{"collection":"philosophy-ethics","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_69434/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_69434","id":"gutenberg_69434","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/69434","summary":null,"tags":["Category: German Literature","Category: Language & Communication","Category: Philosophy & Ethics","German language -- Etymology","German language -- Semantics","Herder, Johann Gottfried, 1744-1803","Thesis (Ph. D.)"],"text":"The University of Chicago\n\n                          HERDER\u2019S CONCEPTION OF\n                                \u201cDAS VOLK\u201d\n\n                              A DISSERTATION\n                         SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY\n              OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS OF ARTS AND LITERATURE\n                      IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF\n                           DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY\n\n                         DEPARTMENT OF GERMANICS\n\n                                    BY\n                           GEORGIANA R. SIMPSON\n\n                     Private Edition, Distributed By\n                   THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO LIBRARIES\n                            CHICAGO, ILLINOIS\n                                   1921\n\n                         Composed and Printed By\n                     The University of Chicago Press\n                        Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.\n\n\n\n\n                         DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY\n                                  OF MY\n                            FRIEND AND TEACHER\n                         FR\u00c4ULEIN AGNES BURCHARD\n                                    OF\n                             ROSTOCK, GERMANY\n\n\n\n\nNOTE\n\n\nI wish to express my sincere thanks to all my Professors, but especially\nto Professors Starr W. Cutting, Martin Sch\u00fctze, and Francis A. Wood,\nunder whom the major portion of my work in the Graduate School has been\npursued.\n\nThis particular study, however, is the outcome of interest awakened by\nProfessor Sch\u00fctze while I was a member of his seminars.\n\nI owe a special debt of gratitude to him, not only for his guidance in\nthis endeavor, but for the inspiration and encouragement which has come\nto me from the very beginning of my work under him.\n\n                                                      GEORGIANA R. SIMPSON\n\n\n\n\nCONTENTS\n\n\n    CHAPTER                                                           PAGE\n\n      I. SEMASIOLOGY OF THE WORD, _Volk_\u2014THE IDEA IN OTHER WORDS         1\n\n     II. CONCEPTIONS OF _Volk_ AS SEEN IN HERDER\u2019S USE OF THE TERM       4\n\n    III. CONCEPTIONS OF _Volk_ AS GATHERED FROM HERDER\u2019S COLLECTION OF\n           _Volkslieder_                                                15\n\n     IV. CONCEPTIONS OF _Volk_ IN HERDER\u2019S DISCUSSION OF \u201cOSSIAN\u2019S\n           PEOPLE\u201d AND THE ANCIENT HEBREWS                              22\n\n      V. FOUNDATIONS OF INDIVIDUALITY AND PERSONALITY IN HERDER         31\n\n     VI. EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY THOUGHT IN HERDER\u2019S CONCEPTION OF\n           _Das Volk_                                                   36\n\n    VII. CONCLUSION                                                     54\n\n         BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                   58\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER I\n\nSEMASIOLOGY OF _VOLK_\u2014THE IDEA IN OTHER WORDS\n\n\nBefore going directly to the main discussion of our theme, a background\nis sought in a brief semasiological study of the word _Volk_. The word\nis widespread in the Germanic languages; Gothic, however, offers no\nexamples. Among the earliest recorded Germanic forms are those in Old\nEnglish and in Old High German. Old English _folc_ meant people, common\npeople, multitude, a people, tribe, family, army:\n\n\u201cHe sloh folces Denigea fyftyne men\u201d\u2014_Beowulf_.\n\n\u201cFolces hyrde\u201d\u2014_Beowulf_.\n\nIt was particularly used originally of a crowd of people. Skeat\u2019s\n_Etymological Dictionary_ suggests the possibility of its being related\nto both flock and full.\n\nOld High German _folc_ meant people, body of warriors, servants, crowd,\nmass. The oldest meaning here suggests forces of war: _dhazs himilisc\u00e2\nfolc_.\n\nThe word occurs in Old Frisian as _folk_; in Old Saxon, _folc_; and in\nOld Norse, _folk_; with meanings equivalent to those found in Old High\nGerman and Old English.\n\nKluge\u2019s _Etymological Dictionary_ says that the meaning \u201cdivision of an\narmy\u201d seems to be the fundamental meaning of the family group, from which\nLithuanian _pulkas_, heap mass, Old Slavonic _pl\u016dk\u016d_, host of war, are\nborrowed forms.\n\nIn Middle English the word took on the additional meaning of an\naggregation of people in relation to a superior; e.g., God, a king,\nor priest; further it began to mean also the vulgar or lower classes,\nthis use easily rising out of the meaning \u201cmass\u201d or \u201cthe many.\u201d Such\nexpressions occur as _beboden waes Godes folce_, _Folkes Mass Book_.\n\nIn Middle High German the meaning was people, hosts of war, army,\nservants, subjects, multitude: _er das Volk gewan_ (_Gudrun_, 1162, 2).\n\nIn Modern English the word is chiefly colloquial, being superseded in\nmore formal use by \u201cpeople.\u201d\n\nIn numerous combinations (following German precedent) it has the sense of\npertaining to, current among, or existing among the masses of the people\nor the common people. Such expressions as folk-belief, folk-custom,\nfolk-literature, folk-name, folk-song, and folk-speech are prevalent.\n\nModern High German has retained the word with nearly all of its\nprimitive meanings: _die schottischen V\u00f6lker emp\u00f6ren sich und drohen\nabzuziehen_;[1] _Mein Volk zu mindern_;[2] _Was rennt das Volk?_;[3] _du\nweisst, wir alten fahren, und ihr junges Volk reitet_;[4] _den Teufel\nsp\u00fcrt das V\u00f6lkchen nie_.[5]\n\nThe large number of compounds in which the word is used limit its\nconnotation to either \u201cthe masses\u201d or \u201cthe common people\u201d: _Volksbuch_,\n_Volksdichter_, _Volksgeist_, _Volkslehrer_, _Volksschule_, etc. Kluge in\nhis _Etymological Dictionary_ says: \u201cConnection with Latin _vulgus_ is\nuncertain; for it is questionable whether the Latin word together with\nthe Germanic family group would come from an original _qelgos_, _qolgos_.\u201d\n\nWeigand, _Deutsches W\u00f6rterbuch_ says: \u201cThe earlier comparison with the\nLatin, _volgus_, is not possible. Rather to be compared here are the word\n_voll_ and roots related to the Greek \u03c0\u03bb\u1fc6\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2.\u201d\n\n\nTHE IDEA IN OTHER WORDS\n\nThe ideas conveyed by the fundamental meanings found in the word _Volk_\nappear in other words and in various languages:\n\n\nGREEK\n\n    \u03c0\u03bb\u1fc6\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2\u2014a great number, a throng, a crowd, multitude, especially\n    of people.\n\n    \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03cd\u03c2\u2014properly of number, many; opposed to \u1f40\u03bb\u03af\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2.\n\n    \u03bf\u1f31 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03af\u2014the many; that is, the greater number.\n\n    \u1f44\u03c7\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2\u2014a moving crowd, a throng, irregular crowd, in a political\n    sense, the populace or mob, opposed to \u03b4\u1fc6\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2.\n\n    \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2\u2014race, stock, family, whether by blood or by nationality:\n    \u03b1\u1f37\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u03b5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2\n\n    \u2015\u2014a race in regard to number, \u03b3\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd, mankind.\n\n    \u03c6\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd\u2014a set of men or any living beings as naturally distinct\n    from others; a race or tribe; in a closer sense, a race of\n    people or a nation.\n\n    \u1f14\u03b8\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2\u2014a number of people living together, a company, a body of\n    men.\n\n    \u1f14\u03b8\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f11\u03c4\u03b1\u03af\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd\u2014a band of comrades.\n\n    \u1f14\u03b8\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bb\u03b1\u1ff6\u03bd\u2014a host of men.\n\n    \u1f41 \u03b4\u1fc6\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2\u2014a district, country, land. Also the people of such\n    a district, hence (as in early times the common people were\n    scattered through the country while the chiefs held the city)\n    the commons, common people. \u03b4\u03ae\u03bc\u03bf\u03c5 \u1f00\u03bd\u03ae\u03c1 opposed to \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03cd\u03c2.\n\n\nLATIN\n\n    _Vulgus_\u2014people collectively or without distinction, the\n    public or people generally: _Non est consilium in vulgo_. The\n    multitude, the common people, the populace.\n\n    _Populus_\u2014a people, the commons in contradistinction to\n    the senate and knights: _senatus populusque Romanus_. The\n    inhabitants of a country or town, a nation, a whole people:\n    _Populus Romanus victor dominusque omnium gentium_. A large\n    number of people, a crowd, throng: _populus fratrum_.\n\n    _Plebs_\u2014The common people, commonality, the ignoble opposed to\n    _patricii_, _patres_ or _senatus_; whereas _populus_ comprises\n    both classes. When the knights, _equites_, were raised to a\n    separate class, the _plebs_ formed the third; i.e., the last or\n    lowest class; hence, the lower class of people, the populace,\n    the mass.\n\n\nFRENCH\n\n    _Peuple_\u2014a multitude of people of the same country and living\n    under the same laws: _Les peuples ne souffrent que par les\n    fautes des rois_.[6]\n\n    _Peuple_\u2014a multitude of people who, although not occupying the\n    same country, have the same religion or the same origin: _et je\n    serai leur Dieu, et eux ils seront mon peuple_.[7]\n\n    _Peuple_\u2014that part of a nation considered as opposed to the\n    classes among whom there is either more ease or more education:\n    _Il y a le peuple qui est oppos\u00e9 aux grands. C\u2019est la populace\n    et la multitude._[8]\n\nIn Middle English the word people was already a synonym for _folc_: \u201cA\nBlysful lyf, Ledden the peoples in the former age\u201d (Chaucer).\n\nIn Modern English the word people has almost entirely displaced _Volk_\nexcept in colloquial or archaic speech. Like _Volk_ in its fundamental\nsense we have:\n\n    People\u2014a body of persons composing a community, tribe, race, or\n    nation.\n\n    People\u2014persons in relation to a superior, or to some one to\n    whom they belong.\n\n    People\u2014the common people, the commonality; the mass of the\n    community as distinguished from the nobility and ruling, or\n    official, classes, etc. \u201cA people\u2019s voice! We are a people yet\u201d\n    (Tennyson).\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER II\n\nCONCEPTIONS OF _VOLK_ AS SEEN IN HERDER\u2019S USE OF THE TERM\n\n\nI\n\n_Volk_ is that part of a nation which is the governed class as distinct\nfrom those who are above them in authority and who stand as the ruling\nclass; i.e., the governed as separate from the governing.\n\nI, 16: \u201cMan weiss dass nach den Staatspl\u00e4nen Lykurgs und Solons, die als\ndie Muster der \u00fcbrigen gl\u00e4nzten, die Stimme des Volks, eine Stimme des\nStaats, ja beinahe selbst Gott war.\u201d _Volk_ here is the collective mass\nof individuals constituting the state as opposed to the ruling heads.\n\nI, 16: \u201cDies konnte das Volk beantworten, nicht aus Staatseinsichten,\nsondern weil jeder B\u00fcrger streiten musste.\u201d Herder is discussing the\npower which the people have in the simplest democratic form of government\nto declare or to forbid war. _Volk_ is here the collection of citizens\nwhich make up the state as opposed to nominal rulers.\n\nI, 188: \u201cCicero \u00e4rgert sich, dass er dem Volk zu gefallen, \u2018pulcher\u2019 und\n\u2018triumphus\u2019 statt \u2018pulcer\u2019 und \u2018triumpus\u2019 aussprechen m\u00fcsste.\u201d In similar\nconnotation are such phrases as: \u201cfraget das Volk\u201d; \u201cdie niemand als das\nVolk geben wird\u201d; \u201cworauf das Volk hinkte, wenn es nicht gehen konnte\u201d;\n\u201cbloss weil das Volk sie vor Dr\u00fcsen ansahe.\u201d\n\nI, 18: \u201cSelbst das Volk ist nicht mehr dasselbe. Dort war dieser Name\nehrw\u00fcrdig: er begriff alle B\u00fcrger, Rath und Priester ausgenommen.\u201d The\ncollective mass of citizens who form the state in contradistinction to\nthe individuals who were nominal rulers.\n\nI, 22: \u201cSo sieht man, dass ihre Schutzg\u00f6tter, und ihre Gottesdienste,\ndass Orakelspr\u00fcche und Ceremonien blos heiliger Nebel und Opferrauch\nwaren, die Augen des Volks zu blenden.\u201d Herder here mentions Cicero\nas augur and writer on religious subjects; _Volk_ are the citizens,\nexclusive of those occupying the official rank such as that held by\nCicero, for example.\n\nXIV, 34: \u201cSo ist ein Unterschied zwischen Cultur der Gelehrten und Cultur\ndes Volks.\u201d Herder speaks here concerning the organization of the state\namong ancient peoples. The _Gelehrten_ were the teaching and priestly\nclass\u2014those who were in possession of certain secret knowledge. The\n_Volk_, while not having this knowledge, were nevertheless not without\nculture. We may take _Volk_ to mean nation or people in the same sense\nin which a modern people might be considered as such and include its\nclergymen and lawyers who had special professional training.\n\n\nII\n\nQuotations in which _Volk_ is used as synonymous with nation. The ideas\nof collective personality and of _Nationalgeist_ are prominent here.\n\nI, 23: \u201cDer Charakter unseres Volks ist nicht mehr die dreiste Wildheit\nder Alten; sondern eine feinere und m\u00e4ssigere Freiheit; die Freiheit des\nGewissens.\u201d Herder discusses the question of freedom in the fatherland\nand uses \u201cfatherland\u201d as synonymous with _Volk_; _Volk_ is nation.\n\nI, 147: \u201cEin Volk das ohne Poetische Sprache grosse Dichter ... gehabt\nh\u00e4tte ist ein Unding.\u201d _Volk_ is nation.\n\nI, 261: \u201cSo sehr sich immer Voltaire, und die seines Theils sind,\nbeklagen, dass wir ein eckles dummes Volk aus einem Winkel der Erde so\nsehr erheben.\u201d _Wir_ here refers to the German people in the eighteenth\ncentury. _Volk_, then, means a nation.\n\nI, 262: \u201csingen wir denn f\u00fcr Juden? die sich f\u00fcr das einzige Volk Gottes\nhielten? die von dem feurigsten Nationalstolz belebt wurden?\u201d _Volk_,\nhere, in the light of _Nationalstolz_, clearly means nation. In the same\nconnection and with the same meaning he says: \u201cUnser Gott ist ein Vater\nder Menschen nicht eines Volks.\u201d\n\nI, 276: \u201cEin Rabbi, der f\u00fcr sein Volk Patriotismus, K\u00e4nntniss seiner\nGebr\u00e4uche.\u201d _Volk_ here refers to the Jews, hence means nation.\n\nII, 8: \u201cAllerdings ist auch die Sprache einer Nation ein betr\u00e4chtliches\nSt\u00fcck in der Litteratur derselben.... Man kann die Litteratur eines\nVolks, ohne seine Sprache nicht \u00fcbersehen.\u201d _Volk_ is clearly a synonym\nwith nation.\n\nI, 13: \u201cein Vorrath, der freilich oft durch Raub und Beute Nachbarn\nbereichert, aber so wie er ist doch eigentlich der Nation zugeh\u00f6rt, die\nihn hat ... der Gedankenschatz eines ganzen Volks.\u201d In this passage,\nlanguage (_Sprache_) is the word _Vorrath_, to which reference is made.\n_Volk_ is the same as nation.\n\nII, 28: \u201cDer ganzen Nation w\u00e4re ein solches Buch ein Schatz: ... denn der\nGenius, der \u00fcber die Wissenschaften eines Volks wachet ist zugleich der\nSchutzgott der Sprache desselben.\u201d _Volk_ is nation.\n\nII, 32: \u201cUnd was d\u00f6rfen wir uns unserer Consonanten sch\u00e4men, wenn sie\nConcente der Tapferkeit sind, um G\u00f6tter und Stammv\u00e4ter unseres Volks,\nHelden und Erretter der Nation zu preisen.\u201d _Volk_ is nation.\n\nII, 160: \u201cGemeiniglich waren die gr\u00f6ssesten Schriftsteller zugleich die\ngr\u00f6ssesten Nationalautoren. Den Geist ihrer Zeit, die Denkart ihres\nVolks, die Natur ihrer Sprache, wusten sie.\u201d _Volk_ is nation.\n\nIII, 30: \u201csie werden Thr\u00e4nen und Thaten wecken: ein Schatz des\nVaterlandes, und das Gef\u00fchl, das sie besingen und wirken, Gef\u00fchl des\nVolks, Nationalgeist.\u201d _Volk_ here is nation.\n\nIII, 62: \u201cihn sollte ein Held anstimmen, der zugleich K\u00f6nig war, der\ndadurch die Griechen rettete, der ihnen die Opferung versprochen hatte:\ndieser also sein Wort brechen, sein Volk nicht lieben, daf\u00fcr auch nicht\netwas Saures thun wollen?\u201d _Volk_ here refers to the ancient Greeks, and\ntherefore has the meaning of nation.\n\nIII, 398: \u201cWo, unsre Religion noch sinnlichen Vorstellungen Raum gibt; wo\nsie sich einer Poetischen Bildersprache bequemt: da ist sie\u2014Orientalisch.\nUnter einem Volke gebildet, das ihr Gott auf alle Art von Bildnissen\nabwenden wollte, in Gegenden, die das Uebermenschliche suchten, in\nNationen, die Verh\u00fcllungen des K\u00f6rpers, und Geheimnisse des Geistes\nlieber verehren als das offne Sch\u00f6ne lieben wollten\u2014im Geist und in der\nSprache dieses Volks die sinnliche Bildersprache unsrer Religion also\ngeoffenbaret.\u201d _Volk_ is nation.\n\nIII, 414: \u201cWenn er durch Dichter gebildet war, wenn einem Publikum in\nGriechenland Dichterverse und Poetische Bilder ihrer Mythologie im\nKopfe schwebten, ohngef\u00e4hr auf die Art, als unserm Volke Kirchenlieder,\nBibelspr\u00fcche (eine Vergleichung die hier blos Nationalunterschied seyn\nsoll).\u201d _Volk_ is nation.\n\nIII, 425: \u201ceine Nation, deren Merkw\u00fcrdigkeiten eben so verwickelt von\nder Politischen Wissenschaft sind, dass eine einzelne M\u00fcnzensymbole\nsie nicht vorstellen kann, ein Volk, das aus der verbl\u00fcmten Bilderzeit\nhinaus, Wahrheit suchet, und Wahrheit findet: ein Volk endlich, in dem\ndie M\u00fcnzen und der Geschmack auf denselben durchaus f\u00fcr keine Produktion\ndes Publikum gelten kann\u2014ein solches Volk soll sich seine Geschichte\ndes Geschmacks und der Kunst aus M\u00fcnzen weissagen, sich ein Buch durch\nmit einem andern, dessen Numismatik Himmelweit von der ihrigen abliegt,\nh\u00e4misch vergleichen lassen? wer ist B\u00fcrger dieses Volks, und sagt nicht:\n_unde mihi lapides?_\u201d This passage shows _Volk_ to be synonymous with\nnation.\n\nThere are frequent uses of the word _Volk_ in the plural, _V\u00f6lker_, with\nthe same connotation:\n\nII, 19: \u201cDie Litteratur fremder V\u00f6lker und Sprachen ist oft als eine\nfremde Colonie unter andere Nationen eingef\u00fchrt.\u201d\n\nII, 23: \u201cWas haben V\u00f6lker und Sprachen f\u00fcr Vor- und Nachtheile gegen\neinander?\u201d\n\nII, 79: \u201cdas Namenregister ... das mich aus allen Zungen und Sprachen und\nV\u00f6lkern und Gesellschaften der Erde \u00fcberf\u00fchren soll.\u201d\n\nIII, 32: \u201ceine Ader des Gef\u00fchls, die die besten Dichtungen und\nGeschichte, nicht blos der Griechen, sondern aller V\u00f6lker durchstr\u00f6mt.\u201d\n\nIII, 52: \u201cwarum die Griechen in Bildung des Sch\u00f6nen so hoch gekommen, um\nallen V\u00f6lkern der Erde hierinn den Preis abzulaufen?\u201d\n\nIV, 168: \u201cder das Sch\u00f6ne unter allen V\u00f6lkern und Zeitaltern sucht.\u201d\n\nV, 86: \u201cder Erste Kopf der an eine wahre Philosophie der Grammatik ...\ndenkt, muss gewiss erst die Geschichte derselben durch V\u00f6lker und Stuffen\nhinab \u00fcberdacht haben.\u201d\n\nI, 2: \u201cGestorbene Sprachen.... Gl\u00fccklich, dass die V\u00f6lker denen sie eigen\nwaren, verlebt sind.\u201d\n\nI, 3: \u201cHier kn\u00fcpft die Politik des Staats die Sprachen zur allgemeinen\nKette der V\u00f6lker.\u201d\n\nI, 262: \u201cVon allen V\u00f6lkern der Erde abgesondert, brachte es seinem\nSchutzgott Nationalges\u00e4nge.\u201d (Jews.)\n\nV, 500: \u201cDer Stamm des Baums zu seiner gr\u00f6ssern H\u00f6he erwachsen, strebte,\nV\u00f6lker und Nationen unter seinen Schatten zu nehmen, in Zweige.\u201d\n\nV, 501: \u201cWenn alle V\u00f6lker unter dem R\u00f6mischen Joche gewissermaasse die\nV\u00f6lker zu seyn aufh\u00f6rten, die sie waren?\u201d\n\nV, 514: \u201cNorden wars. Und was man auch nun \u00fcber den Zustand dieser V\u00f6lker\nf\u00fcr Urspr\u00fcnge und Systeme ersinnen mag.\u201d\n\nVI, 115: \u201cKannte Noah diese ganz? Konnte er allen V\u00f6lkern die Warnung\nGottes bekannt machen?\u201d\n\nVI, 128: \u201cIch bleibe bei den Umwandlungen dieser Philosophie bei sp\u00e4tern\nbenachbarten V\u00f6lkern, und d\u00fcnkts mich kein Traum.\u201d\n\n\u201cAber dass sich die Geheimnisse mit Ideen dieser Gattung unter allen\nV\u00f6lkern besch\u00e4ftigt.\u201d\n\n\nIII\n\n_Volk_, a special group, less cultured, unaltered in certain respects by\nthe influence of civilization. There are marked implications of theories\nof universalism and democracy here. The largest part of the people are\nthe most important and respectable.\n\nIn the following two passages we have a degree of characterization of the\nrabble:\n\nXVII, 91: \u201cden leider ist es nur Ein Ding, Poebelsinn und Tyrannei, mit\nzwei Namen genannt, wie die rechte und linke Seite.\u201d\n\nXXV, 323: \u201cVolk heisst nicht der Poebel auf den Gassen, der singt und\ndichtet niemals, sondern schreyt und verst\u00fcmmelt.\u201d\n\nThese characterizations of _Poebel_ suggest not a lack of culture but\nculture of a sort that has had a warping effect. If _Volk_ is not this\nrabble and, yet, not the learned class, it must stand in some respects,\nat least, between the two. It is more dignified and respectable than the\nrabble; it has certain intellectual aptitudes and moral traits found\namong primitive peoples, but which are usually effaced by a high degree\nof civilization and culture.\n\nI, 392: \u201cO eine Schrift, die das ist, was eine Erbauungs\u2014eine\nBildungsschrift f\u00fcr den gr\u00f6ssten, nutzbarsten und ehrw\u00fcrdigsten Theil\nder Menschen, das Volk sein soll.\u201d The author has been regretting that\nthe weekly journals, religious books, and sermons are not suited to the\ncommon man, and suggests the kind of literature that would meet his\nneeds. _Volk_ is here the largest, most useful, and most respectable part\nof mankind. These people are to be edified and cultivated.\n\nVII, 246: \u201cdie bei dem grossen ehrw\u00fcrdigen Haufen Volk erregt werden\nm\u00fcssen, wenn etwas w\u00fcrken soll. Dies Volk noch nicht zu Raisonnement\ngebildet, glaubt und handelt.\u201d These are too na\u00efve to have reason; _Volk_\nare the na\u00efve, simple people.\n\nVI, 294: Herder here calls the Bible \u201cOrakel Gottes f\u00fcr den besten,\ngr\u00f6ssten Theil der Menschheit, Kinder und Volk.\u201d\n\nVI, 309: \u201c\u00fcber den Euch noch immer Kind und Volk, der edelste Theil der\nMenschheit.\u201d\n\nVI, 443: \u201cwie die Kindes- und Volkswelt sich das urspr\u00fcnglich denken\nkonnte.\u201d\n\nIn these last three passages the mental capacity of _Volk_ is that of a\nchild, and the thought therefore implies for _Volk_ a meager degree of\neducation and culture.\n\nVI, 104: \u201cWo sind in allen unsern L\u00e4ndern Weisheitsschulen f\u00fcr den\nehrw\u00fcrdigen Theil unsers Publikum, den man das Volk nennet?\u201d Herder says\nthese are human beings who form the stock of the nation and distinguishes\nthem from the nobility who would refuse to enlighten the _Volk_ that\nthese might be the better utilized by the nobility and the better become\nthe subjects of their tyranny. _Volk_ is here a class beneath the\nnobility, but ideally they are enlightened and made better by social\ncontact and religious observances.\n\nVI, 301: \u201cZu dem schrieb er f\u00fcrs Volk; ich verstehe unter diesem Namen\ndie Menge derer, die sich nicht durch die Sprachlehre zu Deutschen\ngebildet hatten.\u201d Herder here refers to Luther and the people for whom he\nwrote; these were the less cultured people.\n\nI, 298: \u201cWeil damals noch nicht ein Unterschied zwischen der Sprache der\nWeisen und des Volks, zwischen der Denkart der Vornehmen und Geringen\nwar; was Homer sang war die Sprache der G\u00f6tter und zugleich eine\nveredelte Sprache des P\u00f6bels.\u201d Herder is speaking of Homer\u2019s language\nand times. In the parallel the wise are the aristocratic; the _Volk_ are\nthose of humble rank.\n\n\nIV\n\n_Volk_ meaning a special group characterized by primitivism in various\nforms.\n\nII, 25: \u201cwie die Denkart des Volks mit der gelehrten Denkart neben und\nin einander laufe?\u201d \u201cWas giebt die Denkart und Sprache des Volks dem\nPhilosophen, Dichter und Redner f\u00fcr Masse?\u201d \u201cWas hat dies f\u00fcr Vortheile\nund Nachtheile f\u00fcr die Weisen und dem Sch\u00fcler des Volks?\u201d Here Herder\ndiscusses two separate manners of thinking, designating one as being\npeculiar to the _Volk_ and the other as being that of the _Gelehrten_;\none as belonging to the _Volk_, the other to the _Philosophen_, _Dichter_\nand _Redner_. Here is a clear implication that the _Volk_ is a class\napart from philosophers, poets, and orators; a class different from\nthe sages. Not being wise and learned, they must be those upon whom\nartificial methods of training and culture have had less effect than upon\nthe philosophers, poets, and orators. They are therefore more nearly the\nnatural man.\n\nI, 157: \u201cSo wie das V\u00f6lkerrecht jetzt im Staat zum Gesez ward: so in der\nSprache.... Es entstand ein Adel ein P\u00f6bel und ein Mittelstand unter den\nV\u00f6lkern wie er in der Gesellschaft entstand.\u201d Herder here has traced\nthe development of prose out of poetry. He finds that the language of\npassion gave way to that of mediocre wit, and this in turn became the\nspeech of reason. Here is suggested a parallel between the rights of\nthe people, which passed into state laws, and the language which passes\nfrom _Poebel_ to _Mittelstand_ and then to _Adel_. If we make parallel\nthe _V\u00f6lkerrecht_ in the development of law with the _Mittelstand_ in\nthe social status, then _Volk_ is a class between the rabble and the\nnobility. If we follow the analogy suggested in the second sentence of\nthe quotation, we shall make the rabble those who have the language of\npassion; the _Volk_ those who have the language of mediocre wit; and the\nnobility those whose language is that of reason. Herder\u2019s _Volk_ here\nwould be a middle class.\n\n_Volk_ is used commonly to mean primitive peoples, i.e., people who\nhave reached only an early stage of civilization. Among those to whom\nfrequent reference is made as such are: Greenlanders, Laplanders, Early\nScandinavians, Early Germans, Greeks of Homer\u2019s time, Ancient Hebrews,\nAncient Celts in Scotland and Ireland, and American Indians. The moral\nstandards and intellectual equipment found among these are eulogized and\nidealized whenever these peoples as groups are compared with civilized\ncommunities.\n\nV, 189: \u201cIn mehr als einer Provinz sind mir Volkslieder,\nProvinziallieder, Bauerlieder bekannt, die an Lebhaftigkeit und\nRhythmus und Naivet\u00e4t und St\u00e4rke der Sprache vielen derselben gewiss\nnichts nachgeben w\u00fcrden.\u201d Here _Volk_ is put in apposition with that\nwhich is provincial, which has a peasant character. A meaning which is\nequivalent to the less cultured. Herder is discussing the whereabouts of\n_Volkslieder_ which he locates among the _Volk_, and _Volk_ are to be\nfound in the lanes, in the fish markets, and in the country.\n\nV, 185: \u201cZuerst sollten also wohl f\u00fcr die Seele des Volks die doch nur\nfast sinnlicher Verstand und Einbildung ist.\u201d ... Herder here considers\nthe _Volk_ as having the kind of soul which would be formed by contact\nwith the forces of nature, unaltered by the hand of man, and, especially,\nlittle touched by reflection, the reasoning faculty.\n\nII, 349: \u201cAlles was f\u00fcr das Volk redete und schrieb, Redner, und\nGeschichtsschreiber, musste popul\u00e4r sprechen; alles was f\u00fcr Gebildetere\nschrieb, Dichter, und Philosoph, und Redner, und Briefschreiber war\nfreyer.\u201d This statement clearly opposes _Volk_ to those more cultured.\nThe adjective, \u201cpopul\u00e4r,\u201d used with reference to that which would befit\nthem, gives a shading to the meaning of _Volk_, derived from the meaning\nof \u201cpopular,\u201d that which partakes of a quality peculiar to the populace.\n_Volk_ here are the less cultured.\n\n\nV\n\nCONNATIONS ARISING FROM USES WITH ADJECTIVES\n\nThese imply an emphasis on a group in which crudeness, the natural as\nopposed to the cultured and polished, are eulogized.\n\nXIII, 299: \u201cJedes eingebohrne _sinnliche Volk_ hat sich also mit seinen\nBegriffen auch in seine Gegend umschr\u00e4nkt.\u201d\n\nXIII, 303: \u201cWas ich auszuzeichnen habe sind einige allgemeine\nWahrnehmungen aus diesem Schattenreich _phantasierender V\u00f6lker_.\u201d\n\nHerder gives as an example of the _phantasierender V\u00f6lker_ the people\nof Greenland, India, Lappland, Japan, Peru, and Africa at a period of\ntheir existence when they have a mythology. The mythology he calls a\nphilosophical effort of the human soul, which dreams before it awakens\nand gladly remains in its childhood.\n\nXIII, 328: \u201cAuch unter den _wildesten V\u00f6lkern_ unterscheidet sich das\nWeib vom Mann.\u201d\n\nXIII, 389: \u201cDaher ist auch bei den _rohesten V\u00f6lkern_ die Sprache der\nReligion immer die \u00e4lteste.\u201d\n\nXIII, 392: \u201cdie g\u00f6ttlichen Gesetze und Regeln der Humanit\u00e4t, die sich\nwenn auch nur in Resten bei dem _wildesten Volk_ \u00e4ussern.\u201d\n\nXIII, 393: \u201cVon den _rohen V\u00f6lkern_ der Vorwelt.\u201d\n\nV, 681: \u201c.... wie die R\u00f6mische Staatskunst mit den Deutschen F\u00fcrsten\nspielte; und die Grundverfassung dieser _Barbarischen V\u00f6lker_ in Freiheit\nund Einigung zu ersch\u00fcttern suchte.\u201d\n\nXXV, 7: \u201cRohe Ges\u00e4nge eines _rohen Volks_! Barbarische T\u00f6ne und M\u00e4rchen,\nder Grundsuppe einer Nation.\u201d\n\nXXV, 7: \u201cOhne Zweifel war das _Gallische_, _Englische_ und noch mehr das\n_Nordischere Volk_ blos Volk!\u201d\n\nXXV, 8: \u201cUnd wenn man sich nun diese Lieder..... in die _lebendige\nR\u00fchrung des Volks_ zur\u00fcckdenkt.\u201d\n\nXXV, 9: \u201cdie Denkart der Nation selbst National; das Volk mit ein so\n_ansehnlicher Theil des Volks_ dessen Namen man also nicht so Schaamroth\noder eckelnd und betroffen ansah und abscheute.\u201d\n\nXXV, 11: \u201cdie Reste aller _lebendigen Volksdenkart_ rollen mit\nbeschleunigtem letzten Sturze in Abgrund der Vergessenheit hinab. Das\nLicht der sogenannten Kultur frisst wie der Krebs um sich.\u201d\n\n\nCOMPOUNDS WITH VOLK\n\nWords compounded with _Volk_ show all the various meanings distinguished\nin the following simple usages.\n\nXXIV, 268: \u201cWenn Du Deine Ballade einem jungen Bauerm\u00e4dchen aus einem\nThale .... g\u00e4best die ausser den Kirchenliedern .... oder sonst einem\nalten schlichten Gesang nie eine Musik geh\u00f6rt dabei jedoch von Natur eine\nangenehmere und f\u00fcr den Zweck deines Gedichts _passendere Volks-Melodie_\nw\u00e4hlen als irgend einer unserer gr\u00f6ssten Virtuosen.\u201d\n\nXXIV, 280: \u201cEin engerer Bund zwischen Gott und dem Stammvater eines\nHirtenvolks wird darauf dieses Volks Losung.\u201d This _Hirtenvolk_ is the\nHebrews.\n\nXXIV, 305: \u201cdieser grosse _V\u00f6lkerstamm_ sich nicht von Nord nach S\u00fcden\nhinab sondern von Gallien Nordw\u00e4rts.\u201d This _V\u00f6lkerstamm_ is the Irish and\nScotch.\n\nXXIV, 307: \u201cnur so viel ist gewiss dass die allgemeine Volkssage Ossian\neinige Jahrhunderte sp\u00e4ter leben l\u00e4sst.\u201d\n\nXXIV, 399: \u201cund da sie Gesetzgeber, Volksleiter waren.\u201d\n\nI, 86: \u201cDie herumschweifenden Beduinen sind noch solche Rhapsodisten als\nHomer war: sie sammeln einen _Volkhaufen_ um sich.\u201d\n\nI, 157: \u201cso wie das _V\u00f6lkerrecht_ jetzt im Staat zum Gesez ward.\u201d\n\nV, 8: \u201cEigentlich ist diese Sprache der Natur eine _V\u00f6lkersprache_ f\u00fcr\njede Gattung unter sich und so hat auch der Mensch die Seinige.\u201d\n\nV, 132: \u201cEine Morgenl\u00e4ndische Urkunde \u00fcber die Trennung der Sprachen\n(die ich hier nur als ein Poetisches Fragment zur Arch\u00e4ologie der\n_V\u00f6lkergeschichte_ betrachte).\u201d\n\nV, 218: \u201cShakespeare .... fand keinen so einfachen _Volks_- und\n_Vaterlandscharakter_.\u201d\n\nV, 486: \u201cWie tausendmal mehr th\u00f6richt wenn du einem Kinde .... deine\nallgemeine _V\u00f6lkerliebe_ voll tolerante Unterjochung .... g\u00f6nnen\nwolltest!\u201d\n\nV, 493: \u201cob der Ph\u00f6nicier gleich nicht aus Menschenliebe, Nationen\nbesuchte, es ward eine Art von _V\u00f6lkerliebe_, _V\u00f6lkerbekanntschaft_,\n_V\u00f6lkerrecht_ sichtbar.\u201d\n\nXXV, 5: \u201cD\u00fcnkts mich indessen recht, dass wenn auch diese nie ganz\nerw\u00fcnschbare Vaterlandssch\u00e4tze gefunden w\u00fcrden, sie doch kaum\n_Volks-Vaterlands-Lieder_ f\u00fcr uns im strengern Verstande w\u00e4ren.\u201d\n\nXXV, 6: \u201cnur mit den Augen sehen und mit dem Herzen verstehen .... wie es\nallemal _Volksr\u00fchrung_ ist und seyn sollte.\u201d\n\nXXV, 10: \u201cNat\u00fcrlich musste auch die Denkart und ruhige _Volksart_ der\nDeutschen an dem ewigen Zwistgewitter theilnehmen.\u201d\n\nXXV, 313: \u201cganz _Volksartig_, d.i. leicht, einfach, aus Gegenst\u00e4nden und\nin der Sprache der Menge.\u201d\n\nXXV, 314: \u201cDer gr\u00f6sste S\u00e4nger der Griechen Homerus ist zugleich der\ngr\u00f6sste Volksdichter. Sein herrliches Ganze ist .... Sage lebendige\n_Volksgeschichte_.\u201d\n\nXXV, 316: \u201cund doch ist \u00fcberall der alte ehrw\u00fcrdige _Volkss\u00e4nger_ der\neinf\u00e4ltige Hirt.\u201d\n\nXXV, 323: \u201cZum Volkss\u00e4nger geh\u00f6rt nicht, dass er aus dem P\u00f6bel sein muss,\noder f\u00fcr den P\u00f6bel singt.\u201d\n\nXXIV, 263: \u201cHeisst also die Romanze, obwohl ihr nachher der Gebrauch\neine engere Bedeutung gegeben eigentlich nichts als Muttersprache der\ns\u00fcdlichen L\u00e4nder Europens und in ihnen _Volksrede_, _Volksgesang_.\u201d\n\nXXIV, 265: \u201cdie alten Englischen und Schottischen _Volksges\u00e4nge_.\u201d\n\nXXIV, 267: \u201cUnd so w\u00e4re mit echten _Volksgesange_ abermals nicht etwa nur\nein Hauptzweig alter, edler, r\u00fchmlicher und Ruhmweckender Poesie sondern\nder Grund aller Poesie die innere _Rechtschaffenheit und Honnettet\u00e4t im\nHerzen des Volks_\u2014ermordet.\u201d\n\nXXIV, 411: \u201cUngebundenheit (License) soll Endzweck der Regierung sein:\n_Volkslaune_ (_populare humour_) Ursprung der Regierung.\u201d\n\nXIII, 39: \u201cDie Abessinier sind ein Arabischer \u2018_V\u00f6lkerstamm_\u2019 (race).\u201d\n\nXIII, 214: \u201c_V\u00f6lkerschaften_ die den D\u00f6rfern und St\u00e4dten nah sind mildern\nund mischen auch mehr ihre Sitten und Z\u00fcge.\u201d\n\nXIII, 231: \u201cKennten wir nun noch die zahlreichen _V\u00f6lkerschaften_ die\n\u00fcber ihren d\u00fcrren Gegenden .... wohnen.\u201d\n\nXIII, 392: \u201cso ist dieser Begriff, als allgemeiner _Volksglaube_ auf der\nErde.\u201d\n\nXIII, 427: \u201cPriester- und _Volkstradition_.\u201d\n\nXIII, 437: \u201cGeschlechtstafel dieser St\u00e4mme .... h\u00e4lt sich in den\nSchranken ihrer _V\u00f6lkerkunde_ und ihres Erdstrichs.\u201d\n\nXIII, 438: \u201c.... widerspricht nicht nur der Zeitrechnung und der\ngesammten _V\u00f6lkergeschichte_.\u201d\n\nXV, 124: \u201cDamit ich mich des altdeutschen _Volksausdrucks_ bediene.\u201d \u201cAus\ndem Latein kam er ins Englische ins Deutsche, wie mehrere W\u00f6rter und noch\nist er in der _Volkssprache_.\u201d Herder is discussing the word _Priamel_\nwhich he says is perhaps from the Latin praeambulum. _Volk_ in the two\ncompounds must mean the less learned.\n\nV, 493: \u201cnun m\u00fcsste der Bewohner des Schiffs und der K\u00fcste der expatrirte\nSeestreicher und _V\u00f6lkerl\u00e4ufer_ dem Bewohner des Zelts und der Ackerh\u00fctte\nein ganz anderes Gesch\u00f6pf d\u00fcnken.\u201d\n\nV, 501: \u201cV\u00f6lkerrecht.\u201d\n\nV, 515: \u201cIhre Feudaleinrichtung wie untergrub sie das Gew\u00fchl\n_Volkreicher_ \u00fcppiger St\u00e4dte.\u201d\n\nThe foregoing citations indicate two distinct senses in which Herder uses\nthe term _Volk_:\n\n_Volk_ is equivalent to nation; nation carrying the idea of a group bound\ntogether by blood or language or government, or by all three. As such, a\n_Volk_ is a collective personality, has a marked individuality, and is\ncharacterized by a national spirit.\n\n2. (_a_) _Volk_ is a race or a nation that never advanced beyond\nprimitive grades of culture; that therefore never was subject to what he\nconsiders the deteriorating and degrading effects of higher civilization;\n(_b_) _Volk_ is a group to be found within a civilized nation; a group\nwhich has retained the primitivism just noted above. Primitivism then is\ncharacteristic of all _Volk_ included in section II. This primitivism\nwhether in the entire race or in a special portion is always eulogized.\nThese primitive specimens have the most pronounced racial individuality\nbecause civilization has not interfered with the influences of\nenvironment.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER III\n\nCONCEPTIONS OF _VOLK_ AS GATHERED FROM HERDER\u2019S COLLECTION OF VOLKSLIEDER\n\n\nThat Herder\u2019s conception of that group of people which he calls _Volk_\nbears relationship to a certain genre of poetry is implied in the fact\nthat he first coined the word _Volkslied_:\n\n    \u201c_Volkslied_, n. von Herder, August, 1771 gepr\u00e4gt.\u201d F. L. K.\n    Weigand, _Deutsches W\u00f6rterbuch_, Giessen; Verlag von Alfred\n    T\u00f6pelmann, 1909.\n\n    \u201c_Volkslied_ zuerst von Herder.\u201d M. Heyne, _Deutsches\n    W\u00f6rterbuch_, Leipzig; Verlag von S. Hirzel, 1895.\n\nHerder himself has made a collection of specimens of this peculiar\ntype of song. According to his own statements these poems bear the\ndistinguishing marks of that sort of people which he has in mind as being\ndistinctively _Volk_. In his essay, _\u00c4hnlichkeit der mittlern englischen\nund deutschen Dichtkunst_, he says:\n\n    Alle unpolizirte V\u00f6lker singen und handeln; was sie handeln\n    singen sie und singen Abhandlung. Ihre Ges\u00e4nge sind das Archiv\n    des Volks der Schatz ihrer Wissenschaft und Religion ihrer\n    Theogonie und Kosmogenien der Thaten ihrer V\u00e4ter und der\n    Begebenheiten ihrer Geschichte, Abdruck ihres Herzens, Bild\n    ihres h\u00e4uslichen Lebens in Freude und Leid, beim Brautbett und\n    Grabe.\n\nHerder\u2019s collections are from national bodies of people. We ought to find\namong these groups of songs common factors which would not be found as\nsuch in that body of poetry which Herder excludes as not being _Volk_\nsongs.\n\nFurther, we should be able to reduce these common factors to lowest terms\nwhich would embody some interpretation of Herder\u2019s conception of _Volk_:\n\u201cDas sind einmal alte Nationalst\u00fccke die das Volk singt, und sang, woraus\nman also die Denkart des Volks, ihre Sprache der Empfindung kennen\nlernet.\u201d\n\n\nVOLK SONGS COLLECTED BY HERDER\n\nDANISH\u2014FOUR PIECES\n\n    Content\u2014themes: love, marriage, fairy tales.\n\n    Form\u2014rhythm and rhyme marked; often irregular.\n\n    Method of appeal\u2014concrete.\n\nGERMAN\u2014SIXTY-TWO PIECES\n\n    Content\u2014themes: love, war, religion, dance, court life, rural\n    life, fairy tales, domestic life.\n\n    Form\u2014rhythm and rhyme marked; often irregular.\n\n    Method of appeal\u2014concrete pictures; abstract thinking.\n\nENGLISH AND SCOTCH\u2014THREE PIECES\n\n    Content\u2014themes: love, war, religion, domestic life, idyllic\n    scenes, court life, vengeance, ghost and fairy tales.\n\n    Form\u2014marked rhyme and rhythm; blank verse, irregular rhyme and\n    rhythm.\n\n    Method of appeal\u2014concrete pictures; abstract thinking; deep\n    reflecting; dramatic presentations.\n\nESTHONIAN\u2014FIVE PIECES\n\n    Content\u2014themes: love, war, marriage, tyranny.\n\n    Form\u2014marked rhythm and rhyme.\n\n    Method of appeal\u2014somewhat concrete.\n\nFRENCH\u2014THIRTEEN PIECES\n\n    Content\u2014themes: love, idyllic scenes, court life, domestic\n    life, phenomena of nature, classic mythology.\n\n    Form\u2014marked rhyme and rhythm.\n\n    Method of appeal\u2014concrete pictures, abstract thinking.\n\nGALLIC (OSSIAN)\u2014SIX PIECES\n\n    Content\u2014themes: love, war, religion, death, personified nature.\n\n    Form\u2014little rhyme, rhythm often marked but irregular.\n\n    Method of appeal\u2014concrete, vivid visual and auditory pictures,\n    dramatic presentations.\n\nGREEK\u2014SEVEN PIECES\n\n    Content\u2014themes: friendship, freedom, marriage, love.\n\n    Form\u2014rhyme and rhythm, sometimes irregular.\n\n    Method of appeal\u2014direct and concrete.\n\nGREENLAND\u2014ONE PIECE\n\n    Content\u2014theme: death.\n\n    Form\u2014parallelism.\n\n    Methods of appeal\u2014concrete.\n\nITALIAN\u2014FIVE PIECES\n\n    Content\u2014theme: hope, care, springtime, love.\n\n    Form\u2014rhythm regular.\n\n    Method of appeal\u2014concrete and abstract.\n\nLAPLAND\u2014TWO PIECES\n\n    Content\u2014theme: love for animals, love.\n\n    Form\u2014rhythm regular.\n\n    Method of appeal\u2014concrete.\n\nLATIN\u2014SIX PIECES\n\n    Content\u2014theme: temptation, marriage, religion.\n\n    Form\u2014rhythm, rhyme, sometimes irregular.\n\n    Method of appeal\u2014concrete, abstract.\n\nLETTIC\u2014FIVE PIECES\n\n    Content\u2014theme: love, marriage, springtime, lordship.\n\n    Form\u2014rhythm and rhyme.\n\n    Method of appeal\u2014concrete.\n\nLITHUANIAN\u2014NINE PIECES\n\n    Content\u2014love, marriage, war, idyllic scenes, fairy tales.\n\n    Form\u2014rhythm, rhyme, often irregular.\n\n    Method of appeal\u2014concrete pictures, abstract thinking.\n\nSKALDIC\u2014TEN PIECES\n\n    Content\u2014themes: mythology, battle.\n\n    Form\u2014rhythm is regular.\n\n    Method of appeal\u2014concrete, rugged.\n\nPERUVIAN\u2014TWO PIECES\n\n    Content\u2014theme: mythological, love.\n\n    Form\u2014rhyme irregular, rhythm.\n\n    Method of appeal\u2014somewhat concrete.\n\nSPANISH\u2014THIRTY-FOUR PIECES\n\n    Content\u2014themes: love, war, religion, court and city life.\n\n    Form\u2014rhyme and rhythm quite regular.\n\n    Method of appeal\u2014moralizing and abstract thinking. Few concrete\n    pictures.\n\nThis investigation of these poems leads to the following: Each group of\npoems embodies an expression of personality, individuality which grows\nout of peculiar environment; not merely physical environment, but also\nsocial, political, and religious environment. Each, either in content,\nform, or in its method of appeal, sometimes in all three, bears traces of\nthe milieu out of which it sprung.\n\nThe notes of waning glory and ancestral lament of Ossian gain their\ncharacter from a different period in the life of the nation from that\nrecorded in the Moorish battle songs in the Spanish collection.\n\nThe ruggedness of the Skaldic poetry bespeaks a roughness in climate and\nscenery not to be found in the French poems.\n\nThe mythology of the Scotch Highlanders and of the Norsemen, depicted in\ntheir poetry, is different indeed from the Mohammedanism of which the\nSpanish pieces speak.\n\nThe English and German songs which are characterized by Christian customs\nare colored neither by Mohammedanism, Gallic, nor Classic mythology. The\ndeep reflective moods of the Shakespeare specimens grew out of a social\nand intellectual environment entirely the opposite of that in which the\nconcrete and vivid pictures of many of Percy\u2019s Reliques had their birth.\n\nIn all this difference, the common feature is that individuality\nis expressed. Individual traits appear within each group. Racial\nconsciousness distinguishes one group from the other.\n\nNow personality and individuality are corner stones in Herder\u2019s system of\nthought. His discussion of Lessing\u2019s \u201cLaokoon\u201d sets forth the principle\nthat true art will be characterized by these.[9]\n\nHerder\u2019s philosophy is also emphatic in showing that all art is shaped by\nthe environment out of which it grew. The essays \u201cShakespeare,\u201d \u201cHomer\nund Ossian,\u201d and \u201cVom Geist der Ebr\u00e4ischen Poesie\u201d are replete with such\nthought.\n\nThe art of every nation then will bear national imprint. The national\nstamp, this expression of personality and individuality, both products of\nvarious kinds of environment, belongs to Herder\u2019s conception of _Volk_\nwherever the idea is identical with that of nation or race.\n\nNow the preceding chapter has shown that however often Herder uses the\nterm as synonymous with nation or race, he has also a distinctive and a\nsort of esoteric use.\n\nThe evidence that poetry has been shaped by environment and expresses\nthe individual consciousness of a group of people cannot be taken as\nconclusive evidence that the group from which it emanated belongs\nto Herder\u2019s _Volk_ of the specific type, for Herder excludes from\nthe category of _Volkslieder_ that poetry which bears the imprint of\nscholastic and pedantic cultural milieu to the extent that certain\nprimitive traits find no expression.\n\nAnother common factor, then, must be sought which is distinctive of\npeople in this more restricted sense.\n\nThe way in which the material is presented is what I have called in\nmy analysis of the pieces \u201cthe method of appeal.\u201d There is no common\nbasis on which we can place the specimens viewing them from this side.\nMany of them present vivid visual and auditory pictures. Many others\nare marked by abstract thinking or sober reflection. Some are dramatic\npresentations, others are simple descriptions. Some are cold moralizing;\nothers expressions of strong emotions.\n\nAll of these selections are in some kind of rhythmic form. It may be\nparallelism, rhythmical blank verse, or marked feet and rhyme. But we\ncannot make use of this as a very definite factor, since many specimens\nare translations which cannot preserve the original exactly. However, we\nhave in the original the English and Scotch, the Ossian and the German\ncollections. All of these present a form of rhythm which is usually so\nirregular that it would not meet the demands for measured feet, verses,\nand rhyme to be found in the highly polished and formal poetry. Now in\nhis discussion of rhythmic forms in poetry Herder indicates that the\nhuman love for rhythm has its foundations in the physiological processes\nand symmetry of the body: _Der Pulsschlag der Natur, dies Athemholen der\nEmpfindung ist in allen Reden des Affekts ... in der Poesie ... die doch\neigentlich Rede des Affekts seyn soll_.\n\nThe people who produced this poetry, then, were close to nature in their\nforms of rhythmical speech.\n\nThe content of these poems remains to be considered.\n\nAmong the Esthonian pieces is a little love song which Herder has heard\nthe harvesters sing at work. It is idyllic in setting. Thoughts of love\nare all-abounding. Happiness amidst rural scenes is common among all\nnations.\n\n\u201cK\u00f6nig Ludwig\u201d is an Old High German battle song which interweaves\nthoughts of God and religion; subjects which never cease to engage the\nattention of mankind.\n\n_Wiegenlied einer ungl\u00fccklichen Mutter_, a Scotch mother\u2019s song of\nunfaithful love; the poem has a setting in domestic life. _Litthauische\nDaina_\u2014song of the departure of a young bride who goes to her new home;\ndomestic life and custom are the themes. There is sadness at leaving the\nhome of her girlhood.\n\nThese embody expressions of common, human feelings.\n\nA number of the Spanish songs have their scenes laid in the city and at\ncourt; but they sing of love, vengeance, and jealousy\u2014all of which are\nintensely human.\n\n_Erlk\u00f6nigs Tochter_, is a Danish piece which sings of elves. Thoughts of\nthe supernatural are among all mankind.\n\n_Fr\u00fchlingslied_, is an Italian piece which rejoices at the coming of\nthe flowers and birds and the budding of the trees. This season always\nawakens human happiness.\n\n_R\u00f6schen auf der Heide_ presents personified nature. Such personification\nis among all men.\n\n_Totenlied_ comes from Greenland. All peoples bemoan and eulogize their\ndead in song.\n\n_Tanzlied_ is German. Nearly every collection has pieces which present\nthe rhythm and joyous emotions of the dance. This kind of pleasure is\ncommon among all races.\n\nThe songs from Ossian tell of departed ancestors and heroes. The\nsentiment expressed is universal.\n\nFrom Shakespeare appears such things as Hamlet\u2019s _Probe einer\nschauderhaften Metaphysik \u00fcber Tod und Leben_.\n\n_Macbeths schreckliche Dolchscene_; is there any human breast in which\nthe sentiments involved in these deep reflections have not sometimes\nfound a place?\n\nNow it is what Herder himself says in introducing these selections from\nShakespeare which justifies us in making the content, the theme of his\nwhole collection of _Volk_ songs, the common ground upon which they all\nmeet.\n\n    \u201cIn Shakespear gibts von jeder kleinen Nuance der menschlichen\n    Denkart und Stimme Proben oder vielmehr lebende Naturartungen:\n    und so fange das ber\u00fchmte Selbstgespr\u00e4ch Hamlets an, was man\n    schon Prosaisch in unsrer Sprache hat.\u201d\n\nHerder\u2019s collection of _Volk_ poetry embraces as themes: love, war,\nreligion, domestic life, idyllic scenes, vengeance, court life, ghost\ntales, fairy tales, marriage, mythology, phenomena of nature, death,\npersonified nature, freedom, the dance, the seasons, and hero and\nancestral veneration.\n\nThese embody sentiments universal among mankind; feelings which are\nfundamental in the human breast; thoughts which are innate in humanity.\nThat which is universal, fundamental, and innate is natural. These songs\nfind a response among the people from whom they arose because these\npeople are products of unhampered nature. Both rhythm and content lead\nto this conclusion according to Herder\u2019s conception. _Volk_ as seen\nfrom this angle, then, are either a primitive people or a group within\na people representing advanced stages of civilization, which group has\nstill retained the methods of thinking, the feelings, the modes of\nexpression, and the tastes of primitive people.\n\nWe get from Herder\u2019s collection of _Volkslieder_, then, two conceptions\nof _Volk_: (1) _Volk_, a collective personality resulting from the\ndevelopment of individual consciousness into community individuality and\nconsciousness; (2) _Volk_, a primitive people or, within a civilized\nnation, a section, which has maintained certain natural fundamental and\nprimitive characteristics.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IV\n\nCONCEPTIONS OF _VOLK_ IN HERDER\u2019S DISCUSSION OF \u201cOSSIAN\u2019S PEOPLE\u201d AND OF\nTHE ANCIENT HEBREWS\n\n\nHerder has discussed, in connection with two groups of poetry which he\ndistinctly calls _Volkspoesie_, each race from which the particular\ncollection arose. Both directly and indirectly he presents in each of\nthese peoples the peculiar characteristics by which he identifies a\ncommunity with his ideal conception of _Volk_.\n\nIn his collection of _Volk_ songs he has presented literature from many\nand varied peoples of the earth, but he has discussed at length, to show\nthe traits which stamp their _Volkspoesie_ as such, only two of these\ngroups.\n\nAn examination of the common factors which the author sees as essential\nelements of each of these races ought to give us in one form his\nconception of _Das Volk_.\n\nThe two races are: (1) Those whom he believes to be the ancient Gauls,\nfrom whom we have the collection known as \u201cThe Songs of Ossian\u201d[10]; (2)\nthe ancient Hebrews.[11]\n\n\nOSSIAN\n\nHerder places the people among whom this body of literature arose in the\nislands known as the \u201cHebrides,\u201d in the highlands of Scotland, and in\nIreland.\n\nRugged mountains covered with roaring forests or spotted with desert\ntracts surround the inhabitants. Mists and clouds, midnight and storm,\nabound both on mountain tops and in the intervening valleys. Their huts\nare bordered by rocks and narrowly shut in by foggy darkness or from\nrough cliffs; they overlook the sea.\n\nAt the time at which we see them these highland dwellers look often upon\nwilderness full of sacred views, upon battlefields, lonesome graves, and\nblotted-out footsteps.\n\nThese old Highlanders believed in an all-high Being, whom they conceived\nto be self-existing. The cloud was the dwelling place of patriotism and\nlove. The voice of renown, that is of song sung by friends yet alive to\nthe honor of their departed ones, still highly esteemed, introduced these\ndeparted to their ancestors. With a sigh and tear as password, they were\nreceived at once into the smiling presence of their forefathers, who had\nclear, transparent figures like to the curled clouds. Their hands were\nweak, their voices deep and soft. They swayed themselves over the entire\nabode of their race and rejoiced in boundless space. Space they prized\nabove everything else. Fright and horror were considered as narrow and\nshut in. Hence they called the grave the narrow house, and weak courage,\nthe breath of a narrow soul.\n\nThe noble dead never became old, but grew constantly wiser because they\nconversed with the good of other times. On the other hand, the souls of\nthe wicked were driven whirling into a thick fog which always hung over\nan offensive smelling morass. They never came out of this fog, and never\nsaw the sun. One did not know the name of the other. The black water of\nthe morass lake was their only converse; the voice of the Heron and the\nquacking of ducks their music.\n\nOssian\u2019s folk attributed every sudden death to an invisible hand which\nthrew a stone out of the clouds and which they called an \u201carrow of the\ndestroying woman.\u201d\n\n\u201cTheir chief conception of the highest being was that it governs the\nclouds and heavenly bodies and rejoices at bravery and fortune of\nmankind; that it remained ever invisible ... that the entire earth out of\nfear would like to catch and imprison it.\u201d\n\nThe dead were mourned in funeral dirges sung on the graves of the\ndeparted; in the case of heroes, often amid battle tumult, these songs\nwere directed to ancestral heroes who awaited the dead in the clouds.\n\nOne of their myths which Herder extracts from Ossian shows a certain\nphase of their religion:\n\n\u201cAs they sing in the moonlight to the moon goddess, Mona, this maiden of\nthe heavens comes with gentle movement, with silent, beautiful cheek; her\nplaymates, the stars, stand in rows to receive her; the clouds bordered\nwith gold trip before them as servants; she outshines all her rivals so\nthat they blush and conceal themselves in veils. On such an occasion as\nthis the hero Ossian turns his sad song to the thought, How would it be\nif she should once disappear from the heavens, if she should then go\ninto her little hut to cry and cry as he does? He wonders if she like\nhim has lost friends, and he begins to comfort the beautiful girl and to\ncheer her up so that she quite joyfully smiles again.\u201d\n\nThe family feeling is strong, and it is the foundation of nearly all\ngood feeling toward fatherland and friend, tribe and neighbor. There\nare common among these people scenes full of innocence, of friendship,\nof fatherly, brotherly, in fact family, love in general. Fingal is hero\nand leader but also lover, bridegroom, husband, friend, father. Ossian\nis warrior, but also son of noble Fingal, and in this very relation the\nsinger of the praises of his ancestors, of his friends, of his brothers,\nof his sons.\n\nIt is out of the sadness of separated loved ones that we hear the most\ntouching tones and the harp is made to resound to praises sung to\nancestors. Although these tribes are said to be wild, they are in many\nrespects closely bound to customs and forms. The harp is their musical\ninstrument to whose touching tones their legends are fitted into song.\n\nHerder points out that the stage in the history of Ossian\u2019s people from\nwhich this collection of poetry wins its character is the time of the\nextinction of the race of heroes of whom Ossian the brave is the chief\nand sad singer. He is the last of his courageous tribe; the witness\nto the deeds of noted Fingal and his colleagues; the departing voice\nof a heroic age to its weaker descendants. His mournful strains are\naccompanied by no awakening call for an age yet to come. His race was\nnot, like Homer\u2019s on Ionian shores, a growing people in the dawn of\nsplendor looking toward a flowering in the future.\n\nThe cause of the mournful strain in the life of Ossian\u2019s race may have\nbeen subjection by a foreign power or the invasion of monks bringing the\nChristian religion. The poems suggest both. Ossian\u2019s songs must have had\na powerful effect upon the people out of whose midst they grew. As long\nas there were bards this people\u2019s strength was irrepressible. But now we\nsee a patient, subject race trying to revive itself on the renown and\nhappy existence of departed ancestors.\n\nWhen Herder brings to our attention the difference between the mournful\ntones of Ossian and the arousing strains of Homer, when he reminds us of\nthe differing stages of history commemorated by each, the points entirely\nunlike at which each writer halts and from which he extracts for his art\ncharacter, he sets forth a definite theory; namely, that each writer,\nspeaking as his people would speak, characterizes his poetry with the\nindividual content and feeling of his race; that each race has its\npersonality, and each spontaneously expresses this personality in its\nsong:\n\n    Und Ossian? Es ist ungerecht von einem Baume Fr\u00fcchte zu\n    erwarten, die er, seiner Art nach, nicht bringen kann; Ossian\n    sei an seinem Orte das was Homer war; nur stand er auf einer\n    ganz andern Stelle. In jedem Lande bildet sich der Volksgesang\n    nach innnern und \u00e4ussern Veranlassungen der Nation.\n\nThe eye and the ear of these people are wide open to every sight and\nsound which their physical environment presents. The ear is strong,\nquick, lasting; the eye keen, embracing, receptive. A certain perceptual\npower expressed in alertness, boldness, and noble aspect pervaded their\nentire being. According to Herder\u2019s philosophy, as expressed in _Erkennen\nund Empfinden_, the senses present to the mind pictures which receive the\nstamp of feeling and which in turn are given back through some medium of\nexpression.\n\nIn Ossian, the material for these pictures is first and foremost Nature;\nNature robed in the peculiar majesty of the north. The sun is a rash\nyouth, the moon a maiden who has had as sisters other moons in the\nheavens. The evening star is a lovely boy who comes out, winks, and goes\naway again. All objects are personified, filled with life and movement,\nwhether it be wind or wave, or even the down of a thistle. As soon as\npossible the object itself becomes a voice, and we hear moanings of\nsadness and songs of the harp. These figures are often of the mist,\ncoming out of clouds through which the stars twinkle.\n\nOssian sings, also, deeds, happenings of history, the bygone fates of\nforefathers, and old legends.\n\nIn outline all these pictures are delineations, which are snappy,\nstrong, manly, abrupt, wild, lively. They are not painted in detail,\nand their content does not stream forth slowly in regular and measured\nintervals. Less harsh and wild are they, however, than the songs of the\nso-called \u201cNorthmen,\u201d because Ossian\u2019s soul possesses a charm giving out\nlonesomeness, love, and gentleness mingled with courage and strength of\nfeeling.\n\nThe language is crisp, short, true, and exact, and penetrates by its\nsimplicity. A single word literally seizes a whole thought and the two\nbreak forth together upon a voice tender and sad. When the singer would\nexhort his comrades to courage, he painted his pictures through tones\nthat fell upon the ear.\n\nIn general, Ossian makes us see and hear the living world in scenes\nthat pass quickly, singly, one by one, without arranging themselves\nin a regular and formal procession. Rough, strong sublimity is their\ncharacter. The colors which burst upon the eye and the tones which storm\nthe ear come forth without premeditation and polish; the natural outlet\nof a people to whom nature has given an eye and heart and mind for wild\nbeauty, and in whom manners, customs, and language of civilization have\nwrought no marring effects. These peoples see and feel, but they do not\nthink and ponder. Here Herder makes spontaneity a child of unwarped\nnature.\n\n\nTHE ANCIENT HEBREWS\n\nHerder applies his studies to the Hebrew people as he finds them in\ntheir earliest habitations. From his analysis of formative forces and\nof the peculiar personality resulting from these influences we have\nwhat follows: The physical features of the lands with which the Hebrews\nwere familiar were varied enough to give them a rather complete natural\nhistory of the earth. They understood the subsiding of water that left\nmountains above them and valleys in between these. They saw that waters\ncoursed through the valleys and made fertile plains. They knew how\nsprings gush forth from rocks and trees grow on the banks of rivers. They\nknew both the sea and the desert. The summer sun brought calm waters and\nthe cold winds forged fetters of ice. The palm tree and the cedar, the\nolive and the grape, grew in these lands. The variety of animals seems to\nimply a wide and varied expanse of territory.\n\nThe crane, the turtledove, the eagle, the raven, the stork, the ostrich,\nthe lion, the wild ox, perhaps the elephant and the rhinoceros, as well\nas most of our common domestic birds and other animals, frequented these\nenvironments.\n\nHerder conceives of this entire milieu as a world in which the dawn of\nhuman life was arising out of dark night, and giving way to the broad\ndaylight in which water and air, earth and sea, mountain and forest, were\nin the fullest view and most powerful working. The strong contrasts of\noriental skies wrought through light and darkness their sharpest outlines.\n\nThe mild climate was perhaps the most beautiful in the world, and\nproduced the simplest needs of life with little labor on the part of the\ninhabitants. With fertile river valleys in addition, which furnished\ngrazing lands, it was natural that one of the earliest grades of\ncivilization should arise here\u2014the shepherd folk.\n\nAlthough these people had a civilization that was early circumscribed, it\nnevertheless presupposes some cultivation. Even the shepherd state cannot\nexist without arts and fixed customs. The Hebrews in this shepherd state\nhad developed family bonds and fixed the ruling power of the father\nin domestic life. They had domesticated animals, and developed tender\nfeelings toward them.\n\nLet us look at the moral and mental traits due to this physical and\nsocial environment.\n\nThe eye developed clearness and acuteness, a vivid sensitiveness; it saw\nevery leaf, every blade of grass, the plains and valleys, the waters in\noutline and expanse, the planets and the broad ether in which they hung,\nand it distinguished every movement. The ear heard the delicate rustlings\nof branches and bows, as well as the roar of winds, the smallest\nraindrop, and the rush of mighty waters. Every sense was thus developed\nto a finesse which left no phenomenon of nature unobserved.\n\nThese sense impressions were impregnated with the feelings and carrying\nthese effects of feelings they passed onward to the mind and made mental\npictures of a kind which correspond to the character of the imprint made\nby the feelings. Then these made-over pictures were given back to the\nworld in the sublime language found in the Old Testament. It is in these\npictures, in this investing of free nature with the power to feel, that\nwe see the texture and depth of feeling which are an essential part of\nthe personality of this group.\n\nThey saw the dawn rising out of darkness. They felt that the phenomenon\nwas due to a cause superior to any power in man. They could not account\nfor the beginnings of mankind. The consciousness of limitations of their\nown knowledge and the awe for the unknown first cause turned the actual\ndarkness and dawn and full daylight into chaotic emptiness, a ray of\nlight at the beginning of creation and a completed work at the end of\nsix days\u2014a wonderful personality directing it all. They saw the trees\nand the plants thriving in their own spheres, and they attributed to\nthem life impulses given them by the sympathy and love and directing\nforce of special geniuses, the messengers of God. The stars were light;\nthey had undeceiving brightness and constant courses. They stamped the\nsense impression of them with the feeling of worshipful joy, of rhythm\nwhich became music and dancing, and so it was that the stars became the\ndaughters that shouted about the throne of the Great Ruler. At times they\nassigned to them the sense of power for defense in well-ordered numbers\nof individuals, and the stars became an army ready to do battle for God.\nAgain they were his willing servants and messengers. They saw the heavens\nstretching from horizon to horizon, and everything in creation working in\nits own sphere with regularity and order. Their own feeling for system,\nharmonious working in family and tribal circles, pictured God in paternal\nrelations; a householder who stretched his great tent by fastening it\nto the outmost borders of the earth, and opened and arranged therein\nthe treasures of his household. They heard a light rustle of leaves and\nimprinted upon it the feeling of gentleness and kindness, and it became a\nmessenger of God, an angel. They heard the thunder and their shuddering\ngloom translated it into the voice of an angry God. They listened to\ntheir own heartbeats and transferred their rhythm to their own speech,\nfor we may account for the free light rhythm in their songs by comparing\nit with the systole and diastole of the heart and the movements of the\nbreath in the physiological processes of inspiration and expiration.\n\nTheir national pride and national joy found expression in collective song\nwhich might either glorify God or invoke their own well-being. Such song\nis at one and the same time inspiration and expression.\n\nIn general, their poetic language draws concise analogy between the\nobjects of creation and the qualities and attributes of the creator of\nthese things. It lingers over single images, repeats them, wonders at\nthem, and finally gives them forth with a vigorous tongue incapable of\nempty words.\n\nThese souls so entirely formed by the sights and sounds of nature blended\nwith inner feeling give a secret, mystical significance touched with\nthe finest spiritual sense to the pictures and parallels which they\nproduce. We have here a peculiar race type living close to crude nature,\nan individuality which is shaped by this primitive milieu and which\nexpresses itself in sharp and strong outlines in its art. The most marked\nfeature of this individuality is the spontaneity in its expression.\n\nThe common factors to be drawn from this exposition, which contribute to\nthe interpretation of Herder\u2019s general conception of _Volk_ are:\n\n1. The physical environment of both groups was primeval nature; i.e.,\na material world that had undergone very few of the changes which may\nbe wrought by the arts and crafts of what we term higher stages of\ncivilization.\n\n    Kurz wir sind mit Denkart, Sprache, Sitten des Jahrhunderts\n    so weit aus Ossians Natur heraus, als unsre St\u00e4dte, H\u00f6fe,\n    Pall\u00e4ste, Schulgeb\u00e4ude keine Schottische rauhen Geb\u00fcrge, unsre\n    Gesellschaftskreise und Zerstreuungen im Museum kein Tanz unter\n    rauschenden B\u00e4umen.[12]\n\n    Als Gesetzgeber wirkte Moses auf den Geist seines Volks mit\n    Riesenst\u00e4rke. Dass er sie zum Acker- und Hirtenvolk machte,\n    und so viel es seyn konnte, Handel u. Eroberung ausschloss.\n    Land- und Hirtenm\u00e4ssig ist ihre Poesie dem gr\u00f6ssten Theile\n    nach. L\u00e4ndlich sind ihre Bilder, im Hirten- und Ackerleben der\n    gr\u00f6sste Reichtum ihrer Sprache.[13]\n\n2. Both races were subject to powerful control by this physical\nenvironment:\n\n    Alle Ges\u00e4nge solcher wilden V\u00f6lker weben um daseiende\n    Gegenst\u00e4nde, Handlungen, Begebenheiten, um eine lebendige\n    Welt.[14]\n\n    Und alle hat das Auge gesehen! Die Seele stellt sie sich vor!\n    Das setzt Spr\u00fcnge und W\u00fcrfe:[15]\n\n    Ihre Ideen sind voll starker Contraste, voll Licht und\n    Dunkel, voll Ruhe und Arbeit: dies ist der Character des\n    morgenl\u00e4ndischen Himmels, und des Genius seiner Nationen.[16]\n\n    Wenn die Biblischen Dichter von den Schneeg\u00fcssen des Libanon;\n    vom Thau des Hermon; von den Eichen Basans; vom pr\u00e4chtigen\n    Libanon, und angenehmen Carmel reden; so geben sie Bilder, die\n    ihnen die Natur selbst vorgestellt hat.[17]\n\n3. Among both, their ideas of God and their religion were interwoven with\npersonified nature:\n\n    Darthula. Ein Gesang an die Mondg\u00f6ttin (Mona, Mana, \u03bc\u03ae\u03bd\u03b7)\n    vielleicht der sch\u00f6nste, der je im Mondschein gesungen\n    worden.[18]\n\n    Solche Bilder und Ideen, als uns auch nur die ersten Kapitel\n    Moses gew\u00e4hren. Hier ist als ob Einer der Elohim selbst, der\n    Genius der Menschheit unsichtbar lehrte .... und singet den\n    Menschen, seinem unsichtbaren Vater und Sch\u00f6pfer gleich.[19]\n\n4. Both were races of people with keen, strong, exact senses:\n\n    .... der rauhe Schotte Ossian? Er sang lebendig, und st\u00fcrmte\n    also in den kurzen Augenblicken lebendiger Stimme auf Herz und\n    Ohr; f\u00fcr matte Augen im Lehnstuhl, .... wollte er nie in der\n    Welt solche sch\u00f6ne klassische Augenweide schaffen.[20]\n\n    Bilderrede und Gesang also sind die beiden Hauptforten der\n    Poesie der Ebr\u00e4er; .... sie sind Poesie f\u00fcrs Auge und Ohr,\n    durch welche beide sie das Herz bes\u00e4nftigen oder best\u00fcrmen.[21]\n\n5. The members of both races had, as innate characteristics, rapid\nand direct interaction between sensation, feeling, imagination, and\nexpression:\n\n    Wir sind freilich in der ganzen Denkart unsres Jahrhunderts\n    zu weit von Ossian ab. Mehr an eine Kette raffinirter\n    Vorstellungen, leichter Abstraktionen angenehmer _Pens\u00e9es_\n    und Reflexionen gew\u00f6hnt, fals an den rauhen Schrei der\n    Leidenschaft, k\u00fchner Hinw\u00fcrfe einer starkgetrofnen Einbildung,\n    und einer w\u00fcsten, starken Gestalt der Seele.[22]\n\n    Seine Muse ist Tochter der Natur auf ihren wildesten H\u00f6hen\n    erzogen, aber rasch, k\u00fchn, edeln Ansehens, nur mit nat\u00fcrlichem\n    Reitze geschm\u00fcckt und im Tanze der Natur hinfliegend.[22]\n\n    Sehen Sie Hiob. Die Erde war ein Pallast.... Der Ocean ward,\n    wie ein Kind, gebohren und gewindelt: das Morgenroth handelte,\n    die Blitze sprachen.[23]\n\n6. In general, the texture resulting from control of the individual by\nforces of nature unchanged by human interference is in both peoples\nfitly correlated with functioning; i.e., spontaneity is innately and\nintrinsically their nature.\n\n    Homers Rhapsodien und Ossians Lieder waren gleichsam\n    impromptus, weil man damals noch von Nichts als impromptus der\n    Rede wusste.[24]\n\n    Nun ist bei den Ebr\u00e4ern beinahe Alles Verbum: d.i. alles lebt\n    und handelt.[25] Alles in ihr ruft: ... ich lebe, bewege\n    mich, wirke. Mich erschuffen Sinne und Leidenschaften, nicht\n    abstrakte Denken und Philosophen.[26]\n\nWith all these points in common, Ossian\u2019s people and the ancient Hebrews,\nas portrayed in Herder\u2019s analysis of their poetry, differ from each\nother as races in religion and in social customs. They show us different\nhabitats. They depict different historical epochs and scenes. But that\nwhich is common in all this difference is, according to Herder, that each\nhas a personality of its own which characterizes its art.\n\n    In jedem Lande bildet sich der Volksgesang nach innern und\n    \u00e4ussern Veranlassungen der Nation. Ossians Gedichte bezeichnen\n    den Herbst seines Volkes. Die Bl\u00e4tter f\u00e4rben und kr\u00fcmmen sich;\n    sie falben und fallen. Der Lufthauch, der sie abl\u00f6set, hat\n    keine Erguickung des Fr\u00fchlinges in sich; sein Spiel indessen\n    ist traurig ... angenehm mit den sinkenden Bl\u00e4ttern.[27]\n\n    Gesetzt, wir konnten alles dies wissen; singen wir denn\n    f\u00fcr Juden die sich f\u00fcr das einzige Volk Gottes hielten?...\n    Von allen V\u00f6lkern der Erde abgesondert, brachte es seinem\n    Schutzgott Nationalges\u00e4nge.[28]\n\n    Es verdient fast nicht bemerkt zu werden ... dass man die\n    poetischen Bilder und Empfindungen keines Volks und keiner Zeit\n    nach dem Regelmaas eines andern Volks, einer andern Zeit zu\n    beurteilen, zu tadeln, zu verwerfen habe.[29]\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER V\n\nFOUNDATIONS OF INDIVIDUALITY AND PERSONALITY IN HERDER\n\n\nHerder as philosopher was concerned more with practical and concrete\napplications of his principles than with dogmas and abstract theories.\nThe following brief investigation of purely philosophical discussions is\nmade with a view of determining how he applies his philosophy to this\ndefinite anthropological conception.\n\nIn his _Gespr\u00e4che \u00fcber Spinozas System_ Herder sets forth much of his own\nreligious philosophy. A passage in the second dialogue substitutes for\nthe word \u201cattributes\u201d the word \u201cforces\u201d in expounding one of Spinoza\u2019s\npostulates. The passage then reads: \u201cThe Godhead reveals itself in an\ninfinite number of forces and in an infinite number of ways.\u201d It is with\nthe word for forces that we are concerned at this point\u2014_Kraft_, _Kr\u00e4fte_.\n\nThis same word Herder uses in discussing the fundamental life-principle\nin the world at large, which is the theme of his first few sections in\nthe essay entitled: _Vom Erkennen und Empfinden in ihrem menschlichen\nUrsprunge und den Gesetzen ihrer W\u00fcrkung_. These _Kr\u00e4fte_, these\n\u201cmodifications of God,\u201d find their impulse to operate in a stimulus,\nbeyond the material form of which Herder cannot go.\n\nHerder\u2019s philosophy plants itself from the beginning quite firmly on\nmaterial foundations. He says that in the qualities which are constantly\ndesignated by such words as heavy, thrust, fall, movement, rest,\nstrength, even power of inertia, is implied a life-principle, a soul.\nAny close observation of nature must show that the great working power\nof nature is everywhere the same, and it is the analogy between the\nprocesses of the material world in general and the phenomena in the human\norganism in particular which can give the clearest insight into the great\nlife-principle. This study by analogous reasoning is not artificial, Man\ncannot avoid feeling the similarity between himself and external nature.\nHuman beings must of necessity, he continues, vitalize everything about\nthem with their own feelings.\n\nThe feelings then are strongly instrumental in man\u2019s interpretation of\nthe world about him.\n\n\nI. STIMULUS\n\nThe first phase of feeling which Herder considers is _Reiz_ or stimulus.\nThe peculiar phenomenon of stimulus says he, which may be seen in the\nsmallest, most delicate filaments of plants, causing them to contract and\nexpand, and bespeaking a sort of feeling is due to the same law which\ncontrols the most complicated feelings and passions of the human being.\nThis all-pervading law of stimulus Herder finds in the action of physical\nheat and cold, which he makes parallel in its working with pleasure and\npain respectively. Pain, disturbance by something foreign, contracts; the\nstrength collects, increases for resistance, and takes its stand again.\nWell-being and pleasure\u2014warmth\u2014expands, makes for calmness, placidity,\nenjoyment, and release.\n\nThat which is expansion and contraction in dead nature, the result of\nwarmth and cold, seems to be here the obscure seed of stimulus and\nfeeling in man. The \u201cworld-all,\u201d the entire feeling, nature of human\nbeings and animals moves in this ebb and flood of warmth and cold. The\npower to expand and contract which is the effect of this heat and cold,\npleasure and pain, Herder makes the fundamental principle of the power\nfor self-nutriment.\n\nThis power is nothing external or mechanical, in which case it would\nnot be life. The plant structure of organic fibers which takes in life\nfrom the surrounding elements does so through its own activities. The\npower to escape its enemies and to make over all its nourishment into\ndifferentiated parts lies within the plant. The complicated body of the\nanimal likewise has this stimulus to seek the nutrition essential for\nlife within: hunger and thirst are powerful exciting forces. When he\napplies his theories to man, he calls love the most powerful stimulus to\nlife.\n\nHerder ascribes to the plant something in addition to the stimulus to\nseek nutrition when he recognizes that intelligence in plant structures\nwhich selects only such elements as fit the peculiar needs for its\ndevelopment after its kind. He does not succeed in getting rid entirely\nof the external in operating the organism; he sees in breathing a kind\nof time-beating by which nature swings the machine, and here nature is\nwithout, for she breathes upon the machine, in this harmonious way, the\nspirit of life.\n\nThus far Herder has recognized the existence of a stimulus in the\nvegetable and animal kingdoms, which is in reality a life-principle. This\nlife-principle is not only the monitor over the feelings, but merges into\nthem and becomes the stuff of which feelings are made.\n\nWhat is the relation of these indefinable and unanalyzed stimuli to the\nfeelings? Since the passions which surround the heart find their roots in\nthe finest fibers of the physical structure, the degree to which these\nfibers are stimulated determines the degree to which the feelings will be\nexcited and will express themselves. Love, courage, anger, and bravery\nare in proportion to the stimulus of the heart and the collaborating\nparts: \u201cDie Innigkeit, Tiefe und Ausbreitung mit der wir Leidenschaften\nempfangen, verarbeiten und fortpflanzen macht uns zu den flachen oder\ntiefen Gef\u00e4ssen die wir sind.\u201d\n\nThe forcefulness of thought is likewise dependent upon the vigor of this\nobscure stimulus, for no thought, says he, can reach the brain unless\nfeeling in its proper physical connection has preceded it.\n\nAnd just here our philosopher lays the very roots of individuality.\nThe degree to which the fibers are stimulated is the beginning of the\noperations which will end in producing an aggregate of properties\npeculiar to an individual.\n\n\nII. SENSES\n\nBy this inductive method, which develops fundamentally a philosophy of\nevolution, Herder finds that the senses are a nerve-structure developed\nto meet the waves of stimulus from without and feeling from within and to\ndifferentiate them more finely than did the fibers which worked only in a\ngeneral way. But the law is the same. The nerves of every sense operate\naccording to the same law by which the fibers contract and expand. The\nnerves advance to meet pleasant agreeable things, but recede from and\nresist unpleasant things.\n\nNow Herder observes that something other than the organ of sense and the\nexternal objects must operate to produce sensation in at least two of the\nsenses. He sees a certain mental bond without which sight and hearing\ncould not go to the object nor the object to the senses; this common\nsubstance, he says, is light, a substance which has the peculiarity of\ntaking just so much from creation as the two end organs can receive. But\nthis light as a medium is a requisite for the finer senses only. There\nare coarser senses, fibers, and stimuli which cannot be brought into\naction thus. They can feel only in themselves, for the object must come\nto them, touch them, and, to a certain extent, be one with them.\n\nHerder is explicit in connecting individual character with the senses.\nThe contribution which each sense makes to the soul cannot with any two\nhuman beings be the same in kind, strength, depth, and breadth. There\nare many proofs of this. Seeing and hearing, which furnish most of\nthe material for thinking, are seldom in one individual with the same\ndegree of training or of natural force. This will not only account for\ninequalities of the senses evinced in all forms of expression in a single\nindividual, but for such inequalities among groups and races. For, he\ncontinues, imaginative power in which thoughts and feelings disport\nthemselves is made of the flowing together of sense impressions.\n\nThis is Plato\u2019s thought also when he objects to making knowledge mere\nsense-perception because it would make a different standard of knowledge\nfor each man. Socrates in _Theaetetus_ quotes Protagoras on the same\npoint: \u201cSensations are relative and individual.\u201d One scarcely needs to be\nreminded here of Herder\u2019s thorough acquaintance with Greek philosophy.\n\nThe way from a sensation to thought is through the nerve-structure of\nsense organs, these nerve-structures furnishing just such a medium\nbetween the object of sensation on the one hand and thinking and willing\non the other, as does light between the object of sense and the visual\nand auditory organs.\n\nNever losing sight of the physiological element in his psychology, Herder\ntells us that the soul has grown out of the body, and has so outgrown the\nbody that soul has become the monarch over that, without which soul could\nnot exist. All its thinking grows out of feeling, and this feeling out of\na body having in its command manifold obscure forces administered to by\nvariously endowed \u201cservants\u201d and \u201cmessengers.\u201d\n\n\nIII. KNOWING AND WILLING\n\nHerder denies that anything in the way of knowledge comes back to the\nsoul out of the platonic fore-world, and abstract egoism, he says, is\nopposed to truth and the open course of nature. Just as all of the soul\u2019s\nknowing depends upon obscure stimuli and forces having their foundations\nin the body and leading to sensations and then to reasoning, so her\nwilling comes from these as a natural sequence of her knowing. Any\nknowing without willing would be false and incomplete. If knowing is only\na deep feeling of truth, who is going to see truth and at the same time\nbe blind to it\u2014know goodness and not will to do it? Every single passion\nor feeling thus knowing the good would at the same time will the good.\nHerder is emphatic about the interdependence of these two. Just as no\nknowing is without willing, no willing is without knowing; they are only\none energy of the soul.\n\nThis suggests Socrates in the _Protagoras_, as he argues that men would\nalways do good if they knew the good. \u201cNo man voluntarily pursues evil\nor that which he thinks to be evil. To prefer evil to good is not in\nhuman nature.\u201d\n\nBriefly summarizing: Herder finds his _stimulus_ the same everywhere\nin the material world. It is the principle of life since it impels\nto self-nutriment and reproduction. It works by the same law in\nboth body and soul. Variations of it in degree are the foundations\nfor individuality and personality. All that is true of feeling for\nessentially stimulus becomes feeling. Out of all this Herder arrives\nat the conclusion: \u201cDer tiefste Grund unseres Daseyns ist individuell,\nsowohl in Empfindungen als Gedanken.\u201d\n\nThe distinctive personal and individual character whose foundations have\njust been traced, according to our author, can not come to its fullest\ndevelopment except as a component part in a larger self-conscious and\nself-directing entity which he calls \u201chumanity.\u201d\n\nThis humanity as a whole, and the relation of the individual to it, is\ndiscussed in the collections _Briefe zur Bef\u00f6rderung der Humanit\u00e4t_. An\nemphatic tone regarding personality and individuality as characteristics\nof the group pervades these letters.\n\nExistence as a self-conscious being which develops into group\nconsciousness Herder finds rooted in human frailty.\n\nPrimitive man, to himself and enigma, he observes, when comparing his\nvisible condition, his natural capacities, his will-power with enduring\nnature, was forced to a feeling of weakness, to a sense of mortal\nexistence; he finds himself of the earth, a fragile house of clay.\nSympathy then and the realization of one\u2019s duty to one\u2019s fellow-men began\nhere.\n\nBut the consciousness of frailty led also to a knowledge of our powers\nand abilities, to a sense of our calling and our duties, and brought us\nto a deep consideration of human nature.\n\nThe group is always striving toward an ideal pattern which is \u201cthe\ncharacter of the race,\u201d and, again, this character is in the individual;\nfor, says Herder, he who does not make the best of himself cannot assist\nthe sum total of the race.\n\nThe author states the idea when he says that it is according to the\nsacred laws of nature that man is a complete unit in himself, and at the\nsame time an important element of groups each a consistent part of larger\ngroups which make the sum total of humanity. Man is friend, citizen,\nhusband, father; fellow-citizen, finally, in the great city of God on\nearth.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VI\n\nEIGHTEENTH CENTURY IN HERDER\u2019S CONCEPTION OF _DAS VOLK_\n\n\nHerder, by numerous references and discussions, in which he is definite\nand explicit as to name and theories, shows a thorough acquaintance with\nthe various schools of philosophy which were influential throughout the\ncentury in which he lived. Among those whose names occur many times in\nhis works are:\n\n    Roger Bacon\n    Francis Bacon\n    Baumgarten\n    Berkeley\n    Boileau\n    Bolingbroke\n    Condillac\n    Descartes\n    Diderot\n    Hume\n    Kant\n    Leibniz\n    Locke\n    Montaigne\n    Montesquieu\n    Newton\n    Rousseau\n    Shaftesbury\n    Spinoza\n    Voltaire\n    Wolf\n\nThese are philosophers whose expressions of thought left their traces\neither vaguely or deeply upon the enlightenment period and, as already\nsaid, whom Herder knew well. But the doctrines of many of these men\nconverged. Of others, the principles were developed and amplified by\nsuccessors. The main ideas of the period which enter into Herder\u2019s\nconception of _Volk_ are found in three great exponents: Leibniz,\nShaftesbury, and Rousseau. The influence of each upon Herder will be\nexamined here.\n\n\nLEIBNIZ AND HERDER\n\nIV, 224: Herder calls Leibniz the greatest man that Germany has produced\nin later times.\n\nIV, 361: Herder calls Leibniz and Plato the two greatest heads for\nhypotheses.\n\nVIII, 178: Herder says that no one says it better than Leibniz, that\nbodies as such are only phenomena of substances, as the Milky Way is of\nstars and the clouds of drops.\n\nIX, 493: Herder regrets that Leibniz was not sufficiently appreciated by\nthe Germans; most of them in the city in which he lies did not even know\nwhere his grave was.\n\nIX, 534: Herder cites Leibniz as saying that human wit and humor are\nnever more effective than in play, and uses this in support of his own\nbelief that the human heart expresses itself most effectively in the\nnature songs of primitive people.\n\nX, 305: Herder sees the flower of Leibniz in Shaftesbury.\n\nXIII, 199: Herder agrees with Leibniz that the soul is a mirror of the\n\u201cworld-all\u201d and he believes there is a deeper truth in Leibniz\u2019 statement\nthan is usually recognized; i.e., all the forces of a \u201cworld-all\u201d lie\nhidden in the soul, and they need only an organization or a succession of\norganizations to set them into activity.\n\nXIV, 417: Herder finds support in Leibniz for the statement that the\nCatholic Church considered the king a protective magistrate under the\nsupremacy of the Pope.\n\nXV, 180: Herder says Leibniz pointed out weak sides of Locke\u2019s philosophy.\n\nXVI, 450: Herder makes the following statements:\n\n    1. In Leibniz\u2019 mind were associated fruitful conceptions of all\n    sciences and of all the realms of nature.\n\n    2. Leibniz said that one must finally, so far as conceptions of\n    bodies are concerned, come to simple substances, which he calls\n    \u201cMonads.\u201d\n\n    3. I (Herder) am convinced that among the three ingenious\n    hypotheses with which he has enriched metaphysics the monad is\n    the most fundamental, and will sometime win a place.\n\n    4. Without this indivisible working element, the nature of\n    physical bodies cannot be explained.\n\nXVI, 458: Herder calls Leibniz a \u201cProteus of Science,\u201d who has done much\nto unify philosophical truths.\n\nXVI, 606: Herder calls Leibniz, \u201cour immortal Leibniz.\u201d\n\nXVII, 331 ff.: Herder eulogizes Leibniz, emphasizing his theories of\nplay, his mildness and sympathy in criticizing others his youthful,\nimpartial soul.\n\nXVIII, 126: Herder says that Leibniz was the most modest among all the\nreformers of philosophical thought; he thought that all systems of the\nancients could be united because each held something good.\n\nXXI, 19: Herder quotes Leibniz as saying that language is the mirror of\nhuman understanding.\n\nXXI, 70 ff.: Herder translates Leibniz\u2019 _Ueber Philosophie in der\nDeutschen Sprache_.\n\nXXI, 145: Herder mentions Leibniz\u2019 principles of _Identity and\nCausality_.\n\nXXI, 319: Herder translates Leibniz\u2019 _Vom philosophischen Vortrag_.\n\nXXII, 190: Herder translates Leibniz\u2019 _Ueber Macht und Anwendung der\nMusik_.\n\nXXIII, 132: Herder recommends Leibniz\u2019 _Neue Versuche \u00fcber den\nmenschlichen Verstand_ to young men.\n\nXXIII, 479: Herder says, Leibniz, had he lived to see his original\nplans revived in the Scientific Society in Berlin, probably would have\narranged a _System der V\u00f6lker nach Sprachen und Bildungen_. This method\nof studying history by going to natural environments and to the sources\nis sufficiently in accord with Herder\u2019s ideas to call forth the prophecy\nthat what the past century had omitted in this respect the future would\ndo.\n\nXXIII, 483: Herder, referring to Leibniz\u2019 system of _Monaden,\npr\u00e4stabilirten Harmonie u. f._, says that no one doubts that there is\nmuch that is true and beautiful in it; no one dares deny a world of souls\nand a harmony between mind and body; there is no doubt that there are\npure conceptions in which thoughts are considered only as workings or\ndevelopments of the soul, and, on the other hand, the laws of the world\nof bodies are considered as mechanical and artificial.\n\nXXIV, 267: Herder notes Leibniz\u2019 romantic attitude, observing that\nLeibniz regretted the decline in the feeling of courage and honor and\nthat he counseled a return to the deeds and voices and models of the past\nto reawaken these.\n\nXXV, 88: Herder says if Leibniz found human wit and humor most real and\neffective in play, certainly he (Herder) is justified, in finding the\nmost faithful reproductions of traditions, language, and customs at the\npoint where truth and delight meet; i.e., in song.\n\nXXX, 135: Herder calls Leibniz the greatest man that Germany has had.\n\nXXX, 258: Herder has remarked frequently upon Leibniz\u2019 theory that the\nhuman mind is never more clear-sighted and disposed to activity than in\nplay. He analyzes the thought here, and it is worth considering because\nit hinges closely upon Herder\u2019s philosophy which causes him to seek\ngenuine _Volk_ character in methods of expression which are natural\nrather than artificial.\n\nHe asks, Why is it that there is this connection between our innermost\nselves and pleasure and joy? Many forms of play are so difficult and\nfatiguing, others are subject to such strict rules; just because they\ndemand this is the form of play interesting for those who like it.\nIt becomes pleasant because it keeps both soul and body constantly\nand interchangeably busied. In the progress of being occupied lies an\nindefinable pleasure; we feel the happy progressiveness by which our\nforces are strengthened and grow. The more frequently this interchange\ntakes place, the more do we realize our forces enriched.\n\nXXIII, 154: Herder says Shaftesbury sent to Leibniz the former\u2019s works\nand that Leibniz found in them his own system.\n\nXXIII, 461: Herder praises Leibniz\u2019 efforts in behalf of the Royal\nScientific Society in Berlin.\n\nXXIII, 468 ff.: Herder has written an essay on Leibniz in which he\nreviews the work of the latter under the following heads: _Gottfried\nWilhelm Leibniz_: (1) _Theologie und Religion_; (2) _Rechtsgelehrsamkeit\nund Politik_; (3) _Geschichte, Alterth\u00fcmer, Sprachen_; (4) _Mathematik\nund Physik_; and (5) _Die erste Philosophie_.\n\nHerder\u2019s own comments in certain parts of this series of expositions are\nimportant in this connection.\n\n1. _Theology and religion._\u2014Leibniz\u2019 proof of Christianity Herder\nfinds was based upon natural religion; after firmly laying the\nfoundation of this natural religion, one should show the necessity of a\nrevealed religion, then the superior beauty of the Christian religion,\nsurpassing as it does all other religions. Leibniz sees atheism as\nwell as materialism, to say nothing of the disparagement or mockery\nof Christendom, as the herald of a barbarism with which is bound up\nthe decay of honor and morality. Herder\u2019s comment upon this is: How\nfaithfully have succeeding times proved this to be true! Leibniz,\nhe continues, would rejoice if he could see the Bible so clarified,\nevery one of its books interpreted in the light and spirit of its own\ntime and above all the subtleties foreign to the sense and content of\nChristianity removed\u2014all this, such as it was in his own day, is Herder\u2019s\nidea. Important to note here is the return to nature as a foundation\nfor Christianity, and to natural environment for the interpretation of\nChristian teachings.\n\n2. _Jurisprudence and statesmanship._\u2014Here Herder finds that Leibniz\nbecame a real teacher _der V\u00f6lker_ through his work, _Codex des\nallgemeinen V\u00f6lkerrechts_. Just as Leibniz in his opposition to\nPuffendorf founds man\u2019s natural rights upon eternal principles of right\nand reason, so he carries these on into the so-called \u201cvoluntary rights\nof peoples\u201d to which he adds in the Christian Republic a divine, positive\nright.\n\nThis divine, positive right Herder admits was, in the beginnings of the\nChristian republic, conceived of as being embodied in the emperor as head\nof the state. But, says he, Leibniz\u2019 great thought was true; true in the\nsense that this divine, positive right is that which made itself evident\nlong before the French Revolution.\n\nHe asks, Does Christendom teach anything other than pure humanity?\nIt must be founded upon humanity which is also Leibniz\u2019 _Codex des\nV\u00f6lkerrechts_.\n\nIt is clear, continues the commentator, that what a nation demands or\nwishes from another it must also offer; force, faithlessness, and bold\narrogance of one toward the other enrage all nations. This _Codex des\nV\u00f6lkerrechts_ is written in the breasts of all human beings. Wherever\nhis view was unobstructed, he saw clearly the political relationships of\nEurope, and prophesied much that followed.\n\nThe natural rights of mankind to be applied to humanity through states\nand nations, then, is what Herder notes at this point in Leibniz.\n\n3. _History, antiquities, languages._\u2014Herder notes here that Leibniz\nliked above everything else in History the origins of races, _Uranf\u00e4nge\nder V\u00f6lker_, which led to their antiquities and language stocks. This\naccounts for his diligence in comparison and derivation of languages\nand in etymologies. Herder reminds us that a family tree of languages\nhas been established since Leibniz\u2019 time through the Russian journeys\nin Northern Asia, continuous news from China, the investigations of the\nEnglish in India, and other studies made in Tibet, Persia, Arabia, Egypt,\nAfrica, America, and the Southern world.\n\nXXXII, 226: Herder\u2019s discussion of Leibniz\u2019 monad:\n\n    A monad is said to be able to change its representations\n    (_Vorstellungen_) and it must change them in accordance with\n    its fundamental force; now if these representations are nothing\n    but external rapports, must there not lie in the fundamental\n    force also the foundation of perceptibility of the external and\n    the foundation of the constantly changing perceptibility?... If\n    therefore, the soul is a living mirror of the universe then it\n    must not reflect this universe from within itself outward....\n    But there must be an internal cause in every soul which\n    accounts for the part of the universe which the soul looks upon\n    and which cannot be sought in a third being, the cause of both.\n\n    Everywhere there is life; everywhere life is connected with\n    organs, and where would the cause of the connection lie? Not\n    in the life; not in the organ. Where then? A _Deus ex machina_\n    must be called which contains the cause of the connection of\n    both so that neither of these (life, organ) contain anything\n    of this cause, and that is contradiction. One monad is said\n    to rule over the others and over many others without there\n    being in any one the cause of change which is in the other. A\n    monad is said to heighten its forces just so much as its body\n    heightens its own organization.\n\n    Now still this interconnected increase is to contain nothing\n    in the one for the other; not _causa efficiens_, not _conditio\n    sine qua non_, only simultaneousness. How unbelieveable! If the\n    adjustment of the organs extends to the making of a certain\n    relief or difference, then such a relief or difference in\n    the perceptions and all the connecting comes about without\n    internal cause, only one cause to explain so many effects which\n    are scarcely covered by it. It seems to me the world would be\n    incomparably simpler and more manifold if in every monad were\n    the cause for its connection and all of its changes.\n\nIt seems evident that Herder accepts much of Leibniz\u2019 theory of the\nmonad. The important point of departure is expressed in the two sentences:\n\n    1. But there must be _an internal cause in every soul_ which\n    accounts for the part of the universe which that soul looks\n    over and which cannot be sought in a third being, the cause of\n    both.\n\n    2. The world would be simpler and more manifold if _in every\n    monad were the cause for its connection and all its changes_.\n    It is at this point of departure that we see Herder\u2019s emphasis\n    on innate potentialities, which are fundamentally different,\n    taking shape. Here are individuality and spontaneity in\n    incipiency.\n\n\nREFERENCES TO LEIBNIZ\n\n         I: 116, 142, 166, 233, 415.\n        II: 50, 96, 300.\n        IV: 15, 224, 248, 361.\n         V: 57, 316, 318, 410, 412, 459, 461, 504, 512, 532.\n      VIII: 112, 170, 178, 226, 247, 266, 272, 319.\n        IX: 493, 500, 534.\n         X: 305, 346.\n        XI: 90.\n      XIII: 199, 364.\n       XIV: 417.\n        XV: Note to page 33; 35, 71, 180, 320.\n       XVI: 450, 458, 504, 292, 606.\n      XVII: 158, 210, 265, 267, 274, 326, 331, 334, 336, 338.\n     XVIII: 126, 323.\n        XX: 358.\n       XXI: 17, 19, 49, 70, 71, 145, 185, 319.\n      XXII: 67, 190.\n     XXIII: 67, 88, 132, 154, 461, 468, 472.\n      XXIV: 9, 92, 267, 315.\n       XXV: 88.\n    XXVIII: 232, 353.\n      XXIX: 581.\n       XXX: 64, 135, 403, 258, 407.\n     XXXII: 32, 221, 225.\n\n\nSHAFTESBURY AND HERDER\n\nI, 182: Herder says Shaftesbury knows how to use the dialogue\nexcellently; he had learned it from Plato and taught Diderot.\n\nV, 490: Herder calls Shaftesbury the amiable Plato of Europe.\n\nX, 232: Herder mentions Shaftesbury\u2019s _philosophischen Lobgesang auf die\nNatur in seinen \u201cMoralists\u201d_.\n\nX, 305: Herder concedes to Shaftesbury a refined, beautiful,\nphilosophical intellect. He is impressed with the \u201cCharacteristics\u201d and\nthe \u201cMoralists.\u201d The latter, says he, can be put side by side with the\nwritings of the Ancients. Herder finds in Shaftesbury the flower of\nLeibniz\u2019 philosophy and the teachings of new platonism. He sees traces of\nShaftesbury in Mendelsohn\u2019s _Letters concerning Feeling_.\n\nHerder\u2019s tone defends Shaftesbury in the statement that one should love\nvirtue for her own sake, on the ground that many religious enthusiasts,\nincluding F\u00e9n\u00e9lon, have maintained the same thing. Nor is he either\natheist or pantheist in his _Song of Praise to Nature_. He further\nmentions the following works in German translations: _The Moralists;\nInvestigations Concerning Virtue_, Berlin, 1745; _Shaftesbury\u2019s\nPhilosophical Works_, translated by Voss, Leipzig, 1776.\n\nXI, 123: Herder finds Shaftesbury\u2019s _Ten Letters to a Student of\nTheology_ excellent in the following points: (1) What he says of real\nphilosophy, of empty speculation, of academic _polyhistorie_, of\nintellectual ambition and the real freedom of thought, of the writings\nof the Greek, and of the beautiful and pure toward which one must aim in\nstudies of all kinds; (2) what he says of the spirit of endurance and\nChristian simplicity.\n\nXI, 220: Herder admires _die Grazien des Platonish-Shaftesbury_ dialogue.\n\nXVI, 407: Herder expresses himself by quoting in translation a stanza\nfrom Shaftesbury\u2019s _Moralists_.\n\nXVI, 158, 159: Article on Shaftesbury; holds him in high esteem, calls\nhim _Virtuoso der Humanit\u00e4t_. Herder declares that Shaftesbury has\ninfluenced the best minds of the eighteenth century.\n\nXXIII, 143 ff.: Herder shows an intimate acquaintance with the life and\nworks of Shaftesbury as well as the sources of his philosophy. He reminds\nthat Shaftesbury influenced both Diderot and Leibniz. Herder reveals his\nown inclination to take nature and the feelings as standards: (1) By\ncriticizing Shaftesbury for overlooking an important principle in Greek\nphilosophy in one of his discussions; namely, the principle _der Natur zu\nfolgen_. (2) By saying an honorable feeling for truth and justice is a\nlaw of our nature.\n\nXXX, 321: Herder calls Shaftesbury the high priest of the temple of\n_Grazie_.\n\nShaftesbury\u2019s _Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, and Time_ will\nbe used as a reference book.\n\n\nSHAFTESBURY AND HERDER\n\nThe elevation of human nature, as found in the individual, to something\nwhich has a universal value, to something higher and nobler than the\ninterests of self alone was one of the prominent tenets of Shaftesbury\u2019s\nphilosophy. This implied a moral and social system composed of parts\nnicely adjusted in each single entity, which in turn was a component part\nof a larger whole; the parts of this greater system were likewise in\nconstant proportion to one another, and so finely and fitly adjusted that\nany disarrangement could not fail to effect the harmonious blending and\nthe unity of the entire design. Out of this, it follows that man can come\nto his truest and most natural development in community life only.\n\n    And thus, if there be found in any creature a more than\n    ordinary self-concernment or regard to private good, which\n    is inconsistent with the interest of the species or public,\n    this must in every respect be esteemed an ill and vicious\n    affection. And this is what we commonly call selfishness, and\n    disapprove so much, in whatever creature we happen to discover\n    it.\u2014_Inquiry_, Book I.\n\n    When we reflect on any ordinary frame or constitution either of\n    art or nature, and consider how hard it is to give the least\n    account of a particular part without a competent knowledge of\n    the whole, we need not wonder to find ourselves at a loss in\n    many things relating to the constitution and frame of nature\n    herself.\u2014_Inquiry_, Book I.\n\n    To love the public, to study universal good, and to promote the\n    interest of the whole world, as far as lies within our power,\n    is surely the height of goodness, and makes that temper which\n    we call divine.\u2014_Letter Concerning Enthusiasm_, section 4.\n\nThe harmonious man is to be the product of a natural unfolding of\ninnate human nature. The potentialities within are to be allowed to\ndevelop unwarped and unimpeded and to express themselves completely\nand symmetrically. There must be no subordination of personality or\nindividuality to artificial standards, for nature is the sovereign. If\nno powers, inclinations, or impulses are thwarted in their trend and\nactivity, they will, in all their manifold variety, flower into the\nperfectly beautiful and therefore the perfectly good.\n\n    Now the variety of nature is such as to distinguish everything\n    she forms by a peculiar, original character, which, if strictly\n    observed, will make the subject appear unlike to anything\n    extant in the world besides.\n\n    For all beauty is truth. True features make the beauty of a\n    face, and true proportions the beauty of architecture\u2014_Essay on\n    the Freedom of Wit and Humor_, Part IV.\n\nThat faculty by which the good and the beautiful are to be recognized and\napproved is indeed little different if different at all from an emotion.\nThe principle of feeling really becomes the criterion of right and wrong.\nIt is the principle of feeling which forms the essence of Shaftesbury\u2019s\n_Moral Sense_. He admits that this sense may be improved by cultivation,\nbut its essential part is innate. \u201cSense of right and wrong\u201d is as\nnatural to us as natural affection itself, and a first principle in our\nconstitution.\n\nThe two ideas which we are considering here as a part of Shaftesbury\u2019s\nphilosophy are the development of the individual and his harmonious\nrelation to the whole of mankind.\n\nThese ideas are made the nucleus of a collection of writings and reviews\nby Herder which he calls _Briefe zu Bef\u00f6rderung der Humanit\u00e4t_. These\nhave been considered to some extent in a preceding chapter as a part of\nHerder\u2019s system of thought, but the purpose here is to connect the same\nwith that of Shaftesbury.\u2014_Dritte Sammlung_, Brief 27 ff.\n\nAt the outset in this letter the author is concerned with the distinction\nbetween the following:\n\n    1. Menschheit: Menschen sind wir allesamt ... wir geh\u00f6ren zur\n    Menschheit.\n\n    2. Mensch, Menschlichkeit: Leider hat man in unserer Sprache\n    dem Wort Mensch, und noch mehr dem barmherzigen Wort\n    Menschlichkeit so oft eine Nebenbedeutung von Niedrigkeit,\n    Schw\u00e4che und falschem Mitleid angeh\u00e4ngt.\n\n    3. Menschenrechte: Kann ohne Menschenpflichten nicht genannt\n    werden.\n\n    4. Menschenw\u00fcrde: Das Menschengeschlecht ... hat seinem\n    gr\u00f6ssesten Theil nach keine W\u00fcrde.... Es soll aber zum\n    Charakter seines Geschlechtes, mithin auch zu dessen Werth und\n    W\u00fcrde gebildet werden.\n\n    5. Menschenliebe: Das sch\u00f6ne Wort Menschenliebe is so trivial\n    worden, dass man meistens die Menschen liebt um keinen unter\n    den Menschen wirksam zu lieben.\n\nHe concludes that the word _Humanit\u00e4t_ will best suit, because among\nboth ancients and moderns it connotes worthy ideas. The reference to\nthe ancients reminds us of the common source from which both Herder and\nShaftesbury drew inspiration. Both were schooled in the literature of the\nancients.\n\nAs Herder lingers on the philological discussion, he gives us the\nphilosophical reason why the conception of frailty attaches to the idea\nexpressed in the word for man, _Mensch_.\n\nThe word \u201chumanity,\u201d he says, not only connotes the thought which he\ndesires to express, but it suits his purpose also on account of its\nhistory. Among the upper classes of the Romans were some who were wont\nto temper the execution of justice with mercy when exercising power\nover their subjects; such a Roman citizen, Patrician, was _humanus_,\n_humanissimus_. Now, he thinks, that since with the Romans the word\nconnoted the idea of mildness in the exercises of citizenship and law,\nthat it would be well to take over the word and the idea. He makes\nreference also to the Greeks whose word, \u1f02\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2, looking upward, he\nclothes in Plato\u2019s words: \u201cAs he looks he reasons.\u201d Therefore, says\nHerder, he does not fail to notice the human failings that lead to\nsympathy, consequently to humanity. The knowledge of our powers and\ninborn potentialities, of our calling and our duty arises from an intense\nstudy of mankind. He repeats that the Greeks and Romans led the way in\nthis _studium humanitatis_. The only limit which Herder sets to what we\nshall be is to be found in the highest possible formation and completion\nof whatever belongs to the character of our race.\n\nMany of the telling thoughts in these letters are scattered in isolated\nparagraphs running something like the following: Truth is the bond of\nhumanity between friends. The purer the thoughts of men are, the more\nthey agree. The true invisible church is one in all times, in all lands.\n\nFranklin had a wonderful sense of humanity. He proceeds from the simple\neternal laws of nature, from the most infallible practical rules\u2014the\nneeds and interests of mankind. Franklin recognized the value of the\ncommon people and thought to teach them by clothing his ideas in\nsimplicity.\n\nCompanionship is the foundation of humanity and the communion of human\nsouls, a mutual interchange of acquired ideas (thoughts) and of traits\nof understanding which increases the mass of human knowledge and skill\ninfinitely. If humanity is no empty name, suffering mankind must rejoice\nat the advance in medical science. Human society founded on virtue must\nstand. The highest and most fruitful wisdom arises from the (common)\npeople because they have felt need and suffering, they have been driven\nhere and there, they have tasted the sweet fruit of trouble and they know\nhow to care for others.\n\nThe kinship to the spirit and philosophy pervading Shaftesbury is here\nquite evident.\n\n\nREFERENCES TO SHAFTESBURY\n\n        I: 182, 303, 305, 307, 524.\n       IV: 367.\n        V: 284, 316, 388, 390, 396, 490.\n      VII: 113, 236.\n     VIII: 218, 311, 461.\n       IX: 306.\n        X: Note to page 232; 305.\n       XI: 123, 205; note to page 220.\n       XV: 199\n      XVI: 26, 403, 407.\n     XVII: 154, 249, 274, 326.\n       XX: 308.\n     XXII: Note to page 210; note to page 334.\n    XXIII: 132_d_, 132, 136, 144, 151; note to page 155; 396.\n     XXIV: 219.\n    XXVII: 397.\n      XXX: 17, 32, 407.\n    XXXII: 33, 199.\n\n\nROUSSEAU AND HERDER\n\nIV, 369: In discussing his ideal book for the development of humanity,\nHerder finds that important points would be rules and exhortations for\nthe development of body and soul; in this he says: _ist Rousseau ein\ngrosser Lehrer_.\n\nIV, 371: He will imitate Rousseau zealously; will read him, contemplate\nhim, nationalize him.\n\nV, 37: Herder agrees with Rousseau in that language is not the result of\nconvention and agreement.\n\nVI, 250: Reference is made to Rousseau\u2019s _Pygmalion_.\n\nVII, 65: Herder in his discussion concerning the fall of man quotes\nRousseau with reference to the tree of knowledge and the fall of man.\n\nVII, 74: Herder calls Rousseau one of the greatest lights of his times.\n\nX, 298: Herder says Rousseau\u2019s _Confessions_ and other writings contain\nexcellent passages for philosophy and natural theology. Many of these\nwritings have suffered evil repute (_\u00fcbel ber\u00fcchtigt_.)\n\nXV, 248: Herder calls Rousseau a great, wonderful man.\n\nXVI, 26: Herder calls Rousseau a teacher of wisdom and morals.\n\nXVII, 190: Herder speaks of Rousseau as a good man who exaggerates and\nwho in his phantasy is an idealist for the good.\n\nXVII, 326: Herder says in his own day (_bis in unsern Tagen_) Rousseau\u2019s\n_Social Contract_ has had an effect that its author had scarcely expected.\n\nXVIII, 359 and 371: Herder says that in his own time (_in unserer Zeit_),\nRousseau\u2019s _Confessions_ have aroused a great sensation. He quotes from\nthem.\n\nXVIII, 372: _Sein Geist war stolz, seine Grunds\u00e4tze waren edel_, p. 374,\nhe speaks of Rousseau as a tree having brought forth beautiful fruit and\nblossoms.\n\nXXII, 151: Herder approves Rousseau\u2019s views in the introduction to\n_Nouvelle H\u00e9loise_, views on poetic language as a natural human art.\n\nXXII, 161: He calls Rousseau one with great ability to express the\nthoughts of his heart, and Herder considers this ability peculiar to\n_Naturmenschen_.\n\nXXIII, 272: Herder says much that Rousseau has said in _Emile_ against\nthe use of _La Fontaine\u2019s Fables_ for youth is right.\n\nXXV, 601: Herder translates from Rousseau\u2019s _Consolations_.\n\nXXV, 631: Herder has a translation of Rousseau\u2019s \u201cShepherd Song,\u201d\n_Consolations_, p. 97, No. 53.\n\nXXV, 632: Translation of \u201cSong of Desdemona,\u201d _Consolations_, p. 125, No.\n65.\n\nXXIX, 256: Herder eulogizes Rousseau in the poem _Der Mensch_.\n\nXXIX, 265: Herder calls upon Rousseau to help him know himself.\n\nXXX, 30: In regretting the fact that the taste and desire for\noverrefinement was causing wholesome simplicity to be displaced in\neducational methods and life in general, Herder calls attention to\nRousseau and interprets him thus:\n\n    Rousseau ruft also ein philosophisches Wehe \u00fcber unser\n    Geschlecht, das die Tugend, Menschlichkeit und Wahrheit\n    vom Altar gest\u00fcrzt hat, und statt dessen eine l\u00e4cherlich\n    verkleidete Puppe des Wohlstandes anbetet. Dieser falsche\n    Anstand hat die Sch\u00f6pfung verdorben; denn was sind seine\n    Vasallen?\n\nXXXII, 41: Herder calls Rousseau \u201cour patriotic friend of mankind.\u201d\n\nXXXII, 147: Herder says only Rousseau could dig to the knowledge of the\nhuman heart.\n\n\n\u201cDER MENSCH\u201d\n\nLine 45 ff.: Herder shows that he is influenced by the eighteenth-century\ndemand for a return to nature in general and by Rousseau\u2019s philosophy in\nparticular in a portion of this poem:\n\n1. He prizes the universal and fundamental instincts and longings of man\nwhich show him to be a simple product of nature:\n\n    Den Menschen der Natur den keiner je gesehen und jeder in sich\n    f\u00fchlt und jeder w\u00fcnscht zu sehen ... den sing\u2019 ich.\n\n2. The primitivism of this nature-man is eulogized:\n\n                      den Menschen ohne Kunst\n    voll Seele ohne Witz, gut ohne G\u00f6ttergunst,\n    voll Menschheit ohne Scham, voll Wahrheit ohne L\u00fcgen\n    ohn\u2019 alle Tugend fromm und gl\u00fccklich ohn\u2019 Vergn\u00fcgen\u2014\n    Den sing\u2019 ich.\n\n    Sohn der Natur o Mensch\u2014bl\u00fchst du in Edens Flur?\n    halb Pflanze und halb Thier.\n\n3. The feelings are set up as a standard:\n\n    blos durch Empfindung wahr, sch\u00f6n durch die Wahrheit nur.\n    Nicht weniger nicht mehr als Mensch! so ist dein Leben\n    dir zum Gef\u00fchl, zur Ruh, zur Wirksamkeit gegeben.\n\n4. Physical environment is to have free sway in shaping this ideal man:\n\n                    wie zeigt sich deine Spur?\n    im Schnee der Eskimaux wo edelfrei die Wilden\n    Empfindung und Gesezz nach Jagd und Eis sich bilden.\n\n5. Rousseau is eulogized:\n\n    gebar dich Rousseaus Geist? sahn dich verblichne Zeiten?\n    ...\n    O Rousseau! den die Welt im Vorurtheil verkandt,\n    das wahre grosse Maas des Menschen in der Hand\n    w\u00e4gst du was edel sey wenns gleich das Volk verdammet\n\nThe eulogy continues by praising Rousseau\u2019s condemnation of wealth and\npomp and false glory and, finally:\n\n    Du Prediger in der W\u00fcste, f\u00fchlst dass du edel bist wenn niemand\n      dich auch gr\u00fcsste.\n\n\nROUSSEAU AND HERDER\n\n_Discourses._\u2014In his _Discourse concerning the Arts and Sciences_\nRousseau insists that our outward lives should be true expressions of\nour inner feelings. This harmony between expression and feeling began\nits decline under the influences of overrefinement and of tastes that\nhad been distorted by excessive civilization. Therefore, he argues,\nit is the common man, the crude rustic, rather than the polished and\nelegant courtier who reveals his heart in all purity; we may deal with\nthis common man without suspicions, fears, reserves, and treacheries.\nIt was the simplicity of ancient times when men lived in a primitive\nstate that bred innocence and virtue, courage and genuine humanity. In\nthis discourse there is in general a pointed attack upon literary and\nscientific training and polish.\n\nThe discourse which deals with the inequality of man is based in general\nupon the same doctrine which furnishes the ground for the attack on the\nsciences and the arts. It attempts to show us what men would have been\nhad they remained in their original state. This original state was one in\nwhich man lived much like the dumb animals; forests and rocks, running\nbrooks and springs, furnished abode by day and bed and shelter for the\nnight, and among these were to be found the meat and drink which produced\nstrong healthy bodies; bodies robust because their nourishment was\nsimple. This was a primitive state which had remained true to nature by\nnot advancing at all or at least not more than a single degree beyond the\noriginal. In such a state man by reason of both his physical hardiness\nand his native animal instincts and alertness has all his faculties,\nthese operating with a force and fineness unknown to the highly civilized\nman. Here, as in the essay on the social contract, the philosopher is\nopposed to a superior ruling power and arbitrary establishment of laws.\n\n_Social contract._\u2014In the _Social Contract_ in which Rousseau\u2019s social\nstate is presented as the superior form of government, men had been\nbrought to realize their dependence upon one another and to know that\nco-operation was the true basis of welfare. The doctrine of individuality\nwhich made of man a self-centered unit was weak in that it offered little\nprotection for the individual. For this individual, born with natural\nfreedom, was in danger of exercising this freedom to the detriment of the\nrights of others.\n\nIn giving up himself and his rights to the group, the individual became\nsubject to no one person, but gained certain rights over each member of\nthe community. In this compact there is a union of individuals, each\nworking for the good of the body politic, each a sovereign with civil\nliberty and moral freedom.\n\nThus the restrictions which would be imposed upon members of society by\none supreme authority were avoided. By this means the general will worked\nfor the general good of humanity.\n\nBut the idea of progress implied not only the teaching that the good\nof one must be the good of all, but meant also: (1) That man was not\nself-sufficient and therefore could come to fullest development only\nin the group. (2) That the seeds of individuality lay within man as a\nuniversal element and were nurtured and brought to flower by the peculiar\ntouch of him who was expressed in their flowering. The fundamental\ntendencies in mankind being allowed to unfold, the man will be good; this\ngoodness is the essential thing in his manhood, and it is natural.\n\n_Emile._\u2014The keynote of Rousseau\u2019s doctrine here is that of absolute\nreliance upon nature without impeding or diverting her progress at\nany point. He is in accord with the epistemological side of Locke\u2019s\nphilosophy, and therefore demands that Emile shall have his senses well\ndeveloped. He is to have a strong vigorous body, full of courage and\nhardihood. Moral education is to be the result of natural discipline\ncarried on in a sort of laissez-faire way. In general, Emile gets his\neducation by being thrown into contact with nature and being allowed to\nobserve and feel the phenomena of a crude environment, and by expressing\ndirectly what he has learned at first hand from this teacher. Emile,\nthen, is shaped by primitive forces just as the simple, common man in the\n_Social Contract_ and the _Inequality_. These made the simple, common man\nthe epitome of that which was of greatest worth to humanity.\n\n_Origin of language._\u2014In fixing the beginnings of speech, Rousseau says\nwe can believe that necessities dictated the first movements, and that\npassions called forth the first voices. The genius of oriental languages,\nthe most ancient known to us, have nothing in them that is methodical or\nreasoned out; they are vivacious and figurative. It is evident that the\norigin of languages is not at all due to the primary needs of man. The\norigin is due to the moral needs, to the passions. It is neither hunger\nnor thirst, but love, hate, pity, or anger which have called forth from\nmen the first voices. Fruits do not steal away from our hands at all;\none may nourish one\u2019s self with them without talking; we may follow in\nsilence the prey of which we wish to make a repast; but to move a young\nheart, to repel an unjust aggressor, nature dictates accents, cries, and\ntones of resentment. It was for this reason that the oldest words were\ninvented.\n\nThe following quotations affirm in a general way the preceding statements\nof Rousseau\u2019s philosophy:\n\n    L\u2019astronomie est n\u00e9e de la superstition, de la haine,\n    de la flatterie, du mensonge;\n    la g\u00e9om\u00e9trie, de l\u2019avarice;\n    la physique, d\u2019une vaine curiosit\u00e9;\n    toute et la morale m\u00eame de l\u2019orgueil humain.\n    Les sciences et les arts doivent donc leur naissance \u00e0 nos vices.\n\nDiscours sur les Sciences et les Arts, Part. II:\n\n    O vertu! science sublime des \u00e2mes simples, faut-il donc tant\n    de peines et d\u2019appareil pour te conna\u00eetre? Tes principes ne\n    sont-ils pas graves dans tous les coeurs? et ne suffit-il pas\n    pour apprendre tes lois de rentrer en soi-m\u00eame et d\u2019\u00e9couter la\n    voix de sa conscience dans le silence des passions?\n\nDiscours sur l\u2019origine et les fondements de l\u2019in\u00e9galit\u00e9 parmi les hommes:\n\n    Il suit de cet expos\u00e9 que l\u2019in\u00e9galit\u00e9, \u00e9tant presque nulle\n    dans l\u2019\u00e9tat de nature tire sa force et son accroissement du\n    developpement de nos facult\u00e9s et des progr\u00e8s de l\u2019esprit\n    humain, et devient enfin stable et l\u00e9gitime par l\u2019\u00e9tablissement\n    de la propri\u00e9t\u00e9 et des lois.\n\n    Il suit encore que l\u2019in\u00e9galit\u00e9 morale autoris\u00e9e par le seul\n    droit positif, est contraire au droit naturel toutes les fois\n    qu\u2019elle ne concourt pas en m\u00eame proportion avec l\u2019in\u00e9galit\u00e9\n    physique; distinction qui d\u00e9termine suffisamment ce qu\u2019on doit\n    penser \u00e0 cet \u00e9gard de la sorte d\u2019in\u00e9galit\u00e9 qui r\u00e8gne parmi tous\n    les peuples polic\u00e9s, puis-qu\u2019il est manifestement contre la loi\n    de nature.\n\nThe primitivism which stands out in Rousseau\u2019s two discourses is to\nbe seen in a general way in Herder\u2019s dislike for the higher culture\nthat would discourage spontaneous outbursts of human feelings as they\nappear in the so-called cruder forms of literature; a culture that would\ndisplace these by a smoother product born of reflection and regulated by\nset rules and formulas.\n\nHe has an admiration for the instinct which to him is always to be found\nin women, children, and fools, and which he sees as the foundation of a\nna\u00efvet\u00e9 more valuable as a part of mental equipment than anything which\ncould be substituted by processes of training and culture.\n\nRousseau\u2019s attempt to return to nature for concrete everyday life finds\nits approval with Herder, but the general idea takes a new turn. He finds\nin it the inspiration for scientific methods of studying art, history,\nand philosophy. His line of investigation in these will be by way of\nnature; i.e., man in his primitive abode; man in the hands of nature; man\nas the product of his environment.\n\nThe opposition to a central and superior governing power, which is\nfound in the _Social Contract_, to be opposed to the natural method of\ncommunity life, finds its echo in Herder in frequent tirades against the\n_policirte Nationen_. It is the _unpolicirte Nationen_ to whom nature\nhas given a certain solace that can scarcely be found in _Menschliche\nK\u00fcnsteleien_.\n\nThe _Briefe zur Bef\u00f6rderung der Humanit\u00e4t_ carry a constant strain,\nwhich makes the interdependence between the individual and the group a\nrequisite for well-being. This theory, we have seen, finds a distinct\nplace in Shaftesbury\u2019s philosophy before Rousseau had voiced it as his\nown.\n\nEmile\u2019s senses have been highly developed by his contact with nature,\nand it is this sharpness and exactness of the senses that Herder extols\nso much in primitive peoples. They are both cause and effect of the work\nwhich nature achieves by her most trusted handmaiden; namely, environment.\n\nIn discussing the origin of language, even though Herder at certain\npoints takes issue with Rousseau, it is very clear that he is influenced\nby the latter and is in agreement with him to considerable extent.\n\nRousseau has pursued the question of the origin of language, not only in\nhis essay bearing this title, but also in the _Discourse on Inequality_.\n\nThe first sentences of Herder\u2019s essay _Abhandlung \u00fcber den Ursprung der\nSprache_ run not unlike a passage in Rousseau\u2019s _Discours_ just mentioned:\n\n    Schon als Thier, hat der Mensch Sprache. Alle heftigen, und die\n    heftigsten unter den heftigen, die schmerzhaften Empfindungen\n    seines K\u00f6rpers, alle starken Leidenschaften seiner Seele\n    \u00e4ussern sich unmittelbar in Geschrei, in T\u00f6ne, in wilde,\n    unartikulirte Laute.\n\n    Le premier langage de l\u2019homme, le langage le plus universel, le\n    plus \u00e9nergique et le seul dont il eut besoin avant qu\u2019il fall\u00fbt\n    persuader des hommes assembl\u00e9s est le cri de la nature. Comme\n    ce cri n\u2019\u00e9tait arrach\u00e9 que par une sorte d\u2019instinct dans les\n    occasions pressantes, pour implorer du secours dans les grands\n    dangers ou du soulagement dans les maux violents, il n\u2019\u00e9tait\n    pas d\u2019un grand usage dans le cours ordinaire de la vie, o\u00f9\n    r\u00e8gnent des sentiments plus mod\u00e9r\u00e9s.\n\nFurther, in his own essay, Herder says, that as our tones of nature are\nfor the purpose of expressing passion, it is natural that they should\nbecome also the elements of all that which is emotional, and if we call\nthis immediate sound of feeling speech, then, says he, it is easy to find\nthe origin of speech natural.\n\nBut although all animals have a speech by which they sound forth their\nfeelings, such speech will never become human language until reason,\nunderstanding (_Verstand_), arises to use these tones with direct\nintention.\n\nIn so far, then, as the very beginnings of language are cries of passion,\nHerder is in accord with Rousseau in both essays in which the latter\ndiscusses the question.\n\n\nREFERENCES TO ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES\n\n        I: 22, 47, 96, 484.\n       II: 229, 269, 276, 313.\n      III: 279.\n       IV: 52, 145, 369, 371.\n        V: 20, 21, 33, 37, 44, 58, 85, 114, 117, 120, 147, 168, 314, 394,\n             452, 583, 640, 643.\n       IV: 163; note to page 250.\n      VII: 65, 74.\n     VIII: 328.\n       IX: 354, 474.\n        X: 298, 306, 307, 352.\n      XII: Note to page 198.\n     XIII: 265.\n       XV: 35, 248, 495.\n      XVI: 26.\n     XVII: 8, 97, 190, 309, 326.\n    XVIII: 91, 359, 371.\n       XX: 288, 293.\n     XXII: 151, 161.\n    XXIII: 231, 272.\n      XXV: Note to page 601; 631, 632.\n     XXIX: 256, 265.\n      XXX: 30.\n    XXXII: 17, 33, 41, 75, 147, 185, 233.\n\n\nCONCLUSION\n\nThe character and frequency of the references which Herder makes in his\nwritings to the philosophers of the eighteenth century show that he knew\nthe predominant lines of thought which characterized the entire period of\nthe enlightenment. The outstanding eighteenth-century theories which seem\nto have a place in Herder\u2019s conception of _das Volk_ are well epitomized\nin the teachings of Leibniz, Shaftesbury, and Rousseau.\n\nHerder\u2019s own exposition of a part of Leibniz\u2019 contribution to thought\nshows how he found here some things which were in agreement with his own\nfundamental ideas concerning innate potentialities.\n\nThe praise given to Shaftesbury\u2019s principal ideas of the harmonious\ndevelopment of the individual and of humanity lead us to believe that\nShaftesbury had exercised an influence on the German writer.\n\nThe numerous eulogistic outbursts over Rousseau, the coinciding in many\nwritings by both men of details concerning the essential elements in\nman\u2019s nature, concerning primitivism, liberty, and the ideal state, show\nthat Herder was fully imbued with the spirit of Rousseau, expressed in\nthe cry, \u201cback to nature.\u201d\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VII\n\nCONCLUSION\n\n\nBoth the word _Volk_ and the various ideas for which it stands are\nold and are to be found among many peoples. The parent tongue, the\nIndo-European, seems to have had a form which meant \u201cfull,\u201d \u201cmany.\u201d The\n\u201cmany\u201d easily became the \u201ccommon,\u201d so that the \u201cmany\u201d as opposed to\nthe \u201cfew\u201d was parallel with the \u201ccommon,\u201d \u201cvulgar\u201d as opposed to the\n\u201cupper classes,\u201d the \u201caristocracy.\u201d This meaning seems to have been a\nfundamental one in both ancient and modern times.\n\nThe shift in meaning of the Germanic word _Volk_, which extends the\nsense to that of \u201cnation,\u201d has been more general and more permanent in\nGerman than in English. It is with these two main conceptions, that is\n_Volk_, the common people, and _Volk_, nation, that we are concerned in\nthis study of Herder. Many examples of Herder\u2019s use of the term _Volk_\nshow that he makes the word an exact synonym for nation. In many other\nexamples it is used as an equivalent term for nation. In both of these\nuses \u201cnation\u201d with Herder means those bound together only by the same\nlaws and customs whether related by consanguinity or not.\n\nBut Herder frequently makes _Volk_ stand more specifically for those\nwho are of the same blood, and in that sense identifies it with \u201crace.\u201d\nWe have seen that these are common uses of the term _Volk_ and the\nidea conveyed by it, uses which occur in many languages and among many\ncivilized peoples.\n\nNow Herder, while using the term _Volk_ in the commonly accepted sense\nof nation, has always firmly in mind certain attributes and powers which\ncharacterize groups as such. They have power to rule; they have power\nto express themselves in peculiar ways; they have _Nationalgeist_. This\n_Nationalgeist_ in the final analysis is the outgrowth of physical and\nsocial environment and conforms to the dictates of these in all its\npeculiarities.\n\nIn exercising their powers and general spirit, they act as an entity\naccording to Herder\u2019s conception. He makes the group a single being, an\nindividual. In Herder\u2019s day when ideas of nationalism had no definite\nshape, this added sense of the meaning of nation meant clearly that\nhe was a forerunner in the realm of philosophy, and gave to Herder\u2019s\nconception of _Volk_, even in this commonly used sense, a unique place.\nIndividuality, personality, distinguished nations just as these traits\nmark out human beings.\n\nHerder makes use of the term _Volk_ in a second sense. Here he means\na group within a civilized nation which forms the mass below the\naristocracy and the governing class. This use likewise is to be found in\nall languages of civilized peoples.\n\nBut Herder is emphatic in noting that this group has not been affected\nby expurgating and eliminating influences to the fullest extent to which\nthese have operated. It has therefore been more thoroughly the product of\nnatural environment. In the proportion to which innate tendencies have\nnot been checked and warped, individual traits have had free development.\nTherefore spontaneous personality characterizes this group to a higher\ndegree than it does the more cultured. Here Herder makes prominent\nhis philosophy that unhampered nature is the most potent force in the\ndevelopment of this spontaneous personality.\n\nIn his collection of _Volkslieder_, Herder does not confine himself to\nthose which are marked by primitivism, but includes also many selections\nof polished literary form. But these all submit to a classification which\ntakes into account the true expression of universal and fundamental\nfeelings common to all humanity. Here Herder\u2019s mind is fixed on that\npower which the group has to express itself, to express that which is\nfundamental and therefore to show forth its personality.\n\nOssian\u2019s people and the Ancient Hebrews are products of an environment\nwhich is most effective in shaping Herder\u2019s ideal _Volk_: namely,\nnature unaltered by the hand of man. As a result of such rough, crude\nsurroundings, these peoples have developed into simple, harmonious\nbeings, and possess all the elements which Herder considers essential\nin man\u2019s nature. He finds they are natural because they are primitive,\nand they possess superior traits because they are natural. They have the\npower to give expression to their personality and have exercised this\npower in a marked way in their unique literatures. The individuality of\neach group is sharply defined in the songs of each.\n\nNow how does Herder arrive at the requirements to which he makes his\n_Volk_ conform?\n\nHis philosophy as expressed in _Erkennen und Empfindung_ recognizes\ninborn forces in the individual which are potentialities differing\nin kind and degree of working power in each person. These varying\npotentialities he makes the constituencies of the senses which are\naccordingly different in scope and capacity in every human being.\n\nIt must be noted that Herder does not regard these original \u201cforces\u201d as\nconstituted by the senses; they are prior to and more fundamental than\nthe senses. The phenomenon _Reiz_, stimulus, which causes the smallest\nfiber either in plant or animal to contract or expand, repeats itself\nin the nerves of each one of the senses. But this _Reiz_ is in the\nbeginning, and without it there would be no _Kr\u00e4fte_, no nerve, no sense\norgan. This _Reiz_, then, is identical with the innate forces, _Kr\u00e4fte_.\n\nThey control and direct the development of the senses and are, therefore,\nthe very beginning of that variation in sense functioning which initiates\nindividuality.\n\nIt is in the treatment of these original _Kr\u00e4fte_ that Herder gives his\nown turn to Leibniz\u2019 theory of the monad.\n\nThe principle of the monad was highly abstract, and when Herder took it\nover he gave to it a more concrete application. It became the principle\nof innate and varying potentialities. The monad was not controlled and\ndirected by a force outside itself, according to Herder, but by a power\nwithin, and as the power within was never exactly alike in any two\nbeings, no two could develop just alike. Here are Herder\u2019s foundations\nfor individuality and personality.\n\nA perfection resulting from the unfolding of the content of the\nindividual life and the shaping of its originality are seen in\nShaftesbury\u2019s thought when he makes morality consist of the rich and full\nexpression of individual powers in a beautiful and sovereign personality.\nThe individual system as seen in one man in all its physical and mental\nelements is related to something external to himself. Altruistic\ninclinations are an important part of the natural endowment of every\nhuman being.\n\nNow Herder sees that this unfettered development of natural endowments\nwill come to its fullest only in relations to others. It is the essence\nof his _Humanit\u00e4t_. He goes further than Shaftesbury in that he finds\nin this tie, which unites the individual to the group, that which is\nuniversal and fundamental. He endows his _Volk_ with sentiments which are\nuniversal and fundamental. It is this universal and fundamental which\nmakes such expressions as \u201cHamlet\u2019s soliloquy\u201d find a place among the\nsongs of Herder\u2019s _Volk_.\n\nWe have seen that when Herder lays emphasis on the feelings, when he is\nopposed to arbitrary and restrictive government, when he elevates the\ncrude and primitive, his system of thought is in agreement with that of\nRousseau. But Herder makes an advance in seeking standards in processes\nactually or believed to be found in Nature. His line of investigation in\nhistory, art, and philosophy will be by way of the natural man, i.e.,\nthe primitive. His _Volk_, then, because of their power to express their\npersonality freely, give him a theory of art; art must be an expression\nof personality.\n\nBoth Shaftesbury and Rousseau relate the development of the individual\nto the group but neither makes the altruism or interdependence such\nan impelling force as does Herder. His _Volk_, conscious of their own\nfrailty, will have sympathy and a general regard for the needs and\ninterests of mankind. This consciousness will be not merely a passive\naltruism nor an interdependence of material and economic necessity, but\nit will be heightened by an ideal love for humanity, which will force to\nactive and positive efforts to make humanity the highest possible.\n\nWhen we eliminate details, when we regard only those elements upon which\nHerder\u2019s thought seems to be continuous, those qualifications of which\nhe never seems to loose sight, whether he idealizes his _Volk_ through\nhis philosophy, his song collections, his study of the works of other\nphilosophers, or through the analysis of concrete examples, we come to\nthe following as essentials in Herder\u2019s _Volk_: _Das Volk_ is a group\nwhose innate, natural tendencies have been allowed to unfold and develop\nunhindered and unwarped by civilization. They are people who have come\ninto contact with various forces of nature in the physical world and have\nbeen strongly influenced by their natural environment.\n\nThey, as an entity, possess: (1) Individuality, personality; (2) a sense\nof that which is universal and fundamental among mankind; (3) common\nfeelings of relationship to humanity; (4) strong religious sentiments.\n\nThey are wont to express themselves freely, fully, truthfully, in\nvarious forms of art, the individual specimens of which find their test\nof genuineness in the response which they receive from the group out of\nwhich they arose.\n\nIn this ideal conception Herder sees the best that mankind can produce.\n\n\n\n\nFOOTNOTES\n\n\n[1] Schiller, _Jungfrau von Orleans_, I, p. 3.\n\n[2] _Piccolomini_, II, p. 7.\n\n[3] _Kampf mit dem Drachen._\n\n[4] Wildenbruch.\n\n[5] Goethe, _Faust_, I.\n\n[6] F\u00e9n\u00e9lon, _T\u00e9l\u00e9maque_, XXIV.\n\n[7] Bible, _J\u00e9r\u00e9mie_, XXXI, 33.\n\n[8] _La Bruy\u00e8re_, IX.\n\n[9] Dr. Martin Sch\u00fctze has analyzed this feature of Herder\u2019s philosophy,\n\u201cFundamental Ideas in Herder\u2019s Thought,\u201d _Modern Philosophy_, XVIII;\nJune, October, 1920.\n\n[10] References to these discussions: Herder\u2019s _S\u00e4mmtliche Werke_,\nSuphan, volume and page: I, 437; II, 119, 132, 168, 182, 203, 259, 322,\n324, 331, 387, 416; VI, 21; VIII, 99, 216, 391; IX, 317, 543; XI, 297;\nXII, 334; XIV, 103, 263; XVI, 323; XVIII, 446; XXIII, 569; XXIV, 232,\n301, 302; XXVII, 180.\n\n[11] References to these discussions: Herder\u2019s _S\u00e4mmtliche Werke_,\nSuphan, volume and page: I, 258; VI, 1; XI, 215; XII, 1.\n\n[12] Ossian, V, 325.\n\n[13] Ancient Hebrews, XI, 173.\n\n[14] Ossians Gedichte, _Lieder_ .... V, 196.\n\n[15] Ossians Gedichte, V, 197.\n\n[16] Ancient Hebrews, XII, 28.\n\n[17] Ancient Hebrews, I, 258.\n\n[18] Ossian, V, 326.\n\n[19] Ancient Hebrews, XII, 27.\n\n[20] Ossian, V, 324.\n\n[21] Ancient Hebrews, XII, 22.\n\n[22] Ossian, V, 324.\n\n[23] Ancient Hebrews, XI, 292.\n\n[24] Ossian, V, 182.\n\n[25] Ancient Hebrews, XI, 227.\n\n[26] Ancient Hebrews, XI, 228. (_die Ebr\u00e4ische Sprache_).\n\n[27] Ossian, XVIII, 457.\n\n[28] Ancient Hebrews, I, 262.\n\n[29] Ancient Hebrews, XII, 8.\n\n\n\n\nBIBLIOGRAPHY\n\n\nANDRESS, JAMES MACE. _Johann Gottfried Herder as an Educator._ New York:\nG. E. Stechert, 1916.\n\nBACHARACH, ARMAND. _Shaftesbury\u2019s Optimismus und sein Verh\u00e4ltnis zum\nLeibnischen._ Inaugural dissertation.\n\nBEARDSLEE, J. W. _The Use of \u03a6\u03a5\u03a3\u0399\u03a3 in Fifth-Century Greek Literature._\nChicago: University of Chicago Press, 1918.\n\nB\u00dcRKNER, RICHARD. _Herder, sein Leben und Wirken._ Berlin: E. 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Thanner Druckerei und Zeitungsverlag, 1919.\n\nWINDELBAND, DR. W. _A History of Philosophy._ Translated by James H.\nTufts. New York: The Macmillan Co. London: Macmillan & Co., 1919.","title":"Herder's conception of \"das Volk\"","tradition":"philosophy-ethics","translated_text":null,"word_count":21391}