d (as this is called) runs thus:\u2014\n\n \u201cColor and light pass away\n In our world nothing is permanent\n The present day has disappeared\n In the profound abyss of nothingness.\n It was but the pale image of a dream;\n It causes in our bosoms no regret.\u201d[157]\n\nNothing can give a stronger picture of the philosophy of Buddhism and\nits influence upon the Japanese mind.\n\nBuddhism was so well suited to the temper of the people, that upon its\nintroduction into the country (A. D. 552) it almost absorbed the ancient\nstyle of worship (Sintuism), and has, at the present time, so altered\nthat superstition, that the prevailing aspiration of one branch, even of\nthat creed, is an escape from trouble into nothingness. The mode of\nworship is exceedingly simple, and in the main, joyous; there is no\nthought of supplication to their deities; for as they regard these as\nbeing in a state of bliss, they deem that the sight of any person in\ndistress, must be painful to them, and therefore, when in trouble, they\navoid going to religious exercises. In fact on the days of religious\nfestivals, they behave in a manner which we should call decidedly\nimmoral, but they do it with the best of motives, for they argue that\nnothing can please the gods more than to see mortals enjoying themselves\nheartily; and on this plea, both Buddhists and Sintuists indulge in all\nkinds of excesses on holidays.\n\nMusic does not play a very important part in the religious ceremonies of\nJapan. The Sintuists, who worship the Kami, or demi-gods, employ choirs\non some occasions, and bear in all their ceremonies, some resemblance to\nthe Catholic rites; this resemblance is yet more striking in the\nBuddhist religion; so much so, that a pious divine[158] on beholding\ntheir customs, came to the conclusion that the whole was a parody by\nSatan, upon the Catholic church.\n\nThe annual _fetes_ instituted in honor of the chief Kami, consist almost\nwholly in ceremonies of purification. On the day before the chief\nsolemnity, the priests march in procession, with tapers, to the temple\nwhere the arms and other objects which belonged to the demi-god, are\nkept in a reliquary called _mikosi_. According to the priests, the\n_mikosi_ is the earthly dwelling place of the _Kami_; a sort of\nterrestrial throne, for occasional inhabitance; and each year it must\nundergo a thorough purification, in order to be acceptable to the hero.\nThe reliquary is emptied and brought to the river; a certain number of\npriests carefully wash it, while others kindle a series of huge fires,\nto keep away the evil _genii_. The _kagoura_, or sacred choir, play soft\nand pleasant music, in order to appease the Kami, who is temporarily\ndeprived of his earthly dwelling; they make as much haste as possible to\nrestore it to him, which is done by placing the relics again in the\nreliquary.\n\nThe temple itself undergoes a purification lasting several days, at the\nsame time. Sometimes the Buddhists send out collectors for their\ntemples, who sing and play, quite musically, in front of the doors of\npersons from whom they expect to obtain a gratuity; they continue at\neach door until the heart of the proprietor is softened, or his patience\ngone, when the door is opened and the singers rewarded civilly.[159]\n\nIn order that the similarity of the Buddhist and Christian rites may be\nremarked, we give the description of the interior of a temple during\nworship, as seen by a European traveller.[160]\n\n\u201cA hundred kneeling devotees were present; a large shrine, with a gilt\nimage in its recess; two large globular lamps, and two burning candles,\nimmensely long and thick; as also numerous gold and porcelain vases,\nholding lighted tapers, and surrounded by a forest of artificial\nflowers, were the objects that most riveted his attention. On both sides\nof this magnificent and richly gilded shrine were two smaller ones, each\nilluminated with lighted candles and perfumed tapers, burning with\ncolored flame; the effect of which was very beautiful. In front of the\nprincipal altar, within an enclosure, knelt six shaven-headed priests\n(the latter, and physicians shave the whole of the hair off their\nheads), robed in crimson silk, and white crape; the centre and chief of\nwhom engaged himself in striking a small saucer-shaped bell, while four\nmore of the number performed a similar duty with padded drumsticks on\nhollow vessels of lacquered wood, which awoke a dull, monotonous sound.\nThey kept good time, playing in unison, and toning their prayers to\ntheir music in chanting. At the conclusion of this singing and drumming\nthey bent their foreheads to the floor, after which they arose and\nrepaired to the smaller shrines, where a ceremony made up of\ngesticulation and a solemn reading of prayers, took place. In the\nmeantime, the audience knelt, with their eyes directed to the ground,\nand gave some time to silent prayer.\u201d\n\nMusic bore a part also in the funeral ceremonies of some sects in Japan.\nThe priest sang a eulogy of the dead, just before the funeral pile was\nset on fire.[161]\n\nThe order of \u201cmountain priests\u201d use a few instruments of sound (rather\nthan music) in their wanderings. They have a staff with a copper head,\nto which are fastened four rings, also of copper, which they shake on\nuttering certain words in their prayers. They also carry a shell called\n_forano-kai_, to which a tube is attached, and which they use as a\ntrumpet. They blow a blast upon this instrument (which in tone resembles\nthe horn of a cowherd) whenever they see any travellers approaching, as\na summons to them to give some charity to the order.[162]\n\nThere also exist several orders of a semi-ecclesiastical character;\namong which may be mentioned the society of blind men. One branch of\nthis society gives the following legend as to its origin. Kakekigo, a\ngeneral much renowned for his valor and supernatural strength, fought\nunder a prince, named Feki, against the famous hero, Joritomo. In a\ngreat battle Feki was killed, and Kakekigo taken prisoner. Joritomo, far\nfrom desiring to put him to death, sought by every means to attach him\nto his own army. One day, when he was pressing him very close to enter\ninto his service, upon whatever terms he pleased, the captive general\nreturned him the following resolute answer:\u2014\u201cI was once the faithful\nservant of a kind master. Now that he is dead no other shall boast of\npossessing my faith and friendship. I owe even my life to your clemency;\nand yet such is my misfortune, that I cannot set my eyes on you, but\nwith a design, in revenge of him and me, to cut off your head.\nTherefore, these designing instruments of mischief, I will offer to you,\nas the only acknowledgement of your generous behavior towards me which\nmy unhappy condition will allow me to give you.\u201d Saying this, he plucked\nout his eyes, and presented them, on a salver, to Joritomo; who,\nastonished at so much magnanimity and resolution, instantly set him at\nliberty.\n\nKakekigo then retired into the province of Fiuga, where he learned to\nplay upon the birva (a musical instrument mentioned above), and founded\nthe society of the Feki-blind, of which he himself was the first head.\nMany of the members of this society apply themselves to music, in which\ncapacity they are employed at the courts of Princes and great men, as\nalso upon public solemnities, festivals, processions, weddings, and the\nlike. The society does not solicit charity, but its members all strive\nto be self-supporting, as well as of mutual assistance to each other.\nWhoever is once admitted as a member, must remain so for life.[163]\n\nThe Birva, mentioned above, is a great favorite with the masses,\nespecially when played by the Feki musicians, who still make it their\nchief instrument. It has been known in Japan for twelve hundred\nyears;[164] and one of the most beautiful lakes in Japan, near Kiota is\nnamed Birva Lake, from its shores resembling the outline of that\ninstrument.\n\nThe religious chanting of some of the larger sects, is quite impressive.\nMr. Sile, Professor of History and Philosophy at the Imperial University\nof Yeddo, says:\u2014\u201cSome of the chants are very impressive; especially\nthose of the Buddhists; they have a kind of sepulchral solemnity about\nthem, and when performed responsively by large companies of Bonzes, on\neither side of a gloomy temple, in front of a shadowy half-illumined\nshrine, they sound like the mournful wailings of prisoners, not of hope,\nbut of despair.\u201d[165]\n\nThe peculiarity of the performance lies in this: every man chants, not\non a given key, but on that which best suits his natural voice. The time\nis well kept, but the key notes are as various as each voice that sings;\nas each one is allowed to choose his own pitch. The effect is good; it\ngiving that blurred and massive sound, which is observed when a large\ncongregation repeats the \u201cLord\u2019s Prayer\u201d together; but the inflections\nand intervals are more marked and effective. Instrumental music is also\nsometimes present. The bonzes clad in heavy, sacerdotal vestments,\nofficiate to an accompaniment of gongs and tambourines.\n\nThe solemn entry of the high priest into the choir, makes an immediate\ndiversion in the monotony of the service. This grand dignitary is clad\nas richly as the bishops and arch-bishops of the west; red cloak, green\nsilk stole, and white embroidered robes. He is followed by a young\nacolyte, dressed chiefly in white, who accompanies his master, step by\nstep, to offer to him, at an understood signal, a cup of tea from a\nportable vessel which he carries with both hands.[166]\n\nSome of the Buddhist bonze-houses are celebrated for their luxury, the\nnumber of their priests, their magnificent attire, and the theatrical\ngrandeur of their religious ceremonies. There are also endless numbers\nof retainers, heralds, grooms and porters, attached to the monasteries.\nThe bonzes often give theatrical spectacles, in which dancers and\ncomedians appear. A very curious piece is given on the fifteenth day of\nthe sixth month. It is a sword dance, or military pageant, performed\nentirely by the priests. Buddhism in Japan has been a most flexible and\nconciliatory religion. It has succeeded so easily against the older\nJapanese religion of Kami, or hero-worship, because its introducers saw\nwhat customs had become rooted in the Japanese heart, and retained them.\nThus we find the worship of heroes, tolerated in the Buddhist faith, as\nwell as every spectacle and sound, calculated to please the senses of\nthe people. It also steered clear of the rock upon which Christianity\nsplit (in Japan), that is, the alienation of the people from their\nrulers or sovereign.\n\nPlayers of secular music, are numerous everywhere in Japan, but few of\nthem have any idea of time or notation. Blind musicians (of the\nfraternity above mentioned, and of another called the Buffetz) are\nnumerous and much encouraged by the people, probably on account of their\ninfirmity. Women and girls form the bulk of the secular players and\nsingers. Most of these have been brought up to this from childhood, and\n(as with the ancient Greeks,) the possession of a musical and literary\neducation often goes hand in hand with considerable laxity of morals.\n\nThe practice of music is, therefore, not held in any great esteem among\nmen, as the few males who devote themselves to it are chiefly\nitinerants. The secular songs are often plaintive in character, but at\ntimes also quite stirring and fiery.\n\nIn Japan, as in some other Eastern countries, it is not unusual to find\npersons among the upper classes, who, while disdaining to study the art\nthemselves, yet are very fond of listening to the performances of hired\nmusicians. The taste seems to run entirely in the direction of melody,\nand not at all towards harmony; although they have a knowledge of a rude\nkind of harmony, consisting of melodies played upon two or more\ninstruments tuned a fifth apart, thus forming an endless succession of\nconsecutive fifths. This harmony, or a plain melody played in unison,\nthey prefer to the finest (or, in fact, any) European music. Our readers\nwill recollect the answer made by the Chinese mandarin to Pere Amiot,\nrelative to his opinion on the respective worth of Chinese and European\nmusic. A similar reply was given by a Japanese nobleman to Dr. M\u00fcller,\nwhen asked to give an opinion on our music,\u2014\u201cEuropean music may please\nwomen, children, and common people, but Japanese gentlemen may not\nendure it.\u201d\n\nIn singing, the Chinese custom of using falsetto tones, obtains also in\nJapan. One peculiar taste for Western music exists among the Japanese;\nthey like, and purchase many of our music boxes, and many are made in\nSwitzerland especially for the Chinese and Japanese market. These\ncontain two Chinese airs; but it is said that the people would enjoy\nthem even more, if there were no harmonies attached. The entire\ninstrumental music of Japan, partakes of a tinkling character,\nsuggestive of a music box.\n\nSecular singing is an indispensable adjunct of banqueting and feasting.\nThese are frequently enlivened by songs and the sound of stringed\ninstruments.[167]\n\nThe Japanese have a great _penchant_ for excursions, banquets and lively\nenjoyments; they have been, not inaptly, called the \u201cParisians of the\nWest;\u201d hence it is not surprising to find houses of entertainment\nscattered broadcast throughout the realm. In these tea houses, every\nkind of dissipation, from the most innocent, to the reverse, is found,\noften under the same roof. The most aristocratic of these resorts, have\na numerous staff of attendants, among which are singers, dancers, and\nguitar-players. Although these establishments appear disreputable in\nEuropean eyes, yet the Japanese gentleman does not hesitate to take his\nwife and children thither, for a pleasure jaunt. When we consider that\nthe Japanese are the most careful people in the world regarding the\neducation and behavior of their wives and children, we cannot attribute\nthis seeming incongruity to negligence.\n\nIn tea houses of an inferior rank, when female dancers and musicians are\nnot among the assistants, they may be sent for, and engaged by the hour.\nThese women never enter the lower class of tea-houses, unless thus sent\nfor. In this respect, as well as by the correctness of their behavior,\nthey are to be distinguished from the lower order of street musicians\nand dancers at fairs. These are not allowed to perform in private\nhouses; the law compels them to confine their music to such places as\nare subject to police regulations. Theatres being included in this\ncategory, they often appear there, at the request of performers in the\nplays, in order to figure in the ballet.[168]\n\nIn Yeddo, many of the tea houses are built along the banks of the river;\nand in this case, they have large family boats or gondolas attached,\nwhich they let out by the hour, to such parties (and there are many) as\ndesire to take their recreation upon the water. Guitar players and\nrefreshments are furnished with these boats.\n\nThe lower classes are passionately fond of listening to story tellers\nand singers, and these, as in other Eastern countries, give open air\nperformances, trusting to their ability to delight their audience, for a\nvoluntary recompense.\n\nEvery day at the close of working hours, one may see groups of artizans,\nand laborers, as well as many women of the working classes, either at\nthe door of the workshop or at a street corner, arranged in a\nsemi-circle around the story-teller.\n\nNational legends and romances are usually given only by those women who\nhave made a profession of music and singing. This branch of street\nsingers forms a large class; they are less roving than the others, and\nsometimes of rather a high order of talent, as compared with their more\nitinerant associates. The most distinguished of them have three or four\nmusicians as accompanists, and do not themselves play upon any\ninstrument. The effect of these combinations is said sometimes to be\nvery charming, when heard and seen on a summer\u2019s evening, in a light\nbamboo frame work, hung round with vines, and lighted with paper\nlanterns.\n\nHumbert has given the subject of some of these legendary songs, and they\nare found to be of a most sensational description. A few examples will\nsuffice to prove this.\n\n\u201cAsahina-Sabro charges a troop of enemies, and passes through them,\nlifting with his right hand, a soldier wearing a casque and cuirass, and\nspinning him round in the air, while with the left hand he kills two\nequally redoubtable warriors with one blow of his mace.\u201d[169]\n\n\u201cNitan-nosiro, the dauntless hunter, astride on the back of a gigantic\nwild boar, which has flung down, and trodden under its hoofs, all the\ncompanions of the hero, holds the furious monster between his knees, and\nplunges his cutlass into its shoulder.\u201d\n\n\u201cSonsige, one of the horsemen of the Mikado, finds his comrades\nsquatting around a checker board; he spurs his horse, and with one\nbound, it stands in the centre of the board, as motionless as any bronze\nequestrian statue.\u201d\n\n\u201cTame-tomo desired to conquer the island of Fatsisis. As he mercifully\ndesired to avoid bloodshed, he set about convincing the islanders that\nresistance was useless. He therefore summoned the two strongest men of\nthe race of the Ainos (the ancient inhabitants of Japan) and, seated\ncalmly upon a mass of rock, he presented his bow to them, holding it by\nthe wood and ordering them to try and bend it. Each seized it with both\nhands, and setting their heels against the wood of the bow, they leaned\nback with all their weight, and pulled the string with all their\nstrength. Every effort was in vain; the bow only yielded when Tame-tomo\ntook it delicately between the finger and thumb of his right hand, and\nshot an arrow which was immediately lost in the clouds.\u201d\n\nIt must be remembered, however, that these highly spiced romances are\nthe especial pabulum of the lower classes; and it may be ranked\nconsiderably higher than the musical recreation of the working classes\nof China.\n\nThe laborers of Japan, sometimes sing while at their toil, in a measured\nbut cheerful manner.[170] Before leaving the subject of Japanese songs,\nit may be interesting to note that in the days of K\u00e6mpfer, the Japanese\nwere as curious about our songs, as we are to hear those of barbaric\nnations; for the emperor and his court, insisted upon that grave\nhistorian dancing, and singing before them.[171] On one of these\ninteresting occasions the historian basely deceived the imperial\nJapanese searcher after knowledge; for on being commanded to sing, he\nsang to the emperor, a love ditty, which \u201che had formerly composed for a\nlady, for whom he had a particular esteem;\u201d and upon the emperor\ninquiring the meaning of the song, he answered that it was an ode of\npraise, in honor of the emperor and his court.[172] Let us hope that the\nJapanese will not lead our investigators astray in such a manner.\n\nThe court of Japan had, at that era, musicians attached to its service,\nthough by no means on the grand scale of the Chinese court. The empress\nhad her private band, consisting of players upon the birva, the koto,\nand the samsinn. Theatrical representations were sometimes added to\nmusic. A corps of young comedians played little operas, or executed\ncharacter dances, some grave and slow, in which a long mantle was worn;\nothers lively and playful, the dancers appearing suddenly and with\nappropriate movements, in the disguise of birds or butterflies.\n\nThe court ladies had their private boxes at the theatre and at the\ncircus of wrestlers; many of these customs still exist at the Japanese\ncourt but not with the spirit and life of former days.\n\nProcessional music is, in Japan, similar to that described in \u201cChinese\nMusic,\u201d noisy and distressing; but it is by no means so generally used\nas in China. In some processions it is not present at all. The emperor\nformerly appears to have had no music in his pompous cavalcades, for a\ndescription of one of these pageants (written in the seventeenth\ncentury), thus concludes:\n\n\u201cIt is at the same time in the utmost silence that the procession\nproceeds. No one is heard to speak a word. Neither the spectators in the\nstreets, nor those who form the procession, make the least noise. It can\nonly be perceived by the sound of men\u2019s footsteps, and the tramping of\nhorses.\u201d[173]\n\nAt the ecclesiastical processions, which take place on days devoted to\nspecial _Kami_, (similar to the saints days of Europe), and called\n_Matsouri_, the music consists of the fifes, drums, and gongs of the\nbonzery. Of course these processions vary in proportion to the\npopularity of the special Kami or saint. The greatest _Matsouri_ which\ntakes place at Yeddo, is that given in honor of Zinmou, the founder of\nthe empire. Even those who do not believe in Kami-worship, attend this\nfeast to show respect to their country, and it has become a patriotic as\nwell as religious occasion. Over a million of spectators, annually view\nthis procession. In the ranks appear an image of the patron of sacred\ndancing, borne on a large drum; and the sacred gong of the priests. The\nband on this occasion is large, and flutes, trumpets, big drums,\ncymbals, gongs, and tambourines are among the instruments carried. The\nexpenses of the lesser _Matsouri_ are often defrayed by the people of a\nstreet or quarter which is specially devoted to the _Kami_ in whose\nhonor it is held.\n\nMany of the customs above alluded to are sensibly losing their hold on\nthe populace, since the recent introduction of our civilization; this is\nespecially the case with such customs as come under government\nsurveillance. The military music for example, has been remodelled on the\nEuropean plan; regimental bands in French style (that is with a\npreponderance of drums), are now attached to the Japanese national army.\nThe trumpet calls are said to be played with much aptitude by the\nJapanese performers, but in the matter of time-keeping by the band, and\nkeeping step to the music by the soldiers, exactness is yet far from\nbeing attained.[174] In the theatre and its music, there is, as yet, not\nso great a change from former days, yet there are many European customs\nto be found there (though probably not all derived from Europe), and the\ntheatre differs from that of China, in having a curtain in front of the\nstage; in being often built upon a permanent site; and in other\nparticulars.\n\nThe plays although sometimes quite as minute in details as the Chinese,\nare much shorter, lasting usually about two hours; and are often much\nwittier.\n\nThere has been a peculiar manner of presenting these plays; if five\nplays are to be performed in one day, the following mode has sometimes\nbeen adopted.[175]\n\nThe performers go through the first act of the first play, then the\nfirst act of the second play, and so on until the five _first acts_ have\nbeen given. They then take the _second_ act of each play in succession,\nand so on, until all the last acts are given. The object of this custom\nis to enable spectators to see one act, go away, and come again in time\nfor the next act.\n\nOften, however, the spectators remain throughout the entire day, and in\nthat case refreshments are openly consumed. It is also thought correct\nfor ladies to change their dress as often as possible during the day, so\nthat there is as much change of costume, in front of the stage as upon\nit. In the Japanese comedies there is generally a large amount of love\nmaking. The tragedies deal chiefly with the exploits of the mythological\nheroes, and are expressed in verse, sometimes declaimed, sometimes\nsung.[176] The terrific combat is an acknowledged essential of this\norder of plays.[177]\n\nThe effect of the martial scenes is much increased by a bass drum,\ncalled \u201ctaiko\u201d (after a celebrated ancient warrior), which is sometimes\nplayed with a smaller one called \u201ckakko.\u201d[178]\n\nThe building where these plays take place is very plain. The theatre at\nMatsmai, the capital city of the Island of Jesso, is thus\ndescribed.[179]\n\n\u201cIt is a large and pretty high building; at the back is a stage which\nwith us, has a raised floor. From the stage to the front wall, where the\nentrance is situated, two rows of seats are placed for the spectators.\nIn the middle where we have the pit, there is a vacant space in which\nstraw mats are laid down for the spectators. As this space is much lower\nthan the stage, those in front do not intercept the view from those\nbehind. Opposite the stage, where in our theatre the galleries and chief\nboxes are situated there are only a bare wall, and the door for\nentrance.\n\nThere were no ornaments in the interior; the walls were not even\npainted. The dresses and decorations are kept in a separate building.\u201d\n\nIn Yeddo this is far different and keeps more pace with civilization,\nand, as Yeddo supplies the surrounding provinces with both actors and\nplays, the change is spreading throughout the empire. The plays begin at\nsix or seven, P. M., and last (without the before-mentioned\nalternations) until one or two o\u2019clock in the morning. Theatres are\nexceedingly numerous in the city; each has its own arms or design, by\nwhich it is called; and these are painted upon banners and lanterns,\nwhich are hung from a tower upon the roof of each establishment. We give\nas complement to the above description of the Matsmai theatre, the\nfollowing picture of a leading theatre at Yeddo.\n\n\u201cThe interior of the theatre forms a long square. There are two ranges\nof galleries, the upper containing the best places in the theatre.\nNumbers of ladies are to be seen there in full dress, that is to say,\ncovered up to their eyes in crape dresses and silk mantles.[180] The\nwhole of the remainder of the house is occupied exclusively by men.\n\nThe floor of the house as seen from a distance, resembles a draught\nboard. It is divided into compartments containing from eight to twelve\nplaces each, most of which are hired by the year by the citizens who\ntake their children regularly to the play. There are no lobbies. Every\none walks to his place on the planks which enclose the compartments at\nthe height of the spectators\u2019 shoulders, who squat on their heels, or\ncrouch on little stools. There is neither a ladder nor staircase, by\nwhich to get down into the midst of them. The men hold out their arms to\nthe women and children. The settling of the audience in its place forms\na very picturesque part in the preliminaries of the representation.\nTobacco and refreshments are served during the whole evening by koskeis,\nor servants, along the before-mentioned gang planks. On two sides of the\npit are two bridges of planks, which also communicate with the boards of\nthe stage; the first is nearest to one of the doors; the second, which\nis four planks wide, forms an angle with the extremity of the boxes. On\nthis bridge certain heroic or tragic comic personages perform their\npart, and the ballet is danced. The house is lit by paper lanterns tied\nto the galleries; there is no chandelier from the roof, which is\nperfectly flat, the cupola being unknown in Japanese architecture. Large\nlanterns are however, sometimes held up to the roof, in order to light\nup the performance of the acrobats, especially that of the \u2018flying men,\u2019\nwho cross the theatre by means of cleverly contrived mechanism.\n\nThe curtain which hangs before the stage, is ornamented by a gigantic\ninscription in Chinese characters, and surmounted by a target with an\narrow in the centre. This is a symbol of the talent and tact which the\nactors are about to display, and signifies that they expect to \u2018hit the\nbull\u2019s eye\u2019 of the audience\u2019s wishes.\u201d[181]\n\nThe performance generally lasts till one o\u2019clock A. M., and usually\nconsists of a comedy, a tragedy, an opera with a ballet, and two or\nthree interludes of acrobats, wrestlers and jugglers.\n\nThe tragedy we have already partly described as of a mythological\nsensational type. In the comedy it is often customary for the audience\nto address the actors, and the latter answer in kind; thus frequently a\nbrisk fire of _repartee_ is kept up which delights the audience far more\nthan the play itself. It is very rare in any of these pieces that more\nthan two actors are upon the stage together. In the ballet the\nperformers are richly attired, and sometimes wear several dresses of\nlight silk, one above the other; as they dance they detach a few of\nthese vestments and allow them to hang from their waist, a cloud of airy\ntexture seemingly voluminous, but in reality very light.[182] The\nJapanese plays are sometimes preceded by a prologue in which much of the\naction is described (_a la_ Greek chorus) but not the _denouement_.[183]\nThe performance of the jugglers is most to the popular taste, for it is\nnot unusual to find the restaurants (with which each theatre is\nsurrounded, and which cater to the same class of custom) quite crowded\nduring the entire performances, but the moment that the gong gives the\nsignal for the commencement of the juggling, they are at once deserted,\nevery one hastening back to his seat in the theatre. The principal parts\nof the performance are announced not with a bell or with music, but by\nstriking a small wooden stick upon the stage.\n\nSometimes the actors pass through the audience on their way to the\nstage, in order to give the spectators an opportunity to admire their\nappearance and costume, as closely as possible.[184] The appearance of\ninfernal personages on the stage is always accompanied with lightning.\n\nThe principal characters of the drama are accompanied on the stage by a\ncouple of attendants, each carrying a long stick at the end of which is\na lighted candle. The use of these candles is amusing; they show to the\naudience what they ought to admire. If the actor\u2019s facial expression be\npeculiar, his attitude graceful, his dress fine, or his weapons elegant,\nthe candle is at once held to the part, to attract attention.\n\nWith regard to the literary merit of the Japanese drama, not enough is\nyet known whereon to base a detailed analysis, but it is safe to say\nthat the art is yet in its infancy. It is singular, that, while we\nregard some of the situations in their plays as exceedingly indelicate,\nthey, on their part, condemn our drama as totally immoral, and would not\ntolerate such plays as \u201cHamlet,\u201d \u201cSchool for Scandal,\u201d etc.\n\nThe key to the enigma is this,\u2014they allow every license to unmarried\nladies, but the married state is with them inviolable. They therefore\ntranquilly witness plays which would put \u201cCamille\u201d to the blush, but\nallow nothing which involves post-marital intrigue. Some of their actors\nare quite skillful; there is one at present upon the Yeddo stage, who\nperforms the part of a man possessed with the soul of a cat, and the\nblending of human and feline character is said to be marvelous.\n\nThe caste of actors, as in China, is rather low; the comedians being in\nleast repute. Although the theatre is so well patronized, yet it is only\nby the middle and lower classes; very few aristocrats even of the lesser\nnobility ever attending, and these even disguise themselves.\n\nOf course, it was to be imagined that the Jesuits would not (at the time\nof their mission in Japan) neglect so straight a road to the popular\nattention, as the drama. In their church at Nagasaki (more than two\ncenturies ago), they represented a play in the style of the medi\u00e6val\nmiracle plays, representing the birth of Christ. The parts were taken by\nthe neophites and native students at the college of the order.\nEverything passed off in the best possible manner, as well in the\nappointments of the theatre, as in the ease and smoothness of the\nacting, and it would have been applauded in any European theatre.[185]\n\nIt may be interesting to the reader to peep into the green room of a\nJapanese theatre, during performance. It is thus described,\u2014\n\n\u201cIn these places none but men are to be seen, excepting from time to\ntime some servants, or the artists\u2019 wives who bring refreshments to\ntheir husbands, or come to give the last touch to their toilet before\nthey go on the stage in the costume of either sex. In the midst of the\ngeneral disorder we find some very characteristic groups. Here are\nmusicians occupied in refreshing themselves, and indifferent to\neverything else until the signal to return to their posts shall reach\nthem; there, two actors are rehearsing together the attitudes and\ngestures which in a few moments are to delight the spectators; and\nanother sitting on his heels, before a looking glass placed upon the\nfloor, is painting his face and adjusting his feminine head-dress. A\nyoung devil beside him, has thrown back his mask, with his horns and\nmane over his shoulders and is fanning himself, while the chief of the\nwrestlers, is tranquilly smoking his pipe, in the midst of the acrobats.\n\nAmong the crowd, carpenters are coming and going, carrying the screens\nand partitions for the next scene; the machinist is working a trap\nthrough which a whirlwind of flame is about to escape; and the piece is\ngoing on outside to the accompaniment of drum beating, amid the\nconversation of the public in the house, and that of the disengaged\nactors.\u201d[186]\n\nSuch briefly, is the condition of music and the drama in Japan, but such\nastounding changes are taking place throughout every part of the life of\nthis enterprising people, that a description which is appropriate at\npresent, may be a record of past customs, ten years hence. Already there\nis a tendency in upper circles towards Western music, but this may be\nrather a result of fashion (which is being rapidly _Europeanized_)\nrather than of genuine appreciation; even the present empress of Japan\nhas, it is said, a real taste for European music and instruments. She is\na good performer upon the piano-forte.\n\nAs with the Chinese, the customs in general of the Japanese are at total\nvariance with our own; to show respect we take off our hat, they their\nshoes. We get up, they sit down, (it is the height of impoliteness to\nreceive a visitor standing.)[187]\n\nWe turn the back as a mark of incivility, they as a token of\nrespect;[188] their mixture of the truest modesty with the greatest\nlicense, must ever remain an enigma to us. Since then, we cannot in\nother respects, judge this remarkable people, it behooves us, in the\nfield of music, to study them without preconceived ideas of the art.\nThat music is in an undeveloped state with them, is undoubtedly true;\nthe absence of treatises and system proves it; but what direction the\nart will take in its development can only be settled by time. That it\nwill not remain stationary in the midst of change, is a foregone\nconclusion.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XVIII.\n MUSIC OF SAVAGE NATIONS.\n\n\nThe music of savage tribes, should properly begin a chronological\naccount of the music of the world. It can scarce be doubted that the\nstrains which to-day delight the ears of the rudest peoples, were\nsimilar to those which gave pleasure to the uncultivated denizens of the\nearth in pre-historic times. The scientific inquirer, even to-day, finds\nunexpected points of resemblance in music of nations and tribes,\nseparated from each other in distance, custom, climate and religion;\nresemblances which are so numerous that they can only be accounted for\nby the hypothesis that the strains have come down from an earlier,\nhomogeneous race. Of course the earliest efforts of primitive man were\nrather rhythmical than musical, and even at present the music of the\nleast civilized races is altogether rhythmical. The ease of the\ndiscovery that a regular clapping of the hands, or stamping of the feet,\nor striking two pieces of wood together, could produce a pleasing\neffect, is so apparent that it puts all discussion as to the origin of\nmusic, out of sight; a fortunate occurrence, since there are enough\npoints of dispute yet left for our wiseacres to contend over.\n\nThe discovery of drums and horns also came almost directly from nature;\nand here the musical instruments of primitive man stopped; and here also\n(in drums, clappers of wood, and trumpets) the catalogue of musical\ninstruments, of the more savage peoples, of the present, ceases.\n\nBut among the more advanced tribes of savages, we shall find instruments\nthat will cause us to coincide with Solomon\u2019s opinion, that \u201cthere is\nnothing new under the sun.\u201d\n\nWith these, who did not stop contented at the rude percussion and\ntrumpet instruments, the next step was probably to cut reeds of various\nlengths and to discover that the length regulated the tone. Here was the\nfirst real discovery in music, for no sooner were high and deep tones\nknown than pleasant alternations would suggest themselves, and as a\nconsequence, melodies (however uncouth) sprang into being. Possibly at\nthe same mystic era, the tension of the sinews of some animal, left\nexposed to the breeze, would fore-shadow string music. Then a thought\nwas required to find that the sounds varied with tension of the sinews,\nand that a frame on which several threads and sinews were extended in\ndifferent degrees of tension, could be made to give the same variety of\ntones, but of different quality of sound (_timbre_) from the reed pipes.\nThis already made demands upon the inventive faculties, and in the\ninfancy of music, as in the modern orchestra, stringed instruments take\nthe lead.[189]\n\nIt is improbable, however, that all nations went the same road in these\ndiscoveries. Accident had much to do with it. The conch shell, among a\ntribe near the sea, the horn, with a hunting people, and, with people\nsituated near the bamboo forests, the \u201cpans pipes,\u201d would be the first\nof instruments. Instruments of the order of flutes, were also of easy\nfabrication, and the knowledge that they are so wide-spread among\nsavages all the world over, is internal evidence that they were\n\u201cnatural\u201d instruments.\n\nWithout sketching further the probable progress of musical invention, we\nshall now describe some of the instruments and songs used by the people\nof the world who are yet in a state of nature. But first let us mention\nsome instruments, which have been handed down to us from an immensely\nremote and ante-civilized period.\n\nThe antiquarians in classifying the progress of pre-historic races from\ntheir earliest emergence from barbarism, have called that age, when the\nuse of metal became first known,\u2014the Bronze Age; as at that time\nsmelting not being known, the use of iron was not understood, and metal\nimplements were fashioned of copper, which could be beaten by the hammer\n(of stone) into the required shape, even when cold.\n\nOf this mysterious epoch, a most interesting relic has been discovered,\nin the shape of a musical instrument. In a sepulchre, in a deep ravine,\nin Schleswig, were found very recently, a number of ornaments of bronze\nand gold (silver as well as iron, was not then used), and also the horns\nof many oxen. In the midst of this, lay a very large _trumpet_ of\nbronze; a sure token of the existence of manufactured musical\ninstruments, thousands of years ago. This unique instrument when blown,\ngives forth a deep, grave, and sonorous tone. In common with all the\nbarbarian trumpets, it has but one tone. It is at present in the Museum\nof Copenhagen, but was exhibited at the Paris Exposition of 1867.[190]\n\nThe second of these instruments is more ancient still. The age preceding\nthe knowledge of the uses of metal by early man, is called the Stone\nAge. At this period the rude implements of use and ornament were made\neither of soft substances, such as wood, ivory, and horn, or else of\nstone. Even in this crude epoch, instrumental music seems to have\nexisted, and not in its rudest form, for a specimen has fortunately been\npreserved, which, if authenticated fully, will show a degree of musical\ntaste at a most unexpected period. In an ancient _dolman_, or sepulchre\nnear Poictiers was found a partly completed _flute_ made of a stag\u2019s\nhorn. The distances of the holes, and shape of the mouth-piece, show an\naptitude of construction and an experience in acoustics; but the\ninstrument evidently belongs to the later period of the Stone Age.\n\nBut the third instrument is more interesting yet. It was discovered by\nM. Lartet in a ravine, along with bones of animals now extinct in\nFrance. It is also a flute (straight, and with mouth piece), with finger\nholes.[191] It is made of the bone of a reindeer, which seems a proof\npositive of its being made at a time when the climate and zoology of\nFrance were totally different from the present. From the skulls found in\ntombs and caves of this period, it appears impossible that man could\nhave been developed sufficiently at that time to construct an article of\npleasure, such as this. The skulls are said to greatly resemble those of\nthe present natives of Australia. Yet their possessors must have had a\nvastly superior intelligence to the latter.\n\nIt is no great leap in fact, although it may be in time, to leave the\nsavages of our own ancient race, and describe the musical customs of the\nsavages of another, and inferior one. Therefore, we will leave the\ndiscussion of the above three instruments and their makers to\nAnthropological and Ethnological societies, and pass on to the\nexamination of the barbarian of the present age.\n\nOne of the most curious facts in savage music is to be found in New\nZealand. It is almost universally conceded that harmony was unknown to\nEuropeans until the tenth century; yet in New Zealand for unknown ages,\na combination of simple thirds in a short vocal strain[192] has been\nknown. It only illustrates the assertion of the force of accident, in\nthe rise of music.\n\nHere was a savage tribe of cannibals who came upon a most important\nmusical idea (to be sure, in a crude state, but still the germ of the\nHarmonic theory) probably long before its acceptance among civilized\nnations.\n\nAnother strange savage song is that which was sung by the aborigines of\nCanada, at the time of Cartier\u2019s taking possession in the name of the\nKing of France (A. D. 1537). The curious fact here, was not in the\nmusic, but in the words, in as much as the word \u201cAlleluia\u201d occurred in\nit. This strange coincidence made some early writers conclude that the\ninhabitants were Hebrews,[193] probably the lost tribes; it is needless\nto say, that the surmise, was not borne out by any further researches.\n\nIn describing the music of barbarian races, we find that its sister art,\ndancing, is closely connected with it, and that it is impossible to\nseparate the two. In the lowest tribes, the dance is the most prominent\npart of the musical efforts of the people. The Australians, who are\nconsidered, from the conformation of their skulls, and legs, to be\nnearest to the brute creation, have many interesting dances. The most\nimportant of these is the \u201cCobbongo Corrobboree,\u201d or great mystery\ndance. It is performed by the inhabitants of the far interior of the\nisland. We subjoin the account of a witness of this event.\n\nThe time selected for this great event is every twelfth moon, and during\nher declination. For several days previous, a number of tribes, whose\nterritories adjoin one another, congregate at a particular spot,\ncharacterised by an immense mound of earth, covered with ashes (known\namongst the white inhabitants as \u201ca black\u2019s oven\u201d), and surrounded by\nplenty of \u201ccouraway\u201d or water holes.\n\nTo this place, they bring numbers of kangaroos, possums, emus, and wild\nducks, and a large quantity of wild honey, together with a grass from\nthe seed of which they make a sort of bread.\n\n\u201cUpon the evening on which the \u2018corrobboree\u2019 is celebrated, a number of\nold men (one from each tribe) called \u2018wammaroogo,\u2019 signifying\nmedicine-men, or charm-men, repair to the top of the mound, where, after\nlighting a fire they walk round it, muttering sentences, and throwing\ninto it portions of old charms which they have worn round their necks\nfor the past twelve months.\u201d\n\n\u201cThis is continued for about half an hour, when they descend, each\ncarrying a fire-stick, which he places at the outskirts of the camp, and\nwhich is supposed to prevent evil spirits from approaching. As soon as\nthis is over, during which a most profound silence is observed by all,\nthe men of the tribe prepare their toilets for the \u2018corrobboree,\u2019\ndaubing themselves over with chalk, red ochre, and fat.\u201d[194]\n\n\u201cWhile the men are thus engaged, the gentler sex are busy arranging\nthemselves in a long line, and in a sitting posture, with rugs made of\npossum skins, wound round their legs, and a small stick called \u2018mulla\nmulla\u2019 in each hand. A fire is lit in front of them, and tended by one\nof the old charmers. As the men are ready, they seat themselves,\ncross-legged, like tailors, and in regular serried file, at the opposite\nside of the fire to the women, while one of the medicine-men takes up\nhis position at the top of the mound, to watch the rising of the moon\nwhich is the signal for \u2018corrobboree.\u2019\u201d\n\nAll is now still; nothing disturbs the silence, save the occasional\njabber of a woman or child, and even that, after a few minutes, is\nhushed. The blaze of the fire throws a fitful light along the\nbatallion-like front of the black phalanx, and the hideous faces, daubed\nwith paint and smeared with grease, show out at such a moment to\nanything but advantage. As soon as the old gentleman who has been\n\u201ctaking the lunar\u201d announces the advent of that planet, which seems to\nexercise as great an influence over the actions of these people, as over\nmany of those amongst ourselves, the \u201ccorrobboree\u201d commences.\n\n\u201cThe women beat the little sticks together,[195] keeping time to a\npeculiar monotonous air, and repeating the words, the burden of which\nmay be translated in this manner,\u2014\n\n \u2018The kangaroo is swift,\n But swifter is Ngoyulloman;\n The snake is cunning,\n More cunning is Ngoyulloman, etc.\u2019\n\nEach woman using the name of her husband, or favorite in the tribe.\u201d\n\n\u201cThe men spring to their feet with a yell that rings through the forest,\nand brandishing their spears, and boomerangs commence their dance,\nflinging themselves into all sorts of attitudes, howling, laughing,\ngrinning, and singing; and this they continue until sheer exhaustion\ncompels them to desist, after which they roast and eat the product of\nthe chase gathered for the occasion, and then drop off to sleep one by\none.\u201d[196]\n\nWe have already expressed our opinion that the dance (pantomimic) first\nsprang into existence when some savage finding his own limited language\n(perhaps even, he had none) inadequate to describe to his companions,\nsome deed of hunting or war which he had performed, reproduced the feat\nin actions, to give a more perfect understanding of it. If song be as\nold as speech, dancing may be said to be as old as gestures.\n\nWe are not surprised, therefore, to find among the Australians, dances\nwhich represent such events. In the \u201cfrog dance,\u201d the performers paint\nthemselves as usual, and then, squatting upon their haunches, jump\naround in a circle imitating the motions of the frog. The \u201cEmu dance\u201d\nrepresents the chase after that swift running bird. The performer who\ntakes the part of the Emu, imitates its fleet, long strides, and gives\nout the low rattling drumming sound which is the bird\u2019s only note.\n\nIn the \u201ccanoe dance\u201d men and women stationed in two lines, imitate the\ngraceful motions of paddling a canoe.\n\nThere is a dance \u201cwith partners\u201d prevalent in the southern part of\nAustralia. Both sexes participate in it. Each man carries a belt of\npossum skin, or human hair, which he keeps stretched tight, holding one\nend in each hand. The men all sit down in a circle while a woman takes\nher place in the middle; one of the men then dances up to her, jumping\nfrom side to side, and swaying his arms in harmony with his movements.\nThe woman also begins swaying and jumping in time with him, as he\napproaches her, and after a short _pas de deux_ they dance back to their\nplaces, while the centre is occupied by a fresh couple.\n\nA strange dance was celebrated by the Tasmanians at each full moon. The\nvarious tribes assembled at some trysting place, and while the women\nprepared the fire, and fenced off a space for the dance, the men retired\nto adorn themselves with paint, and to fasten branches of bushy twigs to\ntheir ankles, wrists and waists. The women being seated at the front of\nthe space, one of the oldest among them, strode forward, calling by\nname, one of the performers, whom she reviled as a coward, and\nchallenged to come forward and meet her charge, and answer it.\n\nThe warrior was swift enough in his response, and, bounding through the\nfire, into the circle, he recounted his deeds of valor in both chase and\nwar. At every pause he made, his female admirers took up the list of his\npraises, vaunting his actions in a sort of chant which they accompanied\nwith extemporized drums, made of rolled kangaroo skins.\n\n\u201cSuddenly upon some inspiring allegro movement of the thumping hand,\nthirty or forty grim savages would hound successively through the\nfurious flames, into the sacred arena, looking like veritable demons on\na special visit to _terra firma_; and, after thoroughly exhausting\nthemselves, by leaping in imitation of the kangaroo, around and through\nthe fire, they vanish in an instant. After this, the old lady who was\nthe origination of all the hubbub, gave a signal, upon which, all the\nfemales rose, and quite unadorned, gave a series of acrobatic\nperformances around the fire, that were strange and wonderful to behold.\nThe main point being however, with each of them, to outscream her sister\nsingers.\u201d[197]\n\nIn the dances of Australia and Tasmania, only the rudest instruments of\npercussion are used, and the chants are not musical, though sometimes\n(rarely) the attitudes are graceful. A far more musical and poetical\npeople, are the New Zealanders who as we have already mentioned,\nintuitively knew of harmony before the Europeans. Many of their love,\nwar, and religious songs have real sentiments of beauty in them, and the\ngift of improvising poems and songs is much prized among them. Singular\nto state, they (unlike all other savage races) do not use the drum in\ntheir accompaniment. The _pahu_ (drum) is only used by them to give\nmilitary signals.[198] Their chief instrument is the flute, which is\nusually made from a human thigh bone; often that of a fallen enemy. When\nthis is the case, the instrument is more than ordinarily prized, and is\nworn around the neck. It is played through the nose, by placing the\nnostril against the aperture, and blowing; stopping the other nostril\nwith the finger.\n\nThe native New Zealander sings in all his sports and labours, and in\nspite of his _penchant_ for human flesh, is of a light and joyous\ntemperament. Every incident of war, chase or love is commemorated by an\nextemporized song. Sometimes these songs live for generations after\ntheir signification has passed away; and thus it is, that in many of the\nsongs of this people, words are found, of which, neither the singers nor\naudience understand the meaning. One song (_E\u2019Haka_) is accompanied with\nmuch mimicry; when giving this, the performers sit down in a circle,\nthrow off their upper mats, and sing in concert, making meanwhile the\nwildest of gestures, and turning up their eyes so that only their whites\nare visible.\n\nTheir canoe song is very animating, and is often accompanied by the\nprimitive nose flute mentioned above.\n\nThe words (improvised) are such as \u201cpull away! pull away! pull away.\u201d\n\u201cDig into the water.\u201d \u201cBreak your backs,\u201d etc., and are shouted with\nstentorian lungs, but not unmusically.\n\nBut their greatest song and dance is the war-dance. In this they far\nexcel all other savage tribes the world over. Their movements although\nextremely violent, are made with a precision and unity, to which all\nother races are strangers. A description of this unique performance\nspeaks of it as follows.\n\n\u201cThey begin by smearing the whole of their clothing and painting their\nfaces with scarlet ochre, so as to make themselves as hideous as\npossible. When they assemble for the dance they arrange themselves in\nlines usually three deep, and excite their naturally passionate\ndispositions to the highest pitch by contorting their faces, and\nthrusting out their tongues as an act of defiance, interspersing these\ngestures with shouts, yells and challenges to the enemy. The dance\nitself begins with stamping the feet in perfect time with each other,\nthe vigor of the stamp increasing continually, and the excitement\nincreasing in similar proportion. Suddenly with a yell, the whole body\nof men leap sideways into the air, as if actuated by one spirit, and as\nthey touch the ground, come down on it with a mighty stamp that makes\nthe earth tremble. The war song is raised, and in accordance with its\nrhythm, the men leap from side to side, each time coming down with a\nthud, as of some huge engine.\u201d[199]\n\nThe New Zealander often entertains himself with sham fights,[200] but\nnothing has so intense an effect upon him as the music and action of\nthis rhythmic war-dance. Even when actual war is not impending, he will\nenter into it with a vigor that is terrible. It transforms him for the\ntime into a monomaniac, and absorbs his whole nature; even when the\ndance is given in honor of a stranger, it is dangerous to go too near\nthe Maori (native New Zealander) until he has become more tranquil.\n\nOn one occasion a party of New Zealanders, visiting a European ship,\nwere requested to give an exhibition of their war-dance on board. They\ndid so, beginning without much excitement, but gradually their leaps\nbecame so fierce and powerful that the captain was afraid that they\nwould break the deck; he begged of them to desist, but in vain; he might\nas well have spoken to a whirlwind. His voice was drowned in the shouts\nand singing of the frenzied warriors. The chief of the party, showed the\ninfluence of its charms, in a ludicrous manner:\u2014\n\nHe had been presented on his arrival, with a full suit of naval uniform,\nand he stalked around the deck, in all the dignity of new clothes. He\ncheerfully allowed his followers to begin the war-dance, but he himself\nlooked on with conscious dignity; but after the excitement had continued\na few minutes, he too was drawn into its vortex. At first a gentle\nswaying of his body, in time with the music was all: then a little\n_sotto voce_ singing, then he joined in the rhythm stamping, and\nfinally, forgetting his new finery, he sprang into line and danced more\nenthusiastically than any of them; so much so, that the clothes soon\nsplit, and at the end of the dance he presented a very seedy appearance.\nIt is needless to say that the dance could not in any way be checked,\nand found its conclusion only when all the dancers were reduced to a\nstate of complete exhaustion.\n\nWith all savage people, song, dance and poetry are indissolubly united;\na fact which goes far to prove the \u201cnaturalness\u201d of the old Greek music.\nIn the Malaysian archipelago we find a similar style of music, to that\ndescribed above; but we find the natural instrument of barbarians, the\ndrum, far more plentifully used.\n\nThe Javanese have two kinds of drums, both made of copper, but differing\nin size and pitch. The sound is like that of a distant bell, and as they\nare used in sets, the compass often reaches an octave. The larger set,\ncalled _Salendro_ contains but five tones in this interval; the general\neffect of this set is _major_. The smaller set, called _Pelog_, contains\nseven drums to the octave, and is minor in style. The natives themselves\nspeak of the _Salendro_ as being masculine, and the _Pelog_ as being\nmore tender and feminine in its _effect_.\n\nThe songs of Java (as also of other islands in the Malay archipelago)\nare strongly suggestive of the Scotch popular ballads, and can readily\nbe reproduced in our scale.\n\nIt is not customary to sing the written poems, with an instrumental\naccompaniment unless there is dancing simultaneously. As in French\npoetry and song, many letters, usually mute, are sounded, so in the\nJavanese much license of pronunciation is allowed in song, which would\nbe condemned in prose. There are some traces of inflection and accent,\naltering the meaning of a word; thus \u201c_boten_\u201d signifies \u201c_no_,\u201d but\nwhen the accent is placed on the first syllable, it signifies a haughty\nor peremptory refusal, but when on the latter, a mild and regretful one.\n\nThe Javanese have three styles of musical compositions, the great,\nmedium, and lesser. The latter is used for the popular songs, the former\nfor the higher flights of poetry.\n\nVery often one can hear an old native, on a holiday occasion, singing of\nthe great deeds of the ancient princes; the subjects of his ballads, are\noften borrowed from the _babads_, or popular legends of the country, and\nhe accompanies himself with a species of stringed instrument. He sings\nof the glories and fall of the kingdom of Pad-jad-jaran, and praises and\nlaments those royal heroes. Many of the love songs of the Malays are\nwritten in the form of question and answer, as follows,\u2014\n\n \u201cWhere do the swallows go to bathe?\n They go to bathe in the forest brook.\n What has my loved one promised to me?\n She has promised to chat a little with me,\u201d etc.\n\nThis questioning and answering is not confined to their music, for the\nJavanese are passionately fond of conundrums.[201] The imagery of their\npoems and songs is of the simplest and most natural description, fields,\nflowers, trees, rivers, etc., appear _ad infinitum_ in their\nliterature.[202] Their early historical legends are full of Gods in\nhuman form, of giants, and miracles; somewhat resembling in this the\nHindoo allegories.\n\nTheatrical representations, of course form a large part of both\nMalaysian and Polynesian popular amusements. In Java, national history\nis preserved not only by the ballads, but by pantomimic representations;\nin the latter, little puppets made of leather, wood, or paper, and\nsometimes masked performers, appear. The performance is accompanied by\norchestral music, certain stringed instruments of which are only played\nby women. Some of the representations are given at night behind a white\ncurtain, and resemble what, with us, are called, \u201cshadow pantomimes;\u201d\nthese are performed mostly by females, and often last all night,\nbreaking up, at times, as late as six in the morning.\n\nAt all Javanese _fetes_, music is played, and every native is expected\nto entertain such wandering musicians as apply to him. A refusal is apt\nto cost dearly, as the irate musicians stone the dwelling of the\nobdurate one.[203]\n\nM. Scherzer, connected with the Austrian Round-the-world expedition in\n1857 (in the frigate Novara), was not highly delighted with the Javanese\npantomime dancing and music;[204] he says:\n\n\u201cConversation was carried on with difficulty, for an incessant and\nstupefying noise was kept up with the _gammelong_, or orchestra of\nbells. Bayaderes, very scantily clothed, and excessively ugly, executed\nsentimental and religious dances of a most tedious description.\n\nStiff, slow, and thin, these damsels jumped like forks, with motions as\ngraceful as those of old semaphores. The governor was kind enough to\nexplain to us, that the dance was meant to represent the touching\nhistory of four sisters, who, lost in the forest, implored from the\ndivinity the return of their mother.\n\nThis was followed by another choregraphic entertainment, a dance of\neight warriors, accompanied by the perpetual _gammelong_. The same\ndelectable music, delighted the ears of those who were without in the\ncourt-yard. Hideous masks, on foot and on horseback, circulated there\namidst the crowd; a Mussulman priest was also howling fearfully, as he\ndanced on hot ashes, near to a mass of burning wood; others jumped in\nand danced away frantically. At last the priest himself joined them, and\nthe shouts and gesticulations became furious. This representation had\nprobably some signification of religious expiation, at least it would\nhave been deemed as such in ancient mysteries.\u201d\n\nAfter this followed conjuring tricks of a wonderful, though sanguinary\ndescription, \u201cand then the infernal _gammelong_ began again.\u201d Then came\nexcellent fireworks. \u201cAt last the _gammelong_ ceased its stunning\nnoise.\u201d\n\nDuring Captain Cook\u2019s voyage round the world, Banks and Solander, two of\nhis best associates witnessed (A. D. 1769) a pantomime in one of the\nSociety islands. It was of a comic nature, and contained music and\ndancing. The subject was the adventures of a thief, including his\ncapture.[205] In Cook\u2019s second voyage, Forster observed a comic opera in\nthe Society islands, which appear closely allied to the above. Actors\nand actresses appeared in this play, the first act of which concluded\nwith a burlesque beating of three of the participants. The commencement\nof the second act was announced by the musicians beating their\ndrums.[206]\n\nIn the Tonga islands, the actors of these musical dramas recite\nsentences which are answered by a chorus of singers. There is a great\nvariety in their movements and groupings. Occasionally they sing slowly,\nand afterwards quickly for about a quarter of an hour. Sometimes they\nform a semi-circle, assume a bending position, and sing in a subdued\ntone of voice, a soft air, which is soon followed again by a loud and\nvehement declamation.\n\nIt is a singular fact that some of the races most addicted to\ncannibalism are also much addicted to music. We have seen this already\nin the case of the New Zealanders; it will be fully as apparent with the\nmost cannibalistic race of the globe,\u2014the Fiji Islanders. With them,\nmusic teaching is a remunerative art, and any one who has composed a new\nsong or dance, can earn a large quantity of goods by teaching it. Their\nmusical instruments are poor and few; they consist of pipes, flutes,\ndrums, and trumpets. The trumpets are merely conch shells, blown through\nan aperture in the side.\n\nThe flutes are nose-flutes, played by putting the aperture under one\nnostril, closing the other with the thumb of the left hand, and blowing.\nThe pipes are a species of pandean pipes made of bamboo.\n\nThe dances are very carefully got up, and more resemble military\nmovements than dances, the similitude being increased by the martial\narray of the dancers, who are all dressed as if for war, their faces\npainted with scarlet, their bodies powdered black, and their best clubs\nor spears in their hands. They execute intricate man\u0153uvres, marching in\nvarious figures, wheeling, halting, and stamping their feet in exact\ntime to the rhythm of the song, and the beat of the drum.\n\nSometimes several hundred men are engaged in the dance, while the\nmusicians are twenty or thirty in number. The scene at one of these\ndances is very picturesque, but it wants the furious energy, which gives\nsuch fiery animation to the war-dance of the New Zealanders; the\nmovements, though correct in point of time, being comparatively dull and\nheavy. In order to enliven it a little more, a professional buffoon is\nusually introduced upon the scene, who performs sundry grotesque\nmovements, and is usually applauded for his exertions. Music and dancing\nare always used at the celebration of a marriage.[207] Mr. Seeman in a\nrecent work[208] says of the entertainment called _Kalau Rere_, that,\n\u201cwith its high poles, streamers, evergreens, [these cannibals are very\ntasty in their personal adornments, wreaths of flowers, evergreens,\netc., being much used], masquerading, trumpet shells, chants, and other\nwild music, is the nearest approach to dramatic representation, the\nFijians seem to have made, and it is with them, what private theatricals\nare with us. Court fools, in many instances hunchbacks, are attached to\nthe chief\u2019s establishment.\u201d\n\nThe music of the remaining races of Oceanica, does not differ very\nmaterially from the above-described forms. Many of the instruments found\nin use among the Malays, have had their origin in China and India,[209]\nand therefore the description of them has not been made so minute as\nthat of the instruments of those countries. Summed up briefly, we find\nthat the taste for rhythm is _every where_ prevalent; for instruments of\npercussion, almost so, (the New Zealanders forming a notable exception\nhere), and that the prevailing impulse of these races, on hearing\nrhythmic music, is to dance.\n\nWe now proceed to the examination of the music of another large division\nof the human race.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XIX.\n AFRICAN MUSIC.\n\n\nIn describing the music of the natives of Africa, we will place in\ncontrast the modes of the two extremes of the scale of intelligence.\n\nThe Kaffir is certainly as far in advance of the Bushman, as we are in\nadvance of the native Indian. The Kaffir is peculiar in music; very\ndeficient in melody, he is almost perfect in rhythm and time-keeping. He\nis fond of singing in company, and in fact is a rather convivial person\naltogether. At social meals, while the food is cooking, the guests often\namuse themselves by singing together until the repast is in readiness.\nThe subjects of the songs are various; love songs, and war songs being\nheld in equal favor, but the Kaffir is always specially pleased with any\nsong that relates to the possession of cattle; and being a cattle-owning\npeople, they have many songs celebrating their favorite subject.\n\nMany of the Kaffir\u2019s musical effects would seem most ludicrous to us.\nSudden contrasts, have, to him, a special attraction, and it is not\nunusual to hear him give the highest squeaks of falsetto, and the\ndeepest bass grunts, alternately.\n\nLoudness in singing is his great end and aim, and to effect sudden\n_sforzando_ effects, he has a peculiar method, i. e.\u2014the choruses of the\nsongs are usually meaningless, being often a mere reiteration of the\nwords e-e-e-_yu_ (which may be called the African \u201cfol de roi de ray\u201d),\nand when, after shouting with full lungs on the _e-e-e_, the singer\ndesires more power on the _yu_, he effects it by giving himself a sound\nthump in the ribs with his elbows; this produces a marked emphasis on\nthe syllable, and the result, when two or three hundred singers do this\nsimultaneously is startling. The Kaffir, contrary to our practise, _sits\ndown_, when he sings.\n\nOne of their favorite songs, is used at husking festivals. \u201cThe dry\nheads of maize are thrown in a heap upon the hard and polished floor of\nthe hut, and a number of Kaffirs sit in a circle round the heap, each\nbeing furnished with the ever useful _knobkerry_ (a stick or club, very\nlike a _shillelagh_, but with a knob at one end). One of them strikes up\na song, and the others join in full chorus beating time with their\nclubs, upon the heads of the maize. This is a very exciting amusement\nfor the performers, who shout the noisy chorus at the highest pitch of\ntheir lungs, and beat time by striking their knobkerries upon the grain.\nWith every blow of the heavy club the maize grains are struck from their\nhusks, and fly about the hut in all directions, threatening injury, if\nnot absolute destruction to the eyes of all who are present in the hut.\nYet the threshers seem to enjoy an immunity which seems to be restricted\nto themselves and blacksmiths; and while a stranger is anxiously shading\nhis eyes from the shower of hard maize grains, the threshers themselves\ndo not give a thought to the safety of their eyes, but sing at the top\nof their voices, pound away at the corn cobs, and make the grains fly in\nall directions, as if the chorus of the song were the chief object in\nlife, and the preservation of their eyesight were unworthy of a\nthought.\u201d[210]\n\nThe war-songs of the Kaffirs are fiery and exciting, though in a less\ndegree than those of New Zealand.\n\nTheir poetry is full of metaphor, and alliterative enough to be admitted\ninto the opera of the future. The participants sit in a circle,\nsometimes three or four deep, with their knees well drawn up, and sing,\nbeating rhythmic accompaniment upon the ground, twirling their\n_assagais_ (javelins), and occasionally enlivening the proceedings with\nan ear-piercing whistle, or deafening shout.\n\nWe give an English version (Mr. Shooter\u2019s) of two of these, merely\npremising that much of the native beauty is said to be lost in the\ntransposition to a foreign tongue.\n\n\n PRAISE OF DINGAN.\n A VERY CELEBRATED CHIEF.\n\n \u201cThou needy offspring of Umpikazi\n Eyer of the cattle of men,\n Bird of Maube, fleet as a bullet,\n Sleek, erect, of beautiful parts.\n Thy cattle like the comb of bees.\n O head too large, too huddled to move,\n Devourer of Moselekatze, son of Machobana,\n Devourer of Swazi, son of Sobuza,\n Breaker of the gates of Machobana,\n Devourer of Gundave of Machobana\n A monster in size,[211] of mighty power,\n Devourer of Ungwati of ancient race,\n Devourer of the kingly Uomap\u00e9;\n Like Heaven above, raining and shining.\u201d\n\nThe other is an Alexandrian lament of the lack of nations to conquer. It\nis in honor of Tchaka, (a renowned warrior and chief).\n\n \u201cThou hast finished, finished the nations!\n Where will you go out to battle now?\n Hey! Where will you go out to battle now?\n Thou hast conquered kings!\n Where are you going to battle now?\n Thou hast finished, finished the nations!\n Where are you going to battle now?\n Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!!\n Where are you going to battle now?\u201d\n\nFrom the extracts it will be seen that flattery is not confined to\nEuropean courts; the Kaffir carries it still further, for in addition to\nhis own proper name (which it is deemed ill omened to speak) everybody\nof any rank, receives a number of _isi-bonges_ or praise-names, alluding\nto some action or peculiarity. It is customary on all formal occasions,\nto recite several of these _isi-bonges_, just as a European nobleman on\nofficial ceremonies desires to have all his titles proclaimed. In songs,\nof course, the invention of these is unlimited. Thus the great Panda, a\nrenowned ruler of enormous fatness, is spoken of as,\u2014\n\n \u201cA swallow which fled in the sky,\u201d\n \u201cA swallow with a whiskered breast,\u201d\n \u201cRamrod of brass,\u201d\n \u201cThigh of the bullock of Inkakavini.\u201d\n \u201cThou art an _Elephant_.\u201d\n \u201cMonarch who art black,\u201d etc., etc.\n\nSuch songs of praise are sung with great relish by full choruses.\nViolent gestures are used to heighten the effect. The songs are in\nunison, no harmonic divisions being attempted.\n\nThe instruments of the Kaffir are few and crude; the whistle before\nmentioned, although giving but one tone, is a great favorite. It is so\nshrill that it can be heard above the wildest din of the _ensemble_.\n\nA rude flute or flageolet is also sometimes used; but the most-used\ninstrument, is a primitive harp with _one string_ only, and whose tones\nthough light and sweet can scarcely be heard at six yards distance. It\nis an ordinary bow with a string of twisted hair, and a hollow gourd\nattached at the centre of the wood to give resonance. A ring is passed\nalong the string, to raise or lower the tone, which is produced by\nstriking the cord with a short stick, or _plectrum_. The bow is about\nfive feet long, and exactly resembles the usual weapon, which however is\nnot used in war by the Kaffirs.\n\nAlthough the resources of this instrument are so extremely limited, the\nmusicians of this people are content to sit for hours, listening to its\nmonotonous sound.\n\nLet us now turn to the degraded black brother of the foregoing race, the\nBushman. His amusements are two;\u2014singing and dancing.\n\nThe dance of the Bushman is to European eyes a most uninteresting one;\nas there is scarcely any motion or gesture at all in it, save that which\nis made by _one leg_. Standing on one foot, the performer shakes the\nother, (to which a string of rattles, made from the ears of the\nspring-bok are attached) occasionally giving his body a twist, and\nsinging vigorously all the while, changing the foot, however, from time\nto time.\n\nThe spectators keep the rhythm by a constant and regular clapping of\nhands and a monotonous singing.\n\nA water-drum, which is merely a wooden bowl, into which a little water\nhas been poured, and over which a skin is tightly drawn, is struck\nregularly in time with the movements of the dancer; the latter when\npartially exhausted, falls upon the floor, but still singing and kicking\nin time with the music; after a short rest of this description, he jumps\nup and continues as at first. When utterly exhausted, he retires among\nthe spectators and unfastening his leg-rattles, hands them to the next\ndancer. The music to this odd performance is _not_ in unison; the dancer\nsings one air, the spectators another, and the drum gives a species of\n\u201cground bass\u201d to the whole.\n\nWhile engaged in this interesting occupation of shaking one leg, the\nBushman is completely oblivious of all other considerations, as if he\nwere entranced. Discordant as the music seems to us when annotated by\nthe travellers who have heard it, yet these same authorities are almost\nunanimous in declaring that the effect is extremely pleasant.\n\nThe most peculiar instrument of the Bushmen, is the _goura_, which is\nshaped like a bow, but has at one end of the string, a piece of quill\ninserted; this quill is blown upon in the same manner that we use a\njew\u2019s-harp. Women play upon this instrument, but hold it\nperpendicularly, and do not breathe upon it, but strike it with a stick,\nand then catch it up, quickly to their ear, to listen to the tones. When\nthus played, it is called, a _joum-joum_.\n\nAll the airs played upon this primitive instrument seem to come by\nchance rather than skill, and the performer never seems able to play the\nsame tune twice. But the same or better music could be drawn from a much\nmore compact and portable instrument; therefore the _goura_ has now been\nalmost superseded by a European competitor, and the favorite instrument\nof the African Bosjesman now is the _Jew\u2019s-harp_.\n\nThey also possess a rude banjo-like instrument from which comparatively\nfair music could be produced, but the Bushmen are content to strum it\nwithout method, and take the music as fortune sends it. A drum completes\nthe list of Bushman instruments; it is sometimes played with sticks and\nsometimes with the fist. It can be heard at a considerable distance.\n\nIn contrasting these two extremes of African races, it is singular to\nremark, that the superiority in music, if there be any, must be conceded\nto the lower race.\n\nWe find much that is curious and worthy of note in the music of those\nmysterious tribes of central Africa, who have so recently become known\nto us through the researches of Schweinfurth, Stanley, and Baker.\n\nAmong the best known of these tribes, may be mentioned the Nyam-Nyams, a\nset of most inveterate cannibals, whose very name comes from the sound\nof gnawing at food, and was given them on account of their man-eating\npropensities. Their chief musical instruments are mandolins or small\nharps of four strings each, drums (mostly of wood,) bells of iron,\nwhistles and pipes. Many of these instruments are very symmetrically\nformed, and tastily carved, for in wood, iron, and clay designing the\nNyam-Nyams are very expert. Schweinfurth thus describes their\nmusic,[212]\u2014\u201cThey have an instinctive love of art. Music rejoices their\nvery soul. The harmonies they elicit from their favorite instrument, the\nmandolin, seem almost to thrill through the chords of their inmost\nnature. The prolonged duration of some of their musical productions is\nvery surprising.\u201d Piaggia has remarked that he believed a \u201cNyam-Nyam\nwould go on playing all day and all night, without thinking to leave off\neither to eat or to drink,\u201d and although quite aware of the voracious\npropensities of the people, it seems very probable that he was right.\n\nOne favorite instrument there is, which is something between a harp and\na mandolin. It resembles the former in the vertical arrangement of its\nstrings, whilst in common with the mandolin, it has a sounding-board, a\nneck, and screws for tightening the strings.\n\nThe sounding board is constructed on strict acoustic principles. It has\ntwo apertures; it is carved out of wood, and on the upper side it is\ncovered with a piece of skin; the strings are tightly stretched by means\nof pegs, and are sometimes made of fine threads of bast, and sometimes\nof the wiry hairs from the tail of the giraffe.\n\nThe music is very monotonous and it is difficult to distinguish any\nmelody in it. It invariably is an accompaniment to a moaning kind of\nrecitative which is rendered with a decided nasal intonation.\n\n\u201cI have not unfrequently seen friends marching about arm in arm, wrapt\nin the mutual enjoyment of the performance, and beating time to every\nnote by nodding their heads.\u201d\n\n\u201cThere is a singular class of professional musicians who make their\nappearance decked out in the most fantastic way, with feathers, and\ncovered with a promiscuous array of bits of wood and roots, and all the\npretentious emblems of magical art, the feet of earth-pigs, the shell of\ntortoises, the beaks of eagles, the claws of birds, and teeth in every\nvariety. Whenever one of this fraternity presents himself, he at once\nbegins to recite all the details of his travels and experiences, in an\nemphatic recitative, and never forgets to conclude by an appeal to the\nliberality of his audience, and to remind them that he looks for a\nreward either of rings of copper, or of beads.\u201d[213]\n\nWith some slight differences these men may be found throughout Africa;\nalmost everywhere they are sought for and their talents enjoyed, but\nthey themselves held in contempt. Among the Nyam-Nyams, their\nappellation in itself (\u201cNzangah\u201d) implies contempt, being similar to\nthat which is applied to despised and outcast women.\n\nContrary to the custom of almost all other savages, the Nyam-Nyams\ndelight most in gentle music; some of the minstrels sing so softly that\nit is impossible to hear them a few yards off. The light Mandolin\naccompaniment is in good accord with this _pianissimo_ style of music.\n\nTheir dances, given by male and female performers, are wonderfully\nswift, intricate and pleasant.\n\nA great \u201cCongo\u201d or dance was given by some of these people to Col. C.\nChaill\u00e9 Long, an American officer on the staff of the Khedive of Egypt,\nwho made a very interesting expedition to the Makraka Nyam-Nyams, and\nLake Victoria Nyanza in 1874. He thus describes the scene:\u2014[214]\n\n\u201cInvitations had been sent to all the Nyam-Nyam lasses, who came even\nfrom as far as Parafio, and did honor to the occasion by brightening up\ntheir copper and iron fastenings, and in putting on fresh fig leaves.\nThe loose bands that encased their ankles, kept perfect time in loud\nclanking sound to music really euphonious, and of a symphony that my\nunmusical ear I regret cannot translate here, evoked from a Sinon-like\nwooden horse, that was beaten on its sides with drum-sticks, or by\nparallel banana trees that were traversed by different sized pieces of\ndry wood, upon which several performers beat successively.\n\nThis musical instrument, as well as drums and horns, the latter made of\nElephants\u2019 tusks, were very similar to those I had seen at Ugunda....\n\nThe Sheik, a robust, powerfully developed man, led his brave warriors in\nthe dance, holding in his hand, a curiously-shaped sword, his insignia\nof office, whilst the round little forms of hundreds of Nyam-Nyam\nmaidens followed, each with giddy swiftness as the \u201ccancan\u201d fantasia\nbecame fast and furious. The festivity continued until the \u2018wee sma\nhours\u2019 of the morning.\u201d\n\nThe trumpets of the Nyam-Nyam are more generally used as war signals\nthan as musical instruments; they are blown through a hole in the side,\nand not at the end; therefore the mode of performing upon them, rather\nresembles our style of flute playing.[215]\n\nAnother musical nation of Central Africa is the Karague; travellers who\nhave visited them have given more or less detailed accounts of their\ninstruments and festivities. Capt. Speke had the unusual honor of a\nserenade from the royal court band. The king after receiving a present\nof some beads, cloth wire, and a tin box, was so delighted that he sent\nhis own band to give Speke a tune.\n\nThe performers used reed instruments (made in telescopic fashion) and\nmarked the time by hand-drums. At first they marched and countermarched,\nplaying meanwhile much in the manner of Turkish regimental bands; but\nthis was soon changed to a species of \u201chorn-pipe,\u201d which all the\nmusicians danced, playing furiously meanwhile.[216]\n\nAnother bit of musical ceremony which Speke witnessed, will at once\nremind the reader of the great \u201cZapfenstreich\u201d or grand tattoo practised\nsometimes in the German army. At the new moon the king surrounds himself\nwith numerous drummers (Speke saw thirty-five); these strike up\ntogether, gradually increasing to a deafening noise; this is followed by\na milder kind of music, similar to that described above. The object of\nthe ceremony is to call in all the king\u2019s warriors to renew their oath\nof fealty.[217] The time keeping is said to be very exact, and the\ndrummers burst forth again and again during the night. The war drum of\nthe Karague is beaten by women.\n\nA kind of guitar exists among this people, and six of the seven strings\nwhich it possesses accord perfectly with our own diatonic scale, the\nseventh string only, being discordant. Their wind instruments are\nflageolet and bugle, or at least similar to them.\n\nAmong the nations adjacent to those already mentioned are the Bongo.\n\nWe again quote from the valuable work of the most musical traveller who\nhas visited this section,\u2014Schweinfurth.[218]\n\n\u201cThe Bongo, in their way are enthusiastic lovers of music; and although\ntheir instruments are of a very primitive description, and they are\nunacquainted even with the pretty little guitar of the Nyam-Nyams, which\nis constructed on perfectly correct acoustic principles, yet they may be\nseen at any hour of the day, strumming away and chanting to their own\nperformances. The youngsters down to the small boys are all musicians.\nWithout much trouble and with the most meagre materials they contrive to\nmake little flutes; they are accustomed also to construct a monochord,\nwhich in its design reminds one of that which (known as the Gubo of the\nZulus) is common throughout the tribes of Southern Africa. This consists\nof a bow of bamboo, with the string tightly strained across it, and this\nis struck by a slender slip of bamboo.\n\nThe mouth of the player performs the office of sounding board; he holds\nthe instrument to his mouth with one hand, and manages the string with\nthe other. Performers may often be seen sitting for hours together with\nan instrument of this sort; they stick one end of the bow into the\nground, and fasten the string over a cavity covered with bark, which\nopens into an aperture for the escape of the sound. They pass one hand\nfrom one part of the bow to the other, and with the other they play upon\nthe string with the bamboo twig, and produce a considerable variety of\nbuzzing and humming airs which are really rather pretty. This is quite a\ncommon pastime with the lads who are put in charge of the goats. I have\nseen them apply themselves very earnestly and with obvious interest to\ntheir musical practice, and the ingenious use to which they apply the\nsimplest means for obtaining harmonious tones testifies to their\npenetration into the secrets of the theory of sound.\n\nAs appeals however to the sense of sound, the great festivals of the\nBongo abound with measures much more thrilling than any of these minor\nperformances. On these occasions the orchestral results might perhaps be\nfairly characterised as cats\u2019 music run wild.\n\nUnwearied thumping of drums, the bellowings of gigantic trumpets, for\nthe manufacture of which, great stems of trees come into requisition.\nInterchanged by fits and starts with the shriller blasts of some smaller\nhorns, make up the burden of the unearthly hub-bub which re-echoes miles\naway along the desert; meanwhile women and children by the hundred fill\ngourd flasks with little stones, and rattle them as if they were\nchurning butter; or again at other times they will get some sticks or\nfaggots and strike them together with the greatest energy.\n\nThe huge wooden tubes which may be styled the trumpets of the Bongo, are\nby the natives themselves, called \u201cmanyinyee;\u201d they vary from four to\nfive feet in length, being closed at the extremity and ornamented with\ncarved work representing a man\u2019s head, which not unfrequently is adorned\nwith a pair of horns. The other end of the stem is open, and in an upper\ndepartment, towards the figure of the head, is the orifice into which\nthe performer blows with all his might.\n\nThere is another form of manyinyee, which is made like a huge wine\nbottle; in order to play upon it, the musician takes it between his\nknees like a violincello, and when the build of the instrument is too\ncumbrous he has to bend over it as it lies upon the ground.\n\n\u201cLittle difference can be noticed between the kettle drums of the Bongo,\nand those of most other North African Negroes. A section is cut from the\nthick stem of a tree, the preference being given to a tamarind when it\ncan be procured, this is hollowed out into a cylinder, one end being\nlarger than the other. The ends are then covered with two pieces of goat\nskin, stripped of the hair which are tightly strained, and laced\ntogether with thongs.\n\nAt the nightly orgies a fire is invariably kept burning to dry the skin,\nand to tighten it, when it has happened to become relaxed by the heavy\ndews.\u201d\n\nA short description of the signal horns of the Bongo is also given by\nour musical traveller; some of them resemble fifes, and many are made of\nantelope horns.\n\nRegarding the singing of the Bongo, Schweinfurth is quite descriptive\nand as the deductions he arrives at are very similar to those we have\nascribed to primitive or natural men, we introduce the passage without\nalteration.[219]\n\n\u201cDifficult were the task to give any adequate description of the singing\nof the Bongo. It must suffice to say that it consists of a babbling\nrecitative, which at one time suggests the yelling of a dog, and at\nanother the lowing of a cow, whilst it is broken over, and again by the\ngabbling of a string of words which are huddled up one into another. The\ncommencement of a measure will always be with a lively air, and every\none without distinction of age or sex will begin yelling, screeching,\nand bellowing with all their strength; gradually the surging of voices\nwill tone down, the rapid time will moderate, and the song be hushed\ninto a wailing melancholy strain.\n\n\u201cThus it sinks into a very dirge such as might be chanted at the grave,\nand be interpreted as representative of a leaden and a frowning sky,\nwhen all at once, without note of warning, there bursts forth the whole\nfury of the negro throats; shrill and thrilling is the outcry, and the\ncontrast is as vivid as sunshine in the midst of rain.\u201d\n\n\u201cOften as I was present at these festivities I never could prevent my\nideas from associating Bongo music with the instinct of imitation which\nbelongs to men universally. The orgies always gave me the impression of\nhaving no other object than to surpass in violence the fury of the\nelements: adequately to represent the rage of a hurricane in the\ntropics, any single instrument must of course be weak, poor, and\npowerless, consequently they hammer at numbers of their gigantic drums\nwith powerful blows of their heavy clubs. If they would rival the\nbursting of a storm, the roaring of the wind, or the plashing of the\nrain, they summon a chorus of their stoutest lungs; whilst to depict the\nbellowing of terrified wild beasts, they resort to their longest horns;\nand to imitate the songs of birds, they bring together all their flutes\nand fifes.\n\nMost characteristic of all, perchance is the deep and rolling bass of\nthe huge \u2018manyinyee\u2019 as descriptive of the rumbling thunder. The\npenetrating shower may drive rattling and crackling among the twigs and\namid the parched foliage of the woods; and this is imitated by the\nunited energies of women and children, as they rattle the stones in\ntheir gourd-flasks, and clash together their bits of wood.\u201d\n\nThe dances of these people are similar in wildness to their music. The\nperformers wear iron rings, with balls attached, around their ankles,\nand clash these together with such energy that their feet are often\nbathed in blood.\n\nThe Mittoo tribe rank very high among the African tribes, in their\nmusical attainments; their melodies are quite agreeable to the\ncultivated ear and the pains which they take in mastering the\nintricacies of a musical composition, recall to the mind the\ndifficulties which beset the path of the civilized musical student.\n\nWe have seen a transcription of one of their songs, which would require\nbut little alteration to transform it into a very fair \u201cslumber song.\u201d\n\nMany of them are quite skillful upon the flute, and have been described\nby Nubian travellers as equal to the best Frankish (European) performers\nwho reside in Cairo.\n\nThe Monbuttoo also have a strong passion for music, so much so that the\nking sometimes dances before his wives and subjects, to the\naccompaniment of the royal band.\n\nIn his court concerts he has horn-men, who can modulate their tones from\ninfinite tenderness to the sound of a lion\u2019s roar; and can perform upon\na horn so cumbrous that it can scarcely be held, passages of runs,\ntrills and shakes, which would be even difficult upon a flute.\n\nCourt fools, jesters and mimics also appertain to the King of the\nMonbuttoo\u2014Munza; they have also a sort of national hymn, more noisy than\nmusical. The words are monotonous and much repeated,\u2014\n\n\u201cEe, ee, tchupy, tchupy, ee, Munza, ee!\u201d will do as a sample line. The\nking stands up and _beats time_, with all the gravity of a musical\nconductor. His _baton_ is made of a wicker worked sphere filled with\npebbles, and attached to a short stick, in fact exactly what we should\ncall a baby\u2019s rattle. When he approves the performance or gets excited,\nhe joins in the chorus with a stentorian \u201cB-r-r-r-r\u2014\u2014\u201d which shakes the\nhouse.\n\nIt is singular that music boxes should be popular with Africans who\nindulge in such noisy effects, yet such is the fact; there is no present\nso desired by Negro potentates as a music box with bells and drums.\n\nExplorers can find no surer road to the heart of an African chief than\nby a present of one of these mechanisms. Sir Samuel Baker had great\ntrouble with King Kabba Rega (of the tribe of the Unyori,) about a music\nbox.[220] Speke and Schweinfurth both found them among the most\ntreasured possessions of the savage chieftains. Kabba Rega\u2019s reason for\nprizing the box above all other musical instruments, is unique; on\nhearing it play, for the first time, he remarked,\u2014\u201cIt is more convenient\nthan an instrument which requires study, as you might set this going at\nnight, to play you to sleep, when you were too drunk to play it yourself\neven if you knew how to do it.\u201d[221] The national hymn of this monarch,\nbears considerable resemblance to the first part of the well known\nair\u2014\u201cThree Blind Mice.\u201d[222]\n\nWe have not space to describe fully the rites and music of that curious\npeople, the Abyssinians; two examples of their musical ceremonies must\nsuffice.\n\nA funeral procession (reported by an American eye witness) consisted of\nabout one hundred and fifty people, old and young, preceded by a few\npriests; every few minutes the _cortege_ would halt to shriek and howl.\nThe priests (clad in cotton robes with broad scarlet bands) were acting\nin a frantic manner; tearing off their turbans, pulling their hair, then\nfolding their hands on their breasts and looking inexpressibly\nmiserable.\n\nThey carried Arabic parchment books, illuminated with quaint figures and\ndevices, and now and then chanted prayers to some favorite saint,[223]\nvery dolefully, though with strong lungs and nasal intonation. Numerous\ngenuflections were made, always accompanied with long drawn howls of\nextreme agony. At the lowering of the body into the grave, they chanted\na prayer, of which the following is a translation,\u2014\n\n\u201cWerkena, son of Yasous, who was the son of Tekee, is dead. Rejoice, oh\nye people! He has gone to his rest with Abraham, with Isaac, and with\nJacob. Let us pray for those who still live, and pray for the soul just\ngone to doom. From vengeance and stern judgment, pray that his soul be\ndelivered. How can the souls be delivered from tribulation? By long\nprayers. Pray, then, that he be sheltered by Father Abraham, that he may\nwalk in safety by the side of Moses and the prophets, Amen, and\nAmen!\u201d[224]\n\nAfter the grave was closed, the major part of the mourners followed in\nthe train of a musician, who was discoursing lively tunes on an oboe,\nand one of the priests, who had been mourning so vigorously, offered to\nshow strangers over his cathedral for the consideration of one dollar.\n\nA fitting contrast to this, is the musical ovation tendered to the\nBritish Army, after the conquest of King Theodore, April, 1868. The\nnatives came in great numbers to sing praises. They chose for the\nsubject of their psalm, the twenty-second chapter, of the second book of\nSamuel, (David\u2019s song), beginning:\u2014\u201cThe Lord is my rock, and my\nfortress,\u201d and they sang it with David\u2019s own fervor; and, to make it\nquite realistic, in imitation of his dancing before the ark, the\nAbyssinian clergy brought out an imitation of an ark, five yards in\nlength, one yard in breadth, and a foot in height. It was covered with a\nscarlet cloth, embroidered with gold, and above it was a representation\nof a mercy-seat of crimson silk, surmounted by a canopy of similar\nstuff; candlesticks, lavers, priests\u2019 robes, hyssops, communion cups,\npixes, chalices, crosses of brass, silver and gold, mitres, etc.,\nfigured in the religious paraphernalia employed. The Neophytes kept up a\ndeafening, jingling clang; or, with instruments of wood and brass, one\nstringed banjoes, clanking brass cymbals kept a rhythmic time, which\nswelled louder and louder as they drew near the headquarters of the\narmy.\n\n\u201cThe priests (out of respect for their office) took the front position,\nand one of them, with a semi-ludicrous air, struck up the first note of\nthe impromptu stanzas which were to celebrate the British conquest of\nAbyssinia.\u201d\n\n\u201cAs he warmed to his theme, and his voice rose to enthusiasm, the motley\nassembly, at the waving of a crucifix, chimed in with chorus, which,\nsung with stentorian lungs, had a tremendous effect. After the chorus,\nsix priests clad in cotton stoles headed by the sub-hierarch, took the\neulogy up at a very low key, which soon, however, rose so high and\nshrill in a protracted continuity of sound, that one momentarily\nexpected to hear their lungs crack, ending with a stormy chorus as\nbefore. Then, forming themselves into a circle, a hundred of them\ncommenced a dignified sailing round their neighbors, to the right and\nleft, their togas getting inflated with the movement, weaving each into\nanother, until it might have been imagined that they had manufactured\nsome complicated knot, on the gordian principle; but, soon taking the\nreverse method, they reached their former positions in time. The singing\nwent on louder and louder, and the choragus giving the warning clap, the\nwhole multitude clapped their hands; the women and children struck up\nthe silver-toned \u2018li, li, li,\u2019 performing a dance similar to the Chinese\nhop and skip.\u201d\n\n\u201cThey then formed triplets and massed themselves together, when a shrill\nnote from the boys, sent them into a confused whirl, round and round,\nthe sub-hierarch and his six assistants going faster and faster, as they\nacquired momentum, clapping their hands, singing louder than ever, the\nhead priest ducking his body lower and lower, and more energetic, until\nthe dance and the excitement which they all labored under, assumed the\nappearance of a jubilee medley, composed of waltzes, Dervish-dances,\nsarabands, fandangos, pirouettes and chasses, the three latter performed\nby the most youthful of the assembly.\u201d\n\n\u201cIt must not be forgotten, that all this time the ark and\nmercy-seat\u2014minus the cherubim\u2014(which was totally omitted from this\nAbyssinian imitation), stood on the ground near the priests, while a\nchoice number of infantine neophites, manfully rang the merriest chimes,\nand the instruments of Juniper-wood, the one-stringed banjos, and\ncymbals, made as much discordant music as was possible under the\ncircumstances. The Ethiops before concluding the entertainment,\nraised[225] once again the Canto Trionfale.\u201d\n\nThe effect Mr. Stanley says, had a wonderful charm, and the blending of\nthe mass of women\u2019s and children\u2019s voices with the larger and deeper\ntones of the bass, was like the whistling of a gale in a ship\u2019s shrouds,\nblending with the deeper roar of a tempest.\n\nWe cannot give a better idea of the hold which music has upon the\naverage native Negro, than by narrating an incident which befell Sir\nSamuel Baker, in the Shooli country.\n\nHe held a review of his troops March 8, 1872, and after a sham fight,\nfiring of rockets, etc., the troops marched up and down a hill, with the\nband playing. The natives assembled in considerable numbers and viewed\nthe man\u0153uvres with much delight; but the brass band music was the\ncrowning point of their enjoyment. We sub-join his description of its\neffect upon these children of nature.\n\n\u201cThe music of our band being produced simply by a considerable number of\nbugles, drums, and cymbals, aided by a large military bass-drum, might\nnot have been thought first-rate in Europe, but in Africa it was\nirresistible.\u201d\n\n\u201cThe natives are passionately fond of music; and I believe the safest\nway to travel in these wild countries, would be to play the cornet, if\npossible, without ceasing, which would ensure a safe passage. A London\norgan-grinder would march through Central Africa, followed by an\nadmiring and enthusiastic crowd, who, if his tunes were lively, would\nform a dancing escort of the most untiring material.\u201d\n\n\u201cAs my troops returned to their quarters, with the band playing rather\nlively airs, we observed the women racing down from their villages, and\ngathering from all directions towards the common centre. As they\napproached nearer, the charms of music were overpowering, and halting\nfor an instant they assumed what they considered the most graceful\nattitudes, and then danced up to band.\u201d\n\n\u201cIn a short time my buglers could scarcely blow their instruments for\nlaughing at the extraordinary effect of their performance. A fantastic\ncrowd surrounded them as they halted in our position among the rocks,\nand every minute added to their number.\u201d\n\n\u201cThe women throughout the Shooli are entirely naked; thus the effect of\na female crowd, bounding madly about as musical enthusiasts, was very\nextraordinary; even the babies were brought out to dance; and these\ninfants strapped to their mothers\u2019 backs, and covered with pumpkin\nshells, like the young tortoises, were jolted about, without the\nslightest consideration for the weakness of their necks, by their\ninfatuated mothers.\u201d\n\n\u201cAs usual among all tribes of Central Africa, the old women were even\nmore determined dancers than the young girls. Several old Venuses were\nmaking themselves extremely ridiculous, as they sometimes do in\ncivilized countries, when attempting the allurements of younger days.\u201d\n\n\u201cThe men did not share in the dance, but squatted upon the rocks in\ngreat numbers to admire the music and to witness the efforts of their\nwives and daughters.\u201d[226]\n\nSir Samuel Baker also once used music for quite a different purpose. He\nwas quartered near the town of Masindi, where dwelt Kabba Rega, King of\nthe Unyori, when one evening, he noticed a most unusual stillness in the\ntown, where ordinarily drunken songs and horn-blowing were the rule.\nSuddenly there sounded the deep tones of a _nogara_, or drum. This\nceased in a moment; and then came a burst of terrific noise, which\ncaused every man in camp to rush to his post. It was a din, caused by\nmany thousands yelling and shrieking like maniacs. At least a thousand\ndrums were beating; horns, whistles, and every instrument which could\nadd to the confusion, was blowing and sounding, yet no human being was\nvisible.\n\nThe dragoman, on being questioned by the commander, laughed, and said it\nwas \u201cto make him _afraid_, and exhibit the large number of people\ncollected in the town.\u201d\n\nGen. Baker on ascertaining this determined to act as though it were a\ncompliment which he felt bound to return. He ordered the regimental band\nto strike up, and play their loudest. This nonchalance had its effect,\nfor, after a short time, the bugles, drums, and clashing cymbals of his\nown band, were the only sounds heard; the tumult in Masindi had\nsubsided, and soon Gen. Baker ordered his own musicians to cease\nplaying, and all was again perfectly still.[227]\n\nWe close this account of the music of some of the savage tribes of the\nearth, with a description of a farewell dance, given to Stanley, by the\nWanyamwezi of Singiri, which is well worthy of a place, as showing the\npowers of improvisation of the Africans.\n\n\u201cIt was a wild dance, with lively music, four drums giving the sonorous\naccompaniment, being beaten with tremendous energy and strength.\nEveryone (even Stanley himself) danced with great fervor, and combined\nexcited gesticulations, with their saltatory efforts. But after the\nclose of this war-like music, came a total change; all dropped on their\nknees, and in sorrowful accents sang a slow and solemn refrain, of which\nthe following is a literal translation,\u2014\n\n _Solo_:\u2014\u2018Oh, oh, oh! the white man is going home.\n\n _Chorus_:\u2014Oh, oh, oh! going home! going home! oh, oh, oh!\n\n _Solo_:\u2014To the happy island on the sea,\n Where the beads are plenty, oh, oh, oh!\n\n _Chorus_:\u2014Where the beads, etc.\n\n _Solo_:\u2014While Singiri has kept us, oh, very long\n From our homes, very long, oh, oh, oh!\n\n _Chorus_:\u2014From our homes, etc.\n\n _Solo_:\u2014And we have had no food for very long,\n We are half-starved, oh, for so long Bana Singiri.\n\n _Chorus_:\u2014For so very long, oh, oh, oh! Bana Singiri, Singiri,\n Singiri! Oh! Singiri!\n\n _Solo_:\u2014Mirambo has gone to war\n To fight against the Arabs;\n The Arabs and Wangwana\n Have gone to fight Mirambo.\n\n _Chorus_:\u2014Oh, oh, oh, to fight Mirambo,\n Oh! Mirambo, Mirambo, etc.\n\n _Solo_:\u2014But the white man will make us glad,\n He is going home! For he is going home,\n And he will make us glad! Sh, sh, sh.\n\n _Chorus_:\u2014The white man will make us glad! Sh, sh, sh.\n Sh\u2014\u2014sh-h-h\u2014\u2014, sh-h-h-h-h-h\n Um-m\u2014mu\u2014\u2014um-m-m\u2014sh!\u2019\u201d[228]\n\nMr. Stanley says that the rhythm and melody were beautiful, and the\ngeneral effect fine.\n\nIt is curious to contrast this quiet and pathetic farewell with the\nbombastic \u201cWhere are you going to battle now?\u201d previously given; and it\nis also noticeable, that the power of improvisation which is so well\ndeveloped in the African Negro, is fully sustained by his descendents in\nAmerica.\n\nIt will be an interesting task to the student to compare the\nslave-music, especially the camp-meeting songs of the American Negroes,\nwith the various descriptions of songs given above. The same fervor of\nexpression, and gradually growing excitement, and the same exaggeration\nof feeling will be perceived at once.\n\nIt is not too much to say, that the Negro race may be, when refined and\ntoned down, the most universally and thoroughly musical race on the face\nof the globe.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XX\n MUSIC OF THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH.\n\n\nWe now resume the chronological chain of musical history, from the\ntermination of \u201cAncient Greek music;\u201d for the music of the Christian\nchurch took its rise, from the melodies of Ancient Greece. Yet it is\nprobable that the earliest Christian melodies were not according to the\nclassical Grecian type, but rather conformed to the popular in style.\nThis has always been the case in the rise of a new sect with sagacious\nleaders. The Jews on leaving Egypt, yet sang the popular melodies dear\nto their hearts, by association of childhood and youth; only at a later\nperiod, only when these songs were no longer so endeared to them did\nDavid introduce such reforms, as gave to the Hebrew music a distinctive\nstyle. So, also, it was with the Christian church in its earliest days;\nit would have been positively injudicious, at first, to have attempted a\nreform; and therefore, the old popular melodies of Greece and Rome, were\nset to new words and exerted a new influence.\n\nMusic has been, with every religion, the most powerful accessory of the\nFaith; but with none more than with Christianity. It had the additional\nadvantage, of being in an advancing state (under the charge of able\ndirectors, who fully saw the power of the art when made popular) while\nthe music of the Pagan church was greatly declining. The great emperor\nJulian, foresaw the result, and used great efforts to secure a better\nclass of music for the Roman sacrifices, but without avail.\n\nWith regard to the Christian music of the time of the apostles, we have\nonly tradition, but these traditions have so much probability, that they\nacquire some degree of authority.\n\nEusebius assures us that St. Mark taught the first Egyptian Christians\nhow to chant their prayers: St. John Chrysostom affirms (in his sixth\nhomily) that the Apostles wrote the first hymn. In Rome (according to\nTertullian) the chants were given in a deep tone, and not in a sustained\nmanner, at one part of the service, and with strong accents, and\nflexible voice at another. The Fathers of the church almost all bear\ntestimony that the music of the service generally partook of the\nhabitual style of singing of each nation.\n\nKiesewetter, one of the most careful of the students of Ancient Greek\nmusic, maintains that, while the early Christians borrowed much from\nGreece, yet from the first, the tendency was rather away from, than in\nthe path of the Greek style. Brendel in his essays coincides with this\nopinion.[229]\n\nThe cause of this, so far as Rome and Greece are concerned, is very\napparent. The apostles and their followers, started unencumbered in the\nmusical field. The theory of Greek music was a most difficult one to\nmaster, and the converts were at first almost wholly among the humbler\nclasses. It would have been impossible to have trained them in the\nelaborate Hellenic school, therefore, the more ear-catching melodies\nwere at first used, combined probably with a simple chant. The same\ncause operated in the foundation of a newer and simpler theory of music;\nhence, although our modern music is the child of the ancient Greek\nschool, yet it did not go in the same course, or arrive at the same goal\nwhich would have resulted, had the old Greek civilization been continued\ntwo thousand years longer.\n\nWe hold that the Greeks were too much devoted to the plastic arts, ever\nto have brought music deeply into the inner life.\n\nBefore the liturgy had been well established, improvisation was much\nemployed; a result always to be anticipated when uncultivated persons\nbecome musical. At the evening meal, the twenty-third Psalm was usually\nchanted.[230] Other passages of scripture were also used, such as Exodus\nXV., and Daniel III.\n\nWhen the water was passed around for the washing of hands, each one of\nthe company was asked in turn to praise God in song, and the selection\nmight either be taken from Scripture, or improvised, according to the\ntaste or ability of the performer.[231] Some of the best of these\neffusions were unquestionably preserved and possibly even admitted into\nthe regular service of the church. The songs may have been rough and\nuncouth, but they were given with a fervor which compensated for any\nshort-comings. They were unaccompanied, for two reasons; first, it would\nhave been difficult to have formed an instrumental accompaniment to such\nvariable and primitive songs, (sometimes a mere intonation of the voice,\nscarcely to be called music or even chanting); and second, because all\nthe instruments of the heathen were in daily use at the sacrifices and\ntheatres; and it would have seemed sacrilegious to have used them in the\ncelebration of a Christian festival.[232]\n\nThe summing up of the legends, surmises, and few statements concerning\nthe music of the earliest Christians, are well expressed in Ambros.[233]\n\nWe can conclude regarding the music of the earliest Christian times,\nthat it was at first a species of Folk-song, founded upon the school of\nmusic then in vogue, but elevated and impregnated with a new religious\nspirit. But this simplicity soon was changed: profiting by the\nexperience of the Romans in uniting all art and beauty in their\ntheatres, (whereby the theatre grew, and the church declined;) the early\nChristians soon found it wise to unite every art, in the service of\ntheir church. It is also probable that much of the music was borrowed\nfrom that of the Hebrews. This is more natural when we reflect that\nChristianity was at first a continuation (or reorganization) of Hebrew\nrites and the apostles were all well acquainted with the ceremonies of\nthe Jewish church.\n\nThe chanting of the scriptures which took place in the latter worship,\nwas undoubtedly transplanted into the Christian service.[234] Many of\nthe early psalms and canticles were sung in caves and subterranean\nretreats in which places the proscribed and persecuted worshippers were\nobliged to seek refuge, and where they still kept, up with undeviating\nregularity the practice of their ceremonies.\n\nPliny the younger on being made pro-consul of Bithynia was especially\ncharged by the emperor Trajan, to find accusations against the\nChristians there, the number of whom was augmenting daily. A letter of\nhis, supposed to have been written in the third year of the second\ncentury of our era,[235] contains the following regarding the new\nreligion.\n\n\u201cThey affirm that their fault, and errors have only consisted of\nthis;\u2014they convene at stated days, before sunrise, and sing, each in\nturn, verses in praise of Christ, as of a God; they engage themselves,\nby oath, not to do any crime, but never to commit theft, robbery, or\nadultery, never to break faith, or betray a trust. After this they\nseparate and afterwards reassemble to eat together innocent and\ninnocuous dishes.\u201d[236]\n\nAt a later period (the fourth century) all proselytes and new converts\nwere not admitted to sing in the church with the baptized. The new\nconverts presented themselves before the hierarch, (a dignitary who was\ncharged with the duty of classifying the catechumens in different\norders) and expressed to him the desire of joining the church. If the\nquestions of the priests were satisfactorily answered, he placed his\nhand on the head of the applicant and gave him the benediction with the\nsign of the cross, and afterwards inscribed his name among the number of\ncandidates for baptism. The catechumen had not the right to enter the\nchurch. He might linger around the porticos, but was on no account\nallowed to join in the prayers, except in a low voice, and in the hymns\nnot at all, until he had received the rite of baptism.\n\nThe candidates for baptism were divided into various classes. Even after\nbaptism there were three orders of Christians, and those who had fallen\ninto disgrace with the church, were sometimes disciplined by being\nreduced for a few years to the rank of auditors at the services. These\nwere not allowed to join in the congregational singing, and were\nsometimes not even admitted to the body of the church edifice unless\ncalled there.\n\nIt is presumable that the right to join in the singing was, during the\nfirst two or three centuries, highly prized.\n\nLittle by little the spirit of improvement crept into the unskilled but\nsoul-felt music of the early Christian church. It seems rather strange\nto find in the very germs of the religion, a silent, yet real contest\nbetween congregational and paid singing; and to find the same evils\ncreeping in with the employment of singers in those early times, that we\nsee in the present days of quartette choirs. In the days of Origen\n(about the middle of the second century) all the congregation sang\ntogether.\n\nSt. John Chrysostom says,\u2014\n\n\u201cThe psalms which we sing united all the voices in one, and the\ncanticles arise harmoniously in unison. Young and old, rich and poor,\nwomen, men, slaves and citizens, all of us have formed but one melody\ntogether.\u201d[237]\n\nA better picture of the full congregational singing of the primitive\nChristians cannot be given. The custom of allowing both sexes to sing\ntogether, was abolished by the Synod of Antioch in A. D. 379, and it was\nthen decided that the men only should be allowed to sing the psalms.\n\nIn A. D. 481, the council of Laodicea ordained that the clerks only\n(called canonical singers \u201c_Canonicos Cantores_,\u201d) should be allowed to\nsing during the service.[238] The abuses which accompany paid singing,\nappeared even in the second century. Singers found themselves sought\nafter in proportion to their talents, and therefore (in the absence of\nan exact method of notation) sought to make those talents more\nconspicuous by an introduction of florid ornaments and cadenzas into\ntheir music; they gradually forgot, or disregarded the old traditional\nstyle of singing, and sought only to excite the admiration of the masses\nby exhibiting to the best advantage the power and agility of their\nvoices.\n\nIt was, without doubt, to remedy this abuse that Pope Sylvester I, who\noccupied the pontifical chair, A. D. 320, founded a school in Rome for\nthe formation of singers.[239] At this time also, the choir had its own\ngallery or place in the church assigned to it, and every art was called\ninto play to impress and enthrall the worshipper. Sculpture, Painting,\nArchitecture and Music combined, as they had previously done for Pagan\ntheatres and amusements, to render the church a beautiful as well as\nholy resort. Charity combined in some instances with policy; for we\nlearn that a singing school founded in A. D. 350, by pope Hilary, was\ncalled an orphan asylum (orphanotrophia), and here the education of\nclerks for the church, was commenced at a very tender age.[240]\n\nThese schools did much to re-establish a dignified and worthy style of\nsacred singing. Yet there was great need of a sweeping reform; for as\nthere existed no really fixed system, the differences in singing were\nalmost as numerous as the various existing churches. Before speaking of\nthis reform, we will briefly outline the progress of music in Christian\ncommunities outside of Rome.\n\n\n GREEK CHURCH.\n\nThe Greek church, from the very beginning, paid great attention to music\nin all its details. The first institution of the mass, is attributed to\nSt. James the lesser, first bishop of Jerusalem, who died a martyr in A.\nD. 62. This mass is still in existence. There are also existing, masses\nby the two great luminaries of the Greek Church, Sts. John Chrysostom\nand Basilius, who flourished in the last half of the fourth century.\n\nAlthough there are doubts expressed as to whether St. John Chrysostom\nwrote the one attributed to him, yet it is certain that the mass was\nused in Constantinople (of which city he was the Patriarch) as long ago\nas the end of the fourth century, and was not materially changed until\nthe eighth century. It is entitled \u201cThe mystery of the divine\nEucharist.\u201d[241]\n\nThe _hymns_, which at first were not used at all in the Roman church,\nwere one of the brightest ornaments of the Greek. The verses and ancient\ntunes of these hymns were at first well adapted to each other; but, by\nthe constant introduction of embellishments, shakes, and cadenzas, the\nconnection was soon lost.\n\nThis taste for ornamentation in sacred music was driven to far greater\nexcess in the Greek church, than even in Rome; the taste _fioritura_ is\nto-day, and always has been, a characteristic of most Eastern nations.\nThis is driven to such excess in the Greek church, that (in the churches\nof the Orient, at least), the hymns are executed by two singers, one of\nwhom sings the hymns, while the other sustains the key note or principal\ntone only.\n\nThis note the singer gives out with regularity and monotony, its only\nobject being to keep the principal singer in bounds and to prevent him\nfrom straying away from the key on account of the numerous trills and\n_fiorituri_ which he is expected to introduce into the song.\n\nIt may be well to mention here, as we shall not recur to the music of\nthe Eastern Greek church again, that its style of notation, and singing\nhas altered very little, in the course of centuries; it is totally\ndifferent from that of all other countries, and consists wholly of\nsigns, which are not in any manner measured off into bars, but somewhat\nresemble the chants of the Catholic church. The notes are only relative\nin value, and the scale on which the melodies are founded, may be\nrepresented thus,\u2014\n\n Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si, Do, Re.\n Pa, Bou, Ga, Di, Ke, Z\u00f4, Ne, Pa.\n\nEvery embellishment is represented by a character; rising and falling\ninflections by others, and comparative length of notes by yet others.\n\nIt will therefore be seen that although the notation is decidedly\ncomplicated, there is a comprehensible system followed, by consulting\nwhich, we attain certain information as to one branch of the early\nchurch.[242]\n\nThe works found in the old monasteries of the Orient are almost\ninvaluable to the musical antiquary. We believe that many more will yet\nbe discovered among the monks of Mt. Athos, those strange and illiterate\ncustodians of some of the rarest manuscripts in existence, relative to\nthis subject.[243]\n\nWe are sorry that a thorough description of this subject (though full of\ninterest) would demand much space and many engravings. The effect of the\nsinging of this church in its oriental branches is very similar to that\nof the Hebrews in their services of the present day.\n\n\n SYRIAN CHURCH.\n\nWe now turn to the early Christian church of Syria, founded by the\nApostles Paul and Barnabas.\n\nOne of the earliest in existence, the church of Antioch soon became the\nmetropolis of Syrian Christianity. Yet it was in this church also that\nthe first heresy took place, by the rise of the Gnostics (disciples of\nscience); one of this sect, named Bardesanes, founded a separate\ndenomination of these, and was the first who composed hymns in the\nnative tongue, and adapted them to melodies. He composed one hundred and\nfifty psalms in imitation of David.\n\nBut greatest of all the musicians of the Orthodox Christian church of\nSyria, was Ephraem Syrus. He is still called \u201cHarp of the Holy Spirit\u201d\nin many churches who yet honor him and celebrate his feast.\n\nHe was a monk of Syria, born of poor parents, in a village of\nMesopotamia. At eighteen years of age he was converted and baptized, and\nsoon retired to a desert spot to practice penitence and piety. It was in\nthis retreat that he composed his voluminous sermons, hymns, etc., all\nof which have much poetic beauty and oriental imagery.[244] He wrote\nfifteen hymns on the \u201cNativity,\u201d fifteen on \u201cParadise,\u201d fifty-two on\n\u201cFaith,\u201d and \u201cThe Church,\u201d fifty-one on \u201cThe Virginity,\u201d eighty-seven\nagainst \u201cHeresy,\u201d and \u201cThe Arians,\u201d eighty-five \u201cMortuary,\u201d fifteen\nmoral hymns, etc. His writings on the _Peshito_ or Syriac version of the\nscriptures are still of use to the theological student.\n\nHe arranged the music to his hymns, and he himself speaks of having\narranged sixty-six of them in the style of Bardesanes.\n\nMany of the songs and prayers in the Syrian liturgy, ascribed to St.\nEphraem are spurious. It is related that at the first interview between\nhim and St. Basilius, the former was endowed by the Holy Ghost with\nsudden power to speak Greek, and the latter Syriac, thus giving them a\nchoice of languages in which to converse.\n\nIt is impossible to give a thorough account of the music of the Syrian\nChurch, as although the first instruments mentioned in the Bible (the\ntaboret, a tambourine held in one hand and struck with the other, and\nKinnor, a seven stringed triangular harp) are Syrian, yet the people\nhave never, from time immemorial, written down their melodies, but\nalways handed them down orally, father to son, or teacher to pupil.\n\nThe mass in Syrian liturgy, is very different in its form, from the\nCatholic: there is neither _Kyrie Eleison_, _Gloria_, nor _Epistle_,\ncontained in it.\n\nThere are two distinct sects in the Syrian church; the first\nEphraemitic, or followers of the Orthodox saint; the second, heretical\nand followers of Jacob Baradaeus, a Syrian monk of the sixth century.\nThese are called Jacobites, and hold Eutychian doctrines.\n\nThe music of the latter is ornamented to excess; that of the Ephraemitic\nrite nobler and plainer.\n\n\n THE ARMENIAN CHURCH.\n\nThe rise of Christianity among the Armenians, goes back to the third\ncentury, but they early developed the doctrines of Eutychius, and the\nMonophysites. At times, portions of the Armenian church have adhered to\nthe Western church, but in its rites it far more resembles the Eastern\nGreek church. The language is well adapted for song.\n\nTheir most ancient religious songs were written by _Sahac_, the great\n_Katholicos_, or patriarch of the church; the psalms were sung by them\nto popular melodies.\n\n\n THE CHURCHES OF AFRICA.\n\nSt. Mark is considered as the Apostle of Egypt and founder of the church\nof Alexandria; the liturgy used by this church is said to have been\nwritten by him; but many manuscripts exist which point to St. Basilius\nas its author, and it bears internal evidence that St. Mark could not\nhave written it, for among the prayers for the dead, it names many\nsaints, martyrs, bishops, etc., _including St. Mark_.\n\nThe songs of the early Christians here, as throughout the Orient, were\nhymns, psalms, and anthems of which the melodies were taken from the\npopular music of the day.\n\nThe Coptic church in its liturgy entirely resembled the Greek church of\nEgypt, and in looking over its ritual, one continually meets with\ntranslations of the liturgies of St. Basil, St. Cyrille, or St. Gregory\nNazianzen. In the National Library, of Paris there is also a Coptic\ntranslation of the Liturgy of St. Mark.\n\nThe music of the Coptic church is very much embellished, and of\ninordinate length; for, owing to the practice of the singers to vocalise\nupon one syllable sometimes to the length of _several minutes_[245] the\nvespers alone, often attain the length of _four or five hours_.\n\nAs the rules of worship of the Copts do not allow them either to kneel\nor to sit down during services, they are obliged to support themselves\nby placing under their arm-pits, a long crutch, in order not to drop\nfrom fatigue.\n\nThis race is degenerating fast, and will soon disappear under the\ndespotic sway of the Arabs. Their number is about one hundred and fifty\nthousand. Few of them understand the Coptic language, and although part\nof the service is sung in that tongue, it is usually afterwards\nexplained in Arabic. Their modulations in singing are very bold,\nconstant, and fatiguing; so much so, that long before the end of the\nsong, all remembrance of any key-note, is lost.\n\nAll writers agree in speaking of their music, as tiresome in the\nextreme. This proceeds from three causes;\u2014their extraordinary length,\ntheir insignificant melody, and the constant repetition of the syllables\nand vowels of a single word, whereby it is made almost impossible to\nfollow the sense of the text. This fault is not confined to the Coptic\nsect only, but is largely found in the Greek church throughout the\nOrient. Fetis gives a strong example of one case, taken from an Eastern\nHymnal, it runs as follows,\u2014\n\nAga-a-a-a-a-a-aate-e-e-e-e mara ky-y-y-ri-i-i-i-i-ou.\n\nEach of the vowels is given separate from the others, and the effect is\nludicrous in the extreme. The Copts do worse than this; after mincing a\nword into such minute fragments, they go back and re-mutilate the first\nsyllable, then again the second, then perhaps the first two, and so on\nfor a long time before they give the word complete like the Syrians.\n\nThe Copts have no musical notation whatever, and it is a most curious\nfact in music, that they should be able to recollect such lengthy songs,\ndevoid of any apparent melody, or sequence, and hand them down\ntraditionally, from generation to generation; they must possess either\nphenomenal memories, or an insight to a connection of ideas in their\nsongs, which has escaped European perception. These remarkable\ndescendants of the ancient Egyptians, hate other Christian sects with\nmuch more fervor than they do the Mohammedans.\n\nOf the Abyssinian Church we have already spoken, (see chapters on\n\u201cAfrican Music\u201d);\u2014there is little more to add. They have different modes\nof singing for different grades of sacred festivals. Responses made by\nthe people or the choir, enter largely into their mass. The number of\nchoristers is from eight to twelve, and they have all powerful voices;\nthis is in fact a prime necessity, as at the door of the church, during\nservice, a constant din of drums, cymbals, and sistrums is kept up.\n\nOn certain days, the priests and people have a grand religious dance, to\nthe sound of these instruments, while the chorus sing a litany and all\nmark the time by a clapping of hands.\n\n\n GENERAL SYNOPSIS OF EARLY CHRISTIAN MUSIC.\n\nThat the art of music was esteemed among the more educated of the early\nChristians is very strongly shown by a fresco in the cemetery of\nDomitilla (in Rome). This painting which seems to be of the first or\nsecond century of our era, represents Christ as Orpheus, charming all\nnature by his music.[246] It is probably only an allegorical figure,\nrepresenting his divine gifts, but the figure must be a shock to all who\nare accustomed to see the face of Jesus, as drawn by the Leonardo da\nVinci. Instead of the meek and beautiful form, we see here a lank\nloosely-built young man, sitting in a very uncomfortable attitude, on a\nrock, and twanging away at a four-stringed lyre.\n\nRegarding the origin of the present pictures of Christ (although not\nstrictly belonging to our subject) we are tempted to make the following\nremarks.\n\nIt is believed by some scholars that the head of Christ was first copied\nfrom the statue of Jupiter (or the Greek Zeus), which was, in the early\ncenturies regarded as the most perfect model of manly beauty. It is\nscarcely to be doubted that the general model of the Pagan sculptures\nwas followed in the early representations of the Saviour. But the style\nof portraits was altered in consonance with the description handed down\nby good authorities.\n\nA brass medal with a head of Christ on one side, was discovered in 1702,\nin some Druidical ruins, at Aberfraw, Wales, which although of a later\nera than that assigned to it, is of great antiquity, and coincides with\nthe pictures of to-day.\n\nThere exists a letter ascribed to Publius Lentulus and directed to the\nemperor Tiberius, which describes Jesus. Although it is apocryphal, yet\nit was certainly written in the days of the primitive Christians. It is\ntranslated as follows,\u2014[247]\n\n\u201cThere hath appeared in these, our days, a man of great virtue, named\nJesus Christ, who is yet living among us, and of the Gentiles, is\naccepted as a prophet, but his disciples call him the Son of God. He\nraiseth the dead, and cures all manner of diseases; a man of stature\nsomewhat tall and comely, with very reverend countenance, such as the\nbeholders both love and fear; his hair the color of chestnut, full ripe,\nplain to his ears, whence downward it is more orient, curling and waving\nabout his shoulders.\u201d\n\n\u201cIn the midst of his head is a seam or partition of the hair, after the\nmanner of the Nazarites; his forehead plain and very delicate; his face\nwithout a spot or wrinkle, beautified with the most lovely red; his nose\nand mouth so formed that nothing can be reprehended; his beard thickish,\nin color like his hair, not very long but forked; his look innocent and\nmature, his eyes gray, clear, and quick. In reproving he is terrible; in\nadmonishing, courteous and fair spoken; pleasant in conversation mixed\nwith gravity.\u201d\n\n\u201cIt cannot be remarked that any one saw him laugh, but many have seen\nhim weep. In proportion of body, most excellent; his hands and arms most\ndelicate to behold. In speaking, very temperate, moderate and wise. A\nman for his singular beauty, surpassing the children of men.\u201d\n\nFrom this letter of the predecessor of Pontius Pilate (?) the two\nearliest known portraits of Christ (in the Calixtine and Pontine\ncatacombs at Rome) were probably sketched and the model has been\nfollowed up to our day.\n\nBut there is another description, by St. John of Damascus, which is much\nmore in keeping with the Jewish type, of which he supposes the Saviour\nprobably may have had some trait.\n\nAccording to him, Christ had beautiful eyes, but the eyebrows meeting; a\nregular nose, flowing locks, a black beard, and a straw colored\ncomplexion, like his mother.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XXI.\n THE AMBROSIAN AND GREGORIAN CHANT.\n\n\nSt Ambrose, the first real reformer in the music of the Christian\nChurch, was born A. D. 333, probably at Treves, where his father who was\nprefect of Gaul, often resided. He is said to have received an\nauspicious omen even in his cradle; a swarm of bees alighted upon him\nduring his slumber, and the astonished nurse saw that they did not sting\nhim, but clustered around his lips; his father, remembering a similar\nwonder related of Plato, predicted a high destiny for his son. He was\ntherefore, thoroughly educated in his youth, and soon was sent with\nSatyrus, his brother, to Milan to study law.\n\nHe soon became so eminent in this profession, that he was appointed (A.\nD. 369) prefect of upper Italy and Milan. In A. D. 374 he was\nunanimously, and against his will, chosen bishop of Milan.\n\nOnce in the chair, however, he ruled with vigor and great sagacity,\nmaking numerous and necessary reforms in church regulations and\ndiscipline.[248]\n\nWe shall only follow his musical career. Unfortunately, although there\nare some remains in the Milanese church-chant of to-day, we have but\nlittle proof of the nature of his reforms. That it was deeply impressive\nwe have the testimony of St. Augustine who eulogises, without accurately\ndescribing it,[249] but it is certain that his reforms were founded in\npart upon the Greek music, and that in the Gregorian and Ambrosian\nchants of the church, we have a legitimate descendant of the ancient\nGreek music. The reader must remove one impression from his mind; the\nmusic of the early Christians, though certainly crude, was by no means\nsimple; on the contrary, it contained many flourishes and rapid\nembellishments, most of which were of oriental origin. The reform was in\nthe nature of simplicity, and added dignity to a service, which already,\nin its words, possessed beauty and poetry.\n\nHe cast aside much of the cumbrous nomenclature of the Greek modes, and\nretained of them only what was beautiful and easily comprehended. He did\nnot aim at any sweeping reform, as is evident from his letter to his\nsister St. Marcellina, wherein he says that he is endeavoring to\nregulate the mode of singing the hymns, canticles and anthems in his own\nchurch,[250] and St. Augustine[251] says that it was done after the\nmanner of the churches of the Orient.\n\nThe modes which he chose for his compositions were the following:\u2014\n\n First mode:\u2014 D, E, F, G, A, B, C, D,\n re mi fa sol la si do re\n Second do. E, F, G, A, B, C, D, E,\n mi fa sol la si do re mi\n Third do. F, G, A, B, C, D, E, F,\n fa sol la si do re mi fa\n Fourth do. G, A, B, C, D, E, F, G,\n sol la si do re mi fa sol\n\nIt will be seen that the semi-tones are immovable, and therefore occur\nin different positions in each mode, by the change of the key-note;\nbeing respectively,\u2014\n\n First mode, semitones 2-3, 6-7\n Second \u201d \u201d 1-2, 5-6\n Third \u201d \u201d 4-5, 7-8\n Fourth \u201d \u201d 3-4, 6-7\n\nIt was this distinction which gave to each mode its peculiar character.\n\nNot only did St. Ambrose reinstate these modes, but he composed many\nbeautiful compositions in them. Many of the so-called Ambrosian chants\nand hymns, were not written by him, but after his manner; but some ten\nof the ancient hymns, including \u201c_Veni Redemptor Gentium_,\u201d \u201c_Eterna\nChristi munera_,\u201d etc., are from his own pen.\n\nThe Cathedral of Milan still uses _Aeterne rerum conditor_; _Deus\nCreator omnium_; _Veni Redemptor omnium_; _Splendor Patern\u00e6 glori\u00e6_;\n_Consors paterni luminis_; and _O Lux Beata Trinitas_.[252]\n\nSome of these are of rare beauty, and remain as monuments of the\ncultivated taste of this pioneer in church music. The composition of the\n\u201c_Te Deum Laudamus_,\u201d has been ascribed to St. Ambrose, and St.\nAugustine; but it was composed nearly a century after their death. Among\nother persons to whom this beautiful production has been assigned, may\nbe mentioned St. Hilary, St. Abundius, St. Sisebut, and St. Nicat; but\nit may be safely affirmed that its real author has never been\ndiscovered.\n\nThe greatest boon bestowed on the church by St. Ambrose was the\nrhythmical hymn, mentioned above, all of which, and many others he wrote\nfor the Cathedral which he built at Milan.\n\n\u201cThe entire accent, and style of chanting as regulated by him, was\nundoubtedly an artistic and cultivated improvement on that of preceding\nchurch services, such as would naturally result from the rare\ncombination of piety, zeal, intellect, and poetical and musical power by\nwhich he was distinguished.\u201d The Ambrosian chant was eventually merged,\nbut certainly not lost in that vast repertory of plain song, (whether\nthen ancient or modern,) which we now call Gregorian, from the name of\nthe next great reformer of church music, St. Gregory the Great.[253] St.\nAmbrose died A. D. 397; it was but a short time afterwards that the\ngreat invasion of the northern barbarians took place. The history of the\nvicissitudes of the ecclesiastical music, during the general disruption\nof Europe and the western civilization, which followed, can only be\nimagined; but scarcely had a calm been re-established, when, at a period\nwhen the reforms and inventions of St. Ambrose had not been vitiated or\nlost, the great reformer of church music arose, and re-instated the art\nupon a firmer pedestal than ever.\n\nGregory, the Great, born about A. D. 540, and pope from September 3,\n590, to March 12, 604, was of an illustrious Roman family. His father\nGordianus, was a senator, and Felix III., one of the early pontiffs, was\namong his ancestors. He was one of the most remarkable, zealous, and\nintelligent of the fathers of the church.\n\nWe have here only to follow his musical work, but in every branch of\nwork connected with his church, he was most eminent. He founded six\nmonasteries in Sicily alone. He voluntarily resigned an honorable\noffice, to leave the world, and seek retirement in the monastery of St.\nAndrew, which he himself had founded at Rome. On this occasion he gave\nto the poor all his wealth, and declining the abbacy of his own convent,\nbegan with the ordinary monastic life, about 575.\n\nHe wished to attempt the conversion of the Britains, (moved thereto by\nthe well known incident of seeing some beautiful Anglo-Saxon youths\nexposed for sale in the Roman market place), but was prevented by the\nclamor of the populace who refused to lose him. Like St. Ambrose, he was\ncalled to office entirely against his will, and, on being made pontiff,\nhe seems to have excelled in every department of his administration;\nthus much, to show that music was but one of the fields in which this\nwonderful man exercised his talents.\n\nHe collected the available church music, he added to it by composing new\nhymns and anthems, he arranged them for the various special days of the\nyear, he invented or amplified the system of ecclesiastical composition,\nand took care that the reforms should be permanent, by having most\nthings relative to his musical labors, written out in a lasting\nmanner.[254]\n\nThese reforms he began about A. D. 599. He did not discard the four\nmodes of St. Ambrose, but rather extended them; and yet (through the\ngreat personal popularity of St. Ambrose), the Milan Cathedral kept the\nAmbrosian chant unadulterated, for centuries after the establishment of\nthe Gregorian.\n\nAs late as the latter half of the fifteenth century, Franchinus Gafor\nspeaks of the Gregorians and Ambrosians as partizans. Of course, in\norder to secure uniformity, the rulers of Europe, sought to dwarf the\nworkings of the Ambrosian system, and Charlemagne even ordered the\nAmbrosian books to be burnt. Although, as above stated, there was\nnothing antagonistic in the two systems, yet their musical results seem\nto have had a material difference, for Radulf of Tongern an\nunimpeachable witness of the fourteenth century, who heard both methods\nin their purity, says that he found the Ambrosian chanting, widely\ndifferent from the Roman (Gregorian); the former being strong and\nmajestic, while the latter was sweet-toned, and well arranged.[255] This\ndistinction is utterly meaningless to us, for the Gregorian chant is\ncertainly majestic and strong, at least to our ears.\n\nGregory also founded a singing school in Rome, which was large enough to\noccupy two good-sized edifices. In this he probably taught personally.\n\nThere have been shown as relics of his instruction, the couch on which\nhe sat while teaching, and the rod with which the boys were corrected,\nor awed into giving proper attention to their studies.\n\nThe amplification which he made in the Ambrosian scale was the addition\nof four tones or plagal modes, and also that he totally abolished the\ndifficult Greek nomenclature, such as _para-mese_ and\n_proslambanomenos_, and gave the names of the first seven letters of the\nRoman alphabet, to the seven notes, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, in the same\nmanner as used to-day. There is no question but that the scale founded\nby Gregory, had a diatonic character, but as to the number of systems of\ntones employed, authorities differ, and even the books of music of\nGregory\u2019s own compilation (one of which was chained to the altar at St.\nPeters, to fix the standard of tone for ever and ever) do not clear up\nthe difficulty, for the number differs.\n\nBut the system gradually settled itself, and eight tones only (our\nordinary diatonic scale tones) were found practicable for composition\nand singing.\n\nGregory\u2019s system was founded on the division of the octave into two\nintervals; a perfect fifth and perfect fourth. The fifth was, next to\nthe octave, the most important interval.\n\nThe added modes (called plagal, signifying \u201coblique, sideways\u201d), were so\ncalled to distinguish them from the authentic tones or keys (D, E, F, G,\nA), a synopsis of the entire set of tones would be as follows,\u2014\n\n A, B, C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C, D,\n plagal 4,\n authentic 5,\n plagal 4.\n\nThere were four authentic modes, viz.,\u2014D, E, F and G, and four plagal,\nas follows,\u2014A, B, C and D.\n\nTo give a description that would be at all adequate, of the system of\nGregory, would require much space, and many plates and engravings. We\nshall therefore touch but lightly on the tone systems and notations of\nthe early and middle ages. The founding of the scale from a fifth and\nfourth, led to one grave mistake; these intervals were supposed to be of\nprime importance, and more perfect than others, and finally were\nemployed in harmonies which were decidedly harsh. But to such an extent\ndid the evil spread that no composition (in the dark ages) was thought\nto be pure or classic, without containing a series of fourths, fifths,\nand octaves, and an invariable close upon an empty fifth. Thirds were\nrejected as totally impure. But these faults are not of Gregory\u2019s\norigination, and he must ever stand as the man who made the connecting\nlink between the old Greek music and our own.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XXII.\n MUSIC IN EUROPE FROM THE FIFTH CENTURY.\n\n\nIn proceeding to briefly sketch the curious facts of musical history in\nthe dark ages, we shall necessarily confine ourselves to pointing out\nonly what is chiefly remarkable, and shall not enter into the field of\ndispute regarding systems and notations, for this period of Musical\nHistory is a very hazy one. It is but natural to suppose, that when\ngeneral barbarism spread over Europe, music was not likely to be either\nmuch practised or written about. The last writer on the previous systems\nwas Boethius (the last of old Roman writers), who lived at about the\nsame epoch as Gregory (he was put to death by Theodoric, the Goth, A. D.\n525).\n\nIn his work, he uses the letters of the alphabet, to designate musical\nnotes, but does not repeat the letters at the octave; his nomenclature\ntherefore does not end at G, but continues on, to _N_, _O_, and\n_P_.[256]\n\nMusical progress was at a stand still from the time of Gregory, until\nthe reign of the Carlovingian kings. Charlemagne at the end of the\neighth, and beginning of the ninth centuries, took all art and music\nunder his powerful protection. He loved to compare himself with King\nDavid, and had in many respects, good reason to, for he possessed both\nthe virtues and the failings of that ancient monarch.\n\nHe gathered about him a number of musical and literary friends, and we\ncan judge of the pleasant manner of their intercourse by the names of\nantiquity which each one was known by. Alcuin, was dubbed Flaccus\nAlbinus; Riculf, Archbishop of Mayence,\u2014Damoetas; Arno,\u2014Aquila;\nAngilbert,\u2014Homerus, etc.[257]\n\nIn addition to the literary and musical schools founded throughout his\nempire, in his own palace was one devoted to the education of the\nchildren of his servants. Books were read, and music sung to his\ncourtiers, during the hours of dining or other leisure.\n\nThe singing at his court, he often conducted himself, and every one was\nobliged to participate. If a stranger arrived, he was also obliged to\nstand with the chorus, and even if he could not sing, at least to make\nthe semblance of doing so.\n\nIn the conservation of ancient legendary songs Charlemagne was very\nactive, and many which have come down to our day, owe their existence to\nhis wise and thoughtful care.[258]\n\nIn church music he was, most of all, interested, and remarked with much\nconcern, the variations between the Gregorian and French singing. To put\nan end to the matter, he sent to Stephen IV., the reigning pope, for\necclesiastical singers; the latter responded by sending, (in imitation\nof the twelve apostles,) twelve clerical singers to teach his empire.\n\nBut these twelve apostles, turned out to be _all_ Judases, for jealous\nof the rising civilization of France, they agreed among themselves, not\nto aid in its rise. When therefore, they had been received at the French\ncourt with every honor, and were sent to their various fields of labor,\nit is said, they began to sing in a most wretched manner, and not\ncontent with that, they _taught_ this abomination to their pupils. But\nwhen Charlemagne celebrated Christmas at Tours that year, and in Paris\nthe succeeding year, he heard other Roman vocalists sing in a manner\ntotally different, and lost no time in making complaint to the pope,\nwho, calling back the untrustworthy teachers, punished them, some with\nbanishment, and some with perpetual imprisonment; and in order that a\nsimilar deceit might not again be practised, he persuaded Charlemagne to\nsend two French Ecclesiastics to Rome, where under Papal supervision\nthey learned the true Gregorian style of song.[259]\n\nThere also exists another anecdote of the ruling of Charlemagne in\nchurch singing, which will show how high partizan feeling ran in musical\nmatters at this era. It is as follows,\u2014\n\n\u201cThe most pious King Charles having returned to celebrate Easter at Rome\nwith the apostolic Lord, a great quarrel ensued during the festival,\nbetween the Roman and Gallic singers. The French pretended to sing\nbetter and more agreeable than the Italians; the Italians, on the\ncontrary, regarding themselves as more learned in Ecclesiastical music,\nin which they had been instructed by St. Gregory, accused their\ncompetitors of corrupting, disfiguring, and spoiling the new chant. The\ndispute being brought before our sovereign lord the king, the French,\nthinking themselves sure of his countenance and support, insulted the\nRoman singers; who, on their part, emboldened by superior knowledge, and\ncomparing the musical abilities of their great master, St. Gregory, with\nthe ignorance and rusticity of their rivals, treated them as fools and\nbarbarians.\u201d\n\n\u201cAs their altercation was not likely to come to a speedy issue, the most\npious King Charles asked his chanters which they thought to be the\npurest and best water, that which was drawn from the source at the\nfountain-head, or that which after being mixed with turbid and muddy\nrivulets, was found at a great distance from the original spring?\u201d\n\n\u201cThey exclaimed unanimously, that all water must be most pure at its\nsource; upon which our lord the King, said, \u2018mount ye then up to the\npure fountain of St. Gregory, whose chant ye have manifestly corrupted.\u2019\nAfter this our lord the king, applied to Pope Adrian (the first) for\nsinging masters to convert the Gallican chant; and the pope appointed\nfor that purpose Theodore and Benedict, two chanters of great learning\nand abilities, who had been instructed by St. Gregory himself; he\nlikewise granted to him _Antiphonaria_, or choral-books of that saint,\nwhich he had himself written in Roman notes.\u201d\n\n\u201cOur lord the King, on his return to France, sent one of the two singers\ngranted him by the Pope, to Metz, and the other to Soissons; commanding\nall the singing masters of his kingdom to correct their _antiphonaria_,\nand to conform in all respects to the Roman manner of performing the\nchurch service.\u201d\n\n\u201cThus were the French _antiphonaria_ corrected, which had before been\nvitiated, interpolated, and abridged at the pleasure of every choir man,\nand all the chanters of France learned from the Romans that chant which\nthey now call the French chant, which is entirely as the Roman except\nthat the French do not execute the tremulus and vinnulas, the bound and\nstaccato notes (_collisibiles vel secabiles voces_), with facility, and\ngive a rather rude and throaty manner of singing. The best style of\nsinging remained in Metz, and as superior as Rome is to Metz, so\nsuperior is Metz to the rest of France, in its school of singing.\u201d[260]\n\nBoth the above anecdotes, although quoted very frequently, must be taken\n_cum grano salis_, for as Ambros and Fetis well observe, the two\nsingers, if they had received instruction from Gregory, and also taught\nin the era of Charlemagne, must have been about _two hundred years of\nage_, which is certainly too old for active service. Another historian\ngives the names of the envoys as _Petrus_ and _Romanus_, and it is\ncertain that one of these did go to Metz, and that a famous school of\nsinging was founded at Soissons about the same time. Both the teachers,\nalso must have instructed the French, in the musical characters then\nused in notation, and known by the name of _Neumes_.\n\nThe _Neumes_ which were in use for musical writing from the eighth to\nthe twelfth century were short lines, twirls, and hooks, which were\nwritten above the words of a song to denote the melody.\n\nThe origin of these marks, is buried in oblivion, for they seem to have\nbeen developed, not at one time, but gradually, and from the simplest\nbeginnings. Although we have not space to describe the theories\nconcerning them, a short explanation of them is necessary, for from\nthese Neumes gradually came our modern system of notation. At first\nthese marks were only meant as guides to memory; to aid the singer to\nsing an air which he had previously learned. Thus the first bar of \u201cHome\nSweet Home,\u201d would be represented by a _Scandicus_ signifying three\nupward moving tones, the first two short, the last one long.\n\nThe exclamation and interrogation point, are in language, what _Neumes_\nwere at first in music, they roughly sketched out the inflection of the\nvoice. The connection between them, and our modern notation is very\nevident; in our musical notation the requirements of the eye, have been\nwell attended to; not entirely perhaps, as regards the length of notes,\nbut certainly in the matter of ascending and descending passages,\netc.;[261] the old Greek notation, with its upturned and fragmentary\nletters, meant nothing to the untutored eye; but the _Neumes_ of the\nmiddle ages, were the first attempt to express a meaning _by their\narrangement_. Thus the _tripunctum_ ({tripunctum}) would denote three\nnotes ascending, though not which ones; it might mean\n\n C, D, E, or E, F, G, or F, G, A,\n do, re, mi, mi, fa, sol, fa, sol, la,\n\netc., the _bipunctum_ ({bipunctum}) two ascending, or ({bipunctum})\ndescending notes; the _plica ascendens_ ({plica ascendens}) an upward\nspring of a third, etc.\n\nIt being a system which was evolved by slow degrees, it is not\nastonishing that there are various signs, about which opinions differ.\nThe system though seemingly barbarous, was in reality an improvement;\nalthough not developed so extensively as the Greek notation which\npreceded it, it bore the germ of a more natural style of musical\ncharacters.\n\nBut the constant change of, and addition to the _Neumes_, bore evidence,\nthat it was but a pathway to a more complete system. The next great\nreformer in music gave his attention to abolishing the uncertainty which\nclung around the _pneumata_.\n\nHucbald, Monk of St. Amand, in Flanders, (born about 840, died 932,)\nmade the first practical effort to fix notes permanently. To him is due\nthe germ of the idea which afterwards culminated in the modern clefs and\nstaff.\n\nHe took (unfortunately) the Greek system for his starting point, and\nthis led him into many errors, and much lessened the permanent value of\nhis work. He took the tetrachord (or succession of four notes) as the\nfoundation of music, but he applied it in a most strange manner; his\nscale was as follows:[262]\n\n G, A, B flat,\n C, D, E, F,\n G, A, B natural,\n C, D, E, F sharp,\n G, A, B, C sharp,\n\nit will be readily seen that the above scale contains some\nincongruities, which are precisely similar to those noticed in the music\nof the Hindoos; that is the octave comes out a semi-tone sharp; B\nnatural being octave to B flat, F sharp to F, etc.\n\nNaturally, in singing it is not to be conceived that the singers took\nany such outlandish system as to substitute this for an octave, but it\nmust have allowed great license to the singers, and the whole must have\ngiven rise to much ambiguity.\n\nHis improvement in the method of notation consisted (a perfect\nanticipation of clef and staff) in placing the letters of the notes\nemployed, before each line of the words, and then writing each syllable\nof the song, opposite to (and level with) the note to which it belonged.\nAs he adopted the clumsy Greek method of lettering (using only four\nletters, and placing them upright, reversed, backwards, and sideways) we\nwill give an example with English letters.[263]\n\n A _______a-________________________\n G ____da-__te_______num____________\n F Lau-___________mi-____de-________\n E ____________do-__________e_______\n D ___________________________c\u0153lis\n\nThe words being \u201cLaudate Dominum de c\u0153lis.\u201d\n\nThe harmony of Hucbald was as peculiar and barbaric as his scale system.\n\nHe followed the principle of the ancients in treating intervals of\nthirds and sixths as _dissonances_, and therefore did not allow them to\nappear in his works. In common with some of his predecessors, he held\nthat the only pure intervals were fifths and fourths. To us this\nsuccession of discords appears most appalling, but it is probable that\nin the practical use of music it was ameliorated somewhat. At this time\nwhen the organ was in such a primitive state that the organist struck\nthe keys heavily with his _fist_ in playing, the left fist was sometimes\nallowed to hold a tone (in the manner of an organ point), while the\nright played a succession of tones with the singers. The constant\nrejection of sixths and thirds as impure intervals, must ever remain a\nmystery to us; yet the effect of even this harsh and uncouth singing was\ndeep on those who heard it. History tells us that King Canute was deeply\nimpressed on hearing the monks chant, while being rowed in his boat,\nnear a monastery, and a lady upon hearing the music of the first organ\nerected in France, went raving mad, from excess of emotion.\n\nWe will leave the rude harmonies of Hucbald, with a final example\nshowing the succession of fourths used in his _organum_ (or art of\ncomposing).\n\nThe letters T, and S, signify tone and semitone.\n\n _______________Do-_____________________________\n T_________________mini_________________________\n T_Sit_____oria_________in_____cula________bitur\n S_____glo-_____Do-________sae-_________ta______\n T_________________mini_____________lae-________ } etc.\n T_Sit_____oria_________in_____cula________bitur\n S_____glo-________________sae-_________ta______\n T__________________________________lae-________\n\nSometimes four voices were thus written on a staff of fifteen lines.\nAlthough this system was so cumbrous, yet the right path had been\nattained, and the progress was continual; little inventions followed one\nupon the other, and many of the modern usages in music date their rise\nto this obscure age of Musical History.\n\nThe next great name, in the art, is that of Guido Aretino, or of Arezzo,\na monk of the Benedictine order, born at Arezzo. He flourished about A.\nD. 1030 though the date of his birth and death, is not accurately known.\nHis work has had more influence in shaping modern music, than that of\nany one before him. Yet much of his life and work belongs to the hazy\nrealm of legend. He attained such celebrity that every invention to\nwhich his successors could not find a father, was attributed to him.\n\nGuido\u2019s great success lay in the fact that he was a _specialist_. He did\nnot undertake, like Gregory and Ambros, to shine in all art, science,\nand enterprise; his position precluded that; he says \u201cThe ways of\nPhilosophers are not mine, I only occupy myself with what can be of use\nto the church, and bring our little ones (the scholars) forward.\u201d\n\nThere was need of such a man; for though music teachers were sought in\nevery country at this time, and those from Italy, Greece, France and\neven Germany, were highly prized, yet there were many who presumed on\nthis state of affairs, and the consequence was that incompetent teachers\nwere the rule. To remedy this great evil was the aim of Guido\u2019s life.\n\nHe says some of these would-be teachers, \u201cIf they sang in their aimless\nmanner, every day, for a hundred years, they would not invent even the\nslightest new Antiphon, and he who cannot easily and correctly sing a\nnew song, by what right can he call himself a musician or singer?\n\n\u201cAt the service of God, it too often sounds, not as if we were praising\nHim, but as if we were quarrelling, and scolding among ourselves.\u201d\n\nHe devoted himself greatly, to the teaching of a most important branch\nof singing, i. e., _sight reading_, and soon brought his cloister class\nto such perfection in this that they astonished all beholders. He was\nnot however, as mild-mannered a reformer as his predecessor in art,\nHucbald. His bitter sarcasms on his brother monks, soon brought a\nresult, and he found himself though not actually chased from his\nconvent, yet ostracized in it.\n\nBut he was well able to sustain such a strife, and continued his work\nwith zeal unabated. His style of teaching sight reading was far in\nadvance of his competitors, for he taught his scholars to sing\nintervals, not by referring to the monochord, but instead of it to think\nof some similar interval in any hymn well known to them, thus combining\nthought, memory and musical ear, in a practical manner.\n\nHe was struck with the regularly ascending intervals of the first\nsyllables of each line of the hymn in honor of St. John, and with the\ninspiration of genius attached the syllables ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, to\nthe notes, and caused his scholars to memorize each interval, thus\nforming a new and easily comprehended system of _Solfeggio_. The hymn\nwhich inspired this wonderful stride in music runs,\n\n _Ut_\u2014queant laxis.\n _Re_\u2014sonare fibris.\n _Mi_\u2014ra gestorum.\n _Fa_\u2014muli tuorum.\n _Sol_\u2014ve polluti.\n _La_\u2014bia reati.\n Sancte Johannes.\n\nThe fame of his wonderful results in choir-training, soon reached Rome,\nand the Pope, John XIX.,[264] sent an invitation to the still ostracized\nmonk, to come to Rome.\n\nGuido is credited with having made many changes in the notation and\nharmony of his day. The hexachord system is attributed (justly or\nunjustly) to him. He also is said to have introduced lines of different\ncolors into the staff, for the purpose of aiding the singer to recognize\ncertain notes with more facility. He says in his _Micrologus_[265] \u201cIn\norder that sounds may be discerned with certainty, we mark some lines\nwith various colors, so that the eye may immediately distinguish a note,\nin whatever place it may be. For the third of the scale [C] a bright\nsaffron line. The sixth [F] adjacent to C is of bright vermilion, and\nthe proximity of others to these colors, will be an index to the whole.\nIf there were neither letter, nor colored lines to the Neumes, it would\nbe like having a well without a rope\u2014the water plentiful, but of no use\nto those who see it.\u201d\n\nWhile Guido does not lay claim to having invented the colored lines, it\nis probable that he brought them, by his influence into much more\ngeneral use.\n\nHe certainly invented a modification of the line system of Hucbald.\nInstead of the inverted letters, and fragments of letters which the\nlatter used, he employed the vowels only, to designate the pitch, thus,\u2014\n\n ________________________________________________\n ____________________________________tu-____|_u_|\n ______________so-______________________os__|_o_|\n F__ri-_____ri____lis________u-_____________|_i_|\n ________ve-_____________ter___ber-_________|_e_|\n Ma-___a______________Ma-__________a________|_a_|\n\n\u201cMaria, veri solis mater, ubera tuos.\u201d\n\nGuido, altered Hucbald\u2019s _Organum_ in so far, that he rejected\nconsecutive fifths, as being too harsh, and substituted a series of\nconsecutive fourths as being milder.\n\nIt may not be out of place to remark here, that the present scrupulous\navoidance of all consecutive fifths, in modern composition of strict\nschool, is simply a reaction from the rude taste of past centuries,\nwhich employed them _ad nauseum_; there is no valid reason for their\ncomplete ostracism, any more than there was cause for the banishing of\nall sixths and thirds from the harmony of our ancestors. To Guido is\nalso attributed the invention of the method of the harmonical hand\n(Guidonian hand, as it has been named after its supposed originator).\nThis consisted of marking certain notes and musical signs on the tips of\nthe fingers, and by this means more readily committing them to memory.\nAs before stated, many of the inventions credited to Guido, are only\nadaptations. The Sol-faing system was almost an accidental occurrence;\nyet only genius can derive full profit from accidents. The hymn which\ngave rise to it (quoted above), is a most prosaic invocation to St. John\nto save the throats of the singers from hoarseness, in order that they\nmay fittingly sing his praise. A very diplomatic way of requesting it.\n\nMusical history in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries is at its\ndarkest; hence little is positively known of the life of Guido. It is\ncertain that he was in great favor at Rome, and that other countries\napplied to him for his musical services to reorganize their\necclesiastical chanting, and also that his health failing, he returned\nto his monastery, forgetting and forgiving the ill treatment he had\nreceived there, and in its cloisters peacefully ended his days.\n\nThe date of his decease is not known.\n\nOther names appear in this misty epoch in musical history. Franco of\nCologne, Walter Odington, an English Monk, Heeronymus von Maehren, etc.,\nwrote works upon the theory of music, while Adam de la Hale (of Arras,\nFrance) wrote music in four-part harmony, about the year 1280. But in\nthe midst of this darkness there came a glorious sunburst in the shape\nof chivalric bands who elevated music to a broader sphere by adding to\nthe ecclesiastical chanting a secular school of composition, both\nwarlike and lyrical.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XXIII.\n THE ANCIENT BARDS.\n\n\nWhile Rome and Milan were devoting themselves almost entirely to\necclesiastical music, there had sprung up among the barbarian nations a\nschool of music more consonant to their habits, being warlike in its\nstyle, and having for its object the celebration of the heroes of each\ncountry, and the inciting of their descendants to similar deeds of\nglory. From earliest days Wales has possessed a guild of such singers,\nwho were, in fact, the historians of the country, at a time when written\nbooks would have been nearly useless. The songs of the Welsh bards have\nbeen preserved traditionally by that people; while the songs of the\ndruids who preceded them have been allowed to pass into utter oblivion,\nthe latter having, evidently, not taken deep root in Welsh soil.\n\nAt the commencement of the sixth century, the bards of Wales exerted all\ntheir energies of exhortation to animate their countrymen in the strife\nwith the Saxon invaders, and when Wales was conquered by Edward I.,\n(1284) he dreaded their influence so much that he is said to have\npersecuted them and put them to death. The bards in Wales had an\norganization similar to that which we shall presently find among the\ntroubadours and minne-singers. They were divided into two\nclasses,\u2014poets, and musicians. Each of these classes were subdivided\ninto three divisions. The first class of poet-bards was composed of\nthose who understood history, and dabbled somewhat in sorcery, thus\nbeing held in awe as prophets and diviners. The second class consisted\nof bards attached to private families, whose duties were to chant the\npraises of the heroes of their particular house. The third class were\nthe heraldic bards, who wrote the national annals and prescribed the\nlaws of etiquette and precedence. These must have exerted a powerful\ninfluence on a nation which clung so strictly to ceremony and the\nprivileges of lineage.\n\nThe musicians were also divided into three classes, of which the first\nwere harpers, and possessed the title of Doctors of Music; the second\nclass were the players upon the _crouth_ or _chrotta_, a smaller\nstringed instrument; the third class consisted of the singers. Many laws\nand regulations were made to define the privileges of each class, and\nthe classification of new bards took place at an assemblage called the\nEisteddfod, which met triennially, and conferred degrees. The highest\ndegree could only be obtained after nine years faithful study. From the\nthirteenth century Wales also possessed a class of wandering musicians\nentitled, \u201c_Clery dom_.\u201d The harps used were various, though the\nthree-stringed one was the national instrument. One variety was made of\nleather, strung with wire, and is said to have been peculiarly harsh;\nanother called _isgywer_ was so small that it could be played on\nhorseback; another was strung with hair. The order of the bards was\nhereditary to some extent. King Howel Dha issued edicts regarding them\n(fixing their rank) about 940 A. D., and in 1078 the whole order was\nreformed and full regulations made by Gryffith ap Conan. In spite of the\npersecutions to which they were subjected, the order was sustained for\ncenturies, and _Eisteddfods_ were held under royal commission down to\nthe reign of Queen Elizabeth.\n\nIn Ireland minstrelsy has had a foothold in all times. There is a legend\nthat about the year 365 B. C., there occurred in Ireland the first\ntriumph of poetry and music. A young prince, driven from his throne by a\nusurper, was so moved by a song which his betrothed wrote and caused\nCraftine, a celebrated bard, to sing to him, that he resolved on\nhazarding a supreme effort to regain his crown, and succeeded in driving\nthe usurper from his kingdom.\n\nThe Irish claim that they were the originators of the Welsh system of\nbards, but this statement seems to be founded rather on national pride\nthan upon fact, for it is probable that the borrowing was upon the other\nside. But it is certain that the Irish have ever possessed musical taste\nand skill.\n\nGyraldus Cambriensis (who wrote in the twelfth century) says of them:\n\u201cThe aptitude of this people for performing upon musical instruments is\nworthy of attention.\u201d\n\n\u201cThey have in this respect, much more ability than any nation I have\never seen. The modulations are not with them slow and sad, like those of\nthe instruments of Britain, to which we are accustomed, but the sounds,\nthough rapid and precipitate, are yet sweet and soothing.\u201d[266] The harp\nwas, as in Wales, the national instrument. The bards were a hereditary\nclass, and their guild, as in Wales, had three divisions; the _Filedha_,\nwho sang both about religious and martial subjects, and were also\nheralds to the nobility; _Braitheamhain_, who chanted the laws; and the\n_Seanachaidehe_, who were the musical and poetical chroniclers and\nhistorians. Their influence and privileges were fully as great as those\nof their Welsh brethren, and they had many valuable possessions of land.\nTheir skill was universally acknowledged up to their conquest by Henry\nII., but from that epoch the profession began to decline, although noble\nfamilies still made it a point of honor to keep private bards to sing to\nthem of the deeds of the ancestors of their house.\n\nThe influence which these songs exerted in fomenting rebellion was such,\nthat severe laws were promulgated against them in England, and under\nElizabeth all the Irish bards who were captured, were hanged.\n\nThe last Irish hard existed as late as the eighteenth century.\n\nTurlogh O\u2019Carolan was born 1670, and died 1737; worthily closing the\nlong reign of the fiery minstrel guild of Ireland.\n\nScotland\u2019s bardism, was similar to that of Wales and Ireland, but the\nranks and privileges are less known. The bag-pipe was played as much as\nthe harp, and there was much analogy in the ancient music of Ireland and\nScotland. The scale on which the Scotch pieces were founded, bears much\nresemblance to the Chinese, and to some of the Hindoo modes.\n\nIn England there were also bards, but there was not an order, as in the\npreceding countries, and at a time when these heraldic singers were so\nhighly honored in Wales, the singers and musicians of England were held\nin very slight social estimation. The irruptions of the Danes, and\nNorsemen generally, upon England in the ninth, tenth and eleventh\ncenturies, brought a taste of the forcible Northern _sagas_ along with\nthem, and when King Canute held the throne, bards and \u201c_gleemen_,\u201d were\nprotected and favored, for King Canute was very fond of song. He,\nhimself, wrote a song which was for a long time the favorite ballad of\nEngland.\n\nThe circumstances which prompted it were as follows:\u2014\n\nHe was being rowed near the Monastery of Ely, in the evening, when the\nsound of the monks singing their vesper chants, came across the water;\nhe was greatly moved by the beauty of the song, which, with the\naccessories of the tranquil evening, the rippling water, and the\nmeasured stroke of the oars, caused him to improvise upon the spot, a\nsong which soon spread among the peasantry as well as the higher\nclasses.\n\nOnly one stanza has been preserved of this interesting effusion,\u2014\n\n \u201cMerie sungen the muneches binnen Ely,\n Tha Cnute Ching, reu ther by\n Rowe cnihtes, n\u00e6w the land,\n And here we thes muneches s\u00e6ng,\u201d\n\nwhich may be rendered in English thus:\u2014\n\n \u201cSweetly sang the Monks of Ely,\n As King Canute rowed there by,\n Row men, nearer to the shore\n And hear we these Monks\u2019 song.\u201d\n\nThe minstrels of England from the first, took a more peaceful and\nreligious turn than those of Wales and Ireland. The most of the really\nauthentic pieces of their era, take the shape of Christmas carols.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XXIV.\n THE TROUBADOURS AND MINNE-SINGERS.\n\n\nWe now come to an era in music, where the most cultivated minds gave\ntheir attention to the art; and where it is no longer confined to the\nnarrow channels of ecclesiastical, and even heraldic and martial use,\nbut finds a broader outlet in the subjects of Love, and Nature. The\ntroubadours were gentlemen (often knights), who held themselves totally\ndistinct from those musicians who wrote for pay. The rise of chivalry in\nthe middle ages, elevated woman from an unjustly low position, to an\nabsurdly high one. She was held to be the arbiter of Fate; the Queen to\nwhom all service was due; and was almost religiously worshipped. From\nthis exaggerated devotion arose the school of troubadour and\nminne-singer composition. When knights racked their brains, as to what\nnew offering they could bring to their lady, it was but natural that\nthey should find, in the combination of poetry and song, a series of\nnever-ending tributes with which they could pay homage to their chosen\none.\n\nIt is easy to imagine that once launched into this fertile field, they\nwould not wholly confine themselves to Love, but that an occasional poem\non Nature, or War, would attest their versatility so that even the\npuerile \u201cCourts of Love,\u201d of the chivalric age, brought a general onward\nimpulse to art; it was not to be expected that the knights could step at\nonce from a condition of rudeness, to a state of culture, and it is not\nsurprising to see a vast exaggeration of politeness, where little had\nbeen before.\n\nIn the beautiful country of Provence (South France), this branch of art\ntook its rise. The lyrical songs of the troubadours were written in the\nProvencal tongue, which soon became, for all South France the court\nlanguage for amatory poetry. It was called also the _Langue d\u2019oc_ (from\nthe affirmative \u201c_Oc_,\u201d or \u201cyes\u201d), to distinguish it from the _Lingua di\nSi_ (Italian) and the _Langue d\u2019\u00f6il_ (North France); the name afterwards\nwas attached to another province of France. The Trouv\u00e8res, were the\npoets and minstrels of North France, and wrote in the _langue d\u2019\u00f6il_.\nThey wrote chiefly epic poetry, (fables, tales and romances), while the\nlyrical school was left to their southern competitors.\n\nThe troubadours composed and sang their own songs, but did not play\ntheir own accompaniments; that branch of music was turned over to hired\nmusicians, called _jongleurs_.\n\nCelebrated troubadours had often several _jongleurs_ in their employ.\nThose who made music a means of gaining a livelihood, were classed much\nlower. All in fact who did not invent (\u201c_Trobar_,\u201d to find, or invent,\nwhence comes the word trobador) their own songs, but sang or accompanied\nothers, were called _jongleurs_, which was about as ordinary a trade as\nthat of our perambulating \u201cjugglers;\u201d whose name is only a corruption of\nthe more ancient calling.\n\nThe troubadours had a position which was even better than that of the\nbards of Wales or Ireland. They also made a livelihood of music, but in\na far more genteel way than their humbler assistants, who were\nproscribed for so doing. The first thing the troubadour did, on\npractising his art was to seek out some person on whom to bestow his\nheart. This person was almost invariably a married lady. To her, he\nwould then dedicate all his lays; he would (bestowing upon her, an\nassumed name), sing of her beauties, and entreat her favors; he would\nsneer at the charms of other dames, and sometimes satirize them.\n\nThe feelings of the husband during all this can \u201cbetter be imagined than\ndescribed.\u201d\n\nYet often the dame, may have been totally indifferent to his ardor. We\nfeel sure that at times this was the case, for husbands are known to\nhave begged their wives to accept the troubadour\u2019s flattery, and keep\nhim on, with slight encouragement.\n\nMeanwhile the singers went on from Court to Court, received as equals,\nby the highest; flattered and sought for by the most brilliant circles,\nand fairest ladies. Often they attached themselves to some particular\nprince, and gained his favor and enriched themselves by singing\n_sirventes_ (songs of service) in his honor, and in derision of his\nenemies.\n\nThe nobles and kings of that era, also took up the Troubadour\u2019s lyre, at\ntimes. Richard I., Alfonso X., William IX. Count of Poitiers and others\nwere famous for their efforts in this line, and they richly patronized\nsuch troubadours as sought them.\n\nThe gifts with which a successful song was rewarded, were of course\ninfluenced by the liberality of the giver. Horses, richly caparisoned,\nelegant vestments, and money, are mentioned in this connection.[267]\nMeanwhile the troubadours occasionally display the utmost contempt for\ntheir assistants, the before mentioned _jongleurs_, and reproach nobles,\nin some verses, with receiving such persons (who play at village fairs,\ndance on the tight rope, and exhibit performing monkeys), into their\ncastles. Yet not all of the poets shared in this feeling, for Boccaccio\ntells us that Dante loved to associate with the musicians who set his\n_canzone_ to music. In the thirteenth century, Guirant Riquier (called\nthe \u201clast of the troubadours\u201d) complains to the king of Castile, Alfonso\nX., of the decadence of the troubadour\u2019s art, and attributes it to the\nindiscriminate mixing of troubadours and jongleurs, in popular\nestimation. He says\u2014\u201cYou know that all men live in classes differing and\ndistinguished from each other. Therefore it seems to me that such a\ndistinction of names ought also to be made amongst the joglars; for it\nis unjust that the best of them should not be distinguished by name as\nwell as they are by deed. It is unfair that an ignorant man of small\nlearning, who knows a little how to play some instrument, and strums it\nin public places, for whatever people will give him, or one who sings\nlow ditties to low people about the streets and taverns, and takes alms\nwithout shame from the first comer,\u2014that all these should\nindiscriminately go by the name of joglars ... for joglaria was invented\nby wise men to give joy to good people by their skill in playing on\ninstruments.... After that came the troubadours to record valiant deeds,\nand to praise the good, and encourage them in their noble endeavor....\nBut in our days, and for some time past, a set of people without sense\nand wisdom have undertaken to sing and compose stanzas and play on\ninstruments,\u201d[268] etc.\n\nThe poor troubadour desired the king to classify them, and to title the\nbest. The king\u2019s answer is extant, wherein he endeavored to do so, but\nas the real essence and life had departed from the whole institution, it\nwas unavailing.\n\nThe troubadours often had poetical combats, when they would indulge in a\nverse-battle about some \u201cLaw of Love,\u201d and the judges were selected from\nthe fairest and wittiest of the noble dames. These were called the\n\u201cCourts of Love.\u201d\n\nThe muse of some of them seems to have taken a most curious turn, for\nthere are still in existence some \u201c_Essenhamens_,\u201d or books of etiquette\nfor young ladies, which emanated from these lyrical pens, which are of\nthe quaintest description. We reproduce a quotation from one, written by\n\u201cAmanieus des Escas, called God of Love.\u201d[269]\n\nIn this treatise we are supplied with a minute account of the\naccomplishments expected from a well educated young lady, and of the bad\nhabits most prejudicial to her character. The poet is supposed to be\naddressing a noble damsel living at the court of some great baron, as a\nsort of \u2018lady help\u2019 to his wife; this being a not unusual, and\nundoubtedly a most efficient method of polite education in Provence. The\nyoung lady has accosted Amanieus on a lonely walk, asking for his advice\nin matters fashionable. This the poet at first refuses to tender,\nalleging that \u201cyou (the damsel) have ten times as much sense as I, and\nthat is the truth!\u201d But after his modest scruples are once overcome, he\nlaunches forth into a flood of good counsel. He systematically begins\nwith enforcing the good old doctrine of \u2018early to rise,\u2019 touches\ndelicately on the mysteries of the toilet, such as lacing, washing of\narms, hands, and head, which, he sententiously adds, ought to go before\nthe first mentioned process, and, after briefly referring to the\nespecial care required by teeth and nails, he leaves the dressing room\nfor the church, where a quiet undemonstrative attitude is recommended;\nthe illicit use of the eyes and tongue being mentioned amongst the\ntemptations peculiarly to be avoided.\n\nDirections of similar minuteness assist the young lady at the dinner\ntable; the cases in which it would be good taste, and those in which it\nwould be the reverse, to invite persons to a share of the dishes within\nher reach are specified; and the rules as to carving, washing one\u2019s\nhands before and after dinner, and similar matters, leave nothing to be\ndesired. \u2018Always temper your wine with water, so that it cannot do you\nharm,\u2019 is another maxim of undeniable wisdom.\n\nAfter dinner follows the time of polite conversation in the sala\n(drawing room), the arbour, or on the battlements of the castle; and now\nthe teachings of Amanieus become more and more animated, and are\nenlivened occasionally by practical illustrations of great interest.\n\u201cAnd if at this season,\u201d he says \u201ca gentleman takes you aside, and\nwishes to talk of courtship to you, do not show a strange or sullen\nbehavior, but defend yourself with pleasant repartees. And if his talk\nannoys you; and makes you uneasy, I advise you to ask him questions, for\ninstance:\u2014\u2018Which ladies do you think are more handsome, those of Gascony\nor of England, and which are more courteous, and faithful, and good? And\nif he says those of Gascony, answer without hesitation; Sir, by your\nleave, English ladies are more courteous than those of any other\ncountry. But if he prefers those of England, tell him Gascon ladies are\nmuch better behaved, and thus carry on the discussion, and call your\ncompanions to you to decide the questions.\u2019\u201d\n\nWe also give two extracts from the poems of that famous troubadour,\nBertrand De Born. He was a poet far more given to martial songs, than to\nthe lyrical muse. His enemies dreaded his pen as much as his sword. He\ndescribes his belligerent qualities without any exaggeration, for he was\nliterally never contented except when at war with some of his neighbors.\nOne of his poems (addressed to a lady) begins smoothly enough, but\nbefore he is half done, he breaks into an abrupt praise of fighting.\n\nIn the following, he warns Williams of Gordon, against Richard of\nPoitou, and hurls invective at the latter.\n\n\u201cI love you well,\u201d Bertrand says, \u201cbut my enemies want to make a fool\nand a dupe of you, and the time seems long to them before they see you\nin their ranks.\u201d \u201cTo Perigeux, close to the wall, so that I can throw my\nbattle axe over it, I will come well armed, and riding on my horse,\nBayard; and if I find the glutton of Poitou[270] he shall know the cut\nof my sword. A mixture of brain and splinters of iron he shall wear on\nhis brow.\u201d\n\nHere follows a frank avowal of his delight in war.\n\n\u201cAll day long,\u201d he says, \u201cI fight, and am at work, to make a thrust at\nthem and defend myself, for they are laying waste my land, and burning\nmy crops; they pull up my trees by the roots, and mix my corn with the\nstraw. Cowards and brave men are my enemies. I constantly disunite and\nsow hatred among the barons, and then remould and join them together\nagain, and try to give them brave hearts and strong; but I am a fool for\nmy trouble, for they are made of base metal.\u201d\n\nWe cannot better take leave of the troubadours than by giving two\nadditional specimens of the writing of Bertrand de Born.\n\nThe first is an ingenious poem. He has quarreled with his lady, and as a\nmeans of reconciliation he borrows from all the famous beauties of his\ntime, their special charm, and gives them all to his love. The second\nsong will explain itself.[271]\n\n Domna, puois de mi no us cal,\n E partit m\u2019aretz de vos, &c.\n\n Lady, since thou hast driven me forth,\n Since thou, unkind, hast banished me,\n (Though cause of such neglect be none,)\n Where shall I turn from thee?\n Ne\u2019er can I see\n Such joy as I have seen before,\n If, as I fear, I find no more\n Another fair, from thee removed,\n I\u2019ll sigh to think I e\u2019er was loved.\n\n And since my eager search were vain,\n One lovely as thyself to find;\n A heart so matchlessly endow\u2019d,\n Or manner so refined,\n So gay, so kind,\n So courteous, gentle, debonair,\u2014\n I\u2019ll rove, and catch from every fair\n Some winning grace and form a whole,\n So glad (till thou return) my soul.\n\n The roses of thy glowing cheek,\n Fair Sembelis, I\u2019ll steal from thee;\n That lovely smiling look I\u2019ll take,\n Yet rich thou shalt be,\n In whom we see\n All that can deck a lady bright,\n And your enchanting converse, light,\n Fair Ellis, will I borrow too,\n That she in wit may shine like you.\n\n And from the noble Chales, I\n Will beg that neck of ivory white,\n And her fair hands of loveliest form\n I\u2019ll take; and speeding, light,\n My onward flight\n Earnest at Roca Choart\u2019s gate,\n Fair Agnes I will supplicate\n To grant her locks, more bright than those\n Which Tristan loved on Iseult\u2019s brows.\n\n And Audiartz, though on me thou frown,\n All that thou hast of courtesy\n I\u2019ll have,\u2014thy look, thy gentle mien,\n And all the unchanged constancy\n That dwells with thee.\n And Miels de Ben, on thee I\u2019ll wait\n For thy light shape so delicate,\n That in thy fairy form of grace\n My lady\u2019s image I may trace\n\n The beauty of those snow-white teeth\n From thee, famed Faidit, I\u2019ll extort,\n The welcome, affable and kind,\n To all the numbers that resort\n Unto her court.\n And Bels Miraills shall crown the whole,\n With all her sparkling flow of soul;\n Those mental charms that round her play,\n For ever wise, yet ever gay.\n\n\n Be in play lo douz temps de paseor\n Que fais fuelhas e flors venir;\n E play mi quant aug la baudor\n Dels auzels que fan retentir\n Lor chan per lo boscatge;\n E plai me quan rey sus els pratz\n Tendas e parallos fermetz;\n Quan rey per campanhas rengatz\n Cavalliers ab carals armatz.\n\n The beautiful spring delights me well,\n When flowers and leaves are growing;\n And it pleases my heart to hear the swell\n Of the birds\u2019 sweet choruses flowing\n In the echoing wood\n And I love to see, all scatter\u2019d around,\n Pavillions, tents, on martial ground;\n And my spirit finds it good\n To see, on the level plains beyond,\n Gay knights and steeds comparison\u2019d.\n\n It pleases me, when the lances bold\n Set men and armies flying;\n And it pleases me, too, to hear around\n The voice of the soldiers crying;\n And joy is mine\n When the castles strong, totter and crack;\n And I see the foemen join,\n On the moated floor all compass\u2019d round\n With the palisade and guarded mound.\n\n Lances and swords, and stained helms,\n And shields dismantled and broken,\n On the verge of the bloody battle scene,\n The field of wrath betoken;\n And the vassals are there,\n And there fly the steeds of the dying and dead;\n And where the mingled strife is spread,\n The noblest warriors care\n Is to cleave the foeman\u2019s limbs and head,\u2014\n The conqueror less of the living than dead.\n\n I tell you that nothing my soul can cheer,\n Or banqueting or reposing,\n Like the onset cry of \u201ccharge them\u201d rung\n From each side as in battle closing,\n Where the horses neigh,\n And the call to \u201caid\u201d is echoing loud;\n And there on the earth the lowly and proud\n In the foes together lie;\n And yonder is piled the mangled heap\n Of the brave that scaled the trench\u2019s steep.\n\n Barons! your castles in safety place,\n Your cities and villages too,\n Before ye haste to the battle scene,\n And, Papiol! quickly go,\n And tell the lord of \u201cOc and No,\u201d\n That peace already too long hath been.\n\nThe Trouv\u00e8res, were, as before intimated, the poet-musicians of North\nFrance. They wrote in a much more matter-of-fact manner than the\ntroubadours, and wrote in the _Langue d\u2019\u00f6il_, while the latter wrote in\nthe _Langue d\u2019oc_; two tongues as dissimilar as French and Italian, or\nEnglish and Dutch.\n\nThere existed lady troubadours and trouv\u00e8res; the works of some of them\nare extant, and do not in any way compare unfavorably with those of the\nother sex. Of course there are several solitary cases where the Norman\npoet would write a love song, and the Provencal a fable, but the general\ntendency was as above indicated.\n\nContemporary with the troubadours and trouv\u00e8res, there arose in Germany,\na similar order of singers, whose productions have been preserved, even\nmore copiously than those of the southrons.\n\nThe minne-singers began their career in Germany, under the glorious\nreign of Barbarossa, (Frederic I.) in the last half of the twelfth\ncentury. The first name which we meet with is Henry of Veldig, yet it is\na singular fact that he, the first of a new order of singers, begins by\ncomplaining of the decadence of the true minne-lied (love-song.) The\nword minne-singer means simply love-singer, i. e.\u2014singer of love-songs.\nWe give here, a verse of this early love-song, and have endeavored to\ngive a translation, preserving the original metre (as nearly literal as\npossible) below it.\n\n \u201cDo man der rehten minne pflag\n Da pflag man ouch der ehren;\n Nu mag man naht und tag\n Die b\u00f6sen sitte leren:\n Swer dis nu siht, und jens do sach,\n O we! was der nu clagen mag\n Tugende wend sich nu verkehren.\u201d\n\n \u201cWhen true love had its proper sway,\n Then honour too, was nourished\n But now by night and day\n All evil ways are cherished,\n Who knows the past and present way,\n Oh Woe! how well complain he may\n Since every virtue now has perished.\u201d\n\nAlmost all the lays of the minne-singers were written in the Swabian\ndialect which was then the court language of Germany. As a rule, their\ngrace and elegance of diction was superior to that of the troubadours.\nThey did not, like the latter, hire accompanists, or jongleurs, but\nplayed their own accompaniments on a viol. As in the South, emperors,\nprinces, and knights, were proud to be known as minne-singers.\n\nThere exists a little epigram (ascribed to Frederic II.,) which we are\ntempted to reproduce, as it gives an insight to the qualities which were\nesteemed at that time.\n\n \u201cI like a cavalier Frances,[272]\n And a Catalonian dame;\n The courtesy of the Genoese\n And Castilian dignity\n The Provence songs,[273] my ears to please,\n And the dance of the Trevisan;\n The graceful form of the Arragoneze\n And the pearl of the Julian;[274]\n An English face and hands to see,\n And a page of Tuscany.\u201d[275]\n\nThe love songs of the Germans were not so fiery as those of Provence;\nwhile the adoration of the troubadour for his love went all lengths, the\nGerman knight rendered to his own a much quieter, (and chaster) species\nof homage. There were not such criminal passions (often ending in murder\nat the hands of the outraged husband) as in France. In epic poems this\nschool was very successful, and that stateliest of German poems, \u201cThe\n_Nibelungen-lied_,\u201d dates from about this time, although its author is\nnot known.\n\nThe preservation of many of the songs of the Minne-singers is due to\nRudiger of Manesse, a senator of Zurich (fourteenth century). To those\nwho are desirous of seeing the main part of his collection we cannot do\nbetter than to recommend the excellent work of F. von der Hagen,\n(\u201c_Minne-s\u00e4nger_,\u201d _Manessische Sammlung_), in which all the gems of\nthis early growth of medi\u00e6val poetry are given. One peculiar species of\ntheir songs were called \u201c_Wacht-lieder_\u201d (Watch-songs), and represent\nthe pleading of the knight, with the watchman of the castle, for\nadmittance to his love; or the warning of the watchman to the lover in\nthe castle, to avoid discovery by leaving while it was yet dark. We\npresent the reader with a specimen (author unknown).\n\n Vor tags ich hort, in liebes port, wohl diese wort,\n Von w\u00e4chters mund erklingen;\n Ist jeman ji, vorborgen hie, derachte wie,\n Er mog hindannen sprengen, &c.\n\n I heard before the dawn of day\n The watchman loud proclaim;\u2014\n \u201cIf any knightly lover stay\n In secret with his dame,\n Take heed the sun will soon appear;\n Then fly, ye knights, your ladies dear,\n Fly ere the day-light dawn.\n\n \u201cBrightly gleams the firmament,\n In silvery splendor gay,\n Rejoicing that the night is spent,\n The lark salutes the day:\n Then fly, ye lovers, and begone!\n Take leave before the night is done,\n And jealous eyes appear.\u201d\n\n That watchman\u2019s call did wound my heart,\n And banished my delight;\n \u201cAlas, the envious sun will part\n Our loves, my lady bright.\u201d\n On me she looked with downcast eye,\n Despairing at my mournful cry,\n \u201cWe tarry here too long.\u201d\n\n Straight to the wicket did she speed;\n \u201cGood watchman spare thy joke!\n Warn not my love, till o\u2019er the mead\n The morning sun has broke:\n Too short, alas! the time, since here\n I tarried with my leman dear,\n In love and converse sweet.\u201d\n\n \u201cLady, be warn\u2019d! on roof and mead\n The dew-drops glitter gay,\n Then quickly bid thy leman speed,\n Nor linger till the day;\n For by the twilight did I mark\n Wolves hyeing to their covert dark,\n And stags to covert fly.\u201d\n\n Now by the rising sun I view\u2019d\n In tears my lady\u2019s face;\n She gave me many a token good,\n And many a soft embrace,\n Our parting bitterly we mourn\u2019d;\n The hearts which erst with rapture burn\u2019d,\n Were cold with woe and care.\n\n A ring, with glittering ruby red,\n Gave me that lady sheen,\n And with me from the castle sped\n Along the meadow green;\n And whilst I saw my leman bright,\n She waved on high her \u2019kerchief white;\n \u201cCourage! To arms!\u201d she cried.\n\n In the raging fight each pennon white\n Reminds me of her love;\n In the field of blood, with mournful mood\n I see her \u2019kerchief move;\n Through foes I hew where\u2019er I view\n Her ruby ring, and blithely sing,\n \u201cLady, I fight for thee.\u201d\n\nBut the glory of the minne-singers was but short; the emperors of the\nhouse of Swabia, had fostered the art, by allowing an unheard-of liberty\nof speech and thought; with the downfall of that house (1256 A. D.) the\nchurch regained a continually-increasing ascendancy, and this liberty\nwas again fettered. Song and poetry, especially of an amatory or\nfrivolous (?) character were condemned, and the place of the pleasant\nschool of minne-singer poetry was usurped by paraphrases of the\nScriptures, hymns or legends, written either in very weak German or bad\nLatin; the school of German poetry took a very long retrograde step.\nBefore leaving the minne-singers, a word must be said of their fables\nand tales; in these we find many modern ideas in a quaint and ancient\ndress, proverbs abound, and many tales of Roman History. \u201cDon\u2019t set the\nwolf to guard the Sheep,\u201d \u201cNever borrow trouble,\u201d\n\n \u201cThe king must die,\n And so must I,\u201d\n\nand many other sage thoughts.\n\nThe tales are sometimes very prettily told. We have thought it worth\nwhile to translate one, which we believe, has not yet been seen in an\nEnglish dress.\n\nAs far as possible we have adhered to the abruptness and quaintness of\nthe original.\n\n\u201cAt one time there was a king, who had but one son, who was very dear to\nhim; the son demanded leave of absence from his father, and said that he\nwished to see the world, and wished to make friends. Then the king spoke\n\u2018that pleases me well; but see that you do not have your labor in vain.\u2019\nThe son was made ready for his journey, and remained seven years away;\nafter that he returned to his home and his father, which pleased the\nfather very much, and he said,\u2014\u2018Dear son: how many friends hast thou\nearned in these three years? Then the son answered \u2018only three; the\nfirst I love better than myself; the second as much as myself; and the\nthird, not as well as myself.\u2019 The father said \u2018It is well to have\nfriends, and it is well to try them; I counsel you to kill a hog, and\nput it in a sack, and go in the night to your friends and say, you met\nan old enemy on the street and killed him, and are afraid that if the\ndead body should be found on you, it would cost you your life, and beg\nhim that he should, in such extremity, help you, and that he will allow\nyou to bury the body in his house, that it may not be found on you; so\nyou shall find out if you have good friends.\u2019\n\nThis advice pleased the son well, so he went back again to the city\nwhere he knew he should find his friends; and killed one night, a hog,\nand did as his father had advised him to, and came to the friend whom he\nloved better than himself. When this one had heard his story, he\nsaid:\u2014\u2018you killed him yourself, so suffer for it yourself; if it were\nfound by me it would cost me my life; but because we are good friends\nand comrades, when you are caught, and when they are about to bill you,\nI will go to you, and will console you, and will buy many ells of cloth\nfor you, wherein they may wind you and bury you; because you loved me\nmore than yourself.\u2019 When he heard this, he answered nothing but went to\nthe other friend whom he loved as much as himself, and knocked at his\ndoor with the same tale as he had told to the first; this one\nsaid:\u2014\u2018Dear one! do you suppose I am such a simpleton that I want to die\nfor you? If it is found here then I must die; but if they kill you, then\nI will comfort you, because that we are friends, and will do it the best\nI can, since we must all die.\u2019 When he heard this, he parted from him,\nand came to the third friend whom he did not love as well as himself.\nThis one asked what was in the sack, which he came with. He said:\u2014\u2018I can\nnot say well, but I need help in this day; yet know that it has been my\nfate to kill a man, and I carry his body on my back, and if it is caught\nby me, then I must die, therefore I call on you for counsel; This one\nspoke;\u2014\u2018Give me here the body, and let me carry it myself, for I will\neven die for you,\u2019 and when he opened the sack he found that only a dead\nhog lay therein. After that the son went home and told the whole story\nto his father.\u201d[276]\n\nThe end is of rather startling abruptness; we should have liked to have\nheard of the rewards and punishment, _a la_ modern novel.\n\nOne song took its rise at this time which is even to-day a popular one,\nthe world over. We refer to the music of the song now known as, \u201cWe\nwon\u2019t go Home till morning,\u201d or \u201cFor he\u2019s a jolly good fellow;\u201d and\nknown in France as \u201cMalbrook s\u2019en va-t-en Guerre.\u201d This was a favorite\nair at the time of the crusades, and the crusaders often made it resound\nbefore Jerusalem.\n\nThe Arabs first knew the melody and have retained it to this day. The\nArab fellahs will listen apathetically to the whole repertoire of a\nEuropean orchestra; but the moment that the above tune is played, the\nwhole aspect changes, and instead of a lifeless audience, the performers\nhave the most enthusiastic of listeners.[277] In the course of descent\nfrom the Crusaders and ancient musicians, the tune has become a little\nquicker but is not changed in any material respect.\n\nSome time after the decline of Minne-singing, an attempt was made to\nrevive its glories, by musical competitions, somewhat similar in style;\nbut the essence of the real \u201cMinne\u201d was gone; it was no longer the\nknight singing to his love, or telling in unaffected verse, the beauties\nof Nature. Instead of this, there was a competition of burgers and\ntradespeople, affecting a passion foreign to their nature, and caring\nfar more for a stilted style of verse, than for the subject of it. Such\nwere the Meister-singers;[278] Nuremburg was their chief seat, and like\nall the tradesmen of that age, they made their Guild a very close one.\nNo one could be admitted as a Master, unless he invented a new style of\nrhyme. Almost all the members came from the lower classes, and the\nresult of such tyros endeavoring to strike out paths which would have\nbeen difficult even to genius, can be imagined.\n\nHans Sachs (a Nuremberg shoe-maker) and a couple of others, were\nprobably all that sang with real poetic feeling.\n\nTheir songs were also accompanied with music. There was a severe set of\nrules regulating the poetical and musical contests; and the Guild spread\nover all Germany; the last vestige of it did not disappear until as\nrecently as 1839.\n\nBut while this stultified mode of music was going on in Nuremberg, a\ntruer musical plant was growing beside it: at this time the Volks-lied\n(folk song) took its rise in Germany.\n\nThe first form of the volks-lied was religious, and it was of a\nsimplicity which adapted it to the wants of the people. The pedantry of\nthe Meister-singers had an excellent effect upon this class of\ncomposition, for it added counterpoint and harmony (even if driven to\nexcess) to a class of music which was able to bear it.\n\nAnother order of music was that connected with the miracle plays, where\nscriptural events were represented upon the stage, with music. Much of\nthis music was taken bodily from the ecclesiastical chants of the\nperiod.\n\nWith the commencement of the reformation, the music of Germany was\nlifted to a very elevated sphere, in being applied to the stately\nchorals which came into general use, through the efforts of Luther, who\nhimself composed some of them. Luther had a most musical nature, which\nleft its imprint upon his whole epoch.\n\nIt is related of him, that he spent the largest part of the night before\nhe appeared to define his doctrines before the Diet of Worms, playing on\nhis lute, in order to give composure and firmness to his thoughts.\n\nHe ranked music next to theology, and said:\u2014\u201cI am not ashamed to\nacknowledge, that next to divinity there is no study which I prize so\nhighly as that of music.\u201d\n\nWith the reformation, the epoch of modern music may be said to begin. Of\ncourse there was both crudity and pedantry in the art, but the\nMeister-singers, although they yet existed centuries later, had ceased\nto exert an influence.\n\nThere are but few curious facts, which are not generally known, from\nthat age, to our own. Yet we think a brief sketch of the growth of some\nbranches of our music, will not be uninteresting to the general reader,\neven if the facts have lost the relish of novelty.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XXV.\n CURIOSITIES OF THE OPERA.\n MODERN COMPOSERS, AND CONCLUSION.\n\n\nOur series of sketches now draws towards its close. The rise of the\nmany-voiced harmony in Italy, France, Germany, England, and the\nNetherlands, the contrapuntal works of Palestrina, Dufay, De Lattre,\netc., come rather under the head of the history and science of music,\nthan within the scope of a work which only endeavors to collect the\ncuriosities of the art, and things not generally known. But in the rise\nand progress of the opera, we find some interesting facts which belong\nto our subject, and which bring our chain of sketches down to the music\nof our own times.\n\nThe opera was the legitimate offspring of the Miracle plays of the\nMiddle ages, which were only sacred operas or oratorios, wherein some\nevents in the life of a holy personage were represented with songs and\nacting. The first opera (being exactly like a \u201cmystery play,\u201d except\nthat the subject was a secular one) was \u201cOrpheus,\u201d by Angelo Poliziano,\nand was performed in Rome in 1480. The libretto was by Cardinal Riario\n(nephew of Pope Sixtus IV.)\n\nPope Clement IX., wrote seven librettos for operas. All was not sung in\nthese: they were rather tragedies with choruses.[279]\n\nIn 1500 the popes possessed a theatre, with decorations and machinery.\nThe paintings in this edifice were by Balthazar Peruzzi, who may be said\nto be the father of scene painting. His scenery is said to have been\nvery realistic.\n\nJulian de Medicis, brother of Leon X., on being proclaimed a citizen of\nRome gave public plays, and had a comedy of Plautus presented for two\ndays, the music of which was much admired.\n\nIn 1574, Claudio Merulo, organist at St. Mark\u2019s, composed music to a\ndrama, which was performed in the presence of Henry III., of France.\n\nVincent Galileo, father of the astronomer, and Giovanni Bardi invented\nthe recitative at about the same time.\n\nPeri and Caccini, two of the best musicians of Florence were engaged by\ntwo rich noblemen to write for them a complete opera; _Dafne_, produced\nin Florence (1597,) was the result, and was the first complete opera in\nmodern form; these composers were therefore the originators of the\nopera.\n\nAn opera by the same writers was given at the wedding of Henry IV., and\nMarie de Medici. Rinucci, the author of the _libretti_ of both the above\nwas silly enough to imagine that Marie de Medici loved him, and followed\nher into France the ridicule which he received for his conceit soon sent\nhim back to Italy.\n\nThe score of \u201cOrpheus,\u201d by Monteverde, 1608, allows us to see the\nconstruction of his orchestra.\n\nThere were,\u2014\n\n 2 Clavichords,\n 2 Lyres, or Grand Viols (13 strings),\n 10 Violas,\n 3 Bass Viols,\n 2 Double Bass,\n 1 Double Harp (2 rows of strings),\n 2 Small French Violins,\n 2 Great Guitars,\n 2 Organs (wood),\n 4 Trombones,\n 1 Pair of Regals (small organ),\n 2 Cornets,\n 1 Small Flute,\n 1 Clarion,\n 3 Sourdines (muted trumpets).\n\nThese instruments gave to each chorus and character a different effect,\nthus the double basses accompanied Orpheus; the viols, Euridice; the\ntrombones, Pluto; the regals, Apollo. The shepherd\u2019s choruses were\naccompanied by flute, cornets, sourdines and clarion, and most singular\nof all, Charon sang to the light tones of the _guitar_.[280]\n\nIn Italy, from this time forth, opera followed opera.\n\nIn France it was not known till much later plays \u201cwith songs\u201d were known\nhowever, and one of these, \u201cin the Italian style,\u201d was performed in\nParis, before the King and Royal family, on the occasion of the victory\nof the Duke of Guise at Calais, 1558.\n\nThe chief representations for years after, lay rather in the direction\nof ballets, than of operas. Religious plays also still were given at\nParis, but after the ordinance, of 1548, that no Catholic ceremony\nshould be represented on the stage, they disappeared.[281]\n\nThe theatres, that is those which were public, were at this time very\npoorly appointed, but through the constant festivities of the court,\nmany inventions came into use.\n\nThe Court of France had always a _penchant_ for music, the drama, and\ndancing. Henry IV., was very fond of the latter.\n\nLouis XIII., cultivated music with much success, he composed many airs,\nand several motets which he had performed in his Chapel. Music was his\nordinary recreation when he could not go hunting. At the siege of La\nRochelle, there being no musicians or singers with the army, he himself\nwrote out the vespers for Pentecost, that they might be ready in time.\nThree weeks before his death, and after he had received the extreme\nunction, feeling himself somewhat better, he begged Nyert, his first\n_valet de garderobe_ to sing a paraphrase of David, which he had set to\nmusic, to give thanks to God.\n\nSaint-Martin and Campeforte who were present, each sang a part, and thus\nmade a concerted piece which they sang around the bed, the king from\ntime to time joining in with his own voice.\n\nHe also wrote a \u201c_de Profundis_,\u201d which was sung over him after his\ndeath.[282] The words still exist which were written by him for his now\nwell-known \u201cAmaryllis;\u201d they were written for Madame de Hauteforte, and\none of the verses runs:\u2014\n\n Tu crois, o beau soleil!\n Q\u2019ua ton eclat rien n\u2019est pareil;\n Mais quoi! tu palis\n Aupr\u00e8s d\u2019Amaryllis.[283]\n\nTallement speaks of a concert given once where one of his songs was sung\nfour times, the king beating the measure. To these gatherings he would\nadmit none who were not musical, and no women whatever, \u201cfor\u201d said he,\n\u201c_they cannot keep silent_.\"[284]\n\nUnder Louis XIV., the opera became well known in France, nor was it any\nlonger a borrowed spectacle, for Lulli in 1664 associated himself with\nMoliere in writing; the latter furnishing the _libretti_, which were in\nthemselves of the best order. In 1672 he built a permanent opera house,\n(Academie Royale de Musique) and thus gave to France, what it had never\nbefore possessed,\u2014a national opera.\n\nThere were, to be sure, a few French operas, before his enterprise; one\ngiven at Paris, by Cardinal Mazarin, in 1645; one entitled \u201cAk\u00e9bar, King\nof Mogul,\u201d by the Abbe\u00e9 Mailly and \u201cLa Pastorale en musique,\u201d by\nCambert,[285] but these do not deprive Lulli of the claim of being the\n\u201cfounder of French opera.\u201d\n\nLa Fontaine tried to write some _libretti_ for Lulli, which were total\nfailures, and declined by the musician.\n\nThe King (Louis XIV.), was passionately fond of Lulli\u2019s music, and would\nhear scarcely any other.\n\nAbout this time, the idea of _whistling and hissing_ to show\ndisapproval, was invented. It is said that Corneille\u2019s \u201c_Baron de\nFondrieres_\u201d has the questionable honor of being the first play that\never was hissed.\n\nThe hiss, spread rapidly, but on some one having injudiciously hissed\nthe opera of Orpheus, by the sons of Lully, the hiss was interdicted by\nlaw in 1690.[286]\n\nThe repression was not very effectual, and innumerable epigrams (some of\nwhich still exist),[287] showed the derision of the public.\n\nThe singers of Lulli\u2019s operas had all the faults of their later\nbrethren. Dumenil, the tenor, used to steal the jewelry of the _prime\ndonne_, and get intoxicated with the baritone. He is said to have drank\nsix bottles of champagne every night, and only the sixth deteriorated\nhis performance.\n\nMarthe Le Rochois, another of the troupe, on being accused of too much\nintimacy with the bassoon of the orchestra, exhibited a promise of\nmarriage from the fond performer, written on the back of an _ace of\nspades_.\n\nMlle. de Maupin was the wildest scapegrace the stage ever saw: her\nadventures read like the most improbable sensational novel, and would\ntake as much space to reproduce.\n\nEngland\u2019s first opera was performed in 1656. It was entitled the \u201cSiege\nof Rhodes,\u201d and was composed by five persons in collaboration. Musicians\nand players were at this time held in low esteem, and were liable to\narrest as vagabonds at almost any moment.\n\nEngland possessed in Henry Purcell (1658-1695) a musician of whom any\ncountry might be proud. This composer soon turned his pen to the writing\nof operas; the music to \u201cThe Tempest\u201d was excellent, while his \u201cKing\nArthur\u201d contains music which is still loved by Englishmen everywhere.\n\nNow that opera was established firmly, the rivalries of the singers at\nonce began.\n\nIn 1726 a bitter rivalry sprang up in London between Cuzzoni and\nFaustina Bordoni, in which the whole town took part. It lasted over two\nyears, and was throughout causeless, as the styles of the two were\nentirely dissimilar, Bordoni being unapproachable in the lightness and\nrapidity of her runs and embellishments, and Cuzzoni excelling in the\npathetic quality, and breadth of her tones.[288]\n\nBut to follow the absurdities which constantly arose in the rivalries of\nthe various composers, singers and performers, would require, not one,\nbut very many volumes by itself; we need only allude to the disputes and\nrivalries between Gluck and Piccini (in the composition of operas,) the\nsingers Mara and Todi, in France, and Billington and Mara in London.\n\nThe names of those who have established a reputation as wonderful\noperatic singers, also make a formidable list. Among the very greatest\nmay however be mentioned Farinelli (male soprano) Catalani, and\nLablache, and among the most successful of operatic writers, Gluck,\nMozart, Meyerbeer, Rossini, Verdi, Gounod. Of course many names could be\nadded, but these may stand as representatives.\n\nIt is not singular that the great masters, H\u00e4ndel, Beethoven and\nMendelssohn failed in this branch of composition. None of them had the\nability to stoop to the musical _finesses_, and _coups de theatre_,\nwhich were necessary to make a successful opera. They might have\nsucceeded, if the pure style of Gluck, with _libretti_ taken from the\nGreek tragedies, had continued, for these were in their vein. But the\npublic demanded a more spicy operatic diet which they were not able or\ndesirous to finish.\n\nIt is well that it was so, for to this fact we owe our grandest\noratorios.\n\nH\u00e4ndel had trouble enough with opera, before he finally left it. He had\na temper which was simply frightful (and an appetite which was the\nsame), and when he came in contact with the conceited and irascible\nsingers of his day, an explosion was sure to follow.\n\nCuzzoni (who had the sweetest of voices, and the harshest of tempers),\nwas the hardest of all for him to get along with.\n\nOne day she refused absolutely to sing a part which he had assigned to\nher; his patience, small at the best, gave out totally, and he was going\nto throw her out of the window, when she hurriedly gave her consent to\nsing.\n\nH\u00e4ndel\u2019s losses and trials as operatic manager, temporarily drove him\ncrazy.\n\nRossini also had his troubles in the operatic field. Once a manager,\nwhose _libretti_ he was bound by contract to set to music, took offence\nat some action of the composer, and sought to revenge himself by writing\na wretched opera for him. The result nearly brought both to ruin, for\nRossini retorted by writing a terribly poor score to the words; in the\noverture, during an _allegro_ movement, the violins were arranged so as\nto stop at every bar, and tap the tin shades of their lamps with their\nbows. The audience nearly demolished the theatre. The \u201cBarber of\nSeville\u201d was a failure at its first performance.\n\nThere is a note to be made here, of a passage in one of his operas,\nwhich is of interest to conductors.\n\nThe overture to \u201cWilliam Tell\u201d had been played from its first\nrepresentation, August 3, 1829, for more than thirty years, with a major\ntrill in the violincello at the cadence of the first part; (the andante\nat the beginning of the work), but on the 16th of November, 1861, the\npiece was played before the composer, who stigmatized as \u201ca great\nfault,\u201d the major trill in the third measure of the cadence.[289] \u201cIt\nshould be minor\u201d he said. And since that date it has been played so. But\nit is very uncertain whether the abrupt remark was not a mere whim of\nthe composer. The trill is more satisfactory with G sharp, than with G\nnatural; the earlier editions have none of them any mention of a minor\ntrill and it is scarcely possible that \u201ca great fault\u201d like this, should\nhave escaped notice so long.\n\nMeyerbeer, was in all respects, a person well calculated to popularize\nopera. He knew how to work up dramatic effects, in which he was well\nseconded by his French librettists, and he did not hesitate at any\ninnovation to ask if it were classical, or belonged to pure art; and he\nsucceeded far better than the martinets who condemned him.\n\nAt the first representation of his \u201c_Robert le Diable_,\u201d an accident\noccurred which nearly resulted in disaster. In the last act, Bertram,\nthe tempter, has to descend to the infernal regions, alone; Levasseur\n(who performed the character) leaped down the trap, and Robert\n(represented by the tenor Nourrit), who should have remained on earth,\nsaved by the prayers of Alice,\u2014after a moment of indecision (not\nremembering the denou\u00e8ment) _leaped after him_.\n\nThere was general consternation on the stage, for all thought that\nNourrit was injured. In the audience they must have thought that the\nopera had a rather immoral ending, since Bertram, the tempter, had\ntriumphed over the prayers of Alice.\n\nFortunately the mattresses had not been removed; and Bertram was vastly\nastonished to find that he had bagged his victim after all; he asked\nNourrit in amazement.\u2014\u201cHas the plot been changed?\u201d but Nourrit\nrecollecting his mistake, hastened back to the stage, where the audience\nwere astonished to see him reappear, but soon grasping the situation\nburst into loud applause.\n\nThe curiosities of the opera of to-day are even greater than those of\ntwenty years since, for the world has found an iconoclastic composer who\nis endeavoring to reform all that went before him, by pulling it to\npieces. Yet he has done opera precisely the service which it at present\nneeded, in showing composers the importance of bestowing a greater\nattention upon the libretto, and elevating the orchestra as well as the\nscene painter to their proper places; his idea that an opera should be a\n\u201cperfect chrysolite,\u201d a complete picture in all its accessories, is the\ntrue one, though his mode of effecting it may not be.\n\nHis zeal has allowed him to commit a ludicrous \u201ccuriosity of music\u201d in\nattacking almost all that the Jews have ever done in music, and\nendeavoring to depreciate the most prominent talent of that race; a\ntalent which has been acknowledged ever since the days of the Babylonian\ncaptivity.\n\nYet a still greater curiosity (and the most recent of all) has been\nwritten by one of his defenders. Of course his attacks upon all who\ndiffered from him, provoked retorts innumerable; these have been\ncollected and published in a compact form, and the work is entitled \u201cA\nDictionary of Impoliteness.\u201d\n\nWith this \u201ccuriosity\u201d our catalogue appropriately ends. We have not\nmentioned some of the great names in music (Haydn, Cherubini,\nPalestrina, Schumann, Schubert, etc.), and have touched but lightly upon\nothers. They did not seem to come within our scope.\n\nThe incidents in the lives of the musical giants have all been sought\nout by persons possessing facilities which no American writer can have,\nand are generally so well known that they can no longer be called\ncurious. We have endeavored to show that music is a very uncertain and\nfickle art, and continually changing, and that there never can be\n_absolute_ laws laid down in this free art, as if it were a fixed\nscience. If we have done this and amused our readers at the same time,\nwe consider our work brought to a satisfactory conclusion.\n\n\n THE END.\n\n\n\n\n FOOTNOTES\n\n\n[1]Krause.\u2014Geschichte der Musik.\n\n[2]The Raagni is the popular mode of singing in India; it is a free\n Fantasia, or improvisation.\n\n[3]Wm. Jones; Music of India.\n\n[4]Ambros.\n\n[5]Krause.\n\n[6]Plutarch, of Isis and Osiris.\n\n[7]Herodotus, Hist.\n\n[8]Plutarch, of Isis and Osiris.\n\n[9]Petronius.\n\n[10]Champollion.\n\n[11]Lepsius, Abt. 2 Pl., 86e.\n\n[12]Wilkinson, p. 240.\n\n[13]Wilkinson, v. 2, p. 222.\n\n[14]V. 3, p. 83.\n\n[15]Abtheilung, 3, page 106.\n\n[16]Hist. Gen. de la Mus.\n\n[17]Doubts have been expressed concerning the genuineness even of these.\n\n[18]Lloyd.\n\n[19]Lloyd, Age of Pericles, Vol. II., p. 222.\n\n[20]Ambros, Gesch. d. Musik, p. 237.\n\n[21]Olympia, p. 106.\n\n[22]The nome, or hymn for which Chrysothemis, gained the prize,\n celebrated the victory of Apollo over the serpent Python.\n\n[23]Gev\u00e6rt, Mus. de l\u2019antiquite, p. 45.\n\n[24]Chappell, Hist. of Mus., p. 32.\n\n[25]Diodorus.\n\n[26]Ambros Ges. d musik, p. 265, v. 1.\n\n[27]Later there were more characters added, but at first, the whole\n action consisted of dialogues between a solitary actor and the\n chorus.\n\n[28]Jullien however, thinks Sappho in common with many other ancient\n poets much overrated. Theses Supplementaires, p. 439.\n\n[29]Geschichte der Griech. Lit.\n\n[30]Lucian, Lapith\u00e6.\n\n[31]Ambros, Gesch. d. musik, v. 1, p. 260.\n\n[32]Jullien, Theses Supplementaires, p. 130.\n\n[33]The very title \u201cphilosopher\u201d was of his own coining, for previous\n sages called themselves Sophos (wise), but he preferred the better\n name of Philosopher (lover of wisdom).\n\n[34]Some of the pupils of Pythagoras, maintained that he only of all men\n had heard the harmony of the spheres.\n\n[35]The sense of sound differs in different ears. In Chappell\u2019s Histy.\n of Music, page 251, an account is given of a wire of sixty-four feet\n in length, arranged by Sir F. A. Gore Ouseley, to sound the C, four\n octaves below C in the bass clef. The note was inaudible, but when\n taken at half length some of the listeners heard it, while at\n quarter length it was audible to all.\n\n[36]See Lucian, Auction of Philosophers. Some say two years.\n\n[37]Women were also admitted, but probably only to attendance on\n lectures, not to membership.\n\n[38]Legum II.\n\n[39]Lloyd, Ages of Pericles, Vol. 2, p. 239.\n\n[40]See Lucian, Lapith\u00e6.\n\n[41]Ottfried M\u00fcller, V. I, p. 343.\n\n[42]Socrates intimates that the hiring of a large retinue of servants,\n and the purchase of an expensive flute, went very far towards\n establishing a reputation as a skillful flutist.\n\n[43]Physcon was a nickname signifying thick belly.\n\n[44]M\u00fcller, Gesch. d. Griech. Lit. v. 1, p. 380.\n\n[45]M\u00fcller, Gesch. v. 1, p. 399.\n\n[46]M\u00fcller, Ges. v. 1, p. 394.\n\n[47]At seven years old the study was usually commenced.\n\n[48]See O. M\u00fcller, Gesch. v. 2, p. 44\n\n[49]The lips of the tragic mask were usually half open.\n\n[50]Gesch. d. Griech. Lit. p. 44\n\n[51]Some Dithyrambic poets kept a band of flute-players to accompany\n their choruses.\n\n[52]There was, and possibly is still, in some parts of Italy, a custom\n analogous to this, when the director of the orchestra marked time by\n rapping his baton regularly on his music stand instead of simply\n waving it.\n\n[53]Thucydides also gives an unfavorable picture of Cleon. Grote in his\n History of Greece, defends Cleon\u2019s character.\n\n[54]M\u00fcller, p. 207, v. 2.\n\n[55]_De Saltatione_\n\n[56]Czerwinski, Geschichte d. tanz kunst, p. 19.\n\n[57]Lucian, _de Saltatione_.\n\n[58]Czerwinski, Gesch. d. Tanz k.\n\n[59]Phillina, in dialogues of the Hetar\u00e6.\n\n[60]O. M\u00fcller, Gesch. d. Griech. Lit. v. 2, p. 210.\n\n[61]Valerius Maximus, Book 2, x.\n\n[62]Book 2. s. iv\n\n[63]These are still used in Italy, and their performers are called Zam\n pognari. The derivation is obvious.\n\n[64]Chappell, in his History of Music, is the most lucid of these.\n\n[65]See Fetis\u2019 Hist. Gen. de la Musique.\n\n[66]Fetis, Hist. v. 8.\n\n[67]Gev\u00e6rt, Hist. de la Mus. de l\u2019ant. p 56.\n\n[68]Tacitus, Bk. IV.\n\n[69]Gev\u00e6rt, Mus. de l\u2019ant. p. 58.\n\n[70]Tacitus, Bk. I.\n\n[71]Lucian, _de Saltatione_.\n\n[72]Lucian, _de Saltatione_.\n\n[73]Lucian, ibid.\n\n[74]Seneca.\n\n[75]Suetonius, Calig. LIV.\n\n[76]Suetonius, Vesp. XIX.\n\n[77]Letters of Julian, No. 56.\n\n[78]Tacitus, Bk. XX.\n\n[79]Suetonius, XX.\n\n[80]Tacitus, XV.\n\n[81]Suet. Nero, XXI.\n\n[82]Tacitus, Bk. XXI.\n\n[83]Suetonius, Nero. XXIII.\n\n[84]See chapter on Games of Greece.\n\n[85]Nero however sometimes took part in other contests, he was as poor\n and persistent a charioteer as magician.\n\n[86]Tacitus, Book XVI.\n\n[87]In the early historical part of this article, we have mainly\n followed the dates used by La Fage.\n\n[88]Ambros, Gesch. d. Mus. p. 20, v. 1.\n\n[89]Amiot, Abrege Chron. p. 201.\n\n[90]Chinese annals claim that their empire was founded 80,000 or 100,000\n years B. C. Fo-hi\u2019s reign is fixed by some at about 2,250 B. C.\n\n[91]Amiot, De la Mus. des Chinois, p. 54.\n\n[92]Amiot, p. 57.\n\n[93]It is singular that a similar personage exists in the Hindoo\n mythology.\n\n[94]Quoted by La Fage, Hist. de Mus., p. 47.\n\n[95]La Fage, p. 50.\n\n[96]Amiot, de la Mus. des Chinois, p. 11.\n\n[97]P. 63. Mus. des Chinois.\n\n[98]La Fage, 69. De Mailla, 191.\n\n[99]Amiot, de la Mus. de Chin., p. 33.\n\n[100]Ambros, Gesch. der Musik, p. 27, v. 1.\n\n[101]Ambros, Gesch. d Mus. p. 32.\n\n[102]Pieces for the Clavichord in the style of Rameau.\n\n[103]Amiot, Mus. des Chinois, p. 3.\n\n[104]Cibot, Essai sur les Caracteres Chinois.\n\n[105]Amiot, de la Mus. de Chin., p. 35.\n\n[106]Figures 2 and 3, pl. 1, Amiot, des Chin.\n\n[107]Figures 4 and 6, pl. 2, Amiot.\n\n[108]Figure 7, pl. 2, Amiot.\n\n[109]Amiot, Essai sur les pierres sonores.\n\n[110]L\u2019Abb\u00e9 Roussier, Annotations sur Amiot.\n\n[111]The chronicle says \u201cit was mute forever,\u201d but this was meant as\n hyperbole.\n\n[112]De la Mus. des Chin., p. 60.\n\n[113]There are two kinds of _siao_, the great and the small. The latter\n has the same number of tubes, but pitched an octave higher.\n\n[114]Fetis, Hist. Gen de la Mus. VI. 1, p. 66-67.\n\n[115]Fetis, p. 73.\n\n[116]\u201cLes Chinois ont remplac\u00e9 les voix des femmes par celles des\n casrats. Les chirurgiens Chinois sont arrive\u00e9s a pratiquer\n l\u2019operation avec une addresse singuliere et presque sans souffrance\n pour le sujet.\u201d La Fage, Mus. des Chin., p. 150.\n\n[117]La Fage, Mus. des Chin., p. 241.\n\n[118]Amiot, Mus. des Chinois, p. 179.\n\n[119]In singing this the chorus speaks in the name of the emperor.\n\n[120]Amiot, des Chin., p. 180.\n\n[121]The offerings are viands, libations, and perfumes, the latter being\n burnt as incense by the emperor.\n\n[122]Copied by Ambros, in Gesch d mus. v. 1, p. 34-5.\n\n[123]Quoted by Fetis, Hist. Gen. de la Mus. v. 1, p. 62.\n\n[124]Amiot, p. 171.\n\n[125]La Fage, des Chinois, p. 269.\n\n[126]First it was Haydn, then Handel, then Mozart, then Beethoven and\n to-day Wagner (a few years ago, Schumann) whose bold eagle-flights\n dismayed the more timid owls.\n\n[127]\u201cAmong the Chinese themselves, society chiefly consists of certain\n stated forms, and expressions, a calm, equal, cold deportment,\n hypocritical attentions, and hyperbolical professions.\u201d Barrow\u2019s\n Life of Macartney, v. 2, p. 414. The curious reader will also find a\n very full description of Chinese social etiquette, in the\n \u201c_Description de la Chine_,\u201d by Pere Du Halde, pages 115 to 154,\n vol. 2. Rules are given for set formalities, even on the slightest\n occasions, such as, the opening of a conversation when visiting (p.\n 126), the exit, the rising from table after meals, (138), etc., etc.\n It is possible, that in the customs of this people, we may see a\n living reproduction of some traits of the ancient Egyptians\n\n[128]Barrow\u2019s life of Macartney, v. 2, p. 231.\n\n[129]Ibid, v. 2, p. 217\n\n[130]Desc. de la Chine. T. II. p. 132. In La Fage\u2019s quotation the page\n is given as 112, probably an oversight, or a later edition.\n\n[131]Account of Lord Macartney\u2019s embassy, by Sir George Staunton.\n\n[132]Musical Myths and Facts, vol. 2, p. 163.\n\n[133]La Fage Mus. des. Chinois T. 1. p. 302\n\n[134]_Leit motiven_ however the Chinese have _not_!!\n\n[135]De Guignes, Voyage a Peking v. 2, p. 325.\n\n[136]It would however, be as unjust to judge average Chinese plays by\n this one instance as to judge of the Shakesperian drama by \u201cTitus\n Andronicus.\u201d\n\n[137]Voyage to Cochin China, p. 295.\n\n[138]In like manner physiologists at one time endeavored to account for\n the peculiar singing of the Tyrolese peasantry (called the \u201cyodel\u201d)\n by the theory that the Tyrolese throat was shaped differently from\n throats in general. Anatomy exploded the assumption.\n\n[139]La Fage, Mus. des Chinois, v. 1, p. 311.\n\n[140]Edward Brown, Adventures In Cochin China, p. 221, quoted by Engel\n Mus. Myths and facts, vol. 2, p. 157.\n\n[141]DuHalde, Description de l\u2019emp. de la Chine. T. 2, p. 156.\n\n[142]LaFage, Mus. des. Chin., T. 1, p. 313.\n\n[143]Barrow\u2019s life of Macartney, v. 1, pp. 341-2\n\n[144]Ibid, p. 337.\n\n[145]Ainsworth, around the world, p. 102.\n\n[146]The following is a short synopsis of Chinese education. \u201cWhen\n choosing a wet-nurse, the mother must seek a modest, virtuous,\n affable, discreet, respectful, exact and prudent woman. When the boy\n can carry his hand to his mouth he is weaned, and taught to use his\n right hand in eating; at the age of six, teach him the simplest\n numbers, and the names of most important parts of the globe; at the\n age of seven separate him from his sisters, and let him neither eat\n nor sit with them; at the age of eight teach him the rules of\n politeness and civility, which he must observe when entering or\n leaving a house, or when he is with his elders; at nine teach him\n the calendar; at ten send him to the public school and give him no\n more cotton-stuffed garments, they will be too warm for his age. The\n school-master is to give him knowledge of reading, writing and\n arithmetic. At thirteen, let him study music, that he may sing\n poetry, and that the wise maxims contained in the verses, be\n engraven on his memory. At fifteen he is to learn archery and\n riding. As for girls, when they have attained the age of ten years,\n they are not to be allowed to go out of doors; teach them to speak\n sweetly, to have an affable air, and to understand all household\n duties.\u201d Book of ancient rites quoted in Pere du Halde\u2019s Descrip. de\n la Chin., T. 2, p. 438.\n\n[147]Ainsworth, p. 102.\n\n[148]A good example of the ludicrous side of this over politeness, may\n be given here. The host in China will constantly press his guest to\n accept of things which the latter is _expected_ to refuse; the host\n is also required by etiquette to depreciate himself and extol his\n guest, which the latter returns in kind. An English gentleman having\n resigned himself to his interpreter, the following dialogue (like\n that in Kinglake\u2019s \u201cEothen,\u201d) takes place:\u2014\n\n _Interpreter._ His excellency has long looked forward to this day.\n\n _Chinese Dignitary._ I meet him now as an old friend, and request to\n know his honorable age.\n\n _Int._ His excellency has profitlessly passed \u2014\u2014 years.\n\n _Chinese Dig._ The ears of his excellency are long, and betoken\n great ability.\n\n _Int._ Ah! oh! he is unworthy of the compliment.\n\n _Chinese Dig._ You have had an arduous journey.\n\n _Int._ We deserved it, etc.\n\n A similar \u201ccall\u201d is described in Ainsworth\u2019s \u201call around the world,\u201d\n p. 106.\n\n \u201cAt last we begged to take our leave, and began violently to\n \u2018tsing-tsing,\u2019 a ceremony which consists in clasping your hands\n before your breast, and making a crouching baboon-like gesture; it\n is the equivalent of shaking hands, only one shakes one\u2019s own\n hands.... Our host insists on following us to our chairs. We\n remonstrate; \u2018stop! stop! we are unworthy,\u2019 say we. \u2018What language\n is this\u2019 he replies. \u2018We are really unworthy\u2019 we reiterate. \u2018You are\n in my house,\u2019 he insists; and so we back to our chairs, perpetually\n imploring him not to accompany us, which he vehemently resists,\n until at last, when we are in our chairs, he reluctantly consents to\n return, apologising to the last, for being so rude as to leave us\n even then.\u201d\n\n[149]Japan, Aime Humbert, p. 173.\n\n[150]Ambros, Gesch. d. Mus. v. 1, p. 38.\n\n[151]Ibid, 39.\n\n[152]See Article on Egypt.\n\n[153]Fetis, Hist. de la Mus. v. 1, p. 84.\n\n[154]Humbert\u2019s Japan, p. 174.\n\n[155]Siebold, Pantheon of Nipon, part C, plates\n\n[156]Or more properly, agglutinate.\n\n[157]Humbert, Japan, p. 42.\n\n[158]Abbe Huc, Travels in Thibet.\n\n[159]S. Osborne, Japanese Fragments.\n\n[160]Mr. Oliphant, in Elgin\u2019s Mission to Japan.\n\n[161]Thunberg, Voyage to Japan, p. 351, Sherwood\u2019s Edition.\n\n[162]Kaempfer, Hist. of Japan (Pinkerton), p. 745.\n\n[163]Kaempfer, Hist. of Japan, p. __.\n\n[164]Dr. M\u00fcller, Journal of the German Eastern Asiatic Society.\n\n[165]Letter to the \u201cLeisure Hour,\u201d June 9, 1877.\n\n[166]Humbert, Japan, p. 248.\n\n[167]Caron\u2019s Account of Japan (Pinkerton), p. 633.\n\n[168]Humbert, Japan, p. 295.\n\n[169]Humbert, Japan, p. 258.\n\n[170]Thunberg, Voyage to Japan (Sherwood\u2019s Ed.), p. 293.\n\n[171]K\u00e6mpfer\u2019s history of Japan, p. 815 (Pinkerton\u2019s).\n\n[172]Ibid, p. 818.\n\n[173]Caron\u2019s Account of Japan (Pinkerton\u2019s ed.), p. 611. v. 7.\n\n[174]Dr. M\u00fcller; paper read before the German Asiatic Society.\n\n[175]Wood\u2019s Natural History of Man, v. II, p. 849.\n\n[176]La Fage, Hist. gen. de la musique, v. I, p. 376.\n\n[177]Wood\u2019s Nat. Hist. of Man, v. II, p. 850.\n\n[178]Dr. M\u00fcller, German East. Asiatic Society.\n\n[179]Japan and the Japanese. Capt. Golownin, v. II, p. 149.\n\n[180]Worn one above the other. Sometimes six or seven dresses are worn\n in this manner by one fair fashionable.\n\n[181]Humbert\u2019s Japan, p. 336.\n\n[182]Thunberg.\n\n[183]La Fage, Hist. de la Mus. v. I, p. 375.\n\n[184]Engel, Mus. Myths and Facts, v. II, p. 164.\n\n[185]La Fage, Hist. de la Mus. v. I, p. 376.\n\n[186]Humbert, Japan, p. 337.\n\n[187]All Round the World, p. 206.\n\n[188]Thunberg, p. 307.\n\n[189]Ambros, Gesch. d. Musik, v. I, p. 4.\n\n[190]Comettant, Mus. et Musiciens, p. 586.\n\n[191]Fetis, Hist. gen. de la Mus., v. I, p. 26.\n\n[192]Ambros, Gesch. d. Musik, p. 10, v. I.\n\n[193]See Fetis, Hist. gen. de la Mus. v. I, p. 15.\n\n[194]The effect of this in some Australian dances, is said to be very\n striking. The favorite device, is to draw the outline of a skeleton,\n on the front of the body, with white paint. As the dancers twirl\n round, the pattern is plainly perceptible when their faces are\n turned toward the spectator, but when their black backs are turned,\n the whole vanishes, and gives the impression of a number of ghastly\n skeletons, alternately appearing and disappearing, by the dim\n flicker of the firelight.\n\n[195]Here we see one of the earliest traits of primitive music. The use\n of a plain, rhythmic accompaniment, without tune.\n\n[196]From the \u201cIllustrated London News,\u201d Oct. 8, 1863.\n\n[197]Wood\u2019s Nat. Hist. of Man, v. I, p. 68.\n\n[198]Meinicke, Inseln des Stillen Oceans, v. I, p. 329.\n\n[199]Wood\u2019s Hist. of Man, v. I, p. 162.\n\n[200]Meinecke, Inseln d still. Oceans, v. I, p. 330.\n\n[201]A conundrum from Java may be interesting to the reader. Here is\n one,\u2014\n\n _Q._\u2014What is lower than the knee, yet higher than the mountain?\n\n _A._\u2014The road which crosses the mountain.\n\n[202]De Backer, L\u2019Archipel Indien, p. 185.\n\n[203]De Backer, L\u2019Archipel Indien, p. 207.\n\n[204]Quoted in Ainsworth, Round the World, p. 246.\n\n[205]Engel\u2019s Musical Myths, e. c., v. 2, p. 150.\n\n[206]A voyage round the World (Cook\u2019s) Forster, p. 398, v. 1.\n\n[207]Wood\u2019s Nat. History of Man, v. 1, p. 285.\n\n[208]An account of a Government mission to the Fiji Islands, p. 116.\n\n[209]Fetis, Histoire de la Mus., v. 1, p. 96.\n\n[210]Wood\u2019s Nat. History, v. 2, p. 288.\n\n[211]All Kaffir chiefs aspire to obesity as an emblem of rank.\n\n[212]The Heart of Africa, v. 2, p. 29.\n\n[213]Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa, v. 2, p. 30.\n\n[214]Central Africa, or Naked Truths about Naked people, p. 278.\n\n[215]Wood\u2019s Nat\u2019l History of Man, v. 2, p. 498.\n\n[216]Journal of the discovery of the source of the Nile, by Capt. Speke,\n page 210.\n\n[217]Captain Speke\u2019s Journal, p. 222.\n\n[218]Heart of Africa, v. 1, p. 287.\n\n[219]Heart of Africa, v. 1, p. 289.\n\n[220]Ismailia, By Sir S. W. Baker, page 391.\n\n[221]Ismailia, p. 355.\n\n[222]See \u201cIsmailia,\u201d p. 372.\n\n[223]It will be recollected that the Abyssinians belong to a sect of the\n Christian Church.\n\n[224]Coomassie and Magdala, by H. M. Stanley, p. 310\n\n[225]Coomassie and Magdala, page 488.\n\n[226]Ismailia, page 282.\n\n[227]Baker\u2019s \u201cIsmailia,\u201d page 351.\n\n[228]Stanley\u2019s \u201cHow I found Livingstone,\u201d page 622.\n\n[229]Brendel, Gesch. d. Musik, p. 7.\n\n[230]According to Clemens Romanus, a contemporary of St. Paul.\n\n[231]Tertullian, Apologia, 39. Evidently a custom derived from the\n _skolion_ of Greece.\n\n[232]Ambros, Geschichte d. Musik, v. II, p. 5.\n\n[233]Gesch. d. Musik, v. II p. 11\n\n[234]Marcillac, Histoire de la Mus. Modern, p. 25.\n\n[235]Fetis, Histoire Gen. de la mus, v. 4, p. 6.\n\n[236]Letters, v. 5, p. 7.\n\n Affirmabent autem, hanc fuisse summan vel culp\u00e6 su\u00e6, vel erroris\n quod essent soliti stato die ante lucem convenire; carmenque\n Christo, quasi Deo, dicere secum invicem; seque sacramento non in\n scelus aliquod obstringere, sed ne furta, ne latrocinia, ne\n adulteria committerent ne fidem fallerent, ne depositum appellati\n abnegarent, quibus peractis morem, sibi discedendi fuisse, rursusque\n coeundi ad capiendum cibum, promiscium tamen et innoxium.\n\n[237]Quoted by Fetis, Histoire Gen. d. l. Mus., v. 4, p. 7.\n\n[238]Fetis.\n\n[239]Marcillac, Histoire de la Mus. Moderne, p. 27.\n\n[240]Ambros, Geschichte d. Mus., v. 2, p 13.\n\n[241]Fetis, Histoire Gen. de la Mus., v. 4, p. 17.\n\n[242]A good explanation of the system is to be found in Fetis, v. 4, pp.\n 29-56.\n\n[243]See Curzon\u2019s \u201cMonasteries of the Levant,\u201d or Proust\u2019s \u201cVoyage on\n Mt. Athos.\u201d\n\n[244]Some excellent German translations of the hymns, have been made by\n Zingerle, and are to be found in the \u201cZeitschrift d. Deutschen\n Morgenl. Gesellschaft.\u201d\n\n[245]Fetis, Histoire Gen. T. 4. p 90.\n\n[246]Rambosson, Harmonies du Son, p. 21.\n\n[247]King\u2019s \u201cTen Thousand Wonders,\u201d p. 241.\n\n[248]Marcillac, Hist. de la Mus. Moderne, p. 28, and Brendel, Gesch. d\n Mus. p. 9.\n\n[249]Confessions, Book IX., Chap. 6.\n\n[250]Ambros, Geschicht der Musik, vol. 2, p. 14. Fetis, Biographie Univ.\n v. 1. p. 85.\n\n[251]Confess, IX., 7.\n\n[252]Fetis, Hist. Gen de la Mus., v. 4, p. 135.\n\n[253]Grove\u2019s Dictionary of Music and Musicians, part 1, vol. 1, article\n \u201cAmbrosian chant,\u201d by Rev. Thomas Helmore.\n\n[254]Ambros, Gesch. d. Mus., v. 2, p. 43.\n\n[255]Ambros, v. 2, p. 45.\n\n[256]These latter letters may however, only refer to the diagrams, and\n not to musical notes.\n\n[257]Epoch men, by Sam\u2019l Neal, p. 43.\n\n[258]Vie de Charlemagne, Guizot, T. 3, p. 151.\n\n[259]Ambros Gesch. d. Mus., v. 2, p. 94. We must remind the reader that\n \u201cGregorian\u201d music, does not always refer to the compositions of\n Gregory, but simply means the singing used at Rome, as the\n \u201cAmbrosian\u201d means the style used at Milan.\n\n[260]Monachus Engolismensis (the monk of Angouleme), an anonymous writer\n of this era, in his _Vita Caroli Magni._ quoted by J. J. Rousseau,\n in his Dictionnaire de Musique article \u201cChant,\u201d also by Crowest,\n Mus. Anecdotes, v. 2, p. 239; Fetis, v. 4, p. 279; Ambros, v. 2, p.\n 94, etc., etc.\n\n[261]It has been suggested by some recent writers on this subject, that\n even this should be met by forming the notes of various lengths,\n thus, a whole note \u2014\u2014\u2014, a half note \u2014\u2014, a quarter \u2014, etc., but this\n difficulty can be obviated, in spacing, by any good music engraver,\n and does not require so radical a change.\n\n[262]The semitone falling always between the second and third note, is\n the only regularity apparent.\n\n[263]Stainer\u2019s Dictionary, p. 311.\n\n[264]There is some ambiguity regarding the title of this pontiff. Some\n authorities call him John XX., and the next John (1276) the XXI.\n\n[265]Quoted by Stainer and Barrett, Dict. p. 314.\n\n[266]Topog. Hibern., 3 C. 1.\n\n[267]\u201cThe Troubadours,\u201d F. Hueffer, p. 61.\n\n[268]Quoted by Hueffer, \u201cTroubabours,\u201d p. 72.\n\n[269]Hueffer, p. 274-5.\n\n[270]Richard.\n\n[271]Taylor\u2019s \u201cLays of the Minnesingers,\u201d p. 229.\n\n[272]French.\n\n[273]Those of the Troubadours.\n\n[274]This line is vague in its meaning.\n\n[275]Taylor\u2019s \u201cMinne-singers,\u201d p. 98.\n\n[276]Fabeln und Erzehlungen aus d. zeiten d. minne-sanger. Von Bodmer\n and Breitlinger Zurich, 1757, p. 247.\n\n[277]Rambosson, Harmonies du Son, p. 46.\n\n[278]Anglice\u2014Master-singers.\n\n[279]L\u2019Opera Italien. Castil-Blaze, p. 20.\n\n[280]L\u2019Opera Italien. Castil-Blaze, p. 26.\n\n[281]Curiosites Theatrales, Fournel (Paris), p. 17.\n\n[282]Bibliotheque de Poche, v. VIII., p. 345.\n\n[283]Ibid, vol. II., p. 811.\n\n[284]Historiette d. la Marechale de Themines, book 5, p. 196.\n\n[285]Edwards\u2019 History of the Opera, vol. 1, p. 15.\n\n[286]Curiosites Theatrales, Fournel, p. 161.\n\n[287]See Annals Dramatiques, VII., p. 165.\n\n[288]L\u2019Opera Ital. Castil-Blaze, p. 128.\n\n[289]Deldeves. Curiosites Musicales, p. 215.\n\n\n\n\n INDEX.\n\n\n A\n Abyssinian Music 270\n \u00c6schylus 74\n African Music 251\n Amanieus, troubadour 334\n Amaryllis 356\n Ambrosian Chant 299\n Ancestors, feasts of 186\n Aristotle 57\n Armenian Church 292\n\n\n B\n Bamboo Instruments 153\n Banquet Music, Egyptian 17, 24\n Banquet Music, Grecian 53, 57\n Banquet Music, Japanese 213\n Barbarians, Music of 229\n Bards, ancient 323\n Bardesanes 291\n Bells 148\n Bertrand du Born 336\n B\u0153thius 308\n Bongo Songs 267\n Brahma, legend of 8\n\n\n C\n Caligula 99\n Canadian, curious song 234\n Canute 328\n Caste of musicians, Chinese 131\n Caste of musicians, Egyptian 18\n Chant, Ambrosian 299\n Chant, Gregorian 303\n Charlemagne 308\n Cheng 155\n Chinese ceremonies 162\n Chinese compositions 162\n Chinese music 114\n Chinese a musical language 160\n Chinese music resembles Scotch 166\n Chinese songs, earliest 115\n Chinese songs 158\n Chinese theatre and plays 176\n Chinese whistle 149\n Chorus, a terrible 74\n Chorus, Greek 74\n Christian, early customs 287\n Christian, early music 283\n Christian churches of Africa 293\n Chun, Song of 121\n Clavichord in China 137\n Confucius 124\n Conservatories in ancient Egypt 25\n Coptic Hymns 294\n Crusaders\u2019 songs 349\n Cuzzoni 358, 360\n\n\n D\n Dances, Australian 234\n Dances, Bushmen 256\n Dances, Chinese 176\n Dances, Egyptian 21\n Dances, Fiji Islands 248\n Dances, Grecian 79\n Dances, Roman 97\n Dances, Savage 234, 277\n Dances, Tasmanian 238\n Dances, War 241\n Destruction of musical instruments 133\n Dictionary of Impoliteness 363\n Drums, African 265\n Drums, Chinese 143\n Drums, used to mark the hour 144\n Drums, Javanese 243\n Drums, water 256\n\n\n E\n Egyptian music 15\n Egyptian Muses 16\n Egyptian banquets 17\n English Bards 327\n Essenhamens 334\n European music in China 135\n\n\n F\n Female musicians, Chinese 129\n Female musicians, Greek 51\n Female musicians, Troubadours 341\n Festivals, Chinese 170\n Festivals, Theban 21\n Fiddle, Chinese 156\n Fiji Islanders, Music 248\n Flute, Chinese 139\n Flute, Egyptian 23\n Flute, Grecian 41, 42, 43, 59\n Flute, Kaffir 255\n Flute, Roman 86\n Flute, Prehistoric 232\n Flute-playing at Grecian Games 41\n Foang-hoang 116\n Fo Hi, the Chinese Noah 116\n Folk Songs 350\n Funeral music, Chinese 173\n Funeral music, Egyptian 19\n Funeral music, Japanese 207\n Funeral music, Roman 88\n\n\n G\n Games of Greece 35\n Goura\u2014African Instrument 257\n Greek Church, music of 288\n Greek music, ancient 35\n Greek Hymns 35\n Greek Scale 36, 55\n Gregorian Chant 303\n Gregorian Chant in France 310\n Guido d\u2019Arezzo 318\n Guitar, African 263\n Guitar, Hindoo 14\n\n\n H\n Handel 360\n Harmony, Egyptian 19\n Harps, African 255\n Harps, Egyptian 23\n Harps, Hebrew 26\n Hebrew music 26\n Hebrew music, resemblance to Negro 33\n Hermes, Egyptian god 15\n Hindoo music 8\n Hissing, when first began 357\n Hucbald 315\n Hymns, Christian, ancient 281, 294\n Hymn, Chinese 164\n Hymn, Greek 35\n\n\n I\n Instruments, African 257, 259\n Instruments, Chinese 142\n Instruments, East Indian 13\n Instruments, Egyptian 24\n Instruments, Greek 59\n Instruments, Hebrew 29\n Instruments, Hindoo 13\n Instruments, Japanese 202\n Instruments, Kaffir 255\n Instruments, Roman 89\n Irish Bards 325\n Irova, Japanese 204\n\n\n J\n Japanese music 201\n Jews, music of modern 27\n Jewsharps in Africa 258\n Jongleurs 331\n Julian, reforms of Emperor 100\n\n\n K\n Kaffir songs 251\n Kin, Chinese 150\n King, Chinese instrument 147\n Kithara, Greek instrument 57\n\n\n L\n Laborers\u2019 songs, Egyptian 18\n Lamia 61\n Laws relative to music, Egyptian 20\n Legends of music, Chinese 116, 119\n Legends of music, Egyptian 15\n Legends of music, Hindoo 8\n Legends of music, Japanese 215\n Legends of music, Javanese 244\n Louis Xiii. 355\n Louis Xiv. 357\n\n\n M\n Malay music 243\n Meistersingers 349\n Melody, Hindoo 12\n Melody, an old 348\n Meyerbeer 361\n Military music, African 262\n Military music, Chinese 131, 169\n Military music, Greek 47, 60\n Military music, Japanese 219\n Minnesingers 329, 341\n Mode, Ambrosian 301\n Mode, Gregorian 365\n Musical Buildings 44\n Musical course Roman 86\n Music as a means of inspiring fear 276\n Music boxes in Africa 269\n Music boxes, Chinese 175\n\n\n N\n Nero, musical history of 101\n Neumes 313\n New Zealand, Harmony in 233\n New Zealand songs 240\n Nose-flutes 248\n Notation 313, 316, 317, 321\n Nyam-Nyams, Music of 258\n\n\n O\n Olympic Games 39\n Opera 352\n Orchestra, an old 354\n Organ, ancient Rome 89\n Organ, Chinese 155\n Organ, Hebrew 28, 30\n\n\n P\n Pantomimes, Chinese 195\n Pantomimes, Roman 97\n Pantomimes, Javanese 243\n Persecution of musicians 126\n Philosophers and music 53\n Pindar 65\n Pianoforte in Japan 227\n Poems of the Troubadours 338\n Power of Music 9, 10\n Power of Music in Africa 274\n Processional music, Egyptian 22\n Processional music, Japanese 218\n Processional music, Roman 92\n Processional music, Savage 263\n Proven\u00e7al songs 330\n Psaltery 30\n Ptolemy 62\n Pythagoras 53\n Pythian Games 41\n\n\n Q\n Quarrel between choirs 311\n Quarrel between singers 358\n\n\n R\n Ragas, Hindoo 9\n Religious music, Abyssinian 269\n Religious music, Chinese 162\n Religious music, Christian 280\n Religious music, Greek 35\n Religious music, Hebrew 26\n Religious music, Japanese 205\n Religious music, Roman 86\n Rhythm, Egyptian 20\n Rhythm of savage nations 229\n Riquier, Guirant 332\n \u201cRobert,\u201d accident at first performance 361\n Roman, ancient music 85\n Roman Empire, music of 99\n Rossini 360\n Royal dancers 193\n Royal musicians 99, 100, 102, 115, 332, 355\n\n\n S\n Salaries, ancient Greece 61\n Salaries, Chinese 187\n Salaries, Nero 105\n Sappho 61\n Savage music 229\n Scale, Chinese 167\n Scale, East Indian 11\n Scale, Grecian 36, 55\n Scale, Hindoo 11\n Scale, Japanese 201\n Scale, modern 320\n Scale, Religious, Greek 289\n Schofer, Hebrew horn 27\n Schools of music, Egypt 25\n Schools of music, Rome 86, 100\n \u201cSelah!\u201d meaning of 31\n Signals, musical Chinese 123, 173\n Simonides 63\n Sistrum 22\n Skolion 57\n Societies, or Guilds of Musicians, Roman 87\n Songs, Chinese 158\n Stesi-chorus 49\n Stones, musical 145\n Stringed instruments 149\n Syrian Church 290\n\n\n T\n Tales of the Minnesingers 346\n Terpander 45\n Theatre, Chinese 176\n Theatre, Greek 67\n Theatre, Japanese 219\n Theatre, Javanese 245\n Theatre, Roman 95\n Timbrel 30\n Time marked by bells 120\n Time marked by drums 120\n Tone-picture, Grecian 59\n Treatises on music, Chinese 135\n Triumphs, Roman 92\n Triumphal Odes, Greece 62\n Trumpeter, a great 40\n Trumpets, African 261, 265\n Trumpets, Chinese 120, 157\n Trumpets, pre-historic 231\n Trumpets, Russian 157\n Troubadours 329\n\n\n V\n Vina, Indian instrument 13\n Violin, Hindoo 13\n Volkslied 350\n\n\n W\n Wagner 362\n War Song 284\n Watch Song 344\n Welsh Bards 324\n \u201cWilliam Tell,\u201d an error in 361\n Wood instruments of China 151\n\n\n Y\n Yu, Chinese musician 132\n\n\n\n\n Transcriber\u2019s Notes\n\n\n\u2014Silently corrected a few typos.\n\n\u2014Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook\n is public-domain in the country of publication.\n\n\u2014In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by\n _underscores_.\n\n\u2014Created a Table of Contents based on the chapter headings.","title":"Curiosities of Music: A Collection of Facts not generally known, regarding the Music of Ancient and Savage Nations","tradition":"myth-cosmogony","translated_text":null,"word_count":86478}