{"collection":"myth-cosmogony","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_7017/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_7017","id":"gutenberg_7017","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/7017","summary":null,"tags":["Category: Archaeology & Anthropology","Category: Mythology, Legends & Folklore","Tinguian (Philippine people)"],"text":"Produced by Jeroen Hellingman, Charles Franks\nand the Online Distributed Proofreading Team.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nA STUDY IN TINGUIAN FOLK-LORE\n\nBy\n\nFAY-COOPER COLE\n\n\n\nSubmitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of\nDoctor of Philosophy, in the Faculty of Philosophy, Columbia University\n\nChicago\n\n1915\n\n\n\n\n\n\nA STUDY IN TINGUIAN FOLK-LORE\n\nThis paper is based on a collection of Philippine folk-tales recently\npublished by the Field Museum of Natural History. [1] The material\nappearing in that publication was gathered by the writer during a\nstay of sixteen months with the Tinguian, a powerful pagan tribe\ninhabiting the mountain districts of Abra, Ilocos Sur, and Norte, of\nNorthern Luzon. In social organization, government, manner of house\nbuilding, and many other details of material culture this tribe differs\nradically from the neighboring Igorot. Observation has also led me\nto the conclusion that the religious organization and ceremonies of\nthis people have reached a higher development than is found among the\nnear-by tribes, and that this complexity decreases as we penetrate\ntoward the interior or to the south. In the main the folk-tales are\nclosely associated with the religious beliefs of the present day,\nand hence it seems unlikely that they will be found, in anything\napproaching their present form, far outside the districts dominated\nby this tribe. Nevertheless, isolated incidents corresponding to those\nof neighboring peoples, or even of distant lands, occur several times.\n\nIn the following pages an attempt has been made to bring together the\nculture of this people, as it appears in the myths, and to contrast\nit to present day conditions and beliefs. In this way we may hope to\ngain a clearer insight into their mental life, and to secure a better\nidea of the values they attach to certain of their activities than\nis afforded us by actual observation or by direct inquiry. It is also\npossible that the tales may give us a glimpse of the early conditions\nunder which this people developed, of their life and culture before\nthe advent of the European.\n\nIt should be noted at the outset that no attempt is here made to\nreconstruct an actual historical period. As will appear later, a\npart of the material is evidently very old; later introductions--to\nwhich approximate dates may be assigned--have assumed places of great\nimportance; while the stories doubtless owe much to the creative\nimaginations of successive story tellers.\n\nFor the purposes of our study, the tales have been roughly divided\ninto three parts. The first, which deals with the mythical period,\ncontains thirty-one tales of similar type in which the characters\nare for the most part the same, although the last five tales do not\nproperly fit into the cycle, and the concluding story of Indayo is\nevidently a recent account told in the form of the older relations.\n\nIn the second division are the ritualistic and explanatory myths,\nthe object of which seems to be to account for the origin of or way\nof conducting various ceremonies; for the belief in certain spirits\nand sacred objects; for the existence of the sun, moon, and other\nnatural phenomena; for the attainment of fire, food plants, birds\nand domestic animals, as well as of magical jars and beads. Here it\nshould be noted that some of the most common and important beliefs\nand ceremonies are, so far as is known, unaccompanied by any tales,\nyet are known to all the population, and are preserved almost without\nchange from generation to generation.\n\nDivision three contains the ordinary stories with which parents amuse\ntheir children or with which men and women while away the midday\nhours as they lounge in the field houses, or when they, stop on the\ntrail to rest and smoke.\n\nNone of the folk-tales are considered as the property of the tellers,\nbut only those of the third division are well known to the people in\ngeneral. Those of the first section are seldom heard except during the\ndry season when the people gather around bonfires in various parts of\nthe village. To these go the men and women, the latter to spin cotton,\nthe former to make fish nets or to repair their tools and weapons. In\nsuch a gathering there are generally one or more persons who entertain\ntheir fellows with these tales. Such a person is not paid for his\nservices, but the fact that he knows \"the stories of the first times\"\nmakes him a welcome addition to the company and gives him an enviable\nposition in the estimation of his fellows.\n\nThe purely ritualistic tales, called diams, are learned word by word\nby the mediums, [2] as a part of their training for their positions,\nand are only recited while an animal is being stroked with oil\npreparatory to its being sacrificed, or when some other gift is about\nto be presented to the superior beings. The writer has recorded these\ndiams from various mediums in widely separated towns and has found\nthem quite uniform in text and content. The explanatory tales were\nlikewise secured from the mediums, or from old men and women who\n\"know the customs.\" The stories of the last division are the most\nfrequently heard and, as already indicated, are told by all. It is\nevident even to the casual reader that these show much more evidence\nof outside influence than do the others; some, indeed, appear to have\nbeen recently borrowed from the neighboring christianized Ilocano. [3]\n\n\nTALES OF THE MYTHICAL PERIOD\n\nReconstruction of the Culture.--In the first division certain actors\noccur with great frequency, while others always take the leading\nparts. These latter appear under a variety of names, two or more\ntitles often being used for the same individual in a single tale. To\navoid confusion a list of the fourteen principal actors and their\nrelationships are given in the accompanying table. It will appear that\nthere are some conflicts in the use of names, but when it is realized\nthat the first twenty-six myths which make up the cycle proper were\nsecured from six story tellers coming from four different towns,\nthe agreement rather than the disagreement is surprising. As a matter\nof fact there is quite as much variation between the accounts of the\nsame narrator as between those gathered from different towns.\n\n\nTABLE OF LEADING CHARACTERS [4]\n\nI. Aponitolau. Son of Pagatip\u00e1nan [male] and Langa-an [female] [5]\nof Kadalayapan; is the husband of Aponibolinayen. Appears under the\nfollowing names: (a) Ligi, (b) Albaga of Dalaga, (c) Dagdagalisit, (d)\nIngiwan or Kagkag\u00e1kag, (e) Ini-init, (f) Ling-giwan, (g) Kadayadawan,\n(h) Wadagan, (i) Awig (?)\n\nII. Aponigawani. Sister of Aponitolau and wife of Aponibalagen.\n\nIII. Aponibolinayen. Daughter of Pagbok\u00e1san [6] [male] and Ebang\n[female] of Kaodanan. Wife of Aponitolau. Appears as (a) Ayo, (b)\nDolim\u00e1man (?).\n\nIV. Aponibalagen. Brother of Aponibolinayen, and husband of\nAponigawani; also appears as Awig.\n\nV. Kanag. Son of Aponitolau and Aponibolinayen. Appears as (a)\nKanag kabagbagowan, (b) Balokanag, (c) Dumanau, (d) Ilwisan, (e)\nalso at times is identified with Dumalawi, his brother.\n\nVI. Dapilisan, wife of Kanag.\n\nVII. Dagol\u00e1yan. Son of Aponibalagen and Aponigawani. Also appears as\nDondony\u00e1n of Bagonan--the blood clot child.\n\nVIII. Alokot\u00e1n. An old woman who acts as a medium. Her home is at\nNagbotobot\u00e1n, where the rivers empty their waters into the hole at\nthe edge of the world.\n\nIX. Gawigawen [male]. A giant who owns the orange trees of Adasin.\n\nX. Giambolan [male]. A ten-headed giant.\n\nXI. Gaygay\u00f3ma. A star maiden who marries Aponitolau. The daughter of\nBagbagak [male], a big star,--and Sinag [female], the moon--.\n\nXII. Tabyayen. Son of Aponitolau and Gaygay\u00f3ma. Half brother of Kanag.\n\nXIII. Kabkabaga-an. A powerful female spirit who falls in love with\nAponitolau.\n\nXIV. Asibowan. The maiden of Gegen\u00e1wan, who is related to the spirit\nKaboniyan. The mistress of Aponitolau.\n\nIn consequence of modern rationalism there is a tendency on the\npart of a considerable number of the Tinguian to consider these\ntales purely as stories and the characters as fictitious, but the\nmass of the people hold them to be true and speak of the actors as\n\"the people who lived in the first times.\" For the present we shall\ntake their point of view and shall try to reconstruct the life in\n\"the first times\" as it appears in the tales.\n\nThe principal actors live in Kadalayapan and Kaodanan, [7] towns\nwhich our chief story teller--when trying to explain the desire of\nKanag to go down and get fruit--assures us were somewhere in the air,\nabove the earth (p. 141). [8] At other times these places are referred\nto as Sudipan--the term by which spirits are supposed to call the\npresent earth--while the actors are referred to as Ipogau--the spirit\nname for Tinguian. Whatever its location it was a place much like the\npresent home of this people. The sky, the chief abode of spirits and\ncelestial bodies, was above the land, and the heroes of the tales\nare pictured as ascending to visit the upper realms. The trees,\nplants, and animals were for the most part those known to-day. The\nocean appears to have been well known, while mention is made of some\nplaces in Luzon, such as Dagopan and San Fernando in Pangasinan with\nwhich the people of to-day are not at all familiar (p. 89, 168).\n\nWe learn that each village is situated near to a river or waterway\nby the banks of which shallow wells are dug, and there we find the\nwomen gathering under the shade of the trees, dipping up water to be\ncarried to their homes, washing and combing their hair, and taking\ntheir baths (p. 48). They seldom go singly, for enemies are apt to\nbe near, and unless several are in the company it will be impossible\nto spread the alarm and secure help in case of attack (p. 43).\n\nLeading up from the spring to the village are bamboo poles on which\nthe heads of enemies are displayed (p. 43). In cases where the\nwarriors have been especially successful these trophies may surround\nthe whole settlement (p. 76). About the town is a defensive wall,\ngenerally of bamboo, but in some cases made up entirely of gigantic\nsnakes (p. 43). Within this inclosure are many houses. The bamboo\nfloors are raised high above the ground, while the thatching is of\ngrass. Ladders lead up to little porches, from which doors open into\nthe dwellings. At least part of the houses have a cooking room in\naddition to that used by the family, while structures containing a\nninth room are several times mentioned (pp. 43, 52, 85).\n\nIn one corner of the living room is a box containing blankets, above\nwhich are pillows and mats used by members of the household and guests;\nan iron caldron lies on the floor, while numerous Chinese jars stand\nabout. A hearth, made up of a bed of ashes in which stones are sunk,\nis used for cooking. Above it is a bamboo food hanger, while near by\nstand jars of water and various cooking pots. Food baskets, coconut\nshell cups, and dishes, and a quantity of Chinese plates appear when\nthe meal is served, while the use of glass is not unknown. Cups of\ngold, wonderful jars, and plates appear at times, but seem to be so\nrare as to excite comment (pp. 33, 98, 102, 105).\n\nScattered through the village are numerous small buildings known as\nbalaua (p. 43), which are erected for the spirits during the greatest\nof the ceremonies, and still inside the enclosure are the rice drying\nplots and granaries, the latter raised high above the ground so as\nto protect their contents from moisture (pp. 150).\n\nAbout the town pigs and chickens roam at will, while half-starved\nhunting dogs prowl about below the kitchens and fight for morsels\nwhich drop from above (p. 99). Carabao are kept and used as food\n(p. 101), but in the cycle proper no mention is made of using them as\nwork animals. [9] Game, especially deer and wild chickens, and fish\nare added to the domestic supply of food (p. 80), but the staple\nappears to be mountain rice. Beans, coconuts, oranzes, sugar cane,\nbetel-nuts, and tobacco are also cultivated (pp. 33, 107, 121, 138).\n\nClothing is scanty but nevertheless receives much attention. The\npoorest of the men wear clouts of banana leaf, and the women, when in\ndanger of capture, don skirts of bark; but on most occasions we find\nthe man wearing a colored cotton clout, above which is a bright belt\nof the same material, while for ceremonies he may add a short coat or\njacket. A headband, sometimes of gold, keeps his long hair in place,\nand for very special events he may adorn each hair with a golden bead\n(pp. 74, 76, 81)\n\nThe cotton skirts of the women reach from the waist to the knees;\nthe arms are covered with strands above strands of beads, while\nstrings of agate beads surround the neck or help to hold the hair in\nplace. To the real hair is often added a switch which appears to be\nvalued highly (p. 89). Ornaments of gold adorn the ears, and finger\nrings of the same metal are several times mentioned (pp. 39, 43, 124).\n\nThe tales afford us a glimpse of the daily life. In the early morning\nthe chilly mountain air drives the people from their mats to the yard,\nwhere they squat about the fires (p. 132). As it becomes light,\npart of the women begin pounding out the rice from its straw and\nhusks (p. 144), while others depart for the springs to secure water\n(p. 101). In planting time husband and wife trudge together to the\nfields, where the man plants the seeds or cuttings, and his wife\nassists by pouring on water (p. 107). In midday, unless it is the busy\nseason, the village activities are practically suspended, and we see\nthe balaua filled with men, asleep or lounging, while children may be\nplaying about with tops or disk-like lipi seeds (p. 139). As it becomes\ncooler, the town again takes on life; in the houses the women weave\nblankets or prepare food, the older women feed the chickens and pigs\n(p. 93), while the workers from the fields, or hunters with their\ndogs and game, add to the general din and excitement (p. 80). When\nnight comes on, if it be in the dry season, bonfires spring up in\ndifferent parts of the village, and about them the girls and women\ngather to spin. Here also come the men and boys, to lounge and talk\n(p. 117). A considerable portion of the man's time is taken up in\npreparation for or actual participation in warfare (p. 74). We have\nalready seen that the constant danger of enemies makes it advisable\nfor the women to go in parties, even to the village spring. One tale\ninforms us of a girl who is left alone to guard the rice field and\nis promptly killed by the alzado; [10] another states that \"all the\ntattooed Igorot are enemies\" (pp. 43, 155, 161).\n\nRevenge for the loss of relations or townspeople is a potent cause\nof hostile raids; old feuds may be revived by taunts; but the chief\nincentive appears to be the desire for renown, to be known as \"a man\nwho goes to fight in the enemies' towns\" (pp. 90, 59).\n\nWarriors sometimes go in parties, sometimes alone, but generally in\ncouples (p. 67). At times they lie in ambush and kill young girls\nwho go for water, or old men and women who pass their hiding place\n(p. 97). Again they go out boldly, armed with shield, spear, and\nheadaxe; they strike their shields as they go and announce their\npresence to the enemy (p. 103). In five of the tales the heroes\nchallenge their opponents and then refuse to be the first to use their\nweapons. It is only when their foes have tried in vain to injure them\nthat they enter the conflict. In such cases whole towns are wiped out\nof existence and a great number of heads and a quantity of jars and\nother booty is sent back to the towns of the victors (p. 104). Peace\nis restored in one instance by the payment of a number of valuable jars\n(p. 91).\n\nUpon the return of a successful war party, the relatives meet them at\nthe gate of the town and compel them to climb the sangap; [11] then\ninvitations are sent out to friends and relatives in neighboring towns\nto come and aid in the celebration of the victory (p. 140). When they\narrive at the entrance of the village they are met by the townspeople,\nwho offer them liquor and then conduct them to the houses where they\nfeast and dance to the music of gansas (p. 126).  [12] Finally the\ncaptured heads are stuck on the sagang  [13] and are placed by the\ngate, the spring, and, if sufficient in number, surround the town\n(p. 140). Taking the heads of one's neighbors does not appear to\nbe common, yet cases are mentioned where visitors are treacherously\nkilled at a dance (pp. 78, 83).\n\nThe use of poison [14] is twice mentioned. In one case the victims\nare killed by drinking liquor furnished by the father of the girl\nabout whose head they are dancing (pp. 148, 156).\n\nBamboo spears appear to be used, but we are explicitly told that\nthey fought with steel weapons, and there are frequent references to\nhead-axes, spears, and knives (pp. 65, 76, 120).\n\nMarriage appears generally to be negotiated by the mother of the youth\nat his suggestion (p. 128). At times both his parents go to the girl's\nhome, and after many preliminaries broach the subject of their mission\n(p. 128). The girl's people discuss the proposition, and if they are\nfavorable they set a day for the pak\u00e1lon--a celebration at which the\nprice to be paid for the bride is decided upon (p. 49). The parents\nof the groom then return home after having left some small present,\nsuch as a jar or an agate bead, as a sign of engagement (p. 128). [15]\nThe pak\u00e1lon is held a few days later at the girl's home, and for\nthis event her people prepare a quantity of food (p. 72). On the\nagreed day the close friends and relatives of both families will\nassemble. Those who accompany the groom carry jars and pigs, either\nin part payment for the bride, or to serve as food for the company\n(pp. 72, 128). The first hours are spent in bargaining over the\nprice the girl should bring, but when this is settled a feast is\nprepared, and then all indulge in dancing the tadek (p. 59). [16]\nWhen the payment is made a portion is distributed among the girl's\nrelatives (pp. 72, 74), but her parents retain the greater part for\nthemselves. [17] The groom cannot yet claim his bride, although in\none case he is allowed to take her immediately after the pak\u00e1lon by\nmaking a special payment for the privilege (p. 74). A few nights later\nthe groom goes to the girl's home carrying with him an empty jar with\nwhich he makes the final payment (p. 73). The customary rice ceremony\n[18] follows and he is then entitled to his bride (p. 73). Should the\nhouse or anything in it break at this time, it foretells misfortune\nfor the couple, hence precautions are taken lest such a sign should,\nby accident, be given (p. 60).\n\nIn all but two cases mentioned the girl and her husband go to live\nwith his people. In the first instance their failure to do so raises a\nprotest; in the second, the girl's parents are of much more importance\nthan those of the groom, and this may explain their ability to retain\ntheir daughter (pp. 138, 159).\n\nWhen the bride reaches her future home, she sits on the bamboo floor\nwith her legs stretched out in front of her. The slats which she\ncovers are counted and a string of agate beads, equal in length to\nthe combined width of the slats, is given to her. She now becomes\na full member of the family and seems to be under the orders of her\nmother-in-law (p. 60).\n\nThe tales give constant sanction for the marriage of near\nrelatives. Dumanau, we are told, marries his cousin, [19] while we\nfrequently meet with such statements as, \"We are relatives and it is\ngood for us to be married,\" or \"They saw that they were related and\nthat both possessed magical power, so they were married (p. 35).\" It\nappears that a man may live with his sweetheart and have children\nby her, yet leave her, and, without reproach, marry another better\nfitted to be his wife (p. 54). He may also accept payment for a wife\nwho has deserted him, apparently without loss of prestige (p. 64). No\nobjection seems to be raised to a man having two wives so long as\none of these is an inhabitant of the upper world (p. 111), but we\nfind Kanag telling his former sweetheart that he cannot marry her\nsince he is now married to another (p. 138). Again, when two women\nlay claim to Aponitolau, as their husband, they undergo a test and\nthe loser returns to her former home (p. 94). However, this rule does\nnot prevent a man from having several concubines (p., 120). Gawigawen,\nwe are told, is accompanied to a pak\u00e1lon by eighteen young girls who\nare his concubines (p. 59).\n\nDivorce is twice mentioned, but it seems to call out protest only\nfrom the cast off wife (pp. 63, 149).\n\nClosely associated with the celebration of a marriage seems to be a\nceremony known as Sayang, during the progress of which a number of\nsmall structures--the largest known as balaua--are built. Judging by\ntheir names and descriptions, we are justified in considering them\n\"spirit houses\" as they are to-day.\n\nThe details of the extended Sayang ceremony are nowhere given, but\nso much is made plain:--At its beginning many people pound rice,\nfor use in the offerings and for food, and da-eng [20] is danced\n(p. 40). After the Libon [21] invitations are sent out, by means of\nbetel-nuts covered with gold, to those whose presence is especially\ndesired (p. 62). When the guests arrive at the village spring or\ngate they are offered food or drink, and then while they dance they\nare sprinkled with water or rice, after which all go up to the town\n(p. 41 note 2). A medium who knows the customs and desires of the\nspirits constructs a bamboo mat, which is known as talapitap, and\non it offers food. To call their attention she frequently strikes\nthe ground with the dakidak--split sticks of bamboo and lono [22]\n(p. 40). The guests are not neglected, so far as regards food, for\nfeasting and dancing occupy a considerable portion of their time. The\nceremonial dance da-eng is mentioned, but the tadek  [23] seems to\nbe the one in special favor (pp. 41, 59).\n\nOne tale tells us that the Sayang was held immediately following a\nhead hunt; and another, that Aponitolau went out to get the head of\nan old man before he started this ceremony (pp. 69, 76); however,\nthe evidence is by no means conclusive that it is related to warfare.\n\nOn page 105 we are told that Kanag's half sister is a medium, and the\ndescription of her method of summoning the spirits tallies with that\nof to-day. At the Sayang ceremony she is called to perform the Dawak,\n[24] with the assistance of the old woman Alokot\u00e1n (p. 106). The Dawak\nis also held in order to stop the flow of blood from Aponitolau's\nfinger (p. 113). The only other ceremony mentioned is that made in\norder to find a lost switch (p. 91).\n\nCertain well-known customs are strongly brought out in our\nmaterial. The first, and apparently most important, is the necessity\nof offering liquor and food, both to strangers and to guests\n(p. 58). Refusal is so keenly resented that in one instance a couple\ndecline to allow their daughter to marry a man whose emissaries\nreject this gift (p. 73). Old quarrels are closed by the tender of\nfood or drink, and friendships are cemented by the drinking of basi\n[25] (p. 134). People meeting for the first time, and even friends\nwho have been separated for a while, chew betel-nut together and\ntell their names and places of residence. We are repeatedly told\nthat it is necessary to chew the nut and make known their names, for\n\"we cannot tell our names unless we chew,\" and \"it is bad for us if\nwe do not know each other's names when we talk.\" A certain etiquette\nis followed at this time: old men precede the younger; people of the\nhome town, the visitors; and men always are before the women (pp. 45,\n133). The conduct of Awig when he serves liquor to the alzados [26]\nis that of to-day, i.e., the person who serves always drinks before\npassing it to others (p. 156).\n\nCertain other rules of etiquette or restrictions on conduct come out\nin the tales. We learn that it is not considered proper for a man\nto eat with the wife of another during his absence, nor should they\nstart the meal before he comes in (p. 52). The master of a dance is\ndeeply chagrined and chides his wife severely, because she insists\non dancing before he has invited all the others to take their turns\n(p. 70). Greediness is reproved in children and Aponitolau causes the\ndeath of his concubines whose false tales had led him to maltreat his\nwife (p. 116). Unfaithfulness seems to be sufficient justification\nfor a man to abandon his wife and kill her admirer (p. 78); but Kanag\nappears as a hero when he refuses to attack his father who has sought\nhis life (p. 121).\n\nOf the ceremonies connected with death we learn very little except that\nthe women discard their arm beads, the mourners don old clothing, and\nall wail for the dead (pp. 44, 90). Three times we are told that the\ndeceased is placed on a tabalang, or raft, on which a live rooster is\nfastened before it is set adrift on the river. In the tales the raft\nand fowl are of gold, but this is surprising even to the old woman\nAlokot\u00e1n, past whose home in Nagbotobot\u00e1n all these rafts must go\n(p. 131).\n\nUp to this time in our reconstruction of the life of \"the first\ntimes\" we have mentioned nothing impossible or improbable to the\npresent day Tinguian, although, as we shall see later, there are some\nstriking differences in customs and ideas. We have purposely left the\ndescription of the people and their practice of magic to the last,\nalthough their magical practices invade every activity of their lives,\nfor it is here that the greatest variations from present conditions\napparently occur.\n\nThese people had intimate relations with some of the lesser spirits,\nespecially with the liblibayan, [27] who appear to be little more\nthan their servants, with the evil spirits known as banban\u00e1yo,\n[28] and with the alan [29] (p. 123). The alan, just mentioned,\nare to-day considered as deformed spirits who live in the forests:\n\"They are as large as people but have wings and can fly; their toes\nare at the back of their feet and their fingers point backwards from\ntheir wrists.\" The several references to them in the tales such as\n\"you alan girls whose toes on your feet turn out\" indicate they were\nso considered in the first times (p. 161). Some of them are addressed\nas \"you alan of the springs,\" and in one instance a man dives down\ninto the water where the alan live (p. 148), but in general their\nhomes seem to be similar to but much finer than those of the people\nof Kadalayapan and Kaodanan. These spirits appear time after time as\nthe foster mothers of the leading characters: Generally they secure\na drop of menstrual blood, a miscarriage, or the afterbirth, and all\nunknown to the real parents, change them into children and raise them\n(p. 83). These foster children are pictured as living in houses of\ngold situated near springs, the pebbles of which are of Gold or beads;\n[30] the places where the women set the pots while dipping water are\nbig plates or dishes, while similar dishes form the stepping stones\nleading up to the house. Articles of gold are found in the dwellings\nand valuable jars are numerous. When the true relationships of these\nchildren are established they always go to their blood parents,\ncarrying with them these riches, which are a source of wonder and\ncomment (pp. 43, 64).\n\nThe people of Kadalayapan and Kaodanan have many dealings with\nthe celestial bodies. The big star Bagbagak appears as the husband\nof Sinag--the moon--and father of the star maiden Gaygay\u00f3ma, who,\nAponitolau assures his wife, is a spirit. When this girl comes down\nto steal sugar-cane she takes off her star dress and appears as a\nbeautiful maiden; [31] she becomes enamored with Aponitolau and takes\nhim to the sky, where he lives with her. They have a child, who later\nmarries in Kadalayapan and thereafter stays below. Upon the occasion\nwhen Aponitolau visits his first wife and fails to return to the sky\nat the appointed time, a great company of stars are sent to fetch him,\nwith orders to devour him if he refuses to obey (p. 109, ff.).\n\nIn the first tale Aponitolau himself appears as \"the sun,\" \"the\nman who makes the sun,\" as \"a round stone which rolls,\" but when\nit is established that he is the son of a couple in Kadalayapan he\napparently relinquishes his duties in the sky and goes to live in\nthe village of his people. With him goes his wife Aponibolinayen, who\nhad been carried above by a vine. While at his post in the heavens,\nAponitolau is closely associated with the big star, whose duty it is to\nfollow him in the sky. Again we are told that Aponitolau is taken up\nby the spirit Kabkabaga-an, whom he marries and by whom he has a son\n(p. 114). In some instances this hero and his son Kanag converse with\nthunder and lightning, which appear at times not unlike human beings\n(p. 100); but in the eighth relation the two kinds of lightning are\npictured as dogs who guard the town of Dona.\n\nThese people enjoy unusual relations with inanimate things, and we\nfind them conversing with spears and with jars. [32] In one case the\nlatter appear to be pastured like animals, and surround Aponitolau when\nhe goes to feed them with lawed [33] leaves and salt (p. 51). Weapons\nweep blood and oil when taken down for the purpose of injuring certain\npersons (p. 43). A nose flute, when played by a youth, tells him of\nhis mother's plight (p. 152), while a bamboo Jew's harp summons the\nbrothers of its owner (p. 162). Animals and birds are frequently in\ncommunication with them: The hawk flies away and spreads the news of\nthe fight at Adasin [34] (p. 90); at the bidding of Dalon\u00e1gan a spider\nspins a web about the town (p. 124); and Aponitolau is enabled to\nfulfill the labors assigned him by the ten-headed giant only through\nthe aid of spiders, ants, and flies (p. 101). [35] During certain\ndances the water from the river flows over the town and fish come\nup and bite the feet of the dancers (p. 59). Crocodiles are left to\nguard the sister of Aponibalagen, and when they fail to explain their\nnegligence they are whipped and sent away by their master (p. 87). A\ngreat bird is pleased with Aponitolau and carries him away [36] to its\nhome, where it forces him to marry a woman it had previously captured\n(p. 92). In one instance an animal gives birth to a human child; a frog\nlaps up the spittle of Aponitolau, and as a result becomes pregnant\n[37] and gives birth to a maiden who is taken away by the spirits\n(p. 105). Another account states that the three sons of Aponitolau\nand Aponibolinayen are born as pigs, but later assume human form\n(p. 116). Kanag becomes a snake when he tries to secure the perfume\nof Baliw\u00e1n, but is restored to human form when he bathes in a magic\nwell (p. 137). These and other mysterious happenings, many of which\nare not explained as being due to their own volition, befall them;\nthus Ingiwan, while walking, is confronted by an impassable hill and\nis compelled to cross the ocean, where he finds his future wife, but\nupon his return the hill has vanished (p. 86). In other instances the\nfinger rings of people meeting for the first time exchange themselves\n(p. 92). The headband of Ligi flies away without his knowledge and\nalights on the skirt of a girl who is bathing in the river. As a\nresult she becomes pregnant, and when the facts become known Ligi is\nrecognized as the child's father (p. 144). It seems probable that\nthe superior powers are responsible for these occurrences, for in\nat least one instance the great spirit Kaboniyan steals a maiden and\nturns her into a flock of birds, who talk with and assist the owner\nof a rice field (p. 151).\n\nWhile they thus appear to be to a certain extent under the control\nof the spirits and to be surrounded by animals and inanimate things\nwith human intelligence and speech, the people of these \"first times\"\npossess great power over nature: Time and space are annihilated, for\nat their will daylight comes at once (p. 150), or they are transported\nto a place in an instant (p. 92). At their command people appear:\nKanag creates betel-nut trees, then cuts the fruit into bits, Which he\nsows on the ground. From these come many people who are his neighbors,\nand one of whom he marries (p. 121). The course of nature is changed:\nA field is planted in an instant; the crops mature in a few days, and\nthe grain and fruits take themselves to the store-house (p. 150). A\nstrike-a-light turns into a hill which impedes pursuers (p. 75), [38]\nwhile a belt or head-axe serves as a ferry across a body of water\n(p. 84). A storm is called upon to carry a person or a building to\na distance (p. 121), and a spring is created by killing an old man\n(p. 60). [39] Prepared food appears at a word; a stick when cooked\nbecomes a fish, and though it is repeatedly broken and served it\nalways appears ready for service at meal time (p. 33); a small jar\ncontaining a single grain of rice supplies an abundance of food;\nanother jar no larger than a fist furnishes drink for a company and\nstill remains a third full; while a single earring fills a pot with\ngold [40] (pp. 47, 119, 123).\n\nQuite as easy as the creation of beings is the causing of sleep or\ndeath. All the people of a village are put to sleep at the will of a\nsingle person (p. 145) and Albaga--while still at a distance--causes\nthe death of Aponibolinayen (p. 44). At a word of command the spears\nand head-axes of the people of Kadalayapan and Kaodanan go out\nand kill great numbers of the enemy, and the heads and booty take\nthemselves in orderly fashion to towns of their new owners (pp. 66,\n75). Many methods of restoring the dead to life are employed; spittle\nis applied to the wounds, or the victim is placed in a magic well,\nbut the common method is for the hero \"to whip his perfume,\" [41]\nwhereupon the dead follow his commands (pp. 152, 157).\n\nThe birth of a child, to a woman of these times, is generally preceded\nby an intense itching between the third and last fingers, and when this\nspot is pricked the child pops out \"like popped rice.\" [42] Its growth\nis always magical, for at each bath its stature increases by a span\n(p. 102). Within a few days the baby is a large child and then begins\ndeeds of valor worthy of the most renowned warriors (pp. 95, 96).\n\nThe power of assuming animal forms appears to be a common possession,\nand we find the different characters changing themselves into\nfireflies, ants, centipedes, omen birds, and in one case into oil [43]\n(pp. 85, 99).\n\nOne of the most peculiar yet constantly used powers of these people\nis their ability to send betel-nuts on various missions. Whenever\nan invitation to a ceremony or celebration is to be extended, nuts\ncovered with gold are oiled and sent out. They go to the intended\nguest, state their errand, and, if refused, forthwith proceed to grow\non his knee, forehead, or pet pig, until pain or pity compels him to\naccept (p. 146). In some cases it appears that the nuts themselves\npossess the magic properties, for we find Aponitolau demanding that\nhis conquered foes give him their betel-nuts with magic power (p. 91).\n\nRelationships can be readily ascertained by the chewing of these nuts,\nfor when the quids are laid down they are transformed into agate and\ngolden beads and lie in such a manner that the associations are fully\nestablished (pp. 35, 36, 41).\n\nEnough has been mentioned to show how important a part magic and\nmagical practices play in the life of this people, but one further\nreference should be made, since it is found in nearly every tale. When\nthe marriage price is settled upon, the mother of the groom exercises\nher power and at once fills the spirit house with valuable jars and the\nlike; this is repeated until enough are gathered to meet the demands\nof the girl's people (p. 133). Even when the agreed sum has been\ndelivered we often find the girl's mother herself practicing magic,\nto secure additional payment, and by raising her elbows or eyebrows\ncausing a part of the jars to vanish (pp. 133, 143).\n\nDespite their great gifts we find that these people are not\nall-powerful and that they deem it wise to consult the omens before\nstarting on a task or a journey. The gall sack and liver of a pig are\neagerly examined, [44] while the calls of birds, actions of animals,\nor signs received from the thunder and lightning regulate their\nconduct. In cases where these warnings are disregarded misfortune or\ndeath always overtakes the individual (pp. 48, 49, 100 ff).\n\nDeath comes to them, but apparently is only a temporary state. The\ndeceased are often revived by some magical process (p. 152), but if\nnot the corpse is placed on a raft and is set adrift on the river. [45]\nThe streams and rivers, we are told, all flow past Nagbotobot\u00e1n before\nthey empty into the hole where all streams go. In this place lives the\nold woman Alokot\u00e1n, who is related to the people of Kadalayapan and\nKaodanan. Her duty it is to watch for dead relatives, to secure them,\nand make them alive again (p. 132). She is the owner of a magic pool,\nthe waters of which revive the dead and renew youth.\n\nComparison of the Reconstructed Culture with Present Day\nConditions.--Before passing to a consideration of the tales in the last\ntwo divisions of our material, it may be well to compare the life and\nbeliefs of these \"people of the first times\" with those of the living\nTinguian. Kadalayapan and Kaodanan appear, in a vague way, to have been\nlocated in Abra, for we learn that the Ilocano, Don Carlos, went up the\nriver from Baygan (Vigan) [46] to Kadalayapan; that the alzados [47]\nlived near by; while the tattooed Igorot occupied the land to the south\n(pp. 77, 155). The villages were surrounded by defensive walls such as\nwere to be found about all Tinguian villages until recent times, and\nwhich are still to be seen about Abang and other settlements. Within\nthe walls were many houses, the descriptions of most of which would\nfit the dwellings of to day. The one thing which seems foreign to\npresent conditions is the so-called \"ninth room\" which receives rather\nfrequent mention. There is nothing in the tales referring to buildings\nor house construction which lends support to the contention of those\nwho seek to class the Tinguian as a modified sub-group of Igorot. [48]\nThe Bontoc type of dwelling with its ground floor sleeping box and\nits elevated one room kitchen and storage room is nowhere mentioned,\nneither is there any indication that in past or present times the\nTinguian had separate sleeping houses for the unmarried men and boys,\nand for the girls, as do their neighbors to the south.\n\nThe other structures, such as the spirit houses, rice drying\nframes, and granaries were similar to those seen to-day in all the\nvillages. Likewise the house furnishings, the musical instruments,\nand even the games of the children were such as are to be found at\npresent, while our picture of the village life given on page 6 still\nfits nearly any Tinguian settlement in Abra. The animals mentioned\nare all familiar to the present people, but it is worthy of note\nthat in the first twenty-six tales, which make up the cycle proper,\nthe horse is not mentioned, nor does the carabao appear to be used\nas a work animal. Still more important is the fact that the terraced\nfields and the rice culture accompanying them, which to-day occupy\na predominant place in the economic life of the people, are nowhere\nmentioned. On the other hand, the langp\u00e1dan, or mountain rice,\nassumes a place of great importance. References to the cultivation\nof the land all seem to indicate that the \"hoe culture,\" which is\nstill practiced to a limited extent, took the place of agriculture.\n\nThe clothing, hair dressing, and ornaments, worn by these people,\nagree closely with those of to-day. Beads seems to have been of\nprime importance, but could scarcely have been more prized or more\nused than at present. Unless she be in mourning, the hair and neck\nof each woman are now ornamented with strings of beads, many of them\nof evident antiquity, while strands above strands cover the arms from\nthe wrist to the elbow or even reach to the shoulder. [49]\n\nThe wealth of a person seems to have been, to a large extent,\ndetermined by the number of old jars in his possession. As at the\npresent time, they formed the basis of settlement for feuds, as payment\nfor a bride, and even figured in the marriage ceremony itself. The\njars, as judged from their names, were evidently of ancient Chinese\nmanufacture, and possessed power of speech and motion similar to that\nof human beings; but in a lesser measure the same type of jars have\nsimilar powers to-day. [50]\n\nThe use of gold and jewels seems to have been common in the old times;\nthe latter are seldom seen in the district to-day, but the use of bits\nof gold in the various ceremonies is still common, while earrings of\ngold or copper are among the most prized possessions of the women. [51]\nPlacer mining is well known to the Igorot of the south, who melt and\ncast the metal into various ornaments. So far as I am aware, this is\nnot practiced by the present Tinguian, but may point back to a time\nwhen the industry was known in this region, or when trade relations\nwith the south were much freer than in recent years.\n\nThe weapons of the warriors, which we are specifically told were of\nmetal, are identical with those seen at the present time, while the\nmethods of warfare agree with the accounts still told by the old men\nof their youthful exploits.\n\nA survey of the tales brings out boldly the fact that a headhunt was\none of the most important events in Tinguian life. To-day stress of\ncircumstances has caused the custom to suffer a rapid decline, but\neven now heads are occasionally taken, while most of the old men have\nvivid recollections of the days when they fought \"in the towns of their\nenemies.\" A spirited account of a head celebration seen in the village\nof Lagangilang--from which ten of these tales were collected--will\nbe found in the writings of La Gironiere, already referred to. [52]\nIt is important to note that this account, as well as those secured\nfrom many warriors of the present generation, offers some striking\ndifferences to the procedure in the olden days, particularly as regards\nthe disposal of the skulls. The tales tell of the heads being placed\non the sagang [53] at the spring, at the gate, or about the town,\nafter the celebration. Certain of the present villages make use of\nthe sagang, but the more common type of head holder is the saloko,\n[54] which still figures in many ceremonies. However, the heads only\nremain in these receptacles until the day set for the festival. They\nare then carried to the centre of the village and there, amid\ngreat rejoicing, are cut open; the brains are removed and to them\nare added the lobes of the ears and joints of the little fingers,\nand the whole is then placed in the liquor, which is served to the\ndancers. Before the guests depart the skulls are broken into small\npieces and a fragment is presented to each male guest, who carries\nit home and is thus often reminded of the valor of the takers. [55]\nA study of Tinguian beliefs furnishes an additional religious motive\nfor the taking of heads, but with the people of Kadalayapan and\nKaodanan revenge and the desire for renown were the prime incentives.\n\nEvery tale emphasizes the importance of the Sayang ceremony and\nthe spirit structure known as balaua. [56] The ceremony is nowhere\ndescribed in full, but the many details which are supplied show that\nit was almost identical with that of to-day. The same is true of the\nDawak, [57] which we find mentioned on three different occasions, and\nof the ceremony made to aid in locating lost or stolen articles. The\nmost noticeable fact, to the person familiar with Tinguian life,\nis that these are the only ceremonies mentioned among the many known\nand practiced at present. More than a score of different rites are\nnow well known to this people, and occupy a very considerable portion\nof their time and attention during the first four months of the year.\n\nThe failure to make mention of these very important events is\nexplained, it seems to me, not by their absence, but by the fact that\nthese rites vary in importance and that the privilege of celebrating\nthem is hereditary in a family. Should one not entitled to hold\nsuch a ceremony desire to do so, he must first give, in order, all\nthe lesser events, a costly procedure extending over a period of\nseveral years. The people of Kadalayapan and Kaodanan always appear\nas being closely related to the spirit Kaboniyan, [58] and exceedingly\npowerful. It seems probable that the story teller takes it for granted\nthat all of them are entitled to hold the most important ceremony\nknown to the Tinguian.\n\nA prominent figure in these rites is the medium, through whom the\nancient people generally conversed with the spirits, but in exceptional\ncases we found the heroes talking direct with the superior beings;\nhowever, this gift is not confined to the men of old, for in such\ntales as 55 and 59 people who are believed to have lived recently\nhave conversed with the spirits and have even been joined to them\nin marriage.\n\nThe procedure in choosing a bride, the engagement, the pak\u00e1lon, [59]\nand the marriage proper are all those of the present day, but the\nrules governing the marriage of relatives differ radically. As already\nnoted, one of the chief qualifications for marriage, among the people\nof the tales, was relationship, and even cousins became husband and\nwife. Such a thing is unthinkable among the Tinguian of to-day; first\ncousins are absolutely barred from marrying, while even the union of\nsecond cousins would cause a scandal, and it is very doubtful if such a\nwife would be allowed to share in her deceased husband's property. [60]\n\nIt appears that only one real [61] wife is recognized as legitimate,\nbut that from \"the first times\" to the present a man might have as\nmany concubines as he could secure.\n\nSo far as mythology and present day conditions can inform us the bride\nhas always gone to the home of her husband and, for a time at least,\nhas been subject to the dictations of her mother-in-law, although the\ncouple are generally soon established in a home of their own, in the\ntown of the groom. There is nothing in Tinguian life or tradition to\nindicate that they have ever had a clan system or a matriarchal form\nof government.\n\nThe few references to the procedure immediately after a death indicate\nthat, in part, the people of to-day follow the old custom; but here\nagain an important departure occurs. We are thrice told that the\ncorpse was placed on a little raft called tabalang and set adrift\non the river; and in one case the afterbirth was treated in the same\nmanner. Nothing of the sort is done to-day, nor does it seem at all\nlikely that such has been the case in recent generations. The body\nis now buried beneath the house, and certain set rules govern the\nmovements of all persons related to the deceased, as well as the\ndisposal of the corpse. This procedure is so complex and so uniform\nthroughout the whole Tinguian belt that it seems improbable that it\nhas grown up, except through a long period of time. At this point\nit is interesting to note that at many ceremonies it is necessary to\nconstruct a small raft called tal-talababong, or talabong, to place\nofferings in it, and set it adrift on the stream, in order that any\nspirits who have been prevented from attending the ceremony may still\nsecure their share. [62]\n\nThe festivals, the dances, the observances of the proprieties required\nby good breeding or custom of to-day, follow closely those given in\nthe tales. The greatest divergence is in the offering of betel-nuts\nand the telling of names, which occupies such an important place in\nthe narratives. The use of betel-nut for chewing is less common among\nthe Tinguian people than with most other Philippine tribes, a fact\nwhich may be accounted for by their constant use of tobacco. However,\nbetel-nuts still occupy a most important place in the various\nceremonies, and many offerings intended for the spirits must be\naccompanied with the prepared nut. In nearly every instance when\ninvitations were sent out, for a ceremony, the people of the tales\nintrusted an oiled betel-nut covered with gold with this duty. This\nhas its counterpart to-day in the small gifts of gold which are\noften carried to some friend, in another town, whose presence is\nparticularly desired. It seems not improbable that the golden colored\nhusks of the ripe betel-nuts may have suggested the substitution.\n\nMagic was practiced extensively in \"the first time,\" but it is by\nno means unknown to the people of the present day. They cannot now\nbring a dead person to life, or create human beings out of bits of\nbetel-nut; but they can and do cause sickness and death to their foes\nby performing certain rites or directing actions against garments or\nother objects recently in their possession. Even the name of an enemy\ncan be applied to an animal or inanimate object and action against\nit be transferred to the owner.\n\nLike the Tinguian, the people of Kadalayapan and Kaodanan are warned\nor encouraged by omens received through the medium of birds, thunder,\nlightning, or the condition of the gall and liver of a slaughtered pig;\n[63] and like them they suffer for failure to heed these warnings,\nor for the infraction of a taboo.\n\nThe myths of the first division make it plain that, to the people of\nthose times, the sun, moon, and stars were animate--either spirits or\nhuman beings. In some cases a similar conception was held for thunder\nand lightning, while in others they appear as animals. It will appear\nthat such ideas are not foreign to the second division of the tales,\nwhich represent present day beliefs. Thus, in the mountain village\nof Baay the sky is considered as a male spirit--the husband of the\nearth, and father of sun and moon. Again, in Lagangilang and Abang,\nthe thunderbolt is identified as Kadaklan--the most powerful of all\nspirits--who \"often eats the ground and releases his wife Agemem.\"\n\nThis brings us to a most interesting question, namely: Are the chief\nactors in our tales to be considered as celestial beings and spirits,\nor as human heroes? We have already made note of the fact that in the\nfirst tale Aponitolau is identified with Ini-init whom, we are told,\nwas \"the sun,\" \"the man who makes the sun,\" \"a round stone which\nrolls.\" In this tale he marries Aponibolinayen, a maiden whose name\nmay possibly be construed to mean \"the woman in the moon.\" [64]\nHowever, we find Aponitolau abandoning his place in the sky and\ngoing to reside in Kadalayapan. This tale comes from the town of\nLangangilang where, as we have already seen, the celestial beings\nare regarded as spirits. Tale fifteen, coming from the same town,\nshows us this same Aponitolau going up to the sky, where he marries\nthe spirit Kabkabaga-an, but as before he returns to his home below. A\nfurther indication of his celestial character is perhaps afforded us\nin tale fourteen, which was recorded in Patok, a valley town in which\nthe sun, moon, and stars are now regarded as \"lights\" belonging to\nthe spirit Kadaklan. Here we find that Aponitolau marries the star\nmaid Gaygay\u00f3ma, who is the daughter of the big star Bagbagak, and\nSinag--the moon. In this same tale Aponibolinayen appears as the\nfirst wife of Aponitolau, and it is clear that in the mind of the\nstory teller she is not identified with Sinag. Aponitolau appears in\nthe other tales without any hint of celestial qualities. Aside from\nher name and the fact that she is once pictured as visiting the sky,\nthere is nothing to indicate that his wife Aponibolinayen is to be\nconsidered as the moon. A careful study of the other characters who\nreside in Kadalayapan and Kaodanan fails to yield any evidence that\nthey are considered as celestial beings.\n\nDuring the Sayang ceremony held in San Juan, a certain man and woman,\nwho are then called Iwagin\u00e1n and Gimbagon, [65] represent the good\nspirits and are defended by the people when evil spirits try to\ndispossess them of their property. This is the only instance I have\nobserved in which the names of any of these characters of the tales\nappear in the ceremonies, while a list of more than one hundred and\nfifty spirits known to the Tinguian fails to reveal more.\n\nWhile in the practice of magic, and in their communication with nature,\ncelestial bodies, and spirits, these \"people of the first times\"\nfar excelled the present Tinguian, they had a material culture and\nceremonial life much like that still found in Abra.\n\nIt seems then that these people, about whom the stories cluster, are\nnot to be identified as celestial beings or spirits. [66] They appear\nrather as generalized heroes whose life and deeds represent that of\nan earlier period, magnified and extolled by succeeding generations.\n\n\nRITUALISTIC AND EXPLANATORY MYTHS\n\nThe second division of the tales now assumes a position of importance\nto us, for in it we find present day ideas and beliefs of the people\nstrongly brought out, and are thus in a position to contrast them\nwith the tenets of the people in \"the first times.\"\n\nThe influence of custom is exceedingly strong among the Tinguian of\nto-day. The fact that the ancestors did so and so is sufficient\njustification for performing any act for which they have no\ndefinite explanation. Nowhere is this influence greater than in the\nceremonies. These, which accompany all the important happenings in\ntheir daily life, are conducted by mediums who are fitted for office\nby long training, and each one of whom is a check on the others if\nthey wilfully or through carelessness deviate from the old forms. The\nritual of these ceremonies is very complex and the reason for doing\nmany acts now seems to be entirely lost, yet the one explanation\n\"kada\u00fayan\"--custom--is sufficient to satisfy any Tinguian. Other acts,\nas well as the possession of certain things, are explained by myths,\nsuch as we are considering. It seems certain that we are here dealing\nnot with present day beliefs alone, but with at least relatively old\ncustoms and tales, which while enabling us to understand present day\nconceptions also give us a glimpse into the past.\n\nThe myths 32-40, which are known to the people as diams, are now\ninseparable parts of the various ceremonies. Thus, when a pig is to\nbe offered in the Sayang ceremony, the medium sits down beside it and\nstrokes it with oiled fingers while she \"talks to the spirits.\" The\ntranslation of her \"talk\" shows that this is in no sense a prayer\nbut is rather an account of how the greatest of the spirits taught\nthe Tinguian people to perform this ceremony correctly. Likewise,\nwhen she offers food in the Dawak  [67] ceremony, she relates how the\nspirit Kaboniyan taught the Tinguian to do this in the same manner\nthat he performs it. In the Pala-an [68] diam she relates, in story\nform, the cause of the sickness, but in this case ends with a direct\ninvocation to the spirits in Dad\u00e1ya to \"make them well again if you\nplease.\" The balance of the diams, 35-40, are in story form, and\nseem intended more as an explanation to the people as to the causes\nof their troubles than to be directed toward the spirits. However,\nthe medium seldom has an audience, and rarely ever a single listener,\nas she recites the diams she has learned verbatim from her instructors\nwhen preparing for the duties of her office.\n\nMyths 41-54 are of quite a different type. They are generally told\nby the mediums or wise old people, during the ceremonies, but always\nto a crowd of eager listeners. They are not learned word for word, as\nare the diams, but their content is constant and they are thoroughly\nbelieved.\n\nThat they exert a great influence on the beliefs and conduct of\nboth old and young is undoubted. The evil which befalls a person who\nmolests the guardian stones is thus made known even to the children who\ngenerally keep at a distance from the grove in which they stand. Again,\nthese tales give sharp warning as to what befalls a person who even\nignorantly breaks the taboos following a death; but at the same time\nadvance means of thwarting the wrath of the enraged or evil spirits.\n\nMyths 55 to 62 at first glance to not appear to be explanatory\nat all, but seem rather to be a series of stories dealing with the\nrelations between certain persons and the natural spirits or those of\nthe dead. However, it is the intent and use rather than the form of\nthese stories which has caused them to be included in this division,\nfor they give the people authority for certain beliefs and conceptions\nwhich they hold. Tale 56 gives us a glimpse of the prevalent idea of\nthe abode of the dead, where the spirits lead much the same sort of\nlife as they did while alive, but we secure quite a different picture\nof this realm from the Baluga  [69] tale, in which the home of the\ndeceased is said to be in the ground while the \"life\" of the dead\nwoman is kept in a bamboo cup. This last account was heard in Manabo,\na town near to the Igorot settlements of the Upit river, and may be\ninfluenced by the beliefs held in that section. [70]\n\nCertain individuals appear to have intimate dealings with the natural\nspirits, in some instances even being joined to them in marriage. The\nafterbirth child, Sayen, is believed to have lived \"not very long\nago;\" yet we find his life and actions quite similar to those of\nthe heroes in \"the first times,\" while his foster mother--the alan\n[71]--takes the same part as did the alan of old.\n\nRelations 63 to 74 appear as pure explanatory tales, accounting\nfor the existence and appearance of celestial bodies and animals in\ntheir present state; they also account for the possession of fire and\nof many prized objects, such as jars and agate beads. Incidentally\nmany essential traits and old customs come out, such, for instance,\nas those of war and mourning, which appear in connection with the\norigin of the kalau. [72]\n\nWith few exceptions the myths of this division correspond to present\nbeliefs; the spirits are those known to-day; the towns mentioned are\nnow existing or their former locations are well known. They have thus\nthe appearance of being of more recent origin than those of the first\ndivision, yet it is worthy of note that there is little in them which\nseems foreign to or out of keeping with the older tales.\n\n\nFABLES\n\nThe last division may be said to be made up of fables, for the story\ntellers without hesitation label them as fictions. The last of these\nappears to be only a worked over incident of myth 56, in which the\nbig bird Banog carries the hero to its nest, from which he escapes\nby holding to the wings of the young birds. It is possible that more\nof these fables are likewise incidents in tales prevalent among the\nTinguian, but not heard by the writer. Whether or no this be true, it\nis certain that most of these stories are well known to the Ilocano\nof the coast and the other Christianized natives throughout the\narchipelago. Comparison with the folk-lore from other regions shows\nthat these stories are by no means confined to the Philippines. The\nchief incidents in the narrative of the turtle and the monkey have been\nrecorded from the Kenyah of Borneo [73] and from the northern peninsula\nof Celebes; [74] the race between the shell and the carabao is told in\nBritish North Borneo [75] in regard to the plandok and crab, while it\nis known to European children as the race between the turtle and the\nhare. The threat of the mosquito in 84 is almost identical with that\nrecorded by Evans in Borneo; [76] while many incidents in the fable\nof Dogidog [77] are found in the Iban story of Simpang Impang. [78]\n\nWhen comparing the Tinguian versions of these fables with those of the\nIlocano, one is impressed with the fact that while the incidents upon\nwhich they are founded are often identical, the stories themselves\nhave frequently been moulded and changed by the tellers, who have\nintroduced bits of old customs and beliefs until they reflect, in a\nway, the prevalent ideas of the people. Thus in the story of the magic\nponcho, [79] which is evidently of Spanish introduction, the owner\nis identified as the banbantay--a well-known minor spirit. Again,\nthe first part of tale 85 is identical with that of the Ilocano,\nbut ends with the parents of the groom preparing the things used in\nthe pak\u00e1lon--a very necessary part of the Tinguian marriage ceremony.\n\nThe footnotes have called attention to the many incidents which have\ntheir parallels in other districts. Reference to these shows that\na large percentage are found in the islands toward the south. While\nrecognizing that similarity of incidents does not necessarily mean\nidentity of origin, we must still give full credit to the effects\nof borrowing, even over great distances. The easy communication\nalong the coast during the past four hundred years and the contact\nwith Spanish and Christianized officials and traders will readily\nexplain the likeness of the tales in Division III to those held in\ndistant islands, or even in Europe, but, as just noted, these are\nnow undergoing change. Doubtless a similar inflow had been taking\nplace, although at a slower rate, long before the Spaniards reached\nthe Islands, and Tinguian mythology has grown up as the result of\nblending of native tales with those of other areas, the whole being\nworked over and reshaped until it fitted the social setting.\n\nPrevious writers--among them Ratzel and Graebner [80]--have sought\nto account for certain resemblances in culture, between Malaysia,\nPolynesia, and America, by historical connection. A part of our\nmaterial--such as that of the blood-clot child (p. 125), [81] the rape\nof the maiden by the vine which carries her to the sky (p. 33), [82]\nthe magic flight (p. 75), [83] and magic growth (p. 38) [84]--may seem\nto lend support to such a theory. These similarities are assuredly\nsuggestive and interesting, but it appears to the writer that the\nmaterial is too scanty and the folklore of intervening lands too\nlittle known to justify us in considering them as convincing proof\nof borrowing over such immense distances. [85]\n\n\n\nGENERAL RESULTS\n\nOur study has brought out certain general results. We have seen\nthat Tinguian folklore has much in common with that of other tribes\nand lands. While a part of this similarity is doubtless due to\nborrowing--a process which can still be seen at work--a considerable\nportion of the tales is probably of local and fairly recent origin,\nwhile the balance appears to be very old. These older tales are so\nintimately interwoven with the ceremonies, beliefs, and culture of this\npeople that they may safely be considered as having been developed by\nthem. They are doubtless much influenced by present day conditions,\nfor each story teller must, even unconsciously, read into them some\nof his own experiences and the current beliefs of the tribe. At the\nsame time these traditional accounts doubtless exercise a potent\ninfluence on the thoughts, beliefs, and actions of the people. In\nTinguian society, where custom still holds undisputed sway, these\nwell-known tales of past times must tend to cast into the same mould\nany new facts or experiences which come to them.\n\nWe believe that we are justified when we take the viewpoint of\nthe Tinguian and consider \"the stories of the first times\" as\nessentially very old. How old it is impossible to state definitely,\nbut a careful analysis of our material justifies us in believing that\nthey reflect a time before the people possessed terraced rice fields,\nwhen domestic work animals were still unknown, and the horse had not\nyet been introduced into their land. That these are not recent events\nis attested by the great part they all now play in the ceremonial\nand economic life. It is evident that outside influences of great\nimportance were introduced at a period later than the time when the\nChinese first began to trade along the coasts of the Philippines for\nthe prized jars, which play such an important r\u00f4le in the mythology,\nare not to be identified as those of native make but are ancient\nChinese vessels dating back at least to the fourteenth and perhaps\neven to the tenth century. [86]\n\nIt is probable that the glass, porcelain, and agate beads, which\nare second only to the jars in importance, are exceedingly old. Many\nancient specimens are still in use and are held for as fabulous prices\nas are those found among the interior tribes of Borneo. Nieuwenhuis\nhas shown that the manufacture of beads had become a great industry\nin the middle ages, and had extended even to China and Japan, whence\nthe products may have spread contemporaneously with the pottery. [87]\n\nWe have seen that, for the most part, the life, customs, and beliefs\nwhich appear in our reconstruction of \"the first times\" agrees\nclosely with present conditions; certain things which seem formerly\nto have been of prime importance--such as the sending of a betel-nut\ncovered with gold to invite guests to a festival or ceremony--appear\nto have their echo in present conditions. The betel-nut which played\nsuch a momentous part in the old times still holds its place in the\nrituals of the many ceremonies, although it is not now much used in\ndaily life. The magic of to-day is less powerful than formerly, but is\nstill a tremendous force. The communication of the ancient people with\nother members of the animate world, as well as with the inanimate and\nspiritual, and their metamorphosis into animals and the like, offers\nnothing strange or inconsistent to the people of to-day. They even now\ntalk to jars, they converse with spirits who come to them through the\nbodies of their mediums, and people only recently deceased are known to\nhave had the power of changing themselves, at will, into other forms.\n\nIn short, there is no sharp break between the mode of thought of to-day\nand that exhibited in the folklore. It is true that the tales give\nsanction to some things not in agreement with Tinguian usage--such,\nfor instance, as the marriage of relatives, or the method of disposing\nof the dead--and it may be that we have here a remembrance of customs\nwhich long ago fell into disuse.\n\nIn a previous paper  [88] the writer showed that there have been many\nmigrations into Abra from the north, south, and west. A part of the\nemigrants have become thoroughly amalgamated with the Tinguian people\nand have doubtless introduced some part of their material culture\nand beliefs. This helps us to understand such conflicts as we have\nalready noted in regard to the place held by thunder and lightning\nin the spirit world, as to the future abode of the spirits of the\ndeparted, as well as other discrepancies which the limits of this\npaper have prevented us from discussing.\n\nIt is not impossible that those customs of \"the first times,\" which\nare at variance with those of to-day, may represent older ideas which\nhave been swamped, or, on the other hand, the memory of the strange\ncustoms once practiced by the emigrants may have caused them to be\nattributed to the people of the tales.\n\nFinally, we believe that a study of Tinguian mythology has shown us\nthat we can gain a real knowledge of the past of a people through\ntheir folklore; that we can secure an insight into their mental life;\nand can learn something of the valuation they attach to certain of\ntheir activities and beliefs, which to us may seem at the surface\ntrite and trivial.\n\n\n\nABSTRACTS\n\n\nI\n\n\n1\n\nTwo women are gathering greens when a vine wraps around one and\ncarries her to the sky. She is placed near to spring, the sands of\nwhich are rare beads. Small house near by proves to be home of the\nsun. Woman hides until owner goes into sky to shine, then goes to\nhouse and prepares food. Breaks up fish stick and cooks it. It becomes\nfish. Single grain of rice cooked in pot the size of a \"rooster's egg\"\nbecomes sufficient for her meal. Goes to sleep in house. Sun returns\nand sees house which appears to be burning. Investigates and finds\nappearance of flames comes from beautiful woman. Starts to prepare\nfood, but awakens visitor. She vanishes. Each day sun finds food\ncooked for him. Gets big star to take his place in sky; returns home\nunexpectedly and surprises woman. They chew betel-nut together and\ntell their names. The quids turn to agate beads, showing them to be\nrelated, and thus suitable for marriage. Each night sun catches fish,\nbut woman refuses it, and furnishes meat by cooking fish stick.\n\nWoman decides to go with husband on daily journey through sky. When\nin middle of heavens she turns to oil. Husband puts her in a bottle\nand drops it to earth. Bottle falls in woman's own town, where she\nresumes old form and tells false tale of her absence. She becomes\nill, asks mother to prick her little finger. Mother does so and\nchild pops out. Child grows each time it is bathed. Girl refuses to\ndivulge name of child's father. Parents decide to celebrate balaua\nand invite all people. Send out oiled betel-nuts covered with gold to\ninvite guests. When one refuses, nut begins to grow on his knee or\nprized animal until invitation is accepted. Child is placed by gate\nof town in hopes it will recognize its father. Gives no sign until\nsun appears, then goes to it. Sun appears as round stone. Girl's\nparents are angry because of her choice of a husband and send her\naway without good clothes or ornaments.\n\nSun, wife and child return home. Sun assumes form of man. They\ncelebrate balaua and invite all their relatives. Guests chew betel-nuts\nand the quid of the sun goes to that of Pagbok\u00e1san, so it is known\nthat the latter is his father. Parents of sun pay marriage price to\ngirl's people.\n\n\n\n\n2\n\nAponibolinayen who is very ill expresses a desire for mangoes\nwhich belong to Algaba of Dalaga. Her brother dispatches two men\nwith presents to secure them. One carries an earring, the other an\negg. On way egg hatches and soon becomes a rooster which crows. They\nspread a belt on the water and ride across the river. When they bathe,\nthe drops of water from their bodies turn to agate beads. Find way\nto Algaba's house by following the row of headbaskets, which reaches\nfrom the river to his dwelling. Defensive fence around the town is\nmade up of boa constrictors, which sleep as they pass. Algaba seizes\nhis spear and headaxe intending to kill the visitors, but weapons\nshed tears of oil. He takes other weapons, but they weep tears of\nblood. He then makes friends of the intruders. Learning their mission\nhe refuses their gifts, but gets fruit and returns with them to their\ntown. On way he uses magic and causes the death of Aponibolinayen. He\ntakes her in his arms and restores her to life. While she rests in his\narms, their rings exchange themselves. They chew betel-nuts and tell\ntheir names. The quids turn to agate beads and lie in rows. This is\ngood sign. They marry and go to Algaba's town. They celebrate Sayang\nand send betel-nuts to invite their relatives. When the guests cross\nthe river, the drops of water which run from their bodies are agate\nbeads and stones of the river are of gold. Guests all chew betel-nut\nand lay down their quids. By arrangement of quids they learn the true\nparents of Algaba. His brother-in-law wishes to marry his new found\nsister and offers an engagement present. An earring is put in a jar\nand it is at once filled with gold, but Algaba lifts his eyebrows and\nhalf of the gold vanishes. Another earring is put in jar, and it is\nagain full. Marriage price is paid later.\n\n\n3\n\nAponitolau falls in love with girl he meets at the spring. They\nchew betel-nuts and tell their names. Girl gives false name and\nvanishes. Aponitolau sends his mother to arrange for his marriage\nwith the girl. She wears a hat which is like a bird, and it gives\nher a bad sign, but she goes on. She crosses river by using her\nbelt as a raft. The girl's parents agree to the match and price\nto be paid. Girl accepts a little jar and agate beads as engagement\npresent. When Aponitolau goes to claim bride, he finds he is betrothed\nto wrong girl. His parents celebrate Sayang and invite many people,\nhoping to learn identity of girl at spring. She does not attend,\nbut Aponitolau finds her among betel-nuts brought him by the spirit\nhelpers. They chew betel-nuts and learn they are related and that\nboth possess magical power.\n\nAfter their marriage Aponitolau goes to his field. There he keeps\nmany kinds of jars which act like cattle. He feeds them with lawed\nleaves and salt. While he is gone, the woman to whom he was first\nbetrothed kills his new wife. He restores her to life. Takes her and\nher parents to the field to see him feed his jars.\n\n\n4\n\nA bird directs Aponitolau in his search for the maiden Asibowan. Girl\nfurnishes him with food by cooking a fish stick. They have a daughter\nwho grows one span each time she is bathed. Aponitolau discovers that\nhis parents are searching for him, and determines to go home. Asibowan\nrefuses to accompany him, but uses magic and transfers him and child\nto his town.\n\nAponitolau falls in love with girl he sees bathing, and his mother\ngoes to consult her parents. She crosses river by using her belt as a\nraft; when she bathes, the drops of water from her body become agate\nbeads. The girl's people agree to the marriage and accept payment\nfor her.\n\nAponitolau and his bride celebrate Sayang and send out betel-nuts to\ninvite the guests. Asibowan refuses to attend, but a betel-nut grows\non her pig until, out of pity, she consents.\n\nAfter the ceremony the brother of the bride turns himself into a\nfirefly and follows her new sister-in-law. Later he again assumes\nhuman form and secures her as his wife.\n\n\n5\n\nThe mother of Gawigawen is well received when she goes to seek a\nwife for her son. The girl's mother furnishes fish by breaking and\ncooking the fish stick. A day is set for payment of the marriage\nprice. Guests assemble and dance. When bride dances she is so beautiful\nthat sunshine vanishes, water from the river comes up into the town\nand fish bite her heels. When she arrives at her husband's home, she\nfinds sands and grass of spring are made up of beads, and the walk\nand place to set jars are large plates. Her husband cuts off head of\nan old man and a new spring appears; his blood becomes beads and his\nbody a great shade tree. Bride who has not yet seen the face of her\nhusband is misled by evil tales of jealous women, and believes him\nto be a monster. During night she turns to oil, slips through floor\nand escapes. In jungle she meets rooster and monkey, who tell her she\nis mistaken and advise her to return home. She continues her way and\nfinally reaches ocean. Is carried across by a carabao which at once\ninforms its master of the girl's presence.\n\nThe master comes and meets girl. They chew betel-nut, and the quids\nturn to agate beads, so they marry.\n\nThey make Sayang and send betel-nuts to summon relatives. Nuts grow\non pet pigs of those who refuse to go.\n\nGuests are carried across river by betel-nuts. During dance Gawigawen\nrecognizes his lost wife and seizes her. Is speared to death by the\nnew husband, but is later brought back to life. In meantime the alan\n(spirits) inform the parents of the new groom that he is their child\n(from menstrual blood). Parents repay Gawigawen for his lost bride,\nand also make payment to the girl's family.\n\n\n6\n\nThe enemies of Aponibolinayen, thinking her without the protection\nof a brother, go to fight her. She glances off their spears with\nher elbows. Her weapons kill all but Ginambo, who agrees to continue\nfight in one month.\n\nAponigawani has a similar experience with her enemies. A month later\nthe two women meet as they go to continue the fight against their\nfoes. They chew betel-nut, and quid of Aponibolinayen is covered with\ngold and that of her companion becomes an agate bead. They agree to aid\neach other. Go to fight and are hard pressed by foes. Spirit helpers\ngo to summon aid of two men who turn out to be their brothers--were\nmiscarriage children who had been raised by the alan. They go to\naid sisters and kill so many people that pig troughs are floating in\nblood. One puts girls inside belt. They kill all the enemies and send\ntheir heads and plunder to the girls' homes. Brothers take girls to\ntheir parents. Father and mother of Aponigawani celebrate balaua and\nsummon guests by means of oiled betel-nuts covered with gold. Guests\nchew betel-nut and spittle of children goes to that of parents,\nso relationship is established. Alan explain how they raised the\nmiscarriage children. Heads of enemies are placed around the town\nand people dance for one month. Aponibolinayen marries brother of\nAponigawani, who in turn marries the brother of her friend. Usual\ncelebration and payments made. Relatives receive part of price paid\nfor brides.\n\n\n7\n\nAponitolau dons his best garments, takes his headaxe and spear,\nand goes to fight. When he reaches the spring which belongs to the\nten-headed giant Giamb\u00f3lan, he kills all the girls, who are there\ngetting water, and takes their heads. The giant in vain tries to\ninjure him. Spear and headaxe of Aponitolau kill the giant and all\nthe people of his town and cut off their heads. Heads are sent in\norder to hero's town--giants' heads first, then men's, and finally\nwomen's. On return journey Aponitolau is followed by enemies. He\ncommands his flint and steel to become a high bank which prevents\nhis foes from following. Upon his arrival home a great celebration\nis held; people dance, and skulls are placed around the town.\n\n\n8\n\nAponitolau and his wife decide to celebrate Sayang, but he goes first\nto take the head of old man Ta-odan. He uses magic and arrives at once\nwhere foe lives. They fight and Ta-odan is beheaded. While Aponitolau\nis gone, an Ilocano comes to town and tries to visit his wife. She at\nfirst refuses to see him, but when he returns a needle she has dropped\nhe puts a love charm on it. She then receives him into house. He\nremains until Aponitolau returns, then leaves so hastily he forgets\nhis belt of gold. Woman hides belt in rice granary, but it reveals\nself by shining like fire. Aponitolau is suspicious and determines\nto find owner. As guests arrive for the celebration, he tries belt\non each until he finds right one. He cuts off his head and it flies\nat once to his wife's breasts and hangs there. She flees with her\nchildren. They reach town, which is guarded by two kinds of lightning,\nbut they are asleep and let them pass. They sleep in the balaua and are\ndiscovered by the owner of the place, who turns out to be an afterbirth\nbrother of the woman. He removes the head of the dead Ilocano from\nher breasts. Betel-nuts are sent to summon their father and mother,\nwho are surprised to learn of their afterbirth son. He returns home\nwith them. Aponitolau fails to be reconciled to his faithless wife.\n\n\n9\n\nAyo is hidden by her brother, but meets Dagdagalisit, who is fishing,\nand becomes pregnant. Child pops out between third and fourth fingers\nwhen Ayo has her hand pricked. Baby objects to first name; so is called\nKanag. Milk from Ayo's breasts falls on her brother's legs while she is\nlousing him, and he thus learns of the child. He determines to build a\nbalaua and invite all people, so he may learn who the father is. Sends\nout oiled betel-nuts to invite the guests and when one refuses to\nattend they grow on him or his pet pig. Dagdagalisit attends wearing\nonly a clout of dried banana leaves. Brother of Ayo is enraged at her\nmatch and sends her and the baby away with her poor husband. When\nthey arrive at her new home, Ayo finds her husband a handsome  man\nwho lives in a golden house, and whose spring has gravel of gold\nand agates. They summon their relatives to celebrate balaua with\nthem. While Ayo's brother is dancing, her husband cuts off his head,\nbut he is brought back to life. Ayo's husband pays her parents for her,\nbut half the payment vanishes when her mother raises eyebrows. Husband\nagain completes payment. They chew betel-nut and the quids of the\nchildren go to those of their parents. Dagdagalisit's parents learn\nhe is a miscarriage child who was cared for by the alan (spirits).\n\n\n10\n\nAponibalagen uses magic to create a residence in the ocean for his\nsister. Takes her and companions there on backs of crocodiles. Returns\nhome.\n\nIngiwan who is walking is confronted by high bank and is forced to\ncross the ocean. Rides on his headaxe past the sleeping crocodiles\nwhich guard the maiden. Turns self into firefly and reaches\ngirl. Assumes own form and chews betel-nut with her. Omens are good. He\nreturns home and soon maiden is troubled with intense itching between\nher last fingers. She has place pricked, and baby boy pops out. Child\ngrows one span at each bath. Aponibalagen learns of child when milk\nfrom sister's breasts falls on him. He takes her home and prepares to\ncelebrate balaua. Oiled betel-nuts are sent to summon guests. They\ngrow on knees of those who refuse to attend. Ingiwan, poorly clad,\nappears at the ceremony and is recognized by the child but not by its\nmother. Girl's brother, in rage, sends her away with the stranger. He\nassumes own form and proves to be handsome and wealthy. When they\ncelebrate balaua, they chew betel-nut and thus learn who are his\ntrue parents.\n\n\n11\n\nWhen Aponitolau goes to visit his cousin, he finds him celebrating\nSayang. He is incensed because no invitation has reached him,\nso sits in shade of tree near the spring instead of going up to\nthe village. He finds the switch lost by Aponibolinayen. He is\ninduced to attend the ceremony, where he meets with an old enemy,\nand they fight. The hawk sees the struggle and reports the death\nof Aponitolau to his sister. She sends her companions to avenge the\ndeath and they kill many people before they learn that the hawk was\nmistaken. Aponitolau restores the slain to life. He agrees to fight\nhis enemies in two months. Before he goes to battle he summons the old\nmen and women, and has them examine a pig's liver and gall. The omens\nare favorable. During the fight he becomes thirsty and his headaxe\nsupplies him with water.  He stops the slaughter of his enemies when\nthey agree to pay him one hundred valuable jars. The jars and heads\nof the slain take themselves to his home. A celebration is held over\nthe heads, and skulls are exhibited around the town.\n\nAponitolau goes to return the switch of Aponibolinayen. They\nchew betel-nuts and tell their names. Their finger rings exchange\nthemselves, while their betel quids turn to agate beads and arrange\nthemselves in lines--a sign of relationship. He cooks a stick and\nit becomes a fish. The girl vanishes, but Aponitolau turns himself\ninto a firefly and finds her. They remain together one night, then\nhe departs. On his way home he is seized by an immense bird which\ncarries him to an island guarded by crocodiles. He is forced to marry\na woman also captured by the bird.\n\nAponibolinayen gives birth to a child called Kanag. Child is delivered\nwhen an itching spot on mother's little finger is pricked. Kanag is\nkept in ignorance of father's fate until informed by an old woman\nwhom he has angered. He goes in search of his father. By using power\nof the betel-nut he is enabled to cross the water on the backs of\nsleeping crocodiles. He kills gigantic snakes and finally the bird\nwhich had carried away his father. He takes father and the captive\nwoman back home. Both women claim Aponitolau as husband. A test is\nheld and Aponibolinayen wins.\n\n\n12\n\nPregnant woman expresses desire for fruit of bolnay tree. Her husband\nasks what it is she wishes, and she falsely tells him fish roe. He\nuses magic to catch all fish in the river, and selects one with roe,\nreleases others. She throws it to the dogs, and tells husband it is\nthe liver of a deer she needs. He secures it, but when it likewise is\nfed to the dogs, he changes self into an ant and hides near wife until\nhe learns her real wish. He secures the bolnay fruit, but upon his\nreturn allows his sweethearts to get all but a small piece of it. His\nwife eats the bit left and desires more. She quarrels with husband,\nwho in rage drags her to the bolnay tree and places her in a hole. Her\nchild Kanag is born when an itching spot between her third and fourth\nfingers is pricked. Child grows with each bath. He agrees to go with\nother boys to fight. Plants a lawed vine which is to keep his mother\ninformed as to his condition. Child's father is with war party, but\ndoes not recognize son. It rains continually so party cannot cook;\nbut the spirit helpers of child's mother feed him, and he shares food\nwith companions. They plan ambush near enemies' town. Kanag cuts off\nhead of a pretty girl; his companions kill an old man and woman. They\nreturn home  and hold dance around the heads. When Kanag dances, earth\ntrembles, coconuts fall, water from river enters the town, and the fish\nlap his feet. His father is jealous and cuts off his head. His mother\nsees lawed vine wilt and knows of son's death. Informs her husband\nhe has killed son. She restores Kanag to life and they leave. Husband\ntries to follow, but magic growth of thorns in trail prevents. He is\nfinally reconciled to his family and has former sweethearts killed.\n\n\n13\n\nA pregnant woman desires the fruit of an orange tree which belongs\nto the six-headed giant Gawigawen. Her husband asks her what it is\nshe desires and she replies falsely; first, that she wishes a certain\nfruit, then fish roe, and finally deer liver. He secures each, taking\nthe roe and liver out of the fish and deer without causing their\ndeath. Each of the articles makes the woman vomit, so her husband\nknows that she is not satisfied. Transforming self into a centipede he\nhides until he learns her real wish. Arms self and starts on perilous\nmission, but first plants lawed vine in house. By condition of vine\nwife is to know of his safety or death.\n\nOn way small dog bites him; he is tested by lightning and by thunder,\nand in each case gets a bad sign, but continues journey. Sails over\nocean on his headaxe. Reaches cliff on which the town of the giant\nis placed, but is unable to scale it. Chief of spiders spins a web\non which he climbs. Giant promises him the fruit provided he eats\nwhole carabao. Chiefs of ants and flies calls their followers and eat\nanimal for him. Is allowed to pick fruit, but branches of tree are\nsharp knives on which he is cut. He puts two of oranges on his spear\nand it flies away to his home. He dies and lawed vine at his house\nwithers. Giant uses his skin to cover end of drum, puts his hair on\nroof of house and places his head at gate of town. Wife gives birth to\nchild, which grows one span each time it is bathed. While still very\nsmall child angers old woman who tells him of his father's fate. Child\ndetermines to go in search of father despite mother's protests. On\njourney he meets all the tests put to his father, but always receives\ngood signs. Jumps over cliff father had climbed on the spider web. He\nchallenges giant to fight and shows valor by refusing to be the first\nto use his weapons. Giant unable to injure him, for he first becomes\nan ant, then vanishes. He throws his spear and it goes through giant,\nwhile his headaxe cuts off five of adversary's heads. Spares last\nhead so it can tell him where to find his father. Collects father's\nbody together and restores it to life. Lawed vine at their home\nrevives. Father tries to cut off last head of giant, but fails;\nson succeeds easily. They send the headaxes to kill all people in\ntown. Slaughter is so great the father swims in blood, but son stands\non it. Both return home and hold a great celebration over the heads.\n\nThe father's spittle is lapped up by a frog which becomes\npregnant. Frog gives birth to baby girl which is carried away by\nanitos. Girl is taught to make dawak (the duties of a medium). Her\nhalf brother hears her, changes self into a bird and visits her in\nthe sky. Is hidden in a caldron to keep anitos from eating him. Tries\nto persuade sister to return with him. She promises to go when their\nfather celebrates balaua. The ceremony is held and girl attends. Is\nso beautiful all young men try to obtain her. They are so persistent\nthat brother returns her to sky where she still lives and aids women\nwho make dawak.\n\n\n14\n\nAponitolau and his wife plant sugar cane, and by use of magic cause\nit to grow rapidly. The daughter of the big star sees the cane and\ndesires to chew it. She goes with her companions and steals some of\nthe cane, which they chew in the field. Aponitolau hides near by\nand sees stars fall into the cane patch. He observes one take off\nher dress and become a beautiful woman. He sits on her garment and\nrefuses to give it up until they chew betel-nut together. The star\ngirl falls in love with him and compels him to return with her to\nthe sky. Five months later she has a child which comes out from space\nbetween her last two fingers. Aponitolau persuades her to allow him\nto visit the earth. He fails to return at agreed time, and stars are\nsent to fetch him. He returns to the sky, but visits the earth again,\neight months later. Earth wife bears him a child and they celebrate\nSayang. Sky child attends and later marries an earth maiden.\n\n\n15\n\nThe wife of Aponitolau refuses to comb his hair; so he has another\nwoman do it. She, in turn, refuses to cut betel-nut for him to\nchew. While doing it for himself he is cut on his headaxe. The blood\nflows up into the air, and does not cease until he vanishes. Ceremonies\nmade  for him are without avail.\n\nAponitolau finds himself up in the air country. He meets maiden who\nis real cause of his plight. They live together and have a child\nwhich grows every time it is bathed. Aponitolau takes boy down to\nearth to visit his half brother. While there the tears of the mother\nabove fall on her son and hurt him. They celebrate Sayang and the sky\nmother attends. After it is over the half brothers marry earth girls.\n\n\n\n\n\n16\n\nAyo gives birth to three little pigs. Husband is ashamed, and while\nwife is at the spring he places the animals in a basket and hangs it in\na tree. Basket is found by old woman, Alokot\u00e1n, who takes it home. Pigs\nsoon turn into boys. When grown they go to court the girls while they\nspin. Ayo hears of their visits and goes where they are. Milk from her\nbreasts goes to their mouths and thus proves her to be their mother.\n\nThey celebrate balaua. Ayo puts one grain of rice in each of twelve\njars and they are at once filled with rice. Betel-nuts summon the\npeople to attend the ceremony. The old woman Alokot\u00e1n attends and the\nwhole story of the children's birth and change to human form comes out.\n\n\n17\n\nDumalawi makes love to his father's concubines who openly show\ntheir preference for the son. The father plans to do away with\nthe youth. Gets him drunk and has storm carry him away. Dumalawi\nawakens in center of a large field. He causes betel trees to grow,\nthen cuts the nuts into bits and scatters them on the ground. The\npieces of nut become people who are his neighbors. He falls in love\nwith daughter of one of these people and marries her. They celebrate\nSayang and send out oiled betel-nuts to invite the guests. All\nguests, except Dumalawi's father, are carried across river on the\nback of a crocodile. Animal at first dives and refuses to carry him,\nbut finally does so. All drink from a small jar which still remains a\nthird full. Parents of Dumalawi pay the usual marriage price for girl,\nbut her mother insists on more. Has spider spin web around the town,\nand groom's mother has to cover it with golden beads.\n\n\n18\n\nWhile two women are bathing, blood from their bodies is carried\ndown stream. Two alan secure the drops of blood and place them in\ndishes. Each drop turns into a baby boy. Boys go to fight and kill many\npeople at the spring. They challenge a ten-headed giant. He is unable\nto injure them, but their weapons kill him and his neighbors. Heads of\nthe victors take themselves to homes of the boys. A storm transports\nthe giant's house. Boys trample on town of the enemy and it becomes\nlike the ocean. They use magic and reach home in an instant. Hold\ncelebration over the heads. Some guests bring beautiful girls hidden\nin their belts. Alan tell history of lads and restore them to their\npeople. One of boys falls in love and his parents negotiate match\nfor him. The payment for the girl is valuable things sufficient to\nfill balaua eighteen times, and other gifts in her new home.\n\n\n19\n\nKanag is lead by his hunting dog to a small house in the jungle. Girl\nwho lives there hides, but appears on second day. They chew betel-nuts\nand tell their names. The quids turn to agate beads and lie in order,\nshowing them to be related and hence suitable for marriage. They\nremain in forest two years and have children. Kanag uses magical power\nand transfers their house to his home town during night. Children\nsee sugar cane which they wish to chew. Kanag goes to secure it,\nand while away his mother visits his wife and abuses her. She becomes\nill and dies. Kanag tries to kill his mother, but fails. Puts body of\nwife on a golden raft, places golden rooster on it and sets afloat\non the river. Rooster crows and proclaims ownership whenever raft\npasses a village. Old woman Alokot\u00e1n secures raft before it vanishes\ninto the hole where river ends. Revives the girl. Kanag and children\nreach home of Alokot\u00e1n, and girl is restored to them. They celebrate\nbalaua and send betel-nuts covered with gold to invite relatives. When\nguests arrive, they chew betel-nut and learn that Kanag and his wife\nare cousins. Kanag's parents pay marriage price, which is the balaua\nfilled nine times with jars. Girl's mother raises eyebrows and half\nof jars vanish. Balaua is again filled. Guests dance and feast. Part\nof marriage price given to guests.\n\n\n20\n\nKanaa's sweetheart desires the perfume of Baliw\u00e1n and promises to\nfulfill his desires if he secures it for her. Gives him arm beads\nfrom left arm in token of her sincerity.\n\nKanag and a companion set out on mission but are warned, first by a jar\nand later by a frog, not to continue. They disregard the advice and go\non. They reach the tree on which perfume grows, and Kanag climbs up and\nbreaks off a branch. He turns into a great snake, and his companion\nflees. Snake appears to Langa-ayan and proves its identity by the\narm beads around its neck. She takes it to a magic well, the waters\nof which cause the snake skin to peel off, and the boy is restored\nto his own form. Kanag marries Amau, and when they celebrate balaua\nhe returns the bracelet to his former sweetheart. His parents fill\nthe balaua nine times with valuable articles, in payment for his bride.\n\n\n\n\n21\n\nKanag is sent to watch the mountain rice, although it is well\nprotected from wild pigs. Thinks parents do not care for him,\nis despondent. Changes self into an omen bird and accompanies his\nfather when he goes to fight. Father obeys signs and secures many\nheads from his enemies. He holds a great celebration over the heads,\nbut Kanag refuses to attend. Decides to go down to earth to eat\ncertain fruits. Parents order their spirit helpers to accompany him\nand dissuade him if possible. They show him a beautiful girl with\nwhom he falls in love. He assumes human form and meets her. They\nchew betel-nut and tell their names. Signs are favorable for their\nmarriage. His parents agree to fill the balaua nine times with various\nkinds of jars. They do so, but mother of girl raises eyebrows and half\nof jars vanish and have to be replaced. Girl's mother demands that\ngolden beads be strung on a spider web which surrounds the town. This\nis done, but web does not break. Girl's mother hangs on thread which\nstill holds. She then agrees to the marriage. Guests dance and then\nreturn home, each carrying some of the jars.\n\n\n22\n\nWhile Ligi is bathing in river his headband flies away and alights\non the skirt of a maiden who is bathing further down stream. The girl\ncarries the headband home and soon finds herself pregnant. The child\nis born when she has the space between her third and fourth fingers\npricked. With each bath the child grows a span and soon becomes so\nactive that he hinders mother at her work. She decides to put him with\nhis father during daytime. Uses magic and causes people of the town to\nsleep while she places child beside father. Ligi awakes and finds child\nand his headband beside him. Child refuses to answer questions. Mother\nsecures child at nightfall and repeats acts next day. Child is hidden,\nso she fails to get him. Ligi determines to learn who mother of child\nis; sends out oiled betel-nuts covered with gold to invite all people\nto a Sayang. When summoned, the mother refuses to go until a betel-nut\ngrows on her knee and compels her. She goes disguised as a Negrito, but\nis recognized by the child who nurses from her while she is drunk. Ligi\nsuspects her, and with a knife cuts off her black skin. Learns she is\nchild's mother and marries her. He divorces his wife Aponibolinayen,\nwho marries husband of Gimbagonan. The latter poisons her rival,\nbut later restores her, when threatened by her husband.\n\n\n\n23\n\nA flock of birds offer to cut rice for Ligi. He agrees, and goes\nhome with a headache. Birds use magic so that the rice cutters work\nalone, and the tying bands tie themselves around the bundles. The\nbirds each take one grain of rice in payment. They use magic again\nso that bundles of rice take themselves to the town. Ligi invites\nthem to a ceremony, and then follows them home. He sees them remove\ntheir feathers and become one girl. They go back to the celebration,\nwhere all chew betel-nut. Girl's quid goes to those of her parents,\nfrom whom she had been stolen by the spirit Kaboniyan. The parents\nof Ligi pay the usual marriage price for the girl.\n\n\n24\n\nWhen the husband of Dolim\u00e1man pricks an itching spot between her third\nand fourth fingers, a baby boy pops out. Child who is called Kanag\ngrows each time he is bathed. While his wife is away the father puts\nchild on a raft and sets it afloat on the river. Child is rescued\nby old woman Alokot\u00e1n, who is making a pool in which sick and dead\nare restored to health. Boy plays on nose flute which tells him\nabout his mother, but he does not understand. Plays on bunkaka with\nsame result. Mother who is searching her child passes by while he is\nplaying. Milk from her breasts goes to his mouth, and she recognizes\nhim. They stay with old woman despite pleading of husband.\n\n\n25\n\nAwig sends his daughter to watch the mountain rice. She stays in\na high watch house, but is found by tattooed Igorot, who cut her\nbody in two and take her head. Father goes to seek her murderers,\nbut first plants a lawed vine in the house; by its condition his wife\nis to know of his safety or death. He climbs high tree and looks in\nall directions. Sees Igorot, who are dancing around the head of his\ndaughter. He takes juice from the poison tree and goes to the dance,\nwhere he is mistaken for a companion. He serves liquor to others and\npoisons them. Takes daughter's head and starts home. Is followed by\nfour enemies. Uses magic and causes cogon field to burn, so foes are\ndelayed. Repeats this several times and finally escapes. He joins\nhead and body of his daughter, and old woman Alokot\u00e1n puts saliva\non cuts and revives her. Old woman places four sticks in the ground\nand they become a balaua. Betel-nuts are sent out to invite guests\nand many come. When the girl dances with her lover, the water comes\nup knee deep into the town and they have to stop. She is engaged and\nher lover's parents fill the balaua three times with valuable gifts,\nin payment for her. Half of gifts vanish, when her mother raises her\neyebrows, and are replaced.\n\nHer husband discovers the scar on her body where Igorot had cut\nher. Takes her to magic well where she bathes. Scars vanish.\n\n\n26\n\nThe mother of Duman\u00e1gan negotiates marriage for her son with\nAponibolinayen. Brother of girl puts her in his belt and carries\nher to place where agreement is made. When they reach gate of town,\nyoung girls offer them cakes, in order to take away bad signs seen on\nroad. Boy's parents pay for girl and they marry. She gives birth to son\nnamed Asbinan. He marries Asigowan, but his jealous concubines cause\nher to cut her finger and she dies. Her body is placed in a tabalang on\nwhich a rooster sits, and is set afloat on the river. Crowing of the\ncock causes old woman Alokot\u00e1n to rescue the corpse. She places it in\nher magic well and the girl is again alive and beautiful. She returns\nto her husband as a bird; is caught by him and then resumes own form.\n\n\n27\n\nBaby of four months hears his father tell of his youthful\nexploits. Decides to go on head hunt despite protests of parents. Is\ndetained on his trip by young alan girls. Finally reaches Igorot town\nand by means of magic kills all the people and takes their heads. Heads\ntake themselves to his home. On way back he plays bamboo jew's harp\nand it summons his brothers to come and see him. They chew betel-nut\nand make sure of relationship. Continuing his journey, he is twice\nlost. Finds an unknown sister hiding among lawed vines. Puts her in\nhis belt and carries her home. Upon his arrival a celebration is held\nand the new found brothers and sister, who had been stolen by alan,\nare restored to parents.\n\n\n28\n\nThe mother and caretaker of Asbinan try to arrange for him to marry\nDawinisan, but are refused. Asbinan goes to the girl's home and feigns\nsickness. Is cared for by the girl, who becomes infatuated with him\nand accepts his suit. His parents pay jars and gold--in the shape of\ndeer--for her.\n\n\n29\n\nAsbinan refuses to eat until his father secures fish roe. He then\ndemands Chinese dishes from the coast town of Vigan. When these are\nsupplied, he eats, and then demands the love charm which his father\nused when a young man. He goes to the place where the maidens are\nspinning, and when one offers to give him a light for his pipe,\nhe blows smoke in her face. The charm acts and she becomes ill. He\nconvinces her people that the only way she can be cured is by marrying\nhim. Her parents accept payment for the girl.\n\n\n30\n\nTolagan decides to visit certain places in Pangasinan. He rides on\na pinto pony and carries rice cakes as provisions. At the spring in\nKaodanan he meets a beautiful maiden who warns him to return home,\nbecause the birds have given him a bad sign. He returns only to find\nthat his wife has been stolen by the spirit Kaboniyan. He fails to\nfind her, but is comforted by winning a new bride (probably the girl\nof Kaodanan).\n\n\n31\n\nTwo girls are adopted by a rich man, who treats them as his daughters,\nexcept that he does not offer them bracelets or rings. They dress as\nmen and go to see a jeweler. Two young men suspect and follow them,\nbut they succeed in escaping and return home.\n\nThe spirit helpers of the youths take the forms of hawks and finally\nlocate the maidens, whom they carry away. The youths plan to marry\nthe girls and invite many friends to the celebration. Kanag and\nhis companion attend, become enamored with the brides and steal\nthem. Upon chewing betel-nuts they learn that they are related,\nso they are married.\n\n\nII\n\n\n32\n\nThe Ipogau who are trying to celebrate Sayang make errors. The\nspirit Kadaklan and his wife instruct them to go and watch the Sayang\nat Sayau. They do as bidden and after learning all the details return\nhome and perform the ceremony. The chief spirits are pleased and\ncause the lesser spirits to attend the ceremony when summoned by the\nmedium. The sick improve.\n\n\n33\n\nThe people who are conducting the Dawak ceremony fail to do it\nproperly. Kaboniyan (a spirit) goes down and instructs them. After\nthat they are able to cure the sick.\n\n\n\n34\n\nThe spirits of Dadaya notice that their feather headdresses have\nlost their lustre. They place them on the house of some mortals,\nwho at once become ill. The spirit Kaboniyan instructs them to make\nthe Pala-an ceremony. They obey, the feathers regain their brightness\nand the people recover.\n\n\n35\n\nThe father who is starting for a head-dance agrees to meet his wife\nand baby at sun down. When he reaches the agreed spot, he finds only\ntheir hats; he looks down and sees them in the ground. He tries in\nvain to get them out. The spirit Kaboniyan instructs him to perform\nthe Ibal ceremony. He does so and receives his wife and child.\n\n\n36\n\nThe spirit In\u00e1wen, who lives in the sea, sends her servants to spread\nsickness. They kill many people who fail to make the Sang\u00e1sang\nceremony. A man is disturbed at night by barking of dogs, goes to\ndoor and meets a big spirit which has nine heads. Spirit tells him\nhow to make the offering in Sang\u00e1sang. He follows directions and\nspirits carry gift to their mistress. She mistakes the blood of a\nrooster for that of human beings. Is displeased with the taste and\norders spirits to stop killing.\n\n\n37\n\nThe spirit Magan\u00e1wan sends his servants to secure the blood of a\nrooster mixed with rice. People see many snakes and birds near gate\nof town. They make the ceremony Sang\u00e1sang and offer blood and\nrice. The servants of Magan\u00e1wan carry the offering to him. He takes\nit in his mouth and spits it out, and in the same way the sickness is\nremoved from the mortals.\n\n\n38\n\nThe people who are digging holes for house poles get a bad sign from\nthe omen bird. They abandon the place and dig again. The deer gives a\nbad sign, then the snake, then different birds. They change locations\nmany times, but at last ignore the signs and complete the house. The\nfamily are continually in trouble and are ill.\n\nThe spirit Kaboniyan goes to see the sick persons; he lets his spear\ndrop through the house, and then tells them the cause of the trouble\nis that they have failed to make Sang\u00e1sang. He instructs them what\nto do, and when they obey all become well.\n\n\n\n39\n\nThe different parts of the house quarrel and each insists on its\nimportance. At last they recognize how necessary each one is for\nthe other and cease their wrangling; then the people who live in the\nhouse are again in good health.\n\n\n40\n\nThe great spirit sees the people of Bisau celebrating the Ubaya\nceremony, and determines to reward them by increasing their worldly\ngoods. He appears as a man and rewards them.\n\n\n41\n\nDayap\u00e1n, who has been ill for seven years, goes to bathe. The spirit\nKaboniyan enters her body and instructs her how to perform healing\nceremonies. He also teaches her how to plant and reap, and she in\nturn teaches the Tinguian. While she is bathing she ties a cock and\ndog by the water side. The dog eats the cock, and thus death comes\ninto the world.\n\n\n42\n\nGirl who lacks certain organs is ashamed to marry. She is sent by her\nmother to cause lameness to people who pass. A man who falls victim\nto her magic is only cured when the girl instructs him how to make\nthe Bawi ceremony.\n\n\n43\n\nThe spirit Kaboniyan instructs a sick man to make offerings at the\nguardian stones. He does as bidden and becomes well. They perform\nceremonies near the stones when they go to fight or celebrate balaua,\nand sometimes the spirit of the stones appears as a wild rooster, a\nwhite cock, or a white dog. A man who defiles the stones becomes crazy.\n\n\n44\n\nMan sees a woman walking at night near the guardian stones. She\nrefuses to talk and he cuts her in the thigh. She vanishes into the\nstones. Next day it is seen that one of the stones is cut. Man dies.\n\n\n45\n\nThe old men of Lagayan see peculiarly shaped stones traveling down the\nriver, accompanied by a band of blackbirds. They catch the stones and\ncarry them to the gate of the village, where they have since remained\nas guardians.\n\n\n\n46\n\nThe spirit Ibwa visits a funeral and is given some of the juices,\ncoming from the dead body, to drink. Since then he always tries to eat\nthe body of the dead unless prevented. He is accompanied by another\nevil spirit whose embrace causes the living to die.\n\n\n47\n\nA widow leaves the town before the period of mourning for her husband\nis past. The spirit appears first to the daughter-in-law and is fed\nby her, then asks for his wife. He goes to the place where she is\nwatching the corn and sleeps with her. She apparently becomes pregnant,\nbut fails to be delivered, and dies.\n\n\n48\n\nTwo men agree to hunt carabao the following morning. In the night one\ndies, but the other not knowing this leaves the town and goes to the\nappointed place. He meets the spirit of the dead man, and only saves\nhis life by running his horse all the way home.\n\n\n49\n\nA man and his wife are living near to their field when the husband\ndies. An evil spirit comes to the door, but is driven away by the\nwife w with a headaxe. Several evil spirits attempt to gain entrance;\nthen the chief comes. He breaks down the door; he cuts off the dead\nman's ears and makes the woman chew them with him--like betel-nut. The\nsigns are propitious. He changes the woman's two breasts into one,\nin the center of her chest, and takes her home.\n\n\n50\n\nA man, whose brother has just died, goes to hunt. He begins to cut\nup the game when his brother's spirit appears. He feeds it, but food\ncomes out of its anus as fast as it eats. He flees and is pursued\nby the spirit until, by chance, he runs among alangtin bushes. The\nspirit dislikes the bush and leaves.\n\n\n51\n\nThe people fail to put the banal vine and iron on the grave. An evil\nspirit notices the omission and steals the body.\n\n\n52\n\nA man goes to hunt his carabao in the mountains. He fails to plant\nbranches at his head before he sleeps. A spirit expectorates on him,\nand he soon dies.\n\n\n\n53\n\nTwo men who have to sleep in the mountains make beds of sobosob\nleaves. In the night they hear the evil spirits come and express\na desire to get them. Spirits dislike the leaves, so do not molest\nthe men.\n\n\n54\n\nThree hunters spend the night in the open. One covers himself with\na red and yellow striped blanket. In the night two spirits come and\nthink he is a little wild pig, and decide to eat him. The hunter\nhears them and exchanges blankets with one of his companions. The\ncompanion is eaten, and hence the kambaya, or striped blanket, is no\nlonger used on the trail.\n\n\n55\n\nThe spirit Bayon steals a beautiful girl and carries her to the sky,\nwhere he changes her breasts into one and marries her. She drops her\nrice pounder to the earth, and thus her people learn of her fate. Both\nshe and her husband still attend certain ceremonies.\n\n\n56\n\nA hunter is carried away by a great bird. He is placed in the nest\nwith its young and aids in feeding them. When they are large, he\nholds on to them, and jumps safely to the ground. He goes to fight\nagainst his enemies. While he is gone his wife dies. Upon his return\nhe sees her spirit driving a cow and two pigs. He follows her to the\nspirit's town and is hidden in a rice bin. When spirits try to get\nhim during the night, he repels them by throwing feathers. Feathers\nbecome exhausted, and he is forced to return home.\n\n\n57\n\nA man encounters a large being, which, from its odor, he recognizes\nas the spirit of a dead man. He runs to get his friends, and they\nfind the spot trampled like a carabao wallow.\n\n\n58\n\nThe dead wife of Baluga harvests his rice during the nighttime. He\nhides and captures her. They go together to the spirit town, in the\nground, and secure her spirit which is kept in a green bamboo cup. As\nthey are returning to the ground they are pursued, but Baluga cuts\nthe vine on which their pursuers are climbing. When they reach home,\nthey hold a great celebration.\n\n\n\n59\n\nAn alan takes the afterbirth and causes it to become a real child\nnamed Sayen. Afterbirth child marries a servant, thinking he has\nmarried her mistress. Learns he is deceived, and causes death of his\nwife; then kills many people in the town of the girl who has deceived\nhim. She gets him to desist, and after he revives some of the slain\nmarries him. People of neighboring town are troubled by the komau,\nan evil spirit, who always causes the death of as many people as the\nhunters have secured deer. Sayen kills the komau. He fights with the\ngreat spirit Kaboniyan. Neither is able to overcome the other, so they\nbecome friends. They fight together against their enemies. Sayen often\nchanges himself into a fish or chicken, and hides after a fight. This\nis observed by people who set a trap and capture him. He is killed.\n\n\n60\n\nA man while in the woods hears the alan near him. He feigns death and\nthe spirits weep for him. They put gold and beads on the body. He\nsprings up and seizes the offerings. They demand the return of one\nbead; he refuses, and the spirits burn his house.\n\n\n61\n\nTwo men who have killed a wild pig desire fire. One goes to house of\nan alan and tries to secure it while the spirit sleeps. She awakes\nand goes with the man to the pig. Man carries liver of the animal back\nto the baby alan. He eats the liver and then throws the child into a\ncaldron of hot water. He tells his companion what he has done, and they\nclimb a tree near the water. The alan discovers their hiding place by\nseeing their reflection in the water. She climbs up, feet first, but\nthey cut the vine on which she is ascending, and she is killed. They\ngo to her house and secure a jar of beads and a jar of gold.\n\n\n62\n\nThe flat earth is made by the spirit Kadaklan. He also makes the moon\nand sun, which chase each other through the sky. The moon sometimes\nnearly catches the sun, but becomes weary too soon. The stars are\nstones, the lightning a dog.\n\n\n63\n\nA flood covers the land. Fire has no place to go, so enters bamboo,\nstones and iron. It still lives there and can be driven out by those\nwho know how.\n\n\n\n64\n\nA man finds his rice field disturbed even though well fenced in. He\nhides and in middle of night sees some big animals fly into it. He\nseizes one and cuts off its wings. The animal turns out to be a mare\nwhich is pregnant and soon has male offspring. The place where the\nwings once grew are still to be seen on the legs of all horses.\n\n\n65\n\nA lazy man, who is planting corn, constantly leans on his planting\nstick. It becomes a tail and he turns into a monkey.\n\n\n66\n\nA boy is too lazy to strip sugar cane for himself. His mother in anger\ntells him to stick it up his anus. He does so and becomes a monkey.\n\n\n67\n\nA lazy girl pretends she does not know how to spin. Her companions,\nin disgust, tell her to stick the spinning stick up her anus. She\ndoes so and at once changes into a monkey.\n\n\n68\n\nA war party are unable to cross a swollen river. They wish to become\nbirds. Their wish is granted and they are changed to kalau, but they\nare not able to resume the human forms. Those who wore the white\nmourning bands, now have white heads.\n\n\n69\n\nA mother puts a basket over her lazy son. When she raises it a bird\nflies away crying \"sigak\u00f3k\" (lazy).\n\n\n70\n\nA young man who owns a rice field gets a new wife. He leaves her to\nharvest the crop. She is discouraged over the prospect and wishes to\nbecome a bird. Her wish is fulfilled, and she becomes a kakok.\n\n\n71\n\nThe dog of Ganoway chases a deer into a cave. The hunter follows\nand in the darkness brushes against shrubs which tinkle. He breaks\noff some branches. Cave opens again on the river bank, and he finds\nhis dog and the dead deer at the entrance. He sees that fruits on\nthe branches he carries are agate beads. Returns, but fails to find\nmore. His townspeople go with him to seek the wonderful tree, but\npart of the cave is closed by the spirit Kaboniyan who owns it.\n\n\n72\n\nThe jar Magsawi formerly talked softly, but now is cracked and cannot\nbe understood. In the first times the dogs of some hunters chased the\njar and the men followed, thinking it to be a deer. The jar eluded\nthem until a voice from the sky informed the pursuers how it might\nbe caught. The blood of a pig was offered, as the voice directed,\nand the jar was captured.\n\n\n73\n\nThe sun and moon fight. Sun throws sand in moon's face and makes the\ndark spots which are still visible.\n\n\n74\n\nA man who went with a war party is away so long that he does not\nrecognize his daughter when he returns. He embraces her when she meets\nhim at the town gate. In shame she changes herself into a coconut tree.\n\n\n75\n\nTwo flying snakes once guarded the gap in the mountains by which the\nAbra river reaches the sea. Two brave men attack them with banana\ntrunks. Their wings stick in the banana trees and they are easily\nkilled. The men are rewarded with gold made in the shape of deer\nand horses.\n\n\n76\n\nA man named Tag\u00e1pen, of Ilocos Norte, with his wife and child goes up\nthe Abra river on a raft. They stop at various towns and Tag\u00e1pen goes\nup to each while his wife comforts the child. They finally reached\nPatok where they go to live in the balaua. They remain there teaching\nthe people many songs.\n\n\nIII\n\n\n77\n\nA turtle and a monkey go to plant bananas. The turtle places his in\nthe ground, but the monkey hangs his in a tree. Soon the tree of the\nturtle has ripe fruit, but the monkey has none. Turtle asks monkey\nto climb and secure the fruit. Monkey eats all but one banana, then\nsleeps in the tree. Turtle plants sharp shells around the tree and\nthen frightens monkey which falls and is killed. Turtle sells his\nflesh to other monkey and then chides them because they eat their\nkind. Monkeys catch turtle and threaten first to cut and then to\nburn him. He deceives them by showing them marks on his body. They\ntie weight to him and throw him into the water. He reappears with a\nfish. Monkeys try to imitate him and are drowned.\n\n\n78\n\nA turtle and lizard go to steal ginger. The lizard talks so loudly\nhe attracts the attention of the owner. The turtle hides, but the\nlizard runs and is pursued by the man. The turtle enters the house\nand hides under a coconut shell. When the man sits on the shell the\nturtle calls. He cannot discover source of noise and thinks it comes\nfrom his testicles. He strikes these with a stone and dies. The turtle\nand the lizard see a bees' nest. The lizard hastens to get it and is\nstung. They see a bird snare and turtle claims it as the necklace of\nhis father. Lizard runs to get it but is caught and killed.\n\n\n79\n\nA little bird calls many times for a boy to catch it. He snares it and\nplaces it in a jar. Lad's grandmother eats the bird. He discovers the\ntheft, leaves home and gets a big stone to swallow him. The grandmother\ngets horses to kick the stone, carabao to hook it, and chickens to\npeck it, but without result. When thunder and her friends also fail,\nshe goes home without her grandson.\n\n\n80\n\nA frog, which is attached to a hook, lures a fish so that it is caught.\n\n\n81\n\nThe five fingers are brothers. The thumb goes to get bamboo. He tries\nto kiss the bamboo and his nose sticks. One by one the others go in\nsearch of the missing but are captured in the same manner. The little\nfinger, which alone remains free, releases the others.\n\n\n82\n\nA carabao and a shell agree to race along the river. The carabao runs\nswiftly, then pauses to call \"shell.\" Another shell replies and the\ncarabao continues running. This is repeated many times until at last\nthe carabao falls dead.\n\n\n\n\n83\n\nA crab and a shell go to get wood. The crab pulls the rope on his load\nso tightly that he breaks his big legs and dies. The shell finds his\nfriend dead and cries until he belches his own body out of the shell\nand he dies.\n\n\n84\n\nA mosquito tells a man he would eat him were it not for his ears.\n\n\n85\n\nA messenger goes to negotiate a marriage. When he arrives he sees the\npeople nodding their heads as they suck meat out of shells. He returns\nhome without stating his mission, but reports an acceptance. Girl's\npeople are surprised when people come for pak\u00e1lon.\n\n\n86\n\nA man sees people eating bamboo shoots, and is told they are eating\npagaldanen. He understands them to say aldan--\"ladder,\" so he goes\nhome and cooks his bamboo ladder. Is ridiculed by his friends.\n\n\n87\n\nA man with heavily laden horse asks the length of a certain trip. Boy\nreplies, \"If you go slowly, very soon; if you go fast, all day.\" The\nman hurries so that coconuts keep falling off the load and have to\nbe replaced. It is dark when he arrives.\n\n\n88\n\nA woman eats the fruit belonging to crocodile and throws away the\nrind. Crocodile sees her tooth marks and recognizes the offender. He\ndemands that she be given him to eat. Her people agree, but first\nfeed him a hot iron. He swallows it and dies.\n\n\n89\n\nA lazy man goes to cut bamboo, and a cat steals his cooked rice. He\ncatches the cat in a trap and takes it home. It becomes a fighting\ncock. The man starts for a cock fight, and on the way is joined by a\ncrocodile, a deer, a mound of earth and a monkey. The rooster kills\nall the other birds at the fight, then the crocodile wins a diving\ncontest, the deer a race, the mound of earth a wrestling match, and\nthe monkey excels all in climbing. The man wins much money in wagers\nand buys a good house.\n\n\n\n\n90\n\nA spirit lets a man take his poncho which makes him invisible. He\ngoes to his wife who recognizes his voice and thinks him dead. He\ntakes off poncho and appears before her.\n\n\n91\n\nA fisherman is seized by a big bird which carries him to its nest. The\nsmall birds try to eat him, but he seizes one in each hand and jumps\nfrom the tree. He reaches the ground unhurt and returns home.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nVITA\n\n\nFay-Cooper Cole\n\nBorn Plainwell, Michigan, August 8, 1881. Educated at University of\nSouthern California, Northwestern University, Chicago University,\nBerlin University, Columbia University. B.S. Northwestern University,\n1903.\n\n\nPublications:\n\nThe Tinguian. Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. III, No. 4. 1908.\n\nDistribution of the Non-Christian Tribes of Northwestern\nLuzon. Am. Anthro., Vol. II, No. 3. 1909.\n\nThe Bagobo of Davao Gulf. Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. VI,\nNo. 3. 1911.\n\nChinese Pottery in the Philippines. Pub. Field Mus. Nat. Hist.,\nVol. XII, No. 1. Chicago, 1912.\n\nWild Tribes of Davao District, Mindanao. Pub. Field Mus. Nat. Hist.,\nVol. XII, No. 2. Chicago, 1913.\n\nTraditions of the Tinguian. Pub. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. XIV,\nNo. 1. Chicago, 1915.\n\n\n\n\n\nNOTES\n\n[1] Traditions of the Tinguian. (Pub. Field Museum of Natural\nHistory. Anthro. Series, Vol. No. I. Chicago, 1915.)\n\n[2] Men or women through whom the superior beings talk to\nmortals. During ceremonies the spirits possess their bodies and govern\ntheir language and actions. When not engaged in their calling, the\nmediums take part in the daily activities of the village.\n\n[3] See page 26.\n\n[4] The initial portion of some of these names is derived from the\nrespectful term apo--\"sir,\" and the attributive copulate ni; thus\nthe original form of Aponitolau probably was Apo ni Tolau, literally\n\"Sir, who is Tolau.\" However, the storytellers do not now appear to\ndivide the names into their component parts, and they frequently\ncorrected the writer when he did so, for this reason such names\nappear in the text as single words. Following this explanation it\nis possible that the name Aponibolinayen may be derived from Apo ni\nbolan yan, literally \"Sir (mistress) who is place where the moon\";\nbut bolan generally refers to the space of time between the phases\nof the moon rather than to the moon itself. The proper term for moon\nis sinag, which we have seen is the mother of Gaygay\u00f3ma--a star,--and\nis clearly differentiated from Aponibolinayen.\n\n[5] [male]--male. [female]--female.\n\n[6] Occasionally the storytellers become confused and give Pagbok\u00e1san\nas the father of Aponitolau.\n\n[7] The town of Natpang\u00e1n is several times mentioned as though it\nwas the same as Kaodanan.\n\n[8] The figures in parentheses refer to pages in the volume Traditions\nof the Tinguian, Pub. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. XIV, No. I. Chicago,\n1915.\n\n[9] The only possible exception to this statement is the mention of a\ncarabao sled on p. 150, and of Aponitolau and Aponibolinayen riding\non a carabao p.51. Traditions of the Tinguian. (Pub. Field Museum,\nvol. xiv, No. I; Chicago, 1915.)\n\n[10] A term applied to any of the wilder head-hunting tribes.\n\n[11] Ladders are placed on each side of the town gate and are inclined\ntoward one another until they meet at the top. Returning warriors\nenter the village by climbing up the one and descending the other,\nnever through the gate.\n\n[12] Copper gongs.\n\n[13] Sharpened bamboo poles which pass through the foramen magnum.\n\n[14] This poison is placed in the food or drink. The use of poisoned\ndarts or arrows seems never to have been known to this people.\n\n[15] A similar custom is found among the Kayan of Borneo. See Hose\nand McDougall, Pagan Tribes of Borneo, Vol. II, p. 171 (London, 1912).\n\n[16] In this dance a man and a woman enter the circle, each holding a\ncloth. Keeping time to the music, they approach each other with almost\nimperceptible movements of feet and toes, and a bending at the knees,\nmeanwhile changing the position of the cloths. This is varied from\ntime to time by a few quick, high steps. For fuller description see\narticle by author in Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. III, No. 4,\n1908, p. 208.\n\n[17] The custom was formerly practised by the Ilocano. See Reves,\nFolklore Filipino, p. 126 (Manila, 1899).\n\n[18] See Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. III, No. 4, 1908,\npp. 206, ff.\n\n[19] The Tinguian do not have a classificatory system of relationship\nterms. The term kasinsiu is applied alike to the children of mother's\nand father's brothers and sisters.\n\n[20] A sacred dance in which a number of men and women take part. It\ntakes place only at night and is accompanied by the singing of the\nparticipants.\n\n[21] The night preceding the greatest day of the Sayang ceremony.\n\n[22] Runo, a reed.\n\n[23] See p. 8, note 2.\n\n[24] A short ceremony held for the cure of fever and minor ills. It\nalso forms a part of the more extensive rites.\n\n[25] A sugar-cane rum.\n\n[26] See p. 7, note 1.\n\n[27] Lesser spirits.\n\n[28] Lesser spirits.\n\n[29] Lesser spirits.\n\n[30] Like ideas occur in the folk-tales of British North Borneo. See\nEvans, Journal Royal Anthro. Inst., Vol. XLIII, 1913, p. 444.\n\n[31] In various guises the same conception is found in Europe, Asia,\nAfrica, and Malaysia. See Cox, An Introduction to Folklore, p. 121\n(London, 1904).--In an Igorot tale the owner captures and marries\nthe star maiden, who is stealing his rice. Seidenadel, The Language\nof the Bontoc Igorot, p. 491 ff. (Chicago, 1909).\n\n[32] The Dusun of Borneo have tales of talking jars. Evans, Journal\nRoyal Anthro. Inst., Vol. XLIII, 1913, pp. 426-427. See also Cole\nand Laufer, Chinese Pottery in the Philippines (Pub. Field Museum of\nNat. Hist., Vol. XII, No. I, p. 11 ff., 1912).\n\n[33] Piper sp.\n\n[34] Bagobo tales relate that in the beginning plants, animals,\nand rocks could talk with mortals. See Benedict, Journal American\nFolklore, Vol. XXVI, 1913, p. 21.\n\n[35] Tales of animals who assist mortals are found in all lands;\nperhaps the best known to European readers is that of the ants\nwhich sorted the grain for Cinderella. See also Evans, Jour. Royal\nAnthro. Inst., Vol. XLIII, 1913, p. 467, for Borneo; Tawney's Kath\u00e1\nSarit S\u00e1gara, pp. 361 ff., Calcutta, 1880, for India.\n\n[36] Fabulous birds of gigantic size, often known under the Indian term\ngaruda, play an important part in the beliefs of the Peninsular Malays.\n\n[37] A similiar incident is cited by Bezemer (Volksdichtung aus\nIndonesien). See also the Bagobo tale of the Kingfisher (Benedict,\nJour. American Folklore, Vol. XXVI, 1913, p. 53).\n\n[38] The magic flight has been encountered in the most widely separated\nparts of the globe, as, for instance, India and America. See Tawney,\nKath\u00e1 Sarit S\u00e1gara, pp. 361, 367 ff. and notes, (Calcutta, 1880);\nWaterman, Jour. American Folklore, Vol. XXVII, 1914, p. 46; Reinhold\nK\u00f6hler, Kleinere Schriften, Vol. I, pp. 171, 388.\n\n[39] In the Dayak legend of Limbang, a tree springs from the head\nof a dead giant; its flowers turn to beads; its leaves to cloth;\nthe ripe fruit to jars. See H. Ling Roth, The Natives of Sarawak and\nBritish North Borneo, Vol. I, p. 372.\n\n[40] Similar incidents are to be found among the Ilocano and Igorot\nin Borneo; in Java and India. See Reyes, Folklore Filipino, p. 34,\n(Manila, 1889); Jenks, The Bontoc Igorot, p. 202, (Manila, 1905);\nSeidenadel, The Language of the Bontoc Igorot. p. 491, 541, ff,\n(Chicago, 1909); Evans, Journal Royal Anthro. Inst., Vol. XLIII,\n1913, p. 462; Ling Roth, Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo,\nVol. I, p. 319; Tawney, Kath\u00e1 Sarit S\u00e1gara, Vol. II, p. 3, (Calcutta,\n1880); Bezemer, Volksdichtung aus Indonesien, p. 49, (Haag, 1904).\n\n[41] This peculiar expression while frequently used is not fully\nunderstood by the story tellers who in place of the word \"whip\"\noccasionally use \"make.\" In one text which describes the Sayang\nceremony, I find the following sentence, which may help us to\nunderstand the foregoing: \"We go to make perfume at the edge of the\ntown, and the things which we take, which are our perfume, are the\nleaves of trees and some others; it is the perfume for the people,\nwhich we give to them, which we go to break off the trees at the edge\nof the town.\" Again in tale 20, Kanag breaks the perfume of Baliw\u00e1n\noff a tree.--The use of sweetly scented oil, in raising the dead,\nis found in Dayak legends. See Ling Roth, The Natives of Sarawak and\nBritish North Borneo, Vol. I, p. 314.\n\n[42] According to a Jakun legend, the first children were produced\nout of the calves of their mothers' legs. Skeat and Bladgen, Pagan\nRaces of the Malay Peninsula, Vol. II, p. 185.--A creation tale from\nMangaia relates that the boy Rongo came from a boil on his mother's\narm when it was pressed. Gill, Myths and Songs of the South Pacific,\np. 10 (London, 1876).\n\n[43] This power of transforming themselves into animals and the like\nis a common possession among the heroes of Dayak and Malay tales. See\nLing Roth, The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo, Vol. I,\np. 312; Perham, Journal Straits Branch R., Asiatic Society, No. 16,\n1886; Wilkinson, Malay Beliefs, pp. 32, 59 (London, 1906).\n\n[44] The present day Tinguian attach much importance to these\nomens. The gall and liver of the slaughtered animal are carefully\nexamined. If the fluid in the gall sack is exceedingly bitter, the\ninquirer is certain to be successful; if it is mild he had best defer\nhis project. Certain lines and spots found on the liver foretell\ndisaster, while a normal organ assures success. See also Hose and\nMcDougall, Pagan Tribes of Borneo, Vol. II, p. 60 ff.\n\n[45] See p. 21, note 1.\n\n[46] The present capital of Ilocos Sur.\n\n[47] See p. 7, note 1.\n\n[48] Barrows, Census of the Philippine Islands, Vol. I, pp. 456\nff., 1903.\n\n[49] Paul P. de La Gironiere, who visited the Tinguian in the early\npart of the nineteenth century, describes these ornaments as follows:\n\"Their heads were ornamented with pearls, coral beads, and pieces\nof gold twisted among their hair; the upper parts of the hands were\npainted blue; wrists adorned with interwoven bracelets, spangled with\nglass beads; these bracelets reached the elbow and formed a kind of\nhalf-plaited sleeve. La Gironiere, Twenty Years in the Philippines,\npp. 108 ff.\n\n[50] See Cole and Laufer, Chinese Pottery in the Philippines\n(Pub. Field Museum of Natural History, Vol. XII, No. 1).\n\n[51] This is entirely in agreement with Chinese records. The Islands\nalways appeared to the Chinese as an Eldorado desirable for its gold\nand pearls.\n\n[52] See p. 17, note 2.\n\n[53] See p. 7, note 4.\n\n[54] A bamboo pole, about ten feet long, one end of which is slit\ninto several strips; these are forced apart and are interwoven with\nother strips, thus forming a sort of basket.\n\n[55] See Cole, Distribution of the Non-Christian Tribes of Northwestern\nLuzon (American Anthropologist, Vol. II, No. 3, 1909, pp. 340, 341).\n\n[56] See p. 9.\n\n[57] See p. 10, note 3.\n\n[58] Among the Ifugao, the lowest of the four layers or strata which\noverhang the earth is known as Kabuniyan. See Beyer, Philippine\nJournal of Science, Vol. VIII, 1913, No. 2, p. 98.\n\n[59] See p. 8.\n\n[60] An Ifugao myth gives sanction to the marriage of brother and\nsister under certain circumstances, although it is prohibited in\nevery day life. Beyer, Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. VIII,\n1913, No. 2, pp. 100 ff.\n\n[61] As opposed to the spirit mate of Aponitolau.\n\n[62] According to Ling Roth, the Malanaus of Borneo bury small\nboats near the graves of the deceased, for the use of the departed\nspirits. It was formerly the custom to put jars, weapons, clothes,\nfood, and in some cases a female slave aboard a raft, and send it out\nto sea on the ebb tide \"in order that the deceased might meet with\nthese necessaries in his upward flight.\" Natives of Sarawak and British\nNorth Borneo, Vol. I, p. 145, (London, 1896). For notes on the funeral\nboat of the Kayan, see Hose and McDougall, Pagan Tribes of Borneo,\nVol. II, p. 35.--Among the Kulaman of southern Mindanao an important\nman is sometimes placed in a coffin resembling a small boat, which\nis then fastened on high poles near to the beach. Cole, Wild Tribes\nof Davao District, Mindanao (Pub. Field Museum of Natural History,\nVol. XII, No. 2, 1913).--The supreme being, Lumawig, of the Bontoc\nIgorot is said to have placed his living wife and children in a log\ncoffin; at one end he tied a dog, at the other a cock, and set them\nadrift on the river. See Jenks, The Bontoc Igorot, p. 203, (Manila,\n1905); Seidenadel, The Language of the Bontoc Igorot, p. 502 ff.,\n(Chicago, 1909).\n\n[63] For similar omens observed by the Ifugao of Northern Luzon,\nsee Beyer, Origin Myths of the Mountain peoples of the Philippines\n(Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. VIII, 1913, No. 2, p. 103).\n\n[64] Page 3, note 2.\n\n[65] See tale 22.\n\n[66] For a discussion of this class of myths, see Waterman,\nJour. Am. Folklore, Vol. XXVII, 1914, p. 13 ff.; Lowie, ibid.,\nVol. XXI, p. 101 ff., 1908; P. W. Schmidt, Grundlinien einer\nVergleichung der Religionen und Mythologien der austronesischen V\u00f6lker,\n(Wien, 1910).\n\n[67] See p. 10, note 3.\n\n[68] The Pala-an is third in importance among Tinguian ceremonies.\n\n[69] Tale 58.\n\n[70] This is offered only as a possible explanation, for little is\nknown of the beliefs of this group of Igorot.\n\n[71] See p. 11, note 1.\n\n[72] Tale 68.\n\n[73] Hose and McDougall, The Pagan Tribes of Borneo, Vol. II, p. 148,\n(London, 1912).\n\n[74] Bezemer, Volksdichtung aus Indonesien, p. 304, Haag, 1904. For\nthe Tagalog version of this tale see Bayliss, (Jour. Am. Folk-lore,\nVol. XXI, 1908, p. 46).\n\n[75] Evans, Folk Stories of British North Borneo. (Journal Royal\nAnthropological Institute, Vol. XLIII, 1913, p. 475).\n\n[76] Folk Stories of British North Borneo (Journal Royal\nAnthropological Institute, Vol. XLIII, p. 447, 1913).\n\n[77] Tale No. 89.\n\n[78] Hose and McDougall, The Pagan Tribes of Borneo, Vol. II,\npp. 144-146.\n\n[79] Tale 91. The cloak which causes invisibility is found in Grimm's\ntale of the raven. See Grimm's Fairy Tales, Columbus Series, p. 30. In\na Pampanga tale the possessor of a magic stone becomes invisible when\nsqueezes it. See Bayliss, (Jour. Am. Folk-Lore, Vol. XXI, 1908, p. 48).\n\n[80] Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. I, Book II. Graebner, Methode\nder Ethnologie, Heidelberg, 1911; Die melanesische Bogenkultur und\nihre Verwandten (Anthropos, Vol. IV, pp. 726, 998, 1909).\n\n[81] See Waterman, Journal American Folklore, Vol. XXVII, 1914,\npp. 45-46.\n\n[82] See Waterman, Journal American Folklore, Vol. XXVII, 1914,\npp. 45-46.\n\n[83] See Waterman, Journal American Folklore, Vol. XXVII, 1914,\npp. 45-46.\n\n[84] Stories of magic growth are frequently found in North America. See\nKroeber, Gross Ventre Myths and Tales (Anthropological Papers of the\nAm. Mus. of Nat. Hist., Vol. I, p. 82); also Lowie, The Assiniboin\n(ibid., Vol. IV, Pt. 1, p. 136).\n\n[85] Other examples of equally widespread tales are noted by Boas,\nIndianische Sagen, p. 852, (Berlin, 1895); L. Roth, Custom and Myth,\npp. 87 ff., (New York, 1885); and others. A discussion of the spread of\nsimilar material will be found in Graebner, Methode der Ethnologie,\np. 115; Ehrenreich, Mythen und Legenden der s\u00fcdamerikanischen\nUrv\u00f6lker, pp. 77 ff.; Ehrenreich, Die allgemeine Mythologie und ihre\nethnologischen Grundlagen, p. 270.\n\n[86] Cole and Laufer, Chinese Pottery in the Philippines (Publication\nField Museum of Natural History, Anthropological Series, Vol. XII,\nNo. 1, Chicago, 1913).\n\n[87] Nieuwenhuis, Kunstperlen und ihre kulturelle Bedeutung\n(Int. Arch. f\u00fcr Ethnographie, Vol. XVI, 1903, pp. 136-154).\n\n[88] Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. III, No. 4, 1908, pp. 197-211.","title":"A Study in Tinguian Folk-Lore","tradition":"myth-cosmogony","translated_text":null,"word_count":24425}