{"collection":"myth-cosmogony","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_71141/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_71141","id":"gutenberg_71141","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/71141","summary":null,"tags":["Andromeda, Princess, daughter of Cepheus, King of Ethiopia (Mythological character)","Category: Archaeology & Anthropology","Category: Mythology, Legends & Folklore","Folklore -- Classification","Medusa (Gorgon)","Perseus (Greek mythological character)","Rites and ceremonies"],"text":"The\n Legend of Perseus\n\n A STUDY OF TRADITION IN STORY\n CUSTOM AND BELIEF: BY\n\n Edwin Sidney Hartland\n F.S.A.\n\n VOL. III.\n ANDROMEDA. MEDUSA\n\n\n\n\n Published by David Nutt\n in the Strand, London\n 1896\n\n\n\n\n [IMPRINT]\n\nEdinburgh: T. and A. Constable, Printers to Her Majesty\n\n\n\n\n [DEDICATION]\n\n _TO\n DAVID BRYNM\u00d4R JONES, Q.C., M.P._\n\n _If any worth be found within these pages,_\n  _If any skill, however poor, have traced_\n _Man\u2019s thoughts and purposes down the long ages_\n  _Where thought is dim and purpose half-effaced--_\n\n _To you the opportunity be reckon\u2019d,_\n  _To you the worth. You flung the portals wide_\n _Which guard enchanted palaces, and beckon\u2019d_\n  _To new adventures life had else denied--_\n\n _Enchanted palaces, where gods forgotten_\n  _Dream through an afternoon of endless years;_\n _Adventures follow\u2019d, far from fields erst foughten,_\n  _\u2019Neath wilder heav\u2019ns, aflame with mightier spheres._\n\n _Yours be the spoils, then, from that realm of glamour;_\n  _At least some gracious memories they will bring,_\n _When husht the forum, husht is party clamour,_\n  _And you can listen to their whispering._\n\n\n\n\n NOTE\n\nThis volume contains, in addition to the final instalment of the\ninquiry sketched at the beginning of the first volume, a Supplementary\nList of Works referred to in volumes ii. and iii., and the Dedication\nand General Index for the whole.\n\nSince the publication of the second volume local inquiries have\nsatisfied me that the account of the ceremony at Market Drayton (or\nrather at Wollerton, near that town), mentioned on p. 292 of the\nvolume in question, is inaccurate. The wine and biscuits were handed\nto the bearers, but not _across_ the coffin; and the minister merely\nreprobated in general terms the custom of drinking at funerals.\n\nCorrigenda of a minor character are, in volume i. p. 57, note 1, for\n217 read 178, and p. 61, last line but one, for _fisherman_ read\n_merchant_; in volume ii. p. 147, note, after _letter xxviii._ insert\n_to Daines Barrington_, and p. 271, note 4, for 68 read 57.\n\nI cannot lay down the pen without reiterating my very inadequate\nthanks to Mr. Rouse and Mr. Alfred Nutt for the unstinted and\ninvaluable aid I have received in various ways from them: aid which,\nbeginning with the opening chapter, has been continued to the latest\npages of this effort to solve the problem of the Legend of Perseus.\n\n Highgarth, Gloucester,\n   _June_ 1896.\n\n\n\n\n CONTENTS\n\n{x}\n\n CHAPTER XVI\n\n The Rescue of Andromeda in M\u00e4rchen\n\n Simplest form of the incident--Strong Jack--The Herdsman type--Menial\n hero in other tales--Punishment of impostors--Attacking the monster\n from inside--Faithless Sister type--Stolen Sister type--Underworld\n type--Fearless Johnny type--Helpful Animals--Change of sex--Rescue of\n youth--Omaha tale--Its European origin--Vira, the Tuscan\n forest-sprite.\n\n CHAPTER XVII\n\n The Rescue of Andromeda in Sagas\n\n Classical stories--Saint George--The Pollard Worm--Cuchulainn and\n Devorgoil--Susa No and Inada--The Dragon of Deerhurst--Other British\n legends--Variants in the East and Africa--The Maiden her own\n deliverer--Christian legends--Chinese tale--Rescue of youth--Maiden\n rescued from thraldom only--Ragnar Lodbrog.\n\n{xi}\n\n CHAPTER XVIII\n\n The Rescue of Andromeda: its Relation to Human Sacrifices\n\n Legends of the slaughter of a monster are widespread--Origin of the\n conception of the monster--Totemism--Animal gods--The incident of the\n Rescue a record of the abolition of human sacrifices to animal\n gods--Examples of such sacrifices in Africa and the East--Relics of\n the same among the South Sea Islanders, the Greeks and Romans--Tales\n of dragons inhabiting springs and lakes--Human sacrifices to water in\n India, America, Europe--Legends pointing to the same practice in\n various parts of the world--Legends of rescue of human sacrifices to\n other divinities.\n\n CHAPTER XIX\n\n The Medusa-witch in M\u00e4rchen\n\n The Tzitzin\u00e6na--Petrifaction by the witch--Petrifaction on breach of\n various taboos--Power of the witch\u2019s hair--J\u00e1taka containing the\n incident, its relations with the European tales--Petrifaction for\n preservation--The witch\u2019s hair.\n\n CHAPTER XX\n\n The Medusa-witch in Saga and Superstition\n\n The witch\u2019s hair--Other examples of the power of a hair--The Magical\n Fetter--The Magical Word--Power of a curse--Magical effect of an\n incautious word--The Magical Blow--Petrifaction by divine\n vengeance--Petrifaction as transformation--The Gorgonian power of\n petrifying by a look--The Evil Eye.\n\n{xii}\n\n CHAPTER XXI\n\n The Story as a Whole. The Problem of its place of origin. Conclusion\n\n The origin of the story to be sought for among nations who have passed\n beyond human sacrifices to brutes--The story as a whole confined to\n certain parts of the Eastern Hemisphere--Differences between classical\n and modern stories--Relation between them--Traditional selection in\n classical times--The Helpful Animals--The Gift of Weapons--Cambodian\n _m\u00e4rchen_--Modern variants independent of the classical tale--The\n Impostor and the Tokens--Legend of Saint George--The Deliverer\u2019s\n Sleep--Result of the inquiry--Bearing of some of the subjects\n discussed upon matters of Christian controversy--Conclusion.\n\n APPENDIX\n\n Table A. Helpful Animals\n\n Table B. Weapons\n\n Table C. The Impostor and the Tokens\n\n Table D. The Deliverer\u2019s Sleep\n\n Supplementary List of Works referred to\n\n Endnotes\n\n\n\n\n THE LEGEND OF PERSEUS\n\n{1}\n\n CHAPTER XVI.\n THE RESCUE OF ANDROMEDA IN M\u00c4RCHEN.\n\nWe have traced the incidents of the Supernatural Birth and the\nLife-token throughout the world: the two remaining incidents of the\nRescue of Andromeda and the Medusa-witch have a more restricted range.\nFor though traditions of a fight with a monster and of human beings\nturned to stone, the germs of the incidents in question, are almost\nuniversal, yet the special forms evolved from these germs in the\nPerseus saga seem to be confined to the Eastern Continent, save where\nimmigrant peoples have taken them in modern times to the New World and\ngiven them in some rare instances currency there among the aboriginal\ntribes.\n\nOf these incidents, the first with which we are concerned is that of\nthe Rescue of Andromeda. Its popularity in Europe is hardly exceeded\nby that of any incident in traditional fiction, while it is known to\nstory-tellers over vast spaces of the Orient and of Africa. The\nsimplest form of the incident is found in a Berber _m\u00e4rchen_\npreserved in a manuscript at the _Biblioth\u00e8que Nationale_ at Paris,\nand translated some years ago by M. Ren\u00e9 Basset. In this tale a\nyouth, whose earlier experiences vividly recall those of Joseph down\nto his temptation in Potiphar\u2019s house, is {2} more leniently treated\nthan the Hebrew patriarch, being simply expelled from his master\u2019s\nfamily. He wanders away and reaches a fountain inhabited by a serpent,\nwhich allows no water to be drawn, save in return for the sacrifice of\na woman. That day it was the king\u2019s daughter\u2019s turn to be devoured.\nThe youth, finding her at the spring, inquires why she weeps, and\nundertakes her deliverance. The snake appears to have had more than\none head, though how many is not recorded. At all events the hero beat\nthem one after another, as they were stretched forth to seize the\nprey, until the serpent died. The water was then free to everybody;\nand when the king inquired whose doing it was, the stranger youth was\nled before him and frankly owned his exploit. It is hardly necessary\nto say that he was rewarded with the hand of the young lady he had\nsaved, and was named the king\u2019s vicegerent. The wedding festivities,\nwe are told, lasted seven days.[2.1]\n\nSometimes the hero is possessed of extraordinary strength, which\nenables him to overcome his foe. An example is found on the island of\nSyra, where a tale is told of an ogre who was in the habit of eating\nanybody who came in his way. Strong Jack fights and kills him, thus\ndelivering a king\u2019s daughter, whom he marries. But she is afterwards\ncarried off by a monster, a half-man with only one eye, one hand, and\none foot. Her husband, strong as he is, attacks the half-man in vain.\nHe cannot be killed, for his external soul consists of two doves in\nthe belly of a certain wild sow. To such a monster the hero falls an\neasy prey; but he is restored to life, and in due time has his\nrevenge.[2.2] In another story, from Agia Anna, the ogre is a female\n{3} called the Krike\u00e7a, who eats a maiden daily. Though already a\nmarried man, the hero undertakes the adventure; and the maiden on\nwhose behalf he fights brings him food enough to quell his craving--a\ndifficult task, for these strong heroes are enormous eaters--and so\nsupplies him with a continuance of strength to conquer the Krike\u00e7a.\nThe latter begs for life and becomes a converted character.[3.1] So,\nin an Armenian tale from the Land beyond the Forest, does a wild sow\nwho has fallen into the same vicious habit of devouring maidens, and\nwho turns out to be an enchanted youth whom the hero frees from his\nspell.[3.2]\n\nThese tales are closely allied with a type of which, with one\nexception, I have not found any variants outside the Celtic and Basque\npopulations of the west of Europe. It may be called _The Herdsman_\ntype. Lod, the farmer\u2019s son, in an Argyllshire tale, is unusually\nstrong. He takes service as herd with a king; and in the course of his\nday\u2019s work at different times encounters and puts to death two giants\nand their mother, bringing home his cattle safe and sound as no herd\nhad done before him. A big giant then comes for the king\u2019s daughter,\nwhom a squint-eyed, red-haired cook undertakes to save, his price\nbeing the maiden in marriage. The cook hides behind a stone and covers\nhimself with sea-weed. Lod comes upon the scene and meets the heroine\nweeping. He comforts her, and lying down with his head on her knee he\nbegs her to relieve him of the vermin. If he fell asleep under the\nlulling influences of this operation she was to waken him by cutting\noff the point of his little finger. On the giant\u2019s appearance the\nprincess wakens him. He springs up, draws his club, {4} sweeps off the\ngiant\u2019s three heads and throws them contemptuously at the cook, who\ntakes them and the king\u2019s daughter home, as if he himself were the\ndeliverer. A day is appointed for the wedding; but the heroine\nidentifies Lod as the man, and proves it by the point of his finger,\nwhich she produces from her pocket. She marries him accordingly, and\nthe cook is burnt to death.[4.1] The same story in effect is given by\nCampbell as a variant of _The Sea Maiden_, cited in an earlier\nchapter.[4.2] In Ireland the tale appears as that of _The Thirteenth\nSon of the King of Erin_. The king having thirteen sons is advised to\ngive one to fate. The eldest is the one on whom the lot falls. His\nfather dismisses him with the gift of a steed of supernatural\nfleetness; and he hires himself as cowherd to another king. He slays\nthree giants and takes possession of their castles and wealth, among\nwhich are a black, a brown, and a red horse. The king\u2019s daughter is to\nbe devoured by \u201can _urfeist_, a great serpent of the sea, a monster\nwhich must get a king\u2019s daughter to devour every seven years.\u201d\nHundreds and hundreds of kings\u2019 sons and champions were anxious to\nsave her, but were so frightened at the terrible _urfeist_ that they\nwould not go near her when she was conducted to the beach in readiness\nfor her death. The hero rides down on the black horse, clad in the\nblack gear he has found in the first giant\u2019s castle. Dismounting, he\nlays his head in the maiden\u2019s lap and falls asleep, waiting for the\nmonster. While he slept she took three hairs from his head and hid\nthem in her bosom. With his sword of light he took off the serpent\u2019s\nhead, but it rushed back to its place and grew on again. The serpent,\nhowever, declined to fight any more that day. In a twinkle it {5}\nreturned to the sea, saying: \u201cI\u2019ll be here again to-morrow, and\nswallow the whole world before me as I come.\u201d Undaunted by this\nthreat, the hero appeared on the morrow in the blue dress of the\nsecond giant and mounted on his brown horse. He laid his head on the\nlady\u2019s lap and slept as before; and she, taking out the three hairs,\ncompared them with his head, and said to herself: \u201cYou are the man who\nwas here yesterday.\u201d He cut the monster in two, but the halves rushed\ntogether and were one as before. \u201cAll the champions on earth won\u2019t\nsave her from me to-morrow,\u201d cried the _urfeist_ as he plunged into\nthe sea again. The third day the hero donned the third giant\u2019s dress.\nIt had as many colours as there are in the sky, and his boots were of\nblue glass. The giant\u2019s housekeeper gave him a brown apple, with\ninstructions to throw it into the serpent\u2019s open mouth. The princess\nidentified him as before; and when the _urfeist_ came up out of the\nsea, \u201cenormous, terrible to look at, with a mouth big enough to\nswallow the world, and three sharp swords coming out of it, Sean Ruadh\nthrew the apple into his mouth, and the beast fell helpless on the\nstrand, flattened out and melted away to a dirty jelly on the shore.\u201d\nThe red steed bore the victor away from the maiden, though she tried\nto cling to him and stay him: she only succeeded in retaining one of\nhis blue-glass boots. Then a proclamation was made for all men to come\nand try on the boot. Sean Ruadh tried to evade the proof. In vain: by\nhis old blind sage\u2019s advice, the king sent men, twenty at a time, to\nfetch him; but he bound them twenty in a bundle, and the bundles\ntogether. At last the king himself went and, kneeling, prayed him to\ncome; and the boot sprang through the air to him and fitted itself on\nhis foot. The princess was downstairs in a twinkle, and in {6} the\narms of Sean Ruadh. He put all the other claimants to death without\nmore ado, and wedded her.[6.1] This tale, with unimportant variations,\nhas been found more than once during recent years in the west of\nIreland. It has been recovered also in Brittany, where one of the\nvariants takes the following form. A noble maiden disguised as a youth\nbecomes page to the queen of France, who falls in love with her, and,\nbeing repulsed, sickens and dies. The page\u2019s real sex is disclosed to\nthe king in consequence of a false accusation affecting one of the\nmaids of honour. The king marries her, and she bears him a son. A\nstrange animal appears, called a _murlu_, is caught and caged, but\nreleased by the king\u2019s son, who is, in consequence, compelled to flee\nfrom his father\u2019s wrath. The _murlu_ befriends the youth, and takes\nhim to the palace of the King of Naples, where he is engaged as herd.\nWith the _murlu\u2019s_ aid he satisfactorily performs his duties, and\novercomes a giant, whose wealth he obtains. The _murlu_ transforms\nitself into a magical steed, and helps him to conquer in a two days\u2019\nfight the seven-headed serpent to which the king\u2019s daughter was to be\nsacrificed. The herd cuts out the seven tongues and goes away, leaving\nthe heads on the ground. They are carried off by a charcoal-burner,\nwho professes to be the princess\u2019 deliverer. The king is about to give\nthe maiden in marriage, in spite of her protests, to the pretender,\nwhen the herd presents himself and, by means of the seven tongues,\nproves himself the true victor. The charcoal-burner undergoes the\nusual penalty of his falsehood; and on the occasion of the hero\u2019s {7}\nwedding the _murlu_ appears, declares itself the King of France\u2019s\nfirst wife, condemned for her sin in attempting the page\u2019s virtue to\nthis transformation. The conditions of her punishment are now\nfulfilled and her expiation complete.[7.1]\n\nIn one of the Basque variants the mysterious animal is called a\n_Tartaro_. The youth is called Petit Yorge, which causes Mr. Webster\nto suspect that the tale is borrowed from the French; though the\nidentification of Saint George with the slayer of the dragon, not\nunknown in _m\u00e4rchen_, and more fully developed, as we shall hereafter\nsee, in the sagas, may suggest a different explanation. He takes\nservice as gardener. With a horse, a handsome dress, and a sword,\nfurnished by the friendly _Tartaro_, he fights the dragon on behalf of\nthe king, his master\u2019s, youngest daughter. The fight lasts three days.\nA charcoal-burner is the impostor. As the lady declines to marry him a\nproclamation is issued for all the young men to ride under a bell, and\nwhoever can carry off on the point of his sword a diamond ring\nsuspended from the bell shall wed her. The hero succeeds and rides\naway; but as he does so the king hurls his lance at him and wounds him\nin the leg. He is thus identified, and then produces the serpent\u2019s\ntongues and forty-two pieces of silk he has cut from the damsel\u2019s\ndresses.[7.2] The other Basque variants are less elaborate, and\nperhaps represent more nearly the original tale. The hero is the\nyoungest of three sons. In one of the variants, the two elder,\nsallying {8} forth successively, refuse a morsel of cake to an old\nwoman and are eaten by a bear. The youngest, more charitable, is\nrewarded by the hag with a magical stick, the touch whereof kills\nseven bears that attack him, one after the other; and he obtains their\npalace and riches. He takes service as shepherd, and with his stick\nslays the seven-headed serpent, cutting out its tongues and also a\nlittle piece of silk from each of the seven robes worn by the\nprincess. The usual charcoal-burner takes the heads and claims the\nreward, but is confuted by means of the tongues and the silk.[8.1] In\nthe other variant, the youth on setting forth buys a pack of cards and\na formidable mace armed with teeth. He hires himself as cowherd; and\nwhen the kine, having broken into the forbidden pastures, as in most\nof the variants, draw down the wrath of the _Tartaro_ who owns the\npastures, the youth challenges the monster to a game of cards. The\n_Tartaro_ was not unaccustomed to play with his adversaries; and his\ntrick was to drop a card, ask his opponent to pick it up, and kill him\nwhile he was politely complying. But now he has met his match. The\nyouth tells him to pick up the card himself. As he stoops for the\npurpose a blow from the mace puts an end to him. Three _Tartaros_ are\nthus overcome; and their mansion passes into the possession of the\nhero. The combat with the triple serpent lasts two days. The victor\nreturns to the _Tartaro\u2019s_ palace, merely taking the seven tongues and\nthe seven pieces of silk, and thus enabling the charcoal-burner to\nmake his false claim. The king in his joy gives a dinner to his\nfriends, to which of course the hero is not invited. The _Tartaros_\nowned three _olanos_, ogre-dogs. One of these is sent by the hero to\nfetch him a dish from {9} the banquet. This of course leads to his\ndiscovery, and to the establishment of his right to the king\u2019s\ndaughter.[9.1]\n\nThe single variant of this type found elsewhere than in Celtic and\nBasque lands comes from the Odenwald. In it the widowed King of Orange\nfalls in love with the portrait of the daughter of the King of\nSeptentrion, but is daunted by the dangers of the way. His only son,\nFerdinand, seeing the portrait, then attempts the adventure. A\nmannikin directs him to dig at the first crossway, where he will find\na can of strength-giving wine and a magical sword and whistle. He\nslays in fight eight giants, and makes his way to the realm of\nSeptentrion, taking possession, ere he reaches the capital, of a\nmagnificent palace, gaily furnished, having many fine horses in the\nstable, but void of human inhabitants. Then he enters the king\u2019s\nservice as fowl-herd. Clad in three different suits of armour from his\npalace, he fights the dragon on three successive days, and cuts off\nhis three heads, disappearing after each combat, so that nobody knows\nwho the princess\u2019 saviour is. In the same armour he takes part in a\nthree days\u2019 tournament for the maiden\u2019s hand. It is necessary to run\nfull tilt with his spear at a ring suspended from a beam, to carry it\noff, and to hang it up again in returning. He succeeds where all\nothers have failed, and again makes off; but on the third day he is\nwounded in the leg by one of the king\u2019s men as he escapes. By this\ntoken he is recognised; he marries the princess and becomes King of\nSeptentrion. The horses in his palace turn out to be enchanted men,\nwhose spell is dissolved by his success.[9.2] This tale seems to bear\ntraces of literary influence; and in any case it is obviously of a\nless barbarous character than the others. Probably it is not {10}\nindigenous to Germany, but has been carried thither from the west, and\nhas suffered some change in the transmission. The indications point to\na Celtic or Iberian population as the originators of the _Herdsman_\ntype.\n\nAt the same time stories found among other nations represent the hero\nas a herd or a menial servant. In a Swabian _m\u00e4rchen_ already cited\nhe is a shepherd.[10.1] A Norwegian tale, bearing some markedly Norse\ncharacteristics, also comprises a similar incident. Here Osborn Boots\nis the youngest of three brothers, who successively hire themselves to\na king. The two elder had been dismissed with three stripes cut out of\ntheir backs, and the wounds rubbed with salt or hot embers. Boots\nshares his food with an old hag he meets on the way, and receives in\nreturn an old key, which has the property of showing him, when he\nlooks through the ring, whatever he wishes to see. With the help of\nthis and of his own shrewdness, he drives off a troll from the king\u2019s\nmill-dam, and on another occasion saves the king\u2019s sheep from him. But\none day the king, when hunting, trod by chance upon wild grass and\nlost his way in the wood. The troll met him and offered to let him go\nhome in consideration of having the first thing the king set eyes on\nwhen he got to his own land. The victim proved to be his eldest\ndaughter. A man called Glibtongue accompanied her to the spot where\nthe troll was to meet and fetch her. He turned out to be a coward; and\nBoots, opportunely appearing, overcame the monster by trickery, but\nspared his life on condition of his restoring the king\u2019s younger\ndaughter, whom he had stolen before. The maiden thus rescued gives him\na ring; but Glibtongue of course takes the credit of the deed, and is\nto be married to {11} her. The troll then stops the springs, so that\nthere is no water to boil the bridal brose. Boots to the rescue again;\nand now he is identified by the ring, which is seen glistening in his\nhair. Glibtongue is thrown into a pit full of snakes; the troll is\nslain; Boots weds the younger princess, and with her receives half the\nkingdom.[11.1] The hero of a Negro tale from the Bahamas, is a boy who\nis first a shepherd and then a horse-herd or stable-boy. His master\nhad every year to give one of his daughters in exchange for water. The\nlast daughter he had was about to be thus bartered. Her coachman\ndeclined to allow the stable-boy to accompany him when he took the\nmaiden to exchange her, but set him a task instead. The boy performs\nthe task by magical power, obtains horse, carriage, and armour, and\nfollows. By the utterance of a wish he sets two boar-lizards fighting;\nand while they fight the water is obtained and brought back with the\nlady. The next day the adventure is repeated, with the variation that\nit is two cocks which fight. The boy stains his handkerchief red and\npasses it to the girl. Her father offers her in marriage, with a dowry\nof two thousand dollars, to any one who can take the stain out of the\nhandkerchief. \u201cAll on \u2019em was tryin\u2019, dey couldn\u2019 git it out. This\nfellah haxed dem to let \u2019im try it. Fathe\u2019 told \u2019im, \u2018All right, \u2019e\ncould try it.\u2019 \u2019E rolled up \u2019is sleeve; spread the handke\u2019-chief over\n\u2019is harm; then \u2019e spit on it, taken \u2019is hand and rubbed over it. The\nstain went out. Her fathe\u2019 give \u2019er to \u2019im to wife, and \u2019is two\nthousan\u2019 dollahs. Dat en\u2019s de hold story.\u201d[11.2] A Portuguese tale\nfrom Brazil begins with the barter by a fisherman of his son, born\nunknown to him, {12} for a catch of fish. It belongs to the _Forbidden\nChamber_ cycle. After flying from the ogre the hero takes service as\nunder-gardener to a king. The youngest princess penetrates his\ndisguise. The king offers his eldest daughter to him who would slay a\nseven-headed beast which was devastating the realm. The under-gardener\nperforms the feat and takes the tips of the beast\u2019s tongues. As nobody\nappeared to claim the reward, the king decided to marry all his\ndaughters. The youngest refuses to marry anybody but the\nunder-gardener. The prince who is to marry the eldest claims to have\nslain the beast, and the bridegroom of the second sister claims\nanother achievement of the hero; but the latter at the wedding-feast\nputs them to open shame.[12.1]\n\nThere is one characteristic, however, which is common to a vast number\nof variants belonging to almost every type, and which, in the story\nfrom the Odenwald, stands out in full relief. If it be not a savage\ncharacteristic, at least it is not in accordance with the etiquette of\ncivilisation in the nineteenth century for the hero to persist in such\nunaccountable modesty, that, having slain the monster and won the\nprincess, he must be pursued like a criminal flying from justice, and\ncompelled to confess and claim his reward. When at last he is made\nknown, and the impostors, whom his want of gallantry and overload of\nhumility had encouraged, if not instigated, are convicted of their\nfraud, he indulges in a savage revenge. Burning alive, indeed, is in\nharmony with a certain kind of civilisation, such as that of Saint\nDominic or Bloody Mary; and the punishments the peasantry delight to\nrecount in these tales are an index of their culture. The hero is\ndeterred no more {13} than the most bigoted fanatic by any\nconsiderations of humanity, or even of kinship. As a single example of\nthe disregard of kinship, take the story of _The King of Al-Yaman and\nhis three Sons_, found in some versions of the _Arabian Nights_. There\nthe king\u2019s youngest son, disliked by his father and despised by his\ntwo brethren, picks up a string of pearls and emeralds, and is\ndeprived of it by the elder sons, who pretend themselves to have found\nit. Their father lays upon them the injunction to bring him the\nwearer. After they have set out, the youngest goes forth too, and\ndelivers a princess from the scourge of her father\u2019s city, a monstrous\nlion, to which a maiden is offered by lot every year. He refuses in\nthe usual way to return with her, and is only discovered by means of a\nproclamation requiring all the men in the city to defile before the\npalace. He is married to her; but, arising before day, while she is\nstill asleep, he exchanges rings with her and writes upon her hand his\nname, Al\u00e1edd\u00edn, his parentage and a request, if she love him truly,\nto come and seek him at his father\u2019s capital of Al-Hind. He departs,\nand repeats the adventure, slaying this time an elephant. Afterwards\nhe continues his quest, and succeeds in obtaining the enchanting bird\nPhilomelet, the wearer of the necklace, while its mistress, a\nprincess, is sleeping. He writes his name on the palm of her hand\nalso, and a similar request to seek him at home. As he returns his\nbrothers fall in with him, rob him of the bird, and carry it to their\nfather as their own prize. The three princesses, each with her father\nand an army, go after him and meet together. They of course reject the\ntwo elder brothers as impostors, and Al\u00e1edd\u00edn is at last vindicated.\nHe then, having put his brothers to shame, falls upon them, and with a\nsingle blow {14} of his sword despatches them both; nor is it without\ndifficulty that he is restrained from putting his father to death too.\nHe adds to the number of his wives the princess to whom the bird\nPhilomelet belonged, and lives happy ever after.[14.1] The vengeance\nin the Arab tale, reported from a region where no reminiscences of the\n_auto-da-f\u00e9_ linger, shows to advantage in comparison with the\ncruelties in which the tales of the peasantry of Christian Europe\nrejoice. And if the hero spare not his own flesh and blood, it must be\nremembered that he is only the half-brother of the impostors, and that\nboth he and his mother have suffered great personal wrong at their\nhands and those of his father. In a variant of the story, cited from\nthe same source in a previous chapter, the hero even intercedes with\nhis father for his brothers\u2019 lives.[14.2] Happily in western stories\nhe does not always visit their sins on their heads. In the Shetlandic\nstory, originally from Scandinavia, Assipattle is treated with\ncontempt by his six elder brothers. But he had a fast friend in his\nonly sister, who was taken to court to be the king\u2019s daughter\u2019s maid.\nThe Mester Stoorworm, a terrific sea-monster in which we have a\nreminiscence of the Midgard Snake, threatened the land. By a mighty\nsorcerer\u2019s counsel, every Saturday seven damsels were bound upon a\nrock and delivered to him, to glut his maw and save the kingdom. The\nonly way to get rid of the scourge, the sorcerer declared, was to\ndeliver Gemdelovely, the princess, to be devoured. All the champions\nwho volunteered to save her shrank from the task when they beheld the\ngrisly foe. Assipattle alone had the courage to get a boat and go out\nto meet the worm, whose horrid length stretched half across the world.\n{15} He allowed himself to be swallowed, boat and all; and once inside\nthe cavernous throat he \u201cwaded and ran, and better ran, till he came\nto the enormous liver of the monster.\u201d Then he cut a hole in it and\nplaced a live peat, which he had brought for the purpose, in the hole\nand \u201cblew till he thought his lips would crack.\u201d By and bye \u201cthe peat\nbegan to flame; the flame caught the oil of the liver, and in a minute\nthere was a stately euse. In troth, I think it gave the Stoorworm a\nhot harskit.\u201d Hurrying into his boat again, Assipattle was spewed out\nby the monster\u2019s dying spasms, and thrown high and dry on the land. Of\ncourse he married the princess; and the vengeance, without which the\nstory would not be complete, fell not on his brothers for their ill\ntreatment of him, but on the sorcerer, who it turned out was the\nqueen\u2019s lover.[15.1]\n\nThe conquest of the dragon by attacking it from the inside carries us\nback to Herakles\u2019 deliverance of Hesione. The incident, rare in modern\nfolklore, is also found in a Gipsy tale from Transylvania; but there,\nas might be anticipated, there is no question of a sea-monster. Radu,\na young Gipsy of the Kukuya stock, driven to desperation by his\nshrewish wife, cleaves her head with a hatchet and flees for his life\nfrom his tribal brethren. In the forest he finds a large horse\u2019s head\nlying under a tree. It bids him creep into its left ear; and he\nbecomes so small as to do it easily. There he lies hidden safely until\nall pursuit is over, when he creeps out again through the right ear,\nreturning at once to his proper size. He takes the head with him, for\nit tells him it will protect him; and when he longs for a horse he is\nmet by two cavaliers who direct him to make water into the head, which\nwill immediately change into a {16} steed, red in the morning, white\nat noon, and black at night. Mounted on this mysterious animal he\nreaches a town hung with black, because a ninety-nine-headed dragon,\nliving on the Glass Mountain, has carried off the king\u2019s daughter and\nwill eat her on the morrow. The next day, having taken his horse\u2019s\nadvice, he rides at morning, at noon, and at evening once up and down\nthe mountain, daunting the dragon by the belief that he has three\nchampions to contend with. He again rides to the hill, alights, makes\nwater thrice over the steed, and thus changes it back into a horse\u2019s\nhead. Creeping into the left ear, he is swallowed by the serpent. Once\nin the serpent\u2019s body, he crawls out of the skull, and, tearing off\nhis clothes, he sets fire to them. The dragon bursts; the Glass\nMountain disappears; Radu finds himself in the arms of the princess,\nwhom he soon weds; and as it is recorded that he lived with his second\nwife in joy and happiness, we may indulge the pleasing thought that\nshe lacked the exasperating tongue of the first.[16.1]\n\nIn an earlier chapter I have abstracted a Lithuanian tale where the\nhero, having taken charge of a sister, is betrayed by her to a robber.\nThis is quite a common incident in Slav _m\u00e4rchen_, not always found\nin connection with the Rescue of Andromeda. Another Lithuanian tale\npresents {17} a brother and sister, turned out of doors by their\nfather for bad conduct, arriving at a robber\u2019s dwelling. Before\nleaving home, the youth had possessed himself of his father\u2019s magical\nstaff, which paralysed opponents. Aided by this he slays eleven of the\ntwelve robbers, and severely wounds the twelfth. Having thrown their\ncorpses into a Bluebeard\u2019s chamber, already used for a similar purpose\nby the robbers themselves, he gives the keys of the house to his\nsister, forbidding her to enter the room where the bodies lie. She\nnaturally disobeys, and is seized by the still living robber and\ncompelled to bring him certain healing plants, which are hanging from\nthe ceiling. The robber makes love to her, not without success, and\npersuades her to feign illness, and get her brother to procure, first,\nwolf\u2019s milk, and then lioness\u2019 milk, wherewith the wounded man is\ncompletely restored to health. When this is effected he comes forth,\nattacks the brother and threatens him with death. But in procuring the\nmilk the hero has also won the favour of the she-wolf and lioness, as\nwell as of a hare, for sparing their lives; and they have given him\neach a whistle to be blown when he is in need of help. He now blows;\nand immediately the grateful beasts rush to his help, tearing the\nrobber and his paramour to pieces. Setting out with the animals, he\ncomes to a town where the king\u2019s last daughter is about to be given to\na nine-headed dragon. His conquest of the dragon follows, and the\ncutting out of its nine tongues; after which he and his beasts lie\ndown and fall asleep with utter weariness. While he sleeps, the\nprincess puts her ring on his finger. She has hardly done so when some\nservants of the king, her father, come to the place, kill and bury\nhim, and oblige her to take an oath to recognise their chief as her\ndeliverer and bridegroom. On awaking, the {18} hero\u2019s animals miss\ntheir master and disperse, to meet again at the same spot three years\nlater, in accordance with a tryst given them by him before lying down\nto sleep. The bear smells the corpse; the lion and wolf dig it up; and\nthe hare fetches some leaves of a herb used by two snakes they have\nseen in combat at an earlier stage of their adventures. With these he\nrestores the hero to life; and they all return to the town, as luck\nwill have it, on the day of the wedding. The hare carries a letter to\nthe princess, who induces her father to invite the stranger to the\nfestivities. There he inquires what token of victory over the dragon\nthe bridegroom had produced; and when the heads are shown him he draws\nthe tongues out of his pocket, fits them into the throats and adds as\na proof of his own identity the princess\u2019 ring. The pretender is torn\nto pieces by oxen, and the hero happily married to the princess.[18.1]\nVariants of the story are well known in Italy. It is found in Brittany\nand Andalucia, and has even crossed the Atlantic with the Portuguese\nto Brazil.[18.2] None of these need be mentioned now, save a\nPiedmontese version, which accounts for the hero\u2019s refusal to claim\nhis bride as soon as he has won her, by the excuse that he was in\nmourning for his sister, slain by his dogs for her treachery, together\nwith her paramour.[18.3] In variants from Bohemia and Transylvania,\nthe sister is, after her lover\u2019s death, shut up by her brother for her\nmisconduct, and left when he goes abroad on his travels. When he is\nmarried he releases her and takes her to live in {19} the palace. But\nshe sticks in his bed a knife which pierces and kills him. He is\nbrought to life again by his hounds, and his sister receives the\nreward of her double guilt.[19.1] In these two, as well as in a\nSienese variant, the dogs are enchanted men who regain their true form\nafter the hero is finally settled in life.\n\nA type of the story found in Italy opens with the search made by a\nbrother for a sister who had been carried off by an ogre. According to\nthe Venetian tale he meets a priest, who bestows on him three dogs,\ncalled Rend-iron, Seize-all, and Now\u2019s-the-time-to-help-me. With their\nassistance he slays the ogre; and then, leaving his sister in\npossession of the ogre\u2019s palace and magical wand, he sets out for\nfurther adventures. The dogs at his command slay the seven-headed\nbeast and bring him the heads. He will not return with the king\u2019s\ndaughter; but cutting out the beast\u2019s tongues he puts them in a box,\ngives a ring to the lady as a pledge that he will return, and goes\nback with the good news to his sister. On the way he stops at an inn,\nand there meets a chimney-sweeper--a new and more modern shape of our\nold acquaintance, the charcoal-burner. Imprudently he shows the\ntongues to his new acquaintance, who robs him of them, and boldly\nclaims the princess. The hero, however, gets wind of the wedding, and,\nbreaking into the festivities, demands permission to speak. He\ncross-examines the bridegroom: \u201cAre you the bridegroom?\u201d \u201cYes.\u201d \u201cHow\ndid you manage to deliver this maiden?\u201d The chimney-sweeper shuffled:\n\u201cHow did I do it? Look, here are the seven tongues!\u201d \u201cI ask you, How\ndid you manage to deliver her? I will have an answer.\u201d \u201cWith those\nthree dogs.\u201d \u201cGood! Since you {20} managed to deliver her by the help\nof those three dogs, in the presence of this noble company call the\ndogs by their names.\u201d The impostor was confounded, dumb. Then the\nyouth turned to the company and told his story, adding sarcastically:\n\u201cAnd this gentleman here is he who stole the box.\u201d The gentleman\ndenied it. Like a trained advocate, the hero calls as a witness the\ninnkeeper, who saw him showing the tongues to the chimney-sweeper, and\nconfronts him with the bridegroom. The king is convinced; and the hero\ngets permission to do as he likes with his opponent. \u201cRend-iron,\nSeize-all, Now\u2019s-the-time-to-help-me, eat him up.\u201d And in the presence\nof the assembled guests, the chimney-sweeper was eaten up accordingly.\nThe wedding then proceeded with a new bridegroom.[20.1]\n\nThis dramatic solution combines ancient and modern elements in an\nunexpected and interesting manner. A variant current in Sicily returns\nto the usual proof of the deliverer\u2019s identity by means of the\ntongues. He slays the dragon with a magical sword belonging to the\ngiant who has carried off his sister, and heals the wound he and his\nhorse have received in the combat by means of a salve he has extracted\nfrom the giant\u2019s head after putting him to death.[20.2] In a Georgian\ntale the hero is not born until after his sister has been carried away\nby a hundred-headed monster, and her three elder brothers, in\nattempting to rescue her, have been slain. Their desolate mother is\ngiven by a stranger an apple to eat, whence she bears a son called\nAsphurtzela. He conquers the monster, opens his breast and brings out\nthe dead bodies of his brothers, {21} restoring them to life by means\nof an enchanted handkerchief, also found in the monster\u2019s breast. On\nthe way home the ungrateful brothers tie him to a tree and leave him;\nbut he succeeds in escaping. He cannot, however, remain at home after\ntheir evil conduct. So he sets forth again, and picks up two\ncompanions of supernatural power, with whose aid he liberates three\nfair maidens about to be married to three ogres. One ogre is left. He\ncozens the hero\u2019s companions, one after the other, out of the food\nbeing prepared for their supper. Asphurtzela shoots the ogre and cuts\nhim in two. The head rolls into a hole, wherein they find three lovely\nmaidens. The two companions attempt successively to rescue them, but\non letting them down their courage fails and they call out to be drawn\nup again. Asphurtzela descends and sends up the damsels. His\ncompanions close the hole and leave him to his fate. Wandering about\nin the lower regions he rescues a king\u2019s daughter from a dragon, and\nsets free the water withheld by the monster. The king offers him\npresents, which he rejects, only asking to be sent back to his own\nland of light. Ultimately he finds a dragon attacking a griffin\u2019s nest\nand shoots it. The griffin in gratitude carries him up to the surface\nof the earth. But to give her strength for the purpose it is necessary\nthat she should be constantly supplied with food. When the provisions\nhe has taken run short he cuts a piece off his own leg and throws it\ninto her mouth. She restores it to him on arriving at the top, and\nheals the wound. He finds his two companions about to marry the\nmaidens rescued from the hole and slays them, afterwards wedding the\nyoungest maiden, and giving the two elder ones to his brothers.[21.1]\n\n{22}\n\nHere we find what we may call the _Stolen Sister_ type, combined with\nanother. The _Underworld_ type, as it may be named, is somewhat more\nfertile in variants. Among Galland\u2019s manuscripts is a tale he obtained\nfrom a Christian Maronite of Aleppo, named Hanna--that is, John. It\nconcerns the three sons of the Sultan of Samarcand, who built a house\nfor Rostam, his eldest son, unwittingly just above the underground\ndwelling of the eldest daughter of the genius Morhagian. The genius\ndestroys it, and, when pursued by the prince, disappears in a well.\nThe sultan then builds a similar house for his second son above the\ndwelling of Morhagian\u2019s second daughter, with the same result. The\nhouse intended for the third son, Badialzaman, is built over the\ngenius\u2019 third daughter\u2019s palace. It is destroyed like the others; but\nBadialzaman succeeds in wounding the genius thrice ere he reaches the\nwell, and persuades his brothers to join him in pursuing the foe down\ninto the well. Of course Badialzaman is the only one of the three who\nhas the courage to be let down to the bottom. There he is entertained\nfor forty days, first by one and then by another of Morhagian\u2019s\nbeautiful daughters, of whom the youngest is the loveliest. He\nannounces his intention of taking vengeance on their father. Each of\nthem endeavours to dissuade him, but in vain; and the youngest warns\nhim that he has no chance against the genius, who will simply take his\nhead in one hand and his feet in the other and rend him in twain. As\nshe has foretold, so it happens. The pieces, however, are brought to\nthe lady by two of her women; and when she has put them together she\nrevives the hero by applying the Water of Life to his wounds. Having\nthen made him swear to wed her, she teaches him how he may kill her\nfather, by {23} attacking him asleep and giving him one blow--no\nmore--with his own sword, which will be found hanging above his head.\nThe treachery of his brothers in drawing up the three maidens and\nleaving Badialzaman in the pit, his conquest of the monster,\ndeliverance of the princess and release of the water, and finally his\nconveyance to the upper world by a grateful _rokh_ whose young he had\nsaved from a serpent, follow the course of the Georgian tale. Before\nthe three maidens were sent up they had reduced their palaces to the\nsize of three balls, which they had put into his care; and by the\nadvice of the youngest he had cut some hair from the tail of\nMorhagian\u2019s magical steed. A little of the hair had only to be burnt\nto bring the steed to him. With the help of these things, having taken\nservice with a tailor, he prepares a robe for the youngest maiden on\nthe occasion of her marriage to his brother Rostam, and attending the\nfestival he slays the bridegroom with Morhagian\u2019s sword. Then he\ndisappears; but three months afterwards, when the same damsel is to be\nmarried to his second brother, he repeats the performance. Poetical\njustice is completed by his marriage with the lady; and her sisters\nare given to two other princes.[23.1]\n\nThe tale is current in Italy, and is widely spread in the Levant. As\nit is told at Lesbos, the cause of the hero\u2019s descent into the lower\nworld is the robbery every year by a monster of the three golden\napples growing on a tree in a king\u2019s garden. The youngest brother\nsucceeds in wounding the thief and tracking him to a pit. He slays the\nmonster and delivers three maidens, whom he sends up to his brothers\nabove. His brothers\u2019 treachery and all the other incidents follow.\nHere he has to prove against other pretenders {24} that it is he who\nhas put the dragon to death. This he does in the ordinary way by means\nof his tongues. He rejects the king\u2019s treasures, the half of his\nkingdom, and even his lovely daughter, and will only accept the\nprovisions necessary for the eagle which is to carry him up to this\nworld again. His father having awarded the youngest maiden to his\neldest brother, she demands three dresses representing, one, the\nheaven with all its stars, another, the earth with all her trees and\nflowers, and the third, the sea with all the fishes that dwell\ntherein. These, of course, can only be furnished by the hero from\nthree walnuts handed by her to him before parting. When they have been\nobtained the master-tailor is summoned and compelled to declare whence\nhe got them. The hero is recognised; but his vengeance on his brothers\nis limited to banishing them from the realm.[24.1]\n\nIn a story of the Avares of the Caucasus the hero is the offspring of\na king\u2019s daughter by a bear, and is called Bear\u2019s-Ears from a\npeculiarity which he owes to his parentage. His companions are not his\nbrothers, but two heroes like himself, of extraordinary strength, who,\nhowever, are successively robbed of their food by a dwarf. Bear\u2019s-Ears\ncatches the dwarf, cleaves a plane-tree and fastens him by the beard\nin the cleft. The dwarf uproots the plane-tree and escapes into a pit.\nBear\u2019s-Ears liberates only one princess from the dwarf. The dragon has\nnine heads; and the hero, cutting off his ears, carries them to the\nking.[24.2] In this tale there seem no impostors. As the Nubians tell\nit, an ogre obtains {25} the food of the hero and his companions, of\nwhom there are four; and here again only one lady is delivered from\nthe pit. When he is left at the bottom by his treacherous friends, he\nrescues a king\u2019s daughter from a crocodile that stops the river. Then\ndipping his fingers in its blood he marks the damsel\u2019s thigh; and this\nserves as the proof when others claim to have performed the deed of\nvalour.[25.1] Among the Vlachs we return to the dwarf; but there is no\nlady to be rescued from his power. Peter Firitschell, as the hero is\ncalled, however, makes friends with a blind old woman, who is captive\nto certain dragons. He slays the dragons and restores the woman\u2019s\nsight. He then acquires three Helpful Beasts, a fox, a wolf, and a\nbear. The monster to whom the princess is to be given has twelve\nheads, and dwells in a marsh outside the city. Peter lies down to\nsleep in the maiden\u2019s lap while he is waiting for the monster, and she\nabstracts one of his twelve arrows. With the rest he shoots off eleven\nof the monster\u2019s heads, and borrows of her a pin to shoot the twelfth.\nHe cuts out the tongues, and lies down again to sleep. A Gipsy strikes\nhis head off, takes the dragon\u2019s twelve heads and claims the victory.\nPeter is brought to life again by his faithful animals, and is in time\nto prevent the Gipsy\u2019s marriage to the king\u2019s daughter. Wallachia\nbeing a Christian country, the punishment inflicted on the impostor is\nmerely that of being rolled down a hill in a barrel studded inside\nwith spikes. Peter then weds the lady and remains in the Underworld,\nwhere he succeeds in due time to her father\u2019s throne.[25.2]\n\n{26}\n\nNearly related to the _Underworld_ type is that of _Fearless Johnny_.\nA Breton story, obtained by M. S\u00e9billot at Dourdain in the department\nof Ille et Vilaine, has also lately been given by a contributor to the\n_Rivista delle Tradizioni Popolari Italiane_, as coming from Cagliari,\nso nearly in the same words as to lead to the conclusion that it must\nhave been in very recent years carried directly from Brittany to\nSardinia, or _vice vers\u00e2_. It relates that Johnny, being a lad of\nnoted courage, discovers a practical joke played upon him by some of\nhis companions with the object of frightening him by the apparition of\na pretended corpse. He then sets out to learn what fear is, and\nrescues the souls of some robbers who have been hanged, by finding the\ntreasure they have stolen from a church and restoring it to the\npriest, from whom he will take no reward except his consecrated\nstole--a magical article of considerable value in the legends of Roman\nCatholic lands. With this stole he delivers a house from a devil that\nhaunts it, and afterwards kills the dragon, taking its tongues, with\nwhich he proves himself the victor. A swallow scratches up a little\nearth over his face as he lies asleep on the ground weary from his\ncombat; and awaking he cries: \u201cAh! I did not know till now whether\nFear was furred or feathered; now I see that it is feathered.\u201d That\nwas the only time he ever experienced even the beginning of fear; and\nthen he was more than half asleep.[26.1]\n\nIt will have been observed that a common opening of stories which\nculminate in the incident of the Rescue is the hero\u2019s acquisition of\nHelpful Animals. Sometimes, as in a tale from Oldenburg, it is the\nonly other incident.[26.2] More {27} often it forms part of a larger\nseries of adventures. Occasionally the hero obtains the power of\ntransformation instead of the personal service of the beasts. Thus, in\na Norwegian tale he divides a dead horse between a lion, a falcon, and\nan ant, and in return for the service they confer on him this power.\nIt enables him to get into a princess\u2019 chamber and secretly make love\nto her; and it stands him in good stead when he goes to fight the\ndragon. This dragon was a less delicate feeder than some, for he only\ndemanded a tax of pigs, not maidens. The king had promised his\ndaughter to the deliverer; but before the wedding could take place she\nwas stolen by a hill-ogre, whose life was bound up with a grain of\nsand under the ninth tongue of the ninth head of the slaughtered\ndragon. Here, again, the power of transformation enables the lad to\ntriumph.[27.1]\n\nThere remain one or two types of a more abnormal kind briefly to\nmention. A _m\u00e4rchen_ of the Gipsies of Southern Hungary speaks of a\ndragon which threatened a certain city with destruction, unless in ten\nyears the king\u2019s fair daughter were given to him. In the interval she\nmarries a man who wins the favour of a Keshalyi (a forest-fairy, or\nFate) by kindly combing her hair. The Keshalyi\u2019s hairs, as we have\nalready seen, are powerful talismans, identified in Gipsy\nsuperstitions with the floating cobwebs of autumn. He obtains one of\nthem, and by this means is able to take from the horns of the\nmoon-king\u2019s black cattle a gold ring, a similar ring from the horns of\nthe sun-king\u2019s white cattle, and one from the horns of the\ncloud-king\u2019s yellow cattle. These he gives to his bride. Their virtue\ncauses her to give birth successively to three heroes, of whom one is\nso strong he can throw high into the air a stone which ten horses\ncannot {28} move, another can by blowing burn everything around him to\nashes, and the third can spit balls from his mouth farther and truer\nthan the best guns can carry. When, at the appointed time, the great\ndragon comes for her, sons like these prove invaluable. Though the\nvery houses shook with the monster\u2019s voice, the youths quickly riddled\nhis skin with balls, buried him beneath great rocks, and burnt him\nup.[28.1]\n\nAnother Gipsy tale concerns a youth who piped so well for the dancing\nof a silver-clad river-nymph, daughter of the moon-king, that she gave\nhim a silver sickle and prayed him to come again on the morrow and she\nwould give him yet fairer gifts. But he is late for the tryst, and\nfinds her dead on the ground, heart-broken at his breach of faith; for\nthese ladies\u2019 hearts are very fragile. Her sister appears from the\nriver and curses him, if a man, to become a woman, if a woman, to\nbecome a man. She then carries the dead nymph back into the river,\nand, as it seems, there restores her to life; for immediately\nafterwards a magnificent black steed stands before the desolate youth\n(now become a girl) and declares that he is sent by the deceased\nmaiden to bear him where his fortune blossoms. Mounted on the steed,\nhe is borne through the air like lightning to the aid of a king\u2019s\ndaughter, given to a dragon who dwells in a fountain and requires a\nmaid once a year for dinner. He slays the dragon with the sickle; and\nthe king in his joy gives him his daughter to wife. He accepted the\nlady amid the general excitement, without thinking that he was no\nlonger a man but a woman. This was awkward. The bride complained to\nher father, who was afraid to attempt {29} his life by direct means.\nWherefore he sent him instead to rob the cloud-king of three golden\napples which had the property, one of them of making wealthy, another\nof making lucky, and the third of making healthy. His steed helps him\nto accomplish the task. But when the monster, half-man, half-dog, that\nguards the apples, finds that he has been cozened, he flings the curse\nafter the robber: \u201cIf a man, become woman; if a woman, become man.\u201d\nThe curse sets matters right again. \u201cI don\u2019t know what has happened,\ndearest father,\u201d says the bride to the king, \u201cbut my husband is a man\nafter all.\u201d[29.1] In an Albanian variant the dragon-slayer is born a\ngirl. She kills a lamia to whom the king has given his son, and is\nrewarded with a magical steed. Later on she wins another king\u2019s\ndaughter in marriage by a feat of athletics, and, as in the last tale,\nis guilty of the thoughtlessness of taking the bride. Being prescribed\na series of tasks by the king with the same object of getting rid of\nher, she at last is cursed by some serpents with the requisite change\nof sex.[29.2]\n\nIn this tale it is no longer Andromeda who is rescued, but a young\nman. The variation is doubtless due to Oriental influence, conveyed\nthrough a Mohammedan channel. At least, all the variants of this form\nwith which I am acquainted are of Arab or Indian provenience. In a\nstory from the Panj\u00e1b the hero is the younger of two brothers,\nprinces, the elder of whom has eaten a parrot and the other a\nstarling. Now the fate of these birds {30} was that whoever ate the\nparrot would become a king, and whoever ate the starling a prime\nminister. The elder brother received his kingdom; but the younger is\nslain by a snake-demon and afterwards restored to life. Coming into a\nstrange town, he takes shelter with an old woman whose turn it is to\nprovide the victim for an ogre who daily eats a young man, a goat and\na wheaten cake. She has no difficulty about the goat and the cake; and\nthe prince volunteers to take the place of the human victim, in order\nto kill the ogre. He is successful; and then, cutting off the\nmonster\u2019s head, he ties it up in a handkerchief and falls asleep. An\nimpostor in the shape of a scavenger finds him, buries him in a\nclay-pit and, taking the ogre\u2019s head, claims from the king half the\nkingdom and his daughter in marriage, as a reward for overcoming the\nmonster. We should expect the end to be the impostor\u2019s conviction and\nthe hero\u2019s wedding. However, the further adventures of the latter\nresult in his obtaining a different wife. With self-denial unusual in\npolygamous countries, he finds one enough; so he makes the princess\nover to his brother.[30.1] It would seem as though we had here a relic\nof an earlier form of the tale wherein it is a maiden who is rescued.\nAnother tale, also from the Panj\u00e1b, countenances the\nsupposition.[30.2] As given in the _Siddhi-K\u00fcr_, on the other hand,\nthere is no reference to a lady. Two dragon-frogs who dwell at the\nsource of a river and can withhold the water, demand every year a\nhuman being to eat. The lot falls on the khan himself; and no one but\nhis son will go in his stead. The son is accompanied by a poor man\u2019s\nson, who is his friend and will not quit his side. They overhear the\nfrogs incautiously talking, after the manner {31} of supernatural\nbeings in fairy tales, and telling one another how they may be\nsubdued. Thus they succeed in ridding the land of the pest; and\nfurther, by eating the frogs\u2019 heads, the one acquires the power of\nspitting gold and the other of spitting emeralds--an endowment which\ndevelops the plot in a new direction.[31.1] It would be strange if the\nendless adventures of the favourite Arab hero, Hatim Ta\u00ef, did not\ninclude the incident. Accordingly, we learn that Hatim reaches a\nvillage where a giant devours one of the villagers every week. That\nweek the lot has fallen upon the chief\u2019s son. Hatim rescues him from\nhis impending fate by causing a mirror to be prepared and set up in\nthe monster\u2019s path. When the giant beholds his own ugliness he bursts\nwith rage in the most natural but horrible manner. Substantial rewards\nare offered to the deliverer. He rejects them, however, and goes about\nhis business as if nothing had happened.[31.2]\n\nA Sanskrit story found in one of the manuscripts of the _Twenty-five\nTales of a Demon_ relates that a certain king had had a quarrel with\nsome demons about a lady, whom he had taken to wife, whereas they had\nintended her for their son. Peace was established on the terms of\nmaking over to them daily a human victim. When it came to the turn of\nthe king\u2019s own son he was fortunately rescued by a stranger-prince,\nnamed Mah\u00e2bala. The demon, who expected a good meal, was overcome and\nmade to swear that he would henceforth protect brahmans and never\nagain set foot in the city. In contrast, however, to the generous\nHatim Ta\u00ef, Mah\u00e2bala was dissatisfied with the rewards offered him,\nand allowed the demon to return to his evil {32} ways. This of course\nresulted in a fresh application to the deliverer, who made the monster\nrenew his oath. He had no cause for dissatisfaction a second\ntime.[32.1]\n\nIt will have been observed that the stories cited in the present\nchapter, like those mentioned in the first volume as embodying more\ncomplete versions of the Perseus legend, present in the majority of\ncases the curious incident of the impostor. Concerning this personage\nI shall have more to say hereafter. We have found him in the story,\nfrom Quilimane, of _Rombao and Antonyo_. He is equally popular among\nthe Omahas and Ponkas of North America, where the tale of the Rescue\nis so thoroughly domesticated, as to be considered by authorities\nfamiliar with the customs and modes of thought of the aborigines as\nfor the most part \u201cof Indian origin.\u201d Two versions have been recorded\ndiffering only in details. An outline of one of them will enable the\nreader to judge of their \u201cIndian origin.\u201d An orphan, we are told, who\nlives with his grandmother, is possessed of a gun of unerring aim. He\nexchanges it for a magical sword and two hounds which always find and\nkill game at their master\u2019s command. The villagers are heard\nlamenting; and the old woman tells him it is because the water-monster\nwith seven heads has asked for the chief\u2019s daughter, and in case of\nrefusal has threatened to devour the whole tribe. The orphan\ndetermines to deliver her. He finds her bound by the stream, unties\nher and sends her home. With his dogs and sword he overcomes {33} the\nmonster, cuts off his heads and takes the tongues. A black man finds\nthe heads, pretends to be the victor and claims the chief\u2019s daughter\nin marriage, in accordance with an offer her father has previously\nmade. The maiden denied that he was her deliverer; but the chief\ndecided against her and \u201cthey cooked for the marriage.\u201d The orphan\nbecame aware by supernatural consciousness of what was going on. He\nsent one of his dogs to steal one of the best slices of the meat. The\ndog was pursued, and the orphan discovered. He justifies having sent\nthe dog, for he it is who has killed the water-monster and taken his\ntongues. On this being reported to the chief he sends for the orphan\nand confronts him with the black man. After the orphan has told his\nstory, \u201cCome, black man, confess!\u201d he says. \u201c\u2018Hold on! I wish to go\noutside,\u2019 said the black man. \u2018Take hold of him,\u2019 said the orphan. The\nblack man did not tell the truth, therefore they burnt him. And thus,\nafter all, the orphan married the chief\u2019s daughter.\u201d[33.1]\n\nThe most hardened believer in the possibility of the independent\norigin of folktales having a similar plot will scarcely refuse to\nadmit that this tale at least must have come to the Sioux from a\nEuropean source--probably through French trappers or missionaries. It\nmay be true, as the translator tells us, that only two words in it\n(namely, those for _gun_ and _sword_) are of foreign origin. This is a\nfact of no importance against the multifarious coincidences of plot\nand idea with those of the Old World summarised in the present and\nprevious chapters: it is only an additional testimony to the\ncompleteness with which the mind of the barbarous Ponka has absorbed\nthe story. When an alien people thus receives and assimilates a tale,\n{34} it is because the tale is suited to the alien digestion. The\nmental growth it indicates is the same on the part of the people\ngiving and the people acquiring it. It satisfies the imaginative\ninstincts of both. But though accepted among the traditions of the\nCegiha-speaking tribes, the tale of the Rescue has not received that\nfinal seal of adoption which identifies the action, or some of the\nactors, with the mythical history of the race: it has not attained to\nthe dignity of a saga, such as we are about to examine in the next\nchapter.\n\nIn the Ponka and Omaha variants the black man is burnt in accordance\nwith Christian precedents; and this is one of the notes of their\nEuropean origin. A Tuscan story, linked to the ancient mythology by\nthe use of what seems to be a veritable tree-spirit who has survived\nin rustic belief to the present day, confers a very different reward\non the impostor. A poor but handsome youth goes to cut wood. To him\nappears Vira, the forest-sprite, and comforts him. If he will do as\nshe tells him he need not despair of making his fortune. She directs\nhim to a district near Benevento, whose king has a daughter. This\ndamsel has been given to a seven-headed ogre to devour; and the king\nhas offered her in marriage to any one who will slay the ogre and\nbring him his heads. Signore Slaniani has conquered the monster and\nput his heads on a wagon to carry them to the king. But the reward is\nnot for him. When the wagon was being loaded Vira secretly took the\ntongues, and she now gives them to the youth. \u201cCarry these tongues to\nthe king, and say that thou didst slay the ogre, and that thou dost\nwish for his daughter.\u201d The tale is told with snatches of verse, which\nare some evidence of its antiquity. The youth readily falls into the\nplot.\n\n{35}\n\n \u201cAnd thus did Vira;\n The youth was clad in splendid attire,\n He too was very beautiful,\n Boldly he went to the king,\n Boldly he claimed to have slain,\n Single-handed, the ogre,\n And asked for the beautiful princess\n As a reward for his valour.\n \u2018It may not be,\u2019 said the king;\n \u2018He who slew the monster\n Has brought with him its heads,\n No better proof can be found.\u2019\n \u2018A better proof is the tongues,\u2019\n Answered the youth, undaunted,\n \u2018And I can show all the seven.\u2019\u201d\n\nTo the amazement of the true victor, who had never let the heads go\nout of his sight, the tongues are no longer in them.\n\n \u201cTherefore it came to pass\n That the poor youth who was favoured\n By the help of the fairy\n Carried away the reward.\n So it often goes in this world--\n He who does the hard work\n Often misses his pay,\n When some one more favoured by fortune\n Steps in and secures the prize.\n Higher beings than man\n Play with us like toys.\n The youth was as nothing in this;\n All that he won he owed\n To the loving spirit Vira.\u201d[35.1]\n\nA moral amply justified, no doubt, by the Italian peasant\u2019s experience\nof life.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XVII.\n THE RESCUE OF ANDROMEDA IN SAGAS.\n\n{36}\n\nHow far the tale of the loving spirit, Vira, is accepted by the\nTuscan peasant as a recital of facts may be disputed. We have little\nbut internal evidence to guide us; and that hardly seems conclusive.\nIt may perhaps be regarded as a saga once inspired by faith in the\npowers of a supernatural being, but now the subject of more or less\nscepticism. The effect of doubt on a story would be to sever its\nmoorings and set it free on the vague waters of tradition, unhampered\nby any names of known persons or places, or to which a serious credit\nis intended to be attached. The tale, as it was found by Mr. Leland,\nhad not yet reached entire freedom. It is therefore a convenient link\nbetween the true _m\u00e4rchen_ and the true saga,--neither wholly\nbelieved, nor recognised as merely told for pleasure.\n\nThat the story of the conquered dragon was believed, at least in\nclassical times, we have already seen. Perseus, the slayer of the\ndragon and of Medusa, was one of the minor divinities of Greece; and\nthe rescue of Hesione by Herakles seems to have been admitted among\nthe achievements of a personage even more renowned and more generally\nworshipped than Perseus. Nor were these heroes alone in ancient\nHellas. The Athenians honoured Theseus for a similar {37} deed. Minos,\nwho reigned at Gnossos in Crete, having desolated Attica with war to\navenge the treacherous death of his son Androgeos, made peace at last\nfor an annual tribute of seven young men and seven virgins, chosen\nfrom the most illustrious families of Athens, to be thrown as victims\nto the Minotaur, a monster half-bull and half-man, the issue of\nPasiphae, the queen of Crete. Theseus volunteered as one of the\nvictims. When the devoted band arrived at Crete, Ariadne, Minos\u2019\ndaughter, fell in love with Theseus, and furnished him with a sword to\nkill the monster, and a clew of thread to enable him to find his way\nout of the labyrinth wherein it was kept. The city of Thespia at the\nfoot of Mount Helicon rejoiced in a legend which bears a somewhat\ncloser resemblance to Herakles\u2019 adventure. By command of Zeus certain\nyouths were every year exposed to a dragon. The lot fell on one\noccasion on Kleostratos. Clad in brazen armour set with hooks he went\nboldly forth; and though he lost his own life, he proved the monster\u2019s\nbane.[37.1]\n\n{38}\n\nIn later times the most famous name to which the exploit has been\nattributed is that of Saint George. Some versions of the legend\nreproduce one or other of the classical stories with more or less\nfidelity. Saint George is one of that numerous class of saints about\nwhom nothing whatever authentic is known. It is indeed \u201cvery\nimprobable that such a person ever lived.\u201d[38.1] So much the greater\nscope has there been for the exercise of the pious imagination. The\nhorrible details of his martyrdom, a subject on which ecclesiastical\nwriters have expatiated with congenial extravagance and delight, have\nbeen grafted on those of the Rescue of Andromeda; and the Church may\nbe congratulated on having converted and baptized the pagan hero,\nPerseus. The story of his fight with the dragon, as found at large in\nthe _Golden Legend_ of Jacob \u00e0 Voragine, relates that a great swamp\nor pool near the town of Silena in Libya, was the lurking-place of a\ndragon, against which the people had often taken arms, only to be\ndriven back. When it approached the city walls its pestiferous breath\npoisoned every one. Rather than suffer these visits, the citizens gave\ntwo sheep every day to appease it. After a while their flocks began to\nfail; and to meet the deficiency it was determined to offer for the\nfuture one sheep and a human being. The children, sons and daughters\nof the citizens, were chosen for the purpose by lot, and none were\nexempted from the chance. Almost all had been thus sacrificed when the\nlot fell upon the king\u2019s only daughter. Her afflicted father offered\nhis treasures of gold and silver and half his {39} kingdom to purchase\nher exemption from so terrible a death. In vain. The people angrily,\nthough justly, replied: \u201cThou thyself, O king, didst issue this edict;\nand now all our children are dead, and dost thou wish thy daughter to\nbe saved? Unless thou obey the commands thou hast enforced upon\nothers, we will deliver thee and thy house to the flames.\u201d A delay of\neight days, on the pretext of lamenting her fate, was all the monarch\nwas able to obtain. At the end of that time the populace returned and\nsaid: \u201cWhy lose thy subjects for the sake of thy daughter? Lo! we are\nall dying from the breath of the dragon.\u201d Then the king, seeing that\nthere was no escape, caused the maiden to be clad in royal garments,\nand, folding her in his arms, bewailed her fate. At last, kissing her,\nhe sobbed: \u201cWould, my daughter, that I had died before thee, rather\nthan to have lost thee thus!\u201d She fell at his feet and besought his\nblessing, which, when he had bestowed amid his tears, she rose and\nwent forth to the lake. Now it happened that the blessed George, a\nCappadocian by birth, and a tribune, was passing by at that very time,\nand seeing her weeping he stopped and asked what was the matter. She\nreplied: \u201cGood youth, mount thy horse quickly and fly, lest thou die\nas well as I.\u201d But the stranger answered: \u201cFear not, maiden, but tell\nme what thou awaitest here, with all the people looking on.\u201d And she:\n\u201cThou hast a noble heart, good youth, I see, but why wilt thou die\nwith me? Flee quickly.\u201d \u201cI will not stir a step,\u201d quoth George, \u201cuntil\nthou tell me what is the matter.\u201d Then she explained it all to him.\n\u201cFear not, maiden,\u201d he cried, \u201cfor in Christ\u2019s name I will help thee.\u201d\n\u201cGood soldier, save thyself rather, lest thou perish too. Enough that\nI perish alone; for thou canst not deliver me--thou wouldst only die\nwith me.\u201d While they were thus {40} talking, the dragon, approaching,\nlifted his head above the water. The maiden, trembling, cried: \u201cFly,\nsir, fly quickly!\u201d But George mounted his horse, and, fortifying\nhimself with the sign of the cross, he boldly advanced to meet the\nmonster. Brandishing his lance, and commending himself to God, he\npierced it with a mighty wound and threw it to the ground. Then he\ncalled to the damsel: \u201cPass thy girdle round its neck, nothing\ndoubting.\u201d When she had done so the dragon followed her like a gentle\nhound; and she led it to the city. The people fled in terror; but the\nblessed George signalled to them to stop, saying: \u201cFear not, for the\nLord sent me unto you for this very thing, that I should deliver you\nfrom the torment of the dragon. Wherefore believe in Christ, and let\nevery one of you be baptized, and I will slay the monster.\u201d Then the\nking and all the people were baptized, to the number of twenty\nthousand men, beside women and children. The blessed George unsheathed\nhis sword, slew the dragon; and four pairs of oxen were required to\ntake it out of the city. The king built in honour of the blessed Mary\nand the blessed George a great church, from beneath whose altar a\nliving fountain flowed for the healing of all who were sick. Moreover\nthe king offered the victor an immense sum of money; but _he_\ncommanded it to be given to the poor, and instructed the king in these\nfour precepts (and here comes the moral), namely, to take care of the\nChurch, to honour the priests, diligently to attend divine worship,\nand to be ever mindful of the poor. Then, having embraced the monarch,\nhe departed.[40.1]\n\nSuch is the legend in its ecclesiastical shape; and in this edifying\nguise (though not to the same length) it seems to {41} have been\ngiven, at least in England, together with some equally valuable\ndetails of the saint\u2019s martyrdom, every year by the priest at the\nproper moment during divine service, on the Sunday preceding the\nsaint\u2019s festival, as part of the notice of the feast. It thus came to\nthe people stamped with the authority of the Church.[41.1] The\nChristian nations of the Balkan peninsula have preserved it in popular\ntradition, with some circumstances which more nearly recall the\nclassic saga. The name of the city desolated by the dragon is given as\nTroyan. Its inhabitants were given up to various kinds of sin. The\nblessed Virgin, having paid a visit to the place, returns to heaven\nbathed in tears, and recites in an assembly of the saints a dreadful\ncatalogue of iniquities whereof she declares the inhabitants are\nguilty. The thundering Elijah advises that God send them terrible\nmaladies, the plague, the typhus and the small-pox, to convert them\nfrom their evil ways. After seven years, however, they are still\nunconverted. Unseasonable and severe frost and snow are then tried for\nseven years, and after that seven years of drought; but all in vain.\nThen God made a lake beside the city; and in it He placed an\ninsatiable dragon, which entered the town thrice a day, and devoured\non every visit three hundred of the people. Over and above these\nhearty meals the monster every night exacted a fair maiden from the\nwhite city of Troyan; and soon the whole place was depopulated. The\nturn of Sava, the king\u2019s daughter, came at last. She was conducted by\nthe nobility of Troyan to the cold waters of the lake, and there\nabandoned to her fate. Suddenly a youth appeared {42} upon a dappled\ncourser, brandishing his mortal lance. Advancing to the shore, he\ngreeted the maiden with the name of God; and she politely returned the\nsalutation: \u201cLife and health to thee, O hero on the dappled steed!\u201d He\ngoes on to inquire what she is doing there alone by the water; and she\ntells him her story. Then he catechises her as to her morals. Has her\nheart been always pure? Has she always been obedient to her parents?\nHas she ever adored the god of silver, or the god of gold, to which\nher people are in the habit of bowing down? When this highly orthodox\nknight has been satisfied on these points, he dismounts from his\ndappled steed, plants his lance in the grass, and says to the\nprincess: \u201cPray examine my head a little, for I feel strangely\nsleepy.\u201d Whereupon he lays his head in her lap, and she proceeds to\nperform for him a service doubtless highly appreciated by the peasants\nwho sing the ballad. Under the soothing influence of her gentle\nfingers he falls asleep; and while he rests the lake rises in waves\nand the dragon emerges. The bashful maid was ashamed to awaken her\ndeliverer; but her tears rolled down upon his face, and he leaped up\nlike one possessed. He tore out the lance from the earth, and pricking\nhis steed forward until it stood up to its knees in the lake, struck\nthe monster in the jaw with his lance, dragged it ashore, bound it\nwith a silken girdle, and put the girdle into the princess\u2019 hand. He\ndirected her to conduct it through the city, in the hope that the\nsight would at last convert the inhabitants, that they might desist\nfrom their infinite wickednesses, destroy the god of silver, worship\nthe true God, and venerate himself, Saint George, as their patron. \u201cIf\nthey will not be converted, set free,\u201d he says, \u201cthe insatiable\ndragon, and he will devour the people of Troyan.\u201d {43} The argument\nthus presented on his behalf by the princess was irresistible. The\ncity was converted, and its harvests of corn and wine thenceforward\nprospered. Its patron, Saint George, became an object of reverence, as\nhe is to this day; but whether the dragon also became a reformed\ncharacter, or was put to death, the ballad omits to inform us.[43.1]\n\nThe Bosnian folk-song I have here summarised reappears with little\nchange, both in Servia and in Bulgaria.[43.2] In the island of Lesbos,\non the other hand, it has greater affinities to the _m\u00e4rchen_\ndiscussed in previous chapters. A monster, having established himself\nnear a fountain, is propitiated with a human being every morning and\nevening, otherwise he would stop the flow of water. The lot fell in\ndue course on the king\u2019s daughter. On one side wept the king; on the\nother wept the queen. They wept and cried: \u201cAlas, our only daughter!\u201d\nSaint George heard their lamentations, and drew nigh to save her. He\ndid not stop to put her through her catechism; but having learnt in\nthe briefest words from the maiden that the dragon was to eat her, he\nhurriedly called to her: \u201cCome here, my dear; sit down and louse me;\nand when the water foams, then awaken me!\u201d The abrupt transitions of a\ntraditional ballad do not enable us to judge whether the damsel was\nlong occupied in removing the consequences of his saintly disregard of\ncleanliness; for her next exclamation is: \u201cRise up, rise up, O\nconqueror! The water foams, and the dragon is sharpening his teeth for\nme!\u201d Her tears flowed like an impetuous river, and wetted the saint in\nhis {44} armour of gold. He sprang at the winged monster, and with a\nthrust of his javelin stretched him dead. The king in his gratitude\noffered him his daughter in marriage. \u201cInstead of marrying thy\ndaughter,\u201d the holy and unambitious man replied, \u201cinstead of calling\nme thy son-in-law, build a church in the name of Christ. In the midst\nof the church erect a knight; write on the knight this one word:\n_Saint George_, that all the world may come and pay him homage.\u201d[44.1]\n\nThe name and legend of Saint George are known in Abyssinia, where the\nstory is perhaps told in a fashion as pious as the foregoing.\nUnfortunately I am unable to give the edifying details. But at the\nExhibition at Palermo a few years ago, some pictures were shown as\nspecimens of native art. One of them represented Saint George on\nhorseback, and another was thus described by an interpreter: \u201cThere\nwas a dragon that slew all the virgins; Saint George killed it. Near\nthe place where the dragon died was a euphorbia tree, wherein a virgin\nwho was afraid of the beast had taken refuge. The virgin did not\nbelieve that the dragon was dead, and Saint George gave her the cord,\nsaying: \u2018Pull it, and thou wilt see that it does not move.\u2019\u201d[44.2]\n\nWe are not immediately concerned with the revolting legend of the\nsaint\u2019s martyrdom. It may be well, however, to point out that this\nappears to be the oldest part of the story. Mr. Baring-Gould, indeed,\nconjectures that the incident of the Rescue of Andromeda attached\nitself to his name in consequence of a misunderstanding--on whose part\nhe does not specify--of the concluding words of {45} an encomium on\nthe saint made by Metaphrastes, a Byzantine writer of the early part\nof the tenth century, in which he ascribes to his hero the feat of\nconfounding and making a mock of the cunning dragon, meaning of course\nthe Devil.[45.1] Such misunderstandings are not unknown in the legends\nof the saints. M. Maury enumerates forty-two saints, not including\nSaint George, to whom a victory over a dragon has been ascribed by a\nsimilar blunder; and it {46} would not be surprising to find that his\nlist is far from complete.[46.1] Whatever may have been the cause of\nthe appropriation of the incident to Saint George, it is certain that\nthe belief in the story is to be found everywhere in Europe. In some\nplaces it has even been localised, as at Mansfeld, where the saint is\ndeclared to have been a knight named George, who was Count of\nMansfeld, and whose own daughter was the damsel rescued from the maw\nof the dragon. His statue as he slew the monster stands over the\nchurch-door; and there can be little doubt that the statue, whether\nintended for Saint George or any other person, has caused the\nlocalisation of the tradition.[46.2]\n\nThe islanders of Sardinia have a Saint George of their own, who was\nbishop of Suelli. In the commune of Sant\u2019 Andrea Frius, a village in\nthe province of Cagliari, is a {47} tract called \u201cthe Plain of Blood,\u201d\nwhere grew a reddish plant, said to have been tinged by the blood of\nthe dragon, whom this very saint slew there.[47.1] This is an instance\nin which coincidence of name has been the cause of confusion.\n\nOutside the legends of the saints, the deliverance of a maiden is,\nwith one exception, hardly found in modern Europe. Tales of the\nconquest of a dragon or other monster are common enough, both in this\nisland and on the Continent; but since there is no lady in the case it\nis needless to refer here more particularly to any save the remarkable\nstory of the Pollard Worm. The tradition is that long ago a huge and\nsavage wild boar--not a serpent--infested the woods of Bishop\nAuckland, and every effort to destroy it failed, the adventurers who\nhad undertaken the achievement having all perished in the attempt. At\nlength both the king and the prince-bishop of Durham, whose favourite\nresidence was at Auckland Castle, offered rewards for its destruction.\nA member of the Pollard family, already an honourable and ancient one,\nrode forth in search of the monster, and after a desperate struggle\nsucceeded in severing its head from the trunk. Having done this he cut\nout the tongue, which he placed in his wallet, and then, overcome with\nweariness (for he seems to have fought during the night), he stretched\nhimself on the ground and fell fast asleep. Now the terms of the\nking\u2019s proclamation were such that the reward was due to any one who\nwould bring him the boar\u2019s head to his palace at Westminster. While\nthe victor slept, the lord of Mitford Castle, near Morpeth, {48} rode\nby on his way to London, and seeing the slaughtered boar and the\nsleeping man, he could not be in any doubt as to what had happened. So\nhe played the charcoal-burner\u2019s part, and stealthily dismounting took\nup the head, slung it at his saddle-bow, leapt again upon his steed,\nand made all haste to London, where he showed the head and won the\nreward. When Pollard awoke, to his dismay the head had disappeared.\nHowever, he made the best of his way to Auckland Castle, where he\narrived at an unseasonable moment, for the bishop was just sitting\ndown to dinner. When the message was brought to his lordship, he \u201csent\nthe champion word that he might take for his guerdon as much land as\nhe could ride round during the hour of dinner. Weary as he was,\nPollard had all his wits about him. He turned his horse\u2019s head and\nrode round Auckland Castle, thus making it, and all it contained, his\nown. The bishop could not but acknowledge his claim, and gladly\nredeemed castle, goods, and chattels on the best terms he could. He\ngranted the champion a freehold estate, still known as Pollard\u2019s\nLands, with this condition annexed: the possessor was to meet every\nbishop of Durham on his first coming to Auckland Castle, and to\npresent him with a falchion, saying, \u2018My lord, I, on behalf of myself,\nas well as several others, possessors of Pollard\u2019s lands, do humbly\npresent your lordship with this falchion at your first coming here,\nwherewith as the tradition goeth he slew of old a mighty boar which\ndid much harm to man and beast, and by performing this service we hold\nour lands.\u2019 It may be added that the crest of the Pollard family is an\narm holding a falchion.\u201d Pollard\u2019s next business was to go to London\nand urge his claims there. He pleaded that the head Mitford had\nbrought was without {49} a tongue, but to no purpose. Mitford had\nfulfilled the terms of the royal proclamation, and to Mitford the\nreward had already been given.[49.1]\n\nBefore leaving the subject of European sagas one important Rescue\nstory must, however, be mentioned. It forms part of the Irish tale of\n_The Wooing of Emer_, and is to this effect: Cuchulainn, coming to the\nhouse of Ruad, king of the Isles, on Samuin night (Hallowe\u2019en), hears\nwailing in the dun of the king. Inquiring the cause of the\nlamentations, he is told that Devorgoil, the king\u2019s daughter, has been\ntaken as tribute to the Fomori, a monster race dwelling beneath the\nsea, and she is exposed on the sea-shore that they may fetch her. He\ngoes down to the strand and there finds the maiden. \u201cHe asked tidings\nof her. The maiden told him fully. \u2018Whence do the men come?\u2019 said he.\n\u2018From that distant island yonder,\u2019 said she; \u2018be not here in sight of\nthe robbers.\u2019 He remained there awaiting them and killed the three\nFomori in single combat. But the last man wounded him at the wrist.\nThe maiden gave him a strip from her garment round his wound. He then\nwent away without making himself known to the maiden. The maiden came\nto the dun and told her father the whole story.\u2026 Many in the dun\nboasted of having killed the Fomori, but the maiden did not believe\nthem.\u201d So the king prepared a bath, to which every one was brought\nseparately. Cuchulainn came, like everybody else, and the maiden {50}\nrecognised him--doubtless by the strip of her garment on his wound.\nThe king offered him the damsel to wife, but he said: \u201cNot so. Let her\ncome this day year to Erinn after me, if it be pleasant to her, and\nshe will find me there.\u201d \u201cHe ought of course to have married her,\u201d as\nMr. Nutt, commenting on the story, remarks; \u201cbut this would have\nconflicted with the purpose of the tale\u2026 which is to celebrate the\nheroic loves of Cuchullainn and Emer.\u201d So the marriage is prevented by\na device mentioned in one of our earlier chapters. Devorgoil came with\nher handmaid in bird-form, and Cuchulainn, not recognising her, struck\nher with a stone from his sling, which he afterwards sucked from the\nwound, thereby becoming her blood-brother.[50.1] Here it is plain, as\nhas been noted by both Professor Rhys and Mr. Nutt, that we have a\nvariant of the incident under consideration. The manuscript containing\nthe story was compiled in A.D. 1300; and there are reasons for\nthinking that in its present form the story is at least as old as the\nearly part of the eleventh century. It is probable that the incident\nis \u201ca folktale arbitrarily altered in order to be introduced into the\u201d\nsaga of Cuchulainn. This at least is Mr. Nutt\u2019s acute conjecture; and\nI scarcely know how else to account for the resemblance the incident\nbears to that found in stories of the _Herdsman_ type. The _Herdsman_\ntype, as we have seen, appears to have originated among the Celts, or\nrather perhaps among that Iberian race which overspread in far\nprehistoric times the whole of the west of Europe, and after the\nCeltic conquest of these islands formed the substratum of the\npopulation. We shall hereafter see the bearing of this fact on the\nquestion of origin. Meanwhile, we may turn to other variants.\n\n{51}\n\nThe tale of the Rescue of Andromeda is known to the farthest limits of\nAsia. Mr. J. F. Campbell describes a picture he saw in a temple at\nShimonoshua in Japan. \u201cA man with long black hair and a hooked nose,\nand a long straight sword, loose red trousers, a flowered white cloak,\nand curled-up shoes, like those of the Mikado and Laplanders. Eight\nround China vases, breaking waves and the sea; a weird tree, and a\nstorm of wind and rain driving at the man; eight heads, like the head\nof the dragon of the fountain [previously described]. A woman crouched\nin a cago, behind the warrior, dressed in Japanese draperies; a great\ndeal of unpainted wood to make the background of this curious old\nsketch by a very clever hand; a lot of Japanese writing, and a black\nframe which had remnants of gilding. That was the picture. The whole\nwas much weathered and battered and in a bad light. It is at least\nthree hundred years old.\u201d[51.1] Mr. Campbell was not the man to look\nat such a picture without having his curiosity aroused to know its\nmeaning; and he learned from Massanao, his youthful squire at\nShimonoshua, a story substantially identical with the account I follow\nderived from a different source. Susa No, the tricksy son of Isanagi,\nthe Japanese Creator, being forbidden to return to heaven after his\nexploits there, and reluctant to turn his steps to the Underworld,\nwhich he had of his own free choice inherited as his abode, wandered\nthrough the earth. From Corea he crossed the strait and landed at\nIdzumo in Japan. As he trod the shore eager to know who dwelt in that\nstrange country he heard the sound of weeping and wailing. Passing\nonwards in the direction of the sound, he beheld in a little glen an\nold man and woman, and {52} between them was seated a lovely maiden\nwhose bitter sighing and tears they were striving in vain to still.\nSusa No quickened his steps towards the group, and gently inquired the\nreason of this grief. \u201cI am Ashinadzutchi, the god of this country,\u201d\nsaid the old man, rising and bowing low before the stranger.\n\u201cPeacefully I and mine tend the cultivation of rice; and there were\nnothing left for us to wish if only we were freed from one frightful,\nindescribably cruel calamity. Seven daughters have already been\ndevoured by a hideous sea-monster. The creature came hither when my\ndaughters were in the very flower of their beauty. It was incapable of\ncompassion; it regarded not their screams of agony, but devoured them.\nThis is the last of our daughters, our beautiful and good Inada; and\nof her too the monster will rob us; we know it only too well; and that\nis why we are mourning and weeping with our dear child.\u201d The astounded\nSusa No inquired more particularly about the monster, and learned that\nit was a terrible dragon with eight heads, whose glowing eyes shone\nafar and were red as red berries. Its back was overgrown with\ndownright forests; its belly was blood-red, and continually bedabbled\nin blood; its whole coiling length was as long as some winding valley.\nUndaunted, however, he promised help against the oppressor; only he\nprayed the old man and his wife to give him the fair Inada to wife if\nhe succeeded in rescuing her from the dragon\u2019s maw. His measures were\nsoon taken. He requested Ashinadzutchi to prepare a great quantity of\nsaki. He himself the while built eight small rooms or enclosures, open\nabove; and in each room he put a large vat of saki. When the monster\ndrew nigh he threw a woman\u2019s robe around him and placed himself so\nthat his reflection fell into the first vat. The hungry {53} dragon,\nseeing it, plunged its first head into the vat, deeming that its prey\nwas there. With headlong speed it drained the saki to reach the\nmaiden, but found her not. Her image was shimmering and beckoning from\nthe second vat; and rashly and greedily it plunged another head into\nthat. In vain it emptied the second vat; in vain it pursued the same\nfalse image into the depths of the remaining vats one after the other.\nBy the time the eight vats were emptied the monster rolled over on the\nearth in a drunken sleep. Then Susa No stepped forward, flung off his\ndisguise, drew his sword, smote off the heads of the ungainly brute,\nand hewed his mighty body into small pieces. But when he came to the\ntail his good sword was notched and blunted with the blows. Then he\ndiscovered in the dragon\u2019s tail a sword even better than his own. He\ntook the prize, called it Cloud-sword, because the dragon was ever\ngirt with dense clouds, and sent it as a gift to his sister Amaterasu,\nthe sun-goddess, up yonder in heaven. She held it ever in high esteem,\nand in after-days gave it to her grandson, the ancestor of the Mikado.\nBy him it was bequeathed to his descendants, and it is still, if\nreport lie not, among the most precious treasures of the imperial\ncrown. Inada was not unwilling to be bestowed upon a wooer who had won\nher so nobly. They dwelt long and happily together in Idzumo, and\nbecame the parents of a race of heroes and rulers renowned in story.\nAnd Susa No made upon his conquest of the dragon and his marriage the\noldest poem in the Japanese tongue, whence he is honoured as the\ninventor of the art of poetry.[53.1]\n\n{54}\n\nI may pause here to observe that the device of rendering the dragon\ntorpid by gorging it is not unknown in Western tales. To give a single\nexample, it shall be one that Sir Robert Atkyns turns aside from his\ndreary genealogies and heraldic studies to mention, because the hero\nwas the traditional founder of one of those innumerable county\nfamilies whose exciting chronicle of births, marriages, and deaths is\nof such vast importance to the local historian, and of none whatever\nto the rest of the world. The story is that the neighbourhood of\nDeerhurst, in Gloucestershire, was plagued by \u201ca serpent of prodigious\nbigness,\u201d which poisoned the inhabitants and slew their cattle. The\npeople petitioned the king; and a proclamation was issued in response,\noffering an estate, then belonging to the Crown, on Walton Hill in the\nparish of Deerhurst to any one who should kill the serpent. This was\naccomplished by one John Smith, \u201ca labourer.\u201d He put a quantity of\nmilk in a place frequented by the monster; and the brute, having\nswallowed the whole, \u201clay down in the sun with his scales ruffled up.\nSeeing him in this situation, Smith advanced, and striking between the\nscales with his axe, took off his head. The family of the Smiths\nenjoyed the estate when Sir Robert compiled this account, and Mr.\nLane, who married a widow of that family, had then the axe in his\npossession.\u201d[54.1] Here for saki we have milk; and the Mikado\u2019s sword\nis replaced by Mr. Lane\u2019s axe. The church {55} at Deerhurst is one of\nthe most ancient in the country. Its tower in particular is of\nsingular interest; and it has been assigned to a date as early as the\neighth century. Beyond doubt it witnessed the Norman Conquest, and was\nprobably by no means a new building then. Immediately over the door\nprojects a broken stone, roughly carved into the shape of a dragon\u2019s\nhead; and above a window higher up is a second stone of a similar\nform. It is quite likely that, as in the case of the statue at\nMansfeld, so here, the carving on the church has caused the\nlocalisation of the legend.[55.1]\n\nThese examples stand by no means alone. The carving at Brent Pelham,\nreferred to in a note on a previous page, appears to be the origin of\na similar story. In the church of Mordiford, in Herefordshire, is a\npainting representing a winged serpent about twelve feet long, with a\nlarge head and open mouth. The tradition is that a dragon infested\n{56} the neighbourhood, and a condemned malefactor was promised pardon\nif he would destroy the creature. He fought and killed it in the river\nLug, but fell a victim to the poison of its breath. Here again the\nrepresentation probably suggested the tradition as a special\nappurtenance of the village; and among others of which we may suspect\nthe same are the famous worms of Lambton in Durham, and Linton in\nRoxburghshire.[56.1] The dragon held a prominent place in the\nmythology of the northern nations, as it has done in many others, and\nwas a favourite subject of both Teutonic and Celtic Art. To trace its\nsomewhat complex artistic history is foreign to my purpose; but the\nbriefest notice of local traditions could hardly be considered\ncomplete without some mention of the influence of sculptures and\npictures whose meaning had been lost.\n\nWe may now return to sagas more properly coming within our ken. From\nCandahar is reported a Mussulman legend, which relates that in pagan\ntimes the king of Candahar found himself compelled to promise a young\ngirl every day to a dragon. Accordingly a maiden mounted on a camel\nwas daily sent to the monster. As soon as the camel arrived within a\ncertain distance of the cavern where the dragon dwelt, the latter\ninhaled its breath with such force that its prey was inevitably drawn\ninto its throat. One day the lot fell on the fairest maid of Candahar,\nwhen Ali, \u201cthe sword of the faith,\u201d happened to pass through the\ncountry, and saw the victim in tears. Learning the cause of her\ndistress, he placed himself in her stead on the camel, and at the\nmoment of being drawn into the monster\u2019s throat he cut off its head\nwith his irresistible blade.[56.2] In Abyssinia {57} the tale is told\nwith variations, due to Christian and Jewish influences. Axum, we\nlearn, was the seat of a serpent-king, for whose appetite a virgin was\ndaily provided. When it came to the turn of Saba, a virgin of high\nbirth and pure spirit, she was rescued by a \u201ccelestial warrior in\nearthly form,\u201d but not before the serpent\u2019s saliva had fallen on her\nfoot, causing her thereafter incurable ulcers and lameness. She was\nacclaimed queen; but her disease marred her joy. Wherefore she crossed\nthe seas to seek for healing at the hands of the renowned King\nSolomon, from whom she obtained not only restoration to health but\nalso a son, born after her return to Abyssinia. He was named Menelek,\nand to him the kings of Gondar have ever since traced their\nancestry.[57.1] In the basin of the Upper Niger, the story concerns\nnot the beginnings of a royal race but the destruction of a\nkingdom--that of the Bakiris whose capital was called Wagadu. It was\nsaid to be colossally rich; the kings possessed an immense treasure;\nbut they owed their fortune to the protection of a serpent which dwelt\nwithin a well near the king\u2019s village. Every year, by lot, one of the\nloveliest maidens of the country was chosen, and, arrayed like a\nbride, she was conducted to the well, when the serpent would come\nforth and, rolling his scaly folds around her, would carry her off to\nhis den. Now, one year the lot fell on a damsel betrothed to the\nbravest warrior of the land, who, besides, was the king\u2019s cousin. He\nswore to save her, and mounted on his steed, which he had tethered\nnear the well, he awaited the dragon\u2019s coming. Twice the serpent put\nforth his head, and twice drew back. {58} But the third time, the\nmoment he stretched out to seize the prey the warrior lunged forward,\ncut the brute in two with a single blow of his sabre; and seizing his\nbeloved he carried her off with all the speed of his courser, which no\nhorse has ever surpassed. As he disappeared, a voice was heard from\nthe well denouncing seven years of drought and every evil a country\ncould suffer. The king sought his cousin and would have put him to\ndeath; but he could not be caught. Soon the predicted woes were\naccomplished; and forced by drought and sickness the population\ndeserted the capital in a body for other lands. It is even said that\nthe king, unable to carry off his riches, buried them, and that no man\nsince has been able to find them, for the soil burns and bursts into\nflame beneath the hardy treasure-seeker. Certain it is that scourges\nof various kinds, which transformed the country into desert, caused\nthe emigration of a once numerous people.[58.1]\n\nVariants in east and west represent the maiden as her own deliverer.\nIn the _Golden Legend_ of \u00e0 Voragine we read that Saint Margaret was\nflung into a dungeon, after tortures of the kind that churchmen, with\nequal piety and delight, ascribed to their martyrs and inflicted on\ntheir opponents. In her cell she prayed to the Lord that the Enemy\nwith whom she was fighting might appear to her in visible form. A huge\ndragon instantly assailed and attempted to devour her; but she made\nthe sign of the cross, and it vanished. It is elsewhere stated, we are\ntold, that the dragon had actually got her into its mouth and was\nabout to swallow her, when she fortified herself with the sign of the\ncross: the dragon forthwith burst asunder {59} and the virgin came\nforth unharmed. Here, however, the pious author becomes critical. It\nwas not incredible that the Devil should come in the shape of a dragon\nand should seek to devour her, nor that she should repulse him unaided\nsave by the sign of the cross. But that he should have got her between\nhis jaws, and that he should have burst asunder, was apocryphal and\nfrivolous.[59.1] Obviously it would never have done to let people\nbelieve that the Devil had come to an end in this way: it would be\nkilling the goose that laid the golden eggs.\n\nIn Germany the maiden\u2019s victory is localised on the far-famed\nDrachenfels. While Rome was yet mistress of the left bank of the\nRhine, and Christianity under her power had established itself there,\nthe heathen hordes on the right bank continued to assert their\nindependence, and made constant raids on the opposite side. On one of\nthese freebooting excursions they captured a Christian king\u2019s\ndaughter. The son of the ruler of the L\u00f6wenburg fell in love with\nher, and would have wedded her had she not refused to give her hand to\na worshipper of false gods. Whereupon it was decreed in a council of\nthe chiefs that the damsel should be offered up to a ferocious dragon\ndwelling in a cave on that one of the Seven Mountains whose steep top\nlooked down into the green waves of the surging Rhine. Early on the\nmorrow, while the dragon yet slept, she was accordingly dragged up the\nrock and fettered to a tree near the cavern. At the foot of the\nmountain gathered an expectant crowd--among them her {60} heathen\nlover, who longed to hasten up and shield the maiden\u2019s life with his\nown; but she was condemned to death by the nobles, and he durst not\ninterfere. Meanwhile she stood unterrified; and as she quietly awaited\nthe dragon, she drew from her bosom a crucifix and fixed her trustful\ngaze upon it. Out came the monster from his hole, and, catching sight\nof the sacrifice provided for him, he rushed upon her. The crucifix,\nhowever, proved too much for him. When he beheld it in her hands\nterror and stupefaction seized him; he fell down in the most natural\nway and rolled from the precipitous cliff right into the foaming flood\nbelow, there to find a watery grave. Nothing more of course was wanted\nto convert the heathen; and the legend winds up, in a manner somewhat\nmore idyllic than orthodox, with the wedding of the pious maiden to\nthe king\u2019s son after he had received \u201cthe bath of regeneration.\u201d[60.1]\nThe story has clearly been provided with a religious and literary\ngloss; but there is no reason why in substance it may not be of\ntraditional origin, and the conclusion indicates a strong probability\nthat as originally told it was the king\u2019s son who effected the\nmaiden\u2019s deliverance. The _Kwang-po-wu-chih_, a compilation of the end\nof the sixteenth century, furnishes a Chinese version also literary in\nappearance, the popular provenience of which cannot be doubted. \u201cIn\nthe eastern regions of Yueh Min (the present Fuhkien) there exists a\nrange of mountains called the Yung Ling, many tens of _li_ in height,\nin the north-western recesses of which there abode a mighty serpent,\nseven or eight _chang_ (seventy or eighty feet) in length and ten feet\nin circumference, which was held in great awe by the people of the\ncountry. At a certain time it signified, {61} either to some person in\na dream or to those versed in the art of divination, that it lusted to\ndevour a maiden of the age of twelve or thirteen; and the governors\nand men in authority of that region, equally alarmed respecting the\nmonster, sought out female bond-servants and the daughters of\ncriminals to satisfy the serpent\u2019s appetite. In the morning of the day\nin the eighth moon, after offering sacrifices, the victim was taken to\nthe mouth of the serpent\u2019s cavern, and at night the serpent suddenly\nissued forth and devoured its prey. Year after year this happened,\nuntil at length nine maidens in all had been offered up; and a fresh\ndemand was being made but no victim could be obtained. At this time Li\nTan, Magistrate of Tsing Lo, had six daughters and no sons. His\nyoungest daughter, named Ki, responded to the call and was ready to\nproceed (to the cavern), but her parents refused consent. She urged,\nhowever, that she was unable to be of use to her parents, as was Ti\nYing (the faithful daughter of olden times), and being a mere source\nof useless expense might as well bring her life to a speedy close, and\nonly requested to be supplied with a good sword and a dog that would\nbite at snakes. In the morning of the day of the eighth month she\nvisited the Temple with the sword beside her and the dog provided. She\nhad also previously prepared several measures of boiled rice mixed\nwith honey, which she placed at the mouth of the cavern. At night the\nserpent came forth, its head as large as a rice stock and its eyes\nlike mirrors two feet across--when, perceiving the aroma of the mess\nof rice, it began to devour it. Ki forthwith let loose her dog which\nseized the serpent in its teeth, and the maiden hereupon hacked the\nmonster from behind, so that after dragging itself to the mouth of its\ncave it died. The {62} maiden entered the cavern and recovered the\nskeletons of the nine previous victims, whose untimely fate she\nbewailed. After this she leisurely returned home, and the Prince of\nSueh, hearing of her exploit, raised her to be his Queen.\u201d[62.1]\n\nIn the last chapter I summarised several _m\u00e4rchen_ wherein Andromeda\nwas replaced by a youth of the opposite sex. Such examples are rare\namong sagas. Beside the cases of Kleostratos and Theseus already cited\nI am only aware of one other, which indeed appears to be merely one of\nthe _m\u00e4rchen_ from the Panj\u00e1b with its hero identified as the\ncelebrated R\u00e2j\u00e2 Ras\u00e2lu. The r\u00e2j\u00e2 comes with his pet parrot of\nsupernatural wisdom to N\u00eel\u00e2 City and finds an old woman, six of\nwhose seven sons have been already sent by the king to feed a certain\ngiant. It is now her seventh son\u2019s turn, and he is to be sent that day\nfor the giant\u2019s dinner, together with a basket of bread and a buffalo.\nThe r\u00e2j\u00e2 offers himself in place of the youth. It turns out that\nthere are in all seven giants, who are fated to be overcome by R\u00e2j\u00e2\nRas\u00e2lu. They candidly tell him, as these stupid monsters are\naccustomed to do, how to perform the feat. Taught by them, he looses\nthe heel-ropes from his horse and drops the sword out of his hand. The\nropes tie up the giants and the sword cuts them in pieces. But this is\nnot enough to satisfy the conditions; and the giants, still living,\nare obliging enough to put seven frying-pans, one behind the other,\nand behind the frying-pans to arrange themselves one behind the other,\nso that their antagonist may conveniently loose an arrow from his bow\nto pierce them all through the frying-pans, and slay them at one blow\nin the predestined manner. A giantess, {63} their sister, however,\nescaped to a cave. The hero pursued her, and placed a statue of\nhimself at the mouth of the cave, so that, being afraid to venture\nforth again, she was starved to death within.[63.1]\n\nA few variants are also found, in which the maiden is rescued, not\nfrom death by the dragon, but only from thraldom. Such is the tale of\nRagnar Lodbrog as developed in his _Saga_. As told by Saxo, Herodd,\nking of the Swedes, found some snakes in the woods and gave them to\nhis daughter Thora to bring up. They grew and became such a nuisance\nto the whole country-side that at last the king was forced to issue a\nproclamation, offering his daughter in marriage to any one who would\nremove the pest. Ragnar procured a woollen mantle and thigh-pieces\nthick with hair that would protect him from snake-bites. To make\nassurance doubly sure he plunged into water on a frosty night and\nfroze his clothing stiff. Thus defended, and armed with his sword and\nspear, he attacked and killed two serpents; the courtiers, meanwhile,\nflying from the struggle and hiding like frightened little girls.\nAfter the combat the king, laughing at his uncouth garb, nicknamed him\nLodbrog, or Shaggy-brogues.[63.2] The _Saga_, however, gives a\nsomewhat different version. It only mentions one worm, found when\nquite small in a vulture\u2019s egg which Thora\u2019s father had brought to her\nas a gift from Bjarmeland. She took a fancy to the creature and made a\nbed of gold for it in a little box. There it grew, and the gold with\nit, until at length it lay coiled round the house and allowed no one\n{64} to approach except the man who brought its daily food. The Jarl\nHerraud was moved to offer his daughter and the dragon\u2019s hoard to any\none who would kill it. Ragnar\u2019s shaggy mantle and leggings were boiled\nin pitch and then rolled in sand. He attacked the monster with his\nlance early in the morning while all men yet slept, and drove the\nweapon home. So mighty were the worm\u2019s death-struggles that the\nbuilding shook with them and Thora was awakened. She cried out,\ninquiring the hero\u2019s name. He replied by singing some verses in which\nhe hardly gave her more than his age, and hastened away, leaving the\niron spear-head imbedded in the carcase, but carrying the shaft with\nhim. The Jarl forthwith summoned an assembly and passed round the\nspear-head, that it might be found who owned the shaft it would fit\nand who was entitled to the reward.[64.1] Note here the inveterate\nhabit of the adventurer in these tales: the habit of running away\nafter performing the deed and thus necessitating his discovery by a\ntoken. This is wanting in Saxo\u2019s account; but we cannot infer that it\nwas unknown to him. A careful examination of his narrative shows, in\nmore than one place, evidence of omissions not unconnected, probably,\nwith his purpose of turning popular traditions into serious\nhistory.[64.2]\n\nA story of the deliverance of a maiden imprisoned by a dragon, still\ncurrent in the mouths of the people, places the scene of the captivity\non a little island, called Lindwerder, in the Lake of Dratzig, in\nPomerania. After many knights had essayed the task in vain one came\nwho, with a song, {65} threw a spell over the monster and slew him.\nThe lady, however, refused marriage with her deliverer, having vowed\nher life to God; and she became a nun.[65.1] I might refer to other\ncases of rescue from the toils of a serpent or some such monster, but\nit is needless to pursue this form of the tale, since it seems\nconnected rather with the myth of the Enchanted Princess, which I have\nstudied elsewhere,[65.2] than with that of Perseus and Andromeda.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XVIII.\n THE RESCUE OF ANDROMEDA: ITS RELATION TO HUMAN SACRIFICES.\n\n{66}\n\nPopular as the story of the rescue of the devoted maiden is, and\nappealing as it does to the imagination, it is not a little remarkable\nthat it appears to be indigenous only in the Old World. Legends of the\nslaughter of a destructive monster are by no means so confined in\ntheir range, where there is no specific human being to deliver; and\nnot infrequently they form part of the cosmogony of peoples alien in\nrace and occupying distant portions of the globe. Few of them exhibit\nany details in common with those of the Perseus cycle. I have already\nmentioned some, and to others I shall have occasion to refer\nhereafter. The rest it would little avail us to analyse. Enough to\nnote that the thought underlying them all is that the monster slain is\npreternatural and hostile to mankind. The suggestion has often been\nmade that these stories are traditions of the saurians which abounded\nin geologic times. Of this, not a particle of evidence has been\nadduced; and it is in itself so wildly improbable as hardly to deserve\nnotice. None of the giant reptiles of the secondary period were\ncontemporary with man. The process of evolution was still far short of\nthat consummation. And when man {67} appeared in the Quaternary, or\nperhaps at an advanced stage of the Tertiary, period, the remains of\niguanodons and pterodactyles had long been peacefully fossilised\nbeyond his reach. It is true that he made war on the mammoth and the\nwoolly rhinoceros; but these could have furnished no hints for the\nconstruction of the winged dragon or the _lindwurm_. We may indeed\nreasonably ask what hints were needed beyond the existence of snakes\nand birds or bats? The conscious weakness of humanity, the mystery of\nserpentine motions, the magnifying, the combining and the distorting\npowers of human imagination, amply account for the result. The hero\nwho is believed to have succeeded in vanquishing a monster thus\ncreated, is regarded as somewhat more than man; he is frequently\nworshipped as a god. This, however, we know, was comparatively late in\ncivilisation. There was a time when gods, in the sense of beings\ndistinct from and above man, though human in their passions, and more\nor less human in their proper form, did not exist in the belief of\nmankind. The worship of confessedly human ancestors, totemism, and\nother and ruder superstitions preceded them. Science has not yet\ndetermined the exact relations of ancestor-worship and totemism. But\nit is at least certain that the dead were constantly held to assume\nanimal shape. Multitudes of the lower animals--even noxious and\nrepulsive creatures like snakes--were venerated as totems. Veneration\ngrows easily into worship; the totem-feast develops into what we\nunderstand by a sacrifice. That many of the classical deities\nthemselves emerged into anthropomorphism from an earlier and less\nadvanced existence is probable from the tales which represented them\non various occasions and for various purposes \u201cdisguised in brutish\nforms,\u201d and from {68} the wolves, the horses, the swine, the dogs, the\nmice and even the flies associated with them, or dedicated to them in\nthe ordinary offerings of the temples or in the more secret and solemn\ncult of the Mysteries. Egypt, down to the latest moment of its\nindependence, in spite of the political vicissitudes of its long and\nsplendid history, and the consequent evolution of its manifold\nreligious faith, never got beyond its zoomorphic deities. The\ncrocodile and the goose, the ibis and the ram, the jackal, the cat and\nthe bull, decorated with divine names, received in their proper\nbestial persons the adoration of their worshippers. To living gods\nlike these food was a daily necessity; and for such as were\ncarnivorous flesh, doubtless part of the daily sacrifices, must have\nbeen provided. A savage nation on days of festival, or under stress of\nsome great impending calamity, would not hesitate to give human flesh.\nIf, by the concurrence of an advance in civilisation and a political\nrevolution, the worship of any such divinity were suppressed, he would\nbecome in tradition a deadly monster; and the milder divinity who\nsucceeded to his place in popular regard would be credited with his\nconquest and destruction.\n\nThe hypothesis I venture to put forward to explain the incident of the\nRescue of Andromeda is, that it is the record of some such religious\nreformation. In dealing with the previous incidents I was able to show\nthat they were founded on beliefs, which, if we may not call them\nprimitive, at least go down very deep into savage life. Here it is\ndifferent. Considerable progress in civilisation must have been made\nbefore such a reformation could have been effected, though it would\nstill be compatible with the continuance of a vast amount of wilful\nand deliberate {69} cruelty constantly inflicted on human beings in\nthe service of the gods. The Church, that zealously propagated the\nlegend of Saint George, regarded the tortures inflicted on the hero as\nhighly improper for an orthodox knight, but quite suitable for a\nheretic. Even the polished Greeks occasionally offered human\nsacrifices--if we may trust some of the reports, with torments which\nwould have done no dishonour to the genius of Saint Dominic or the\nmost amiable of his \u201csons.\u201d But the practice of presenting such\nofferings to wild beasts in their capacity as gods had been abandoned;\nand the story of the Slaughter of the Dragon would seem to be the mode\nwherein tradition preserved the effect upon the collective mind, not\nindeed of a specific event, so much as of the total result. Tradition\nloves to be pictorial, dramatic. While its presentations are usually\nwide of the actual series of occurrences, they often embody in\nimaginative shape some genuine memory; and it is the task of the\nhistorian or the scientific student to bid them render up the secrets\nthey enclose.\n\nThe traces of human sacrifice among the Egyptians are faint and\nuncertain. Classical writers, indeed, alleged it; but they brought\nforward hardly any tangible evidence, beyond the statement of\nPlutarch--and that at second-hand--that the engraving on the seals of\nthe Sphragistai, whose business it was to seal the beasts intended for\nthe offerings, was a man bound and kneeling, with a knife at his\nthroat.[69.1] Nor is there reason to suppose that in any case men or\nwomen were given during historical times to their sacred animals. We\nmust turn to a lower range of culture for such a custom. At Bonny, on\nthe West Coast of Africa, a virgin was bound to a stake on the\nsea-shore at the first {70} low water of every spring-tide, and left\nthere as a sacrifice to the shark-god.[70.1] In the East Indies we\nfind many traditions of such practices. \u201cIt has been somewhere related\nthat the R\u00e1j\u00e1 of Kupang, on the island of Timor, formerly sacrificed\na young virgin of royal descent to the Alligator, by throwing her into\nthe sea in order to be swallowed by that monster.\u201d[70.2] Dr. Pleyte,\nthe friend and pupil of the late Professor Wilken, relates \u201chow in\nBoeroe at sunset, after the day\u2019s work, the notables of the island\nwould gather round him [Professor Wilken] and go down to the cool\nsea-shore, where he would sit on a rock in the midst of an improvised\nassembly, and the old men would tell traditions of past glories in the\ndays when every year a maiden, chosen for her beauty, was led down to\nthe sea as a sacrifice to the crocodile-god for the prosperity of the\npeople.\u201d[70.3] In the seventeenth century, Gautier Schouten, a medical\nman in the service of the Dutch East India Company, heard a story on\nthe same island, which discloses a somewhat different motive for the\nsacrifice. A holy crocodile, it runs, having fallen in love with one\nof the daughters of the king of the island, who was very beautiful,\nravaged the coast every day, carrying off and devouring men, women,\nand children. The inhabitants assembled in arms to surprise the brute\nand to kill it. The crocodile was prepared for this, and cried out to\nthem in their own tongue that they should beware of insulting him, for\nhe was mighty enough to destroy them and all their island; and that he\nwould do so unless they delivered up to him the {71} king\u2019s daughter;\nbut, on the other hand, if they did this he would become the protector\nof the island and would load it with benefits. The islanders could not\nresist these promises and threats. They led the princess to the beach,\nand bound her to a pillar, whence the crocodile carried her off in due\ncourse, and by her became the parent of all crocodiles; on which\naccount they are honoured as gods.[71.1] If Archdeacon Gray\u2019s\ninformation is to be trusted, the Shurii-Kia-Miau, one of the\naboriginal tribes of China, still offer human sacrifices to their\ncanine deity, though not exactly to a living dog. They possess a large\ntemple in which is an idol in the form of a dog. There they hold an\nannual religious festival, when the wealthy members of the tribe\n\u201centertain their poorer brethren at a banquet given in honour of one\nwho has agreed, for a sum of money paid to his family, to allow\nhimself to be offered as a sacrifice on the altar of the dog idol. At\nthe end of the banquet, the victim, having drunk wine freely, is put\nto death before the idol.\u201d And the people \u201cbelieve that, were they to\nneglect this rite, they would be visited with pestilence, famine, or\nthe sword.\u201d[71.2] Among the South Sea Islanders, themselves cannibals,\nhuman offerings were frequent. Their idols, it is true, were roughly\nhuman in form; yet the divinities often took the shape of other\nanimals. Ellis relates that \u201cbirds resorting to the temple were said\nto feed upon the bodies of the human sacrifices, and it was imagined\nthat {72} the god approached the temple in the birds, and thus\ndevoured the victims placed upon the altar. In some of the islands\n\u2018man-eater\u2019 was an epithet of the principal deities.\u201d To the king, who\nwas a sacred being descended from the gods, and who often personated\nthe god, the eye, as the most precious part of the victim, the organ\nor emblem of power, was presented. He feigned to eat it; the\nsimulation being, there can be little doubt, a relic of a former\nperiod when he actually did eat the eye and probably other parts of\nthe body. Portions of some of the victims were also eaten by the\npriests, who of course were also representatives of the gods.[72.1]\nThe legends of the Greeks and Romans afford us glimpses of a belief\nlike that of the Polynesians. How else may we interpret the stories,\nreported by Plutarch, of Helena, a noble virgin of Laced\u00e6mon, who, in\nobedience to an oracle, was prepared for sacrifice, but was saved by\nan eagle carrying away the sword and laying it upon a heifer; and of\nValeria Luperca, a maiden of Falerii to whom a similar adventure\nhappened--an adventure commemorated still by a yearly ceremony in the\ndays of Plutarch, or at least of Aristides, the author whom he\ncites?[72.2] The tradition of Lycaon points in the same direction. He,\nhaving offered an infant to Zeus, was changed into a wolf; and it was\nbelieved that any one who imitated his example would share his fate,\nthough with the chance of regaining his own form if for ten years he\nabstained from human flesh.[72.3]\n\n{73}\n\nSeveral of the foregoing examples exhibit the being to whom the\nsacrifice is offered as a crocodile, or some analogous inhabitant of\nthe waters. Nor will it pass unnoticed that many of the tales of the\nRescue of Andromeda represent the dragon as inhabiting a spring or\nlake, or keeping the waters and giving them only in exchange for the\nvictim. A shark- or crocodile-god has, it would seem, a natural\ntendency to pass into a purely mythical being. Such is Ju-ju, an\nobject of worship in the delta of the Niger, to which a young girl is\ncommonly sacrificed in the way already described as customary at Bonny\nin sacrificing to the shark-god.[73.1] To this origin we may probably\nascribe the numerous Eastern tales of dragons and evil spirits taking\npossession of rivers, lakes and tanks, and demanding sacrifices to\ninduce them to release the water. The Chinese annals of Khotan, a city\nin Cashgar, have preserved a legend concerning a river that dried up,\nto the injury of the inhabitants of the city. The king, having\nconsulted his ecclesiastical advisers, was informed that the\nriver-dragon had interrupted the current, and advised to mollify him\nby a sacrifice. No sooner was the sacrifice offered than a lady came\n(so we are told, if the translation be accurate) out of the waters,\nthough it is hard to know how she could do this when the river-bed was\ndry. But whencesoever she may have come, she declared that her husband\nhad prematurely died, and that his demise had stopped the flow. And\nshe required of the monarch one of his grandees as a new husband, so\nthat the stream might resume its course. One of the nobles, named\nMieou, offered himself to supply the place of the late lamented\nhe-dragon. Mounted on a white steed, he rode into the river-bottom,\n{74} and boldly advanced till he met the returning waters. Nor then\ndid he hesitate, but opening a passage amid them with his whip, he\nentered and was seen no more. The horse in a short time reappeared, on\nhis back a drum of sandalwood and a letter assuring the king that\nMieou had been elevated to the rank of a god, and would thenceforth\nwatch over the prosperity of the realm. Meanwhile, the new deity\nbegged his majesty\u2019s acceptance of the accompanying magical drum,\nwhich, if suspended at the south-eastern gate of the city, would give\nwarning in case of any hostile attack. Since that time the people of\nthe city have had no cause to complain of deficiency in their\nwater-supply.[74.1] A somewhat different cause for the human sacrifice\nis alleged in the following Hindu story. The Talao Lake was made by a\nBarg\u00fajar rajah named Menh or Mehan. When it was finished the water\nall became blood-red. The pandits, consulted by the rajah, declared\nthat the water had become impure, because the work had been done by\nlow-caste labourers; and the only way of purifying it was by\nsacrificing the rajah\u2019s son, Chattar-bhuj, with his wife, his horse,\nand his servants, in the lake. With the consent of the principal\nvictim the foul water was drained off, and a room was built in the\nfloor of the lake for the reception of Chattar-bhuj and his household.\nThey accordingly entered it, provided with six months\u2019 food. The room\nwas then closed, and a temple built over it. The result was\nsatisfactory, for when the pool was filled at the next rainy season\nthe water remained pure. \u201cIt is the universal belief that whenever the\nlake overflows,\u201d the rajah\u2019s son \u201cis seen by night riding down the\nhill from the {75} highest point on a blue horse. Some say that two\ntorches are carried before him, and that his servants follow behind,\nuntil all disappear into the lake. Others say that his appearance on\nthe blue horse precedes the fall of rain.\u201d[75.1] Both these cases look\nlike legends which have grown up, in consequence of a change of\npopulation or religion, to account for an ancient worship, and for a\ndivinity still believed to haunt the spot, and still regarded with\nawe, though no longer the object of the special honours at one time\nrendered to him.[75.2] In the latter story, as it reaches us, there is\nno mention of a dragon or other supernatural being. It would seem,\nhowever, to be implied in the sacrifice, as well as in the temple\nerected by the rajah.\n\nBut, though this may be a true explanation of the story of the Talao\nLake, it will generally be agreed that the legend could not have\nassumed its present form had not human sacrifices to water and\nwater-gods been familiar to the natives of India. The sacred books of\nthe Aryans prescribe human sacrifices on divers occasions to various\ndeities; and it is doubtful whether even yet British rule has entirely\nextinguished them. Among the aboriginal tribes they have been put down\nwith extreme difficulty. All over India the folktales are full of\nthem; and many are the sagas relating to the consecration of tanks in\nthis way. I need only add two instances. \u201cAt Ahmad\u00e1b\u00e1d, by the\nadvice of a Brahman, a childless V\u00e1nya was induced to dig a tank to\nappease the goddess S\u00edtal\u00e1. The water refused to enter it without\nthe sacrifice of a man. As soon as the victim\u2019s blood fell on the\nground the tank filled, and the {76} goddess came down from heaven to\nrescue the victim. The Vad\u00e1la lake in Bombay likewise refused to hold\nwater till the local spirit was appeased by the sacrifice of the\ndaughter of the village headman.\u201d[76.1] Among the records of actual\nsacrifices to water, the author of the treatise on the names of rivers\nand mountains attributed to Plutarch cites Archelaus (a philosopher of\nthe fifth century before Christ, whose works have perished) for the\nstatement that virgins were nailed to wooden crosses and flung into\nthe Hydaspes, one of the five great rivers (tributaries of the Indus)\nfrom which the Panj\u00e1b takes its name. These offerings were\naccompanied by hymns addressed to a goddess called by the writer\nAphrodite--probably P\u00e1rvat\u00ed, to whom in her character of K\u00e1l\u00ed\nthere is reason to suspect that human victims are still presented in\nremote places.[76.2] As P\u00e1rvat\u00ed, however, she is still, with her\nhusband Siva, the joint object of an instructive rite in the K\u00e1nagr\u00e1\ndistrict during some part of March and April. The girls of the village\nprocure two clay images, the one of Siva and the other of P\u00e1rvat\u00ed,\nwhich they marry together with full ceremonial. A feast follows; and\non the Sankr\u00e1nt of Bais\u00e1kh (in April) \u201cthey all go together to the\nriverside, throw the images into a deep pool, and weep over the place,\nas though they were performing funeral obsequies. The boys of the\nneighbourhood often annoy them by diving after the images, bringing\nthem up, and waving them about while the girls are crying over them.\u201d\nThe custom is called _Ral\u00ed Ka mel\u00e1_ or the Fair of Ral\u00ed, \u201cthe\n_Ral\u00ed_ being a small painted earthen image of Siva or P\u00e1rvat\u00ed\u201d; and\nits object is said to be to {77} secure good husbands.[77.1] \u201cUntil\nthe beginning of the present century,\u201d says Mr. Crooke, \u201cthe custom of\noffering a first-born child to the Ganges was common\u201d; and he goes on\nto suggest that \u201cakin to this is the Gang\u00e1 J\u00e1tra, or murder of sick\nrelatives on the bank of the sacred river, of which a case occurred\nquite recently at Calcutta.\u201d However this may be, the natives are\nstill suspicious when a bridge is built. \u201cThe Narbad\u00e1, it was\nbelieved, would never allow herself to be bridged until she carried\naway part of the superstructure and caused the loss of lives as a\nsacrifice.\u201d And the rumours that a victim was required when the\nHooghly Bridge at Calcutta was built, and when the waterworks of\nBenares were constructed, point to a wide prevalence of the\nsuperstition that these and other great public works demand a human\nsacrifice.[77.2]\n\nOn the western continent there lingers among the Zu\u00f1i, one of the\nfour stocks of Pueblo Indians in Arizona and New Mexico, a tradition\npointing to the prevalence at one time of human sacrifices to water.\nZu\u00f1i is built upon a knoll in a broad valley walled by picturesque\nmesas or tablelands, of red and white sandstone. The waters of the\nvalley once rose in a flood and compelled the inhabitants to flee to a\nmesa several hundred feet high for safety. And {78} still the waters\nrose, threatening to submerge the mesa itself, until the priests\ndetermined to sacrifice a youth and a maiden to propitiate them. The\ntwo were dressed in their most beautiful clothes, adorned with many\nnecklaces of turquoise and other precious beads, and cast into the\nflood. The offering stayed the calamity; and the victims, turned to\nstone, are yet to be seen in a columnar rock broken near the top into\ntwo parts, which are capped with head-like forms and called by the\npeople the father and mother rocks.[78.1]\n\nEurope furnishes numerous remains of human sacrifice to water. At\nRome, during historical times, the Vestal Virgins threw from the\nSublician bridge into the Tiber, every year on the Ides of May, thirty\nhuman effigies formed of rushes. We cannot doubt that at an earlier\nperiod living men were hurled into the flood. This was the opinion\nentertained by the Romans themselves, who held that it was Hercules\nwho first substituted images of straw.[78.2] A similar substitution is\npractised in India by the Gonds in their offerings to Burha deo; and,\nwe are told, they find it answers the purpose;[78.3] as did the\nRomans.\n\nHuman sacrifices to water were certainly not unknown among the ancient\nGreeks. I need not cite more than two examples. Athen\u00e6us quotes\nAnticlides, an Athenian writer, as recording that certain colonists of\nLesbos were directed {79} by an oracle to throw a virgin into the sea\nas an offering to Poseidon. This was accordingly done; but Enalos, one\nof the chiefs of the expedition, being in love with the maiden, leaped\nafter her to save her, and disappeared with her in the depths. The\ncolonists founded Methymna; and in later years when the town had grown\npopulous he was said to have shown himself to them again, swimming to\nland on a great wave with a wondrous cup of gold in his hand, and to\nhave related that the lady was dwelling beneath the sea with the\nNereids, while he himself had become Master of the Horse to\nPoseidon.[79.1] Such a legend as this could only have arisen where\nsacrifices of the kind had been practised. In historical times the\nGreeks performed the rites of Adonis, originally, it would seem, a\nSemitic cult. Adonis, the beloved of Aphrodite, according to his\nstory, was slain by a boar. \u201cHis death was annually lamented with\nbitter wailing, chiefly by women; images of him, dressed to resemble\ncorpses, were carried out as to burial, and then thrown into the sea\nor into springs; and in some places his revival was celebrated on the\nfollowing day.\u201d[79.2] If not in Greece, at all events in Syria, whence\nperhaps it was borrowed, the ceremony here described was doubtless\nperformed with a human being. Mr. Frazer, from whom I take the\nforegoing description, has made a large collection of cases in which\nan effigy is prepared and, after the performance of certain rites, is\nslain and buried, or thrown into the water. We may put aside the\ninstances of burial, only noting them as evidence that the intention\nis to put some living victim, represented by the effigy, to death. At\nAltdorf and Weingarten, {80} villages of Swabia, a straw man is made\non Ash Wednesday and called the \u201cCarnival Fool.\u201d He is carried round\nand then thrown with mournful music into the water.[80.1] At Balwe, in\nWestphalia, on the contrary, the straw-man is thrown into the river\nH\u00f6nne with shouts of joy on Shrove Tuesday. In both instances the\nceremony is called \u201cburying the Carnival.\u201d[80.2] In the Thuringian\nvillages of Oberhain and Maukenbach the children used to \u201ccarry out\nDeath\u201d in the shape of a puppet of birchen twigs, on Mid-Lent Sunday,\nand throw it into a pool.[80.3] \u201cAt Tabor, in Bohemia, the figure of\nDeath is carried out of the town and flung from a high rock into the\nwater, while\u201d the following song is sung:\n\n \u201cDeath swims on the water,\n Summer will soon be here,\n We have carried Death away for you,\n We have brought the Summer.\n And do thou, O holy Marketa\n Give us a good year\n For wheat and for rye.\u201d[80.4]\n\nPassing over a number of similar observances in German and Slavonic\nlands, I need only mention the \u201cFuneral of Kostroma\u201d as celebrated in\nRussia on Saint Peter\u2019s day, the 29th June. \u201cIn the Murom district,\nKostroma was represented by a straw figure dressed in woman\u2019s clothes\nand flowers. This was laid in a trough and carried with songs to the\nbank of a lake or river. Here the crowd divided into two sides, of\nwhich the one attacked and the other defended the figure. At last the\nassailants gained the day, stripped the figure of its dress and\nornaments, trod the straw of which it was made under foot, and flung\nit into {81} the stream, while the defenders of the figure hid their\nfaces in their hands, and pretended to bewail the death of Kostroma.\u201d\nElsewhere a maiden plays the part of Kostroma. She is treated with\nreverence, carried to the brink of a stream and there bathed.[81.1] In\nsome Swabian villages, where the Carnival Fool is represented by a\nliving man, he is treated less gently, being at last thrown into the\nwater.[81.2]\n\nAll these customs are perfectly unambiguous. Whatever their\nagricultural significance (and I see no reason to doubt that the sense\nattached to them by Mannhardt and Frazer is accurate) they are\nunquestionably relics of human sacrifice to water. The victim may have\nbeen identified with the spirit of vegetation or with some more\nconcrete expression of the same idea, and the ceremonies themselves\nmay have been dramatic in character; but that is in no way\ninconsistent with their being also sacrificial. Moreover, we have\nother traces of the same kind of oblation, in the superstition so\nwidely prevalent in this island, as well as in Germany, of the\nperiodical victim demanded by a river or lake. On the banks of the\nSaal in Thuringia, especially among the fisher-folk of Jena, it is\neven yet believed that the Saal-nixe requires a sacrifice every year;\nand the lake at Salzungen boils with rage unless it obtain its yearly\noffering.[81.3] On the island of R\u00fcgen there is a vague tradition of\na lake which would rise and overwhelm the entire {82} country, unless\na maiden were offered to it every year. At Trampke in Pomerania a\npeasant was once ploughing near the Lake of Mad\u00fce, when he heard a\nvoice out of the pool cry: \u201cNow, come! Now is the time!\u201d He looked\naround him puzzled, and again the voice exclaimed in more imperious\ntones: \u201cNow, come! Now is the time!\u201d Thereupon, mastered by an\nuncontrollable impulse, he left the plough, rushed to the mere and\nflung himself in. His farm-servant, who was spreading manure, ran to\nhis assistance and drew him out of the water; but an instant later he\nplunged in again and was dragged by the water-maiden down to the\nbottom.[82.1] Always before anybody is drowned in the Lahn near\nGiessen there is heard--the millers and bleachers engaged on the river\nare ready to vouch for it--between eleven and twelve o\u2019clock in the\nday a loud cry: \u201cThe time is here, the hour is here; where is the\nman?\u201d It is said that two lads were one evening by the M\u00fcmmling, not\nfar from Michelstadt, when a voice called from under the bridge: \u201cThe\nhour is here, but not the man!\u201d At that moment a man hurried down the\nhill and was about to jump into the river. The lads caught him, held\nhim back, and spoke to him; but he answered never a word. They took\nhim to the inn and pressed some wine upon him. His head, however, sank\nforward on the table; and he was dead. Among other German rivers which\ndemand an annual human victim are the Fulda and the Neckar.[82.2] The\nLorelei is a nixe of the Rhine, famous for the number of her slain.\nNor is she alone in her misdeeds; but the legends of sirens haunting\nGerman rivers are too numerous and too well known to require\nillustration. {83} An old spring at Friedberg used every year to\nrequire an offering, and if it happened that no one fell in during the\nyear, it cried out: \u201cCome down, come down!\u201d and anybody who was in the\nneighbourhood and heard the voice would be irresistibly drawn into the\nfountain.[83.1] The Drome in Normandy, according to a local proverb,\nhas every year horse or man.[83.2] Peg Powler, Nanny Powler, Peg o\u2019\nNell, and Jenny Greenteeth, are spirits that haunt various rivers and\npools in the north of England; and they are not less\nbloodthirsty;[83.3] while in Scotland, the kelpie and his congeners\nare familiar.\n\nAmong Europeans the superstition seems in this form to belong\nespecially to Teutonic peoples. In other parts of the world, however,\nnot a few examples are to be gleaned. The Indians of Guiana \u201cfirmly\nbelieve in the reality of\u201d certain \u201cmermaids, or \u2018water m\u0101m\u0101s,\u2019 as\nthey are called in Dutch-creole; and where they are supposed to have\ntheir caves or nests, there great danger awaits the traveller. Some\nare related to be extremely beautiful and possessing long golden hair,\nlike the Lorelei, and whoever casts his eye on them is seized with\nmadness, jumps into the deep water, and never returns. Others are\nhideous, snakes being twined about them, and with their long white\ntalons they drag boats under the surface and devour their occupants.\nOn the Orinoco and Amazon similar creatures are supposed to exist; but\nthese are capable of drawing their prey into their mouths at a\ndistance of a hundred yards. In order to avoid such a calamity, the\nnatives always blow a horn before entering a creek or lagoon in {84}\nwhich one of these monsters may be living; if it happens to be there,\nit will immediately answer the horn, and thus give warning to the\nintruder.\u201d[84.1] The people of Guiana having come under the influence\nof the Dutch, may be supposed to have learned the superstition from\nthem; but this can hardly be thought of the natives of the banks of\nthe Orinoco and the Amazons. In like manner the belief in South Africa\nthat rivers call their victims, who cannot resist the fascination, may\nbe attributed to the Dutch colonists. Here again the ascription of\nsuch an origin must be very doubtful, though it is perhaps right to\ntake note of the same intrusive Teutons. The Rev. James Macdonald, who\nlaboured for twelve years among various Bantu tribes, says that \u201cto\nthe Bathlapin the crocodile is sacred, and by all it is revered, but\nrather under the form of fear than affection\u201d; and he regards the\nsuperstition (which reigns even where there are no crocodiles) as \u201cthe\nsurvival of an ancient recollection of the time when the ancestors of\nthe present Kaffirs dwelt on the margin of rivers infested by these\nmurderous brutes, and where they often saw their women drawn\nunderneath when going to the river to fetch water.\u201d[84.2] There may be\nsome reason for this conjecture. It probably expresses, however, only\nhalf the truth, since if the crocodile were revered, offerings would\nnaturally be made to it, as in fact we have seen to be the case in\nother parts of Africa. In Senegal the water-spirits {85} appear in\ncrocodile form. A legend is told of a girl to whom the spirit\npresented himself as a fair youth; but when she listened to his\novertures he turned into a horrible cayman.[85.1] The Bantu tribes are\nbelievers also in a mysterious being called an \u201cincanti\u201d which often\ninhabits rivers, and whose glance is fatal. \u201cWhile we were living at\nDuff,\u201d says the writer just cited, \u201ca man was found dead one morning\nclose by the river\u2019s bank, not far from the mission. It was clearly a\ncase of suicide by poisoning, but our native neighbours regarded it as\na case of having seen an incanti, and no one would approach the spot\nfor months. The pools were bewitched, haunted, bedevilled.\u201d[85.2] The\nZulus tell of a bloated, squatting, bearded monster dwelling in\nrivers. It steals the clothing and ornaments of girls who come to\nbathe, and is capable of swallowing men and beasts. Happily, however,\nit is amenable to prayers.[85.3] Another \u201cimaginary amphibious\ncreature, mostly abiding in the deep portions of the rivers,\u201d is the\nsubject of Zulu superstition. It is universally believed that \u201caided\nby some mysterious and evil influence, the nature of which no one can\ndefine or explain, bad persons may enter into a league with\u201d it, as\nthey can also with {86} wolves, baboons, and jackals.[86.1] On the\nwhole it is impossible in the present state of our knowledge to lay\nmuch emphasis on the superstitions mentioned in the present paragraph,\nsince we lack the independent evidence which we have concerning the\nTeutons and Slavs, of customs pointing to human sacrifices to water.\n\nThe ancient Mexicans, however, were innocent of Dutch influence. Yet,\nif we may believe Sahagun, they had their water-monsters as malignant\nas those of the Bantus. Among these monsters, and by no means the only\none, was the Ahuizotl, pictorially represented as a smooth, rat-like\nanimal with a long prehensile tail, accompanied by the sign for water.\nThe tail was believed to be furnished at its extremity with a hand,\nwherewith it dragged down into the depths of the pool where it abode\nany person who approached the banks. A few days afterwards, the body\nwas cast up again, and then found to be deprived of eyes, teeth, and\nnails. No one dared to touch it, but the priests, who, when informed\nof its presence, would fetch it \u201con a litter with great reverence and\nbury it in one of the oratories called Ayauhcalco--literally house in,\nor surrounded by, water. For it was said that the Tlalocs (or\nrain-gods) had sent his soul to the terrestrial paradise. They adorned\nthe litter with mace-reeds, and it was preceded by musicians playing\non flutes.\u201d The reasons assigned for such a death were that \u201ceither\nthe deceased had been very good, and therefore the rain-gods desired\nhis company in the terrestrial paradise; or he had perchance certain\nprecious stones in his possession. This would give offence to the\nrain-gods, who do not wish that persons should {87} possess precious\nstones, and for this reason they may have killed him in anger, but\nnevertheless taken him to the terrestrial paradise.\u201d His relatives\nfound consolation, not merely in the belief that he was with the gods\nin paradise, but also that through him they themselves would become\nrich and prosperous.[87.1] Here the sacred character of the corpse,\nits place and manner of burial, and the superstitions concerning the\ndeparted point with tolerable certainty to a religious offering; and\nthe conclusion is altogether in harmony with what we know of the\nbloodthirsty Aztec rites.\n\nPassing with these illustrations away from sacrifices to water, and\nfrom legends of water-monsters, we may note that another object with\nwhich the sagas of dragons are connected is a hill, often shown as the\ncreature\u2019s resting-place. He lies curled upon it, or around it, or\ndwells in a cave or den. Thus the Lambton Worm lay coiled thrice about\nthe base of an oval hill on the northern bank of the Wear. I am not\naware what this oval hill may be; but some of the hills mentioned in\nthese stories are prehistoric barrows. Mr. Andrew Lang published some\nyears ago a story from Galloway of a snake that used to lie twined\nround the tumulus at Dalry. \u201cIn colour it was snow-white, and the\nthickest part of its body was as thick as three bags of meal. This\ncreature was a terror to all the neighbourhood, as it not only\ndestroyed cattle and men, but had an ugly habit of going at night to\nthe neighbouring churchyard, digging up coffins with its claws, and\ndevouring the newly dead.\u201d The Lord of Galloway offered a reward for\nits destruction. But one of his knights was swallowed up by the\nserpent, horse and armour and all; and another was {88} deterred by\nevil omens. The adventure was then undertaken, as at Deerhurst, by a\nsmith, who devised a suit of armour for himself covered with long\nsharp spikes which could be drawn in or thrust out at the wearer\u2019s\nwill. Scarcely was his armour completed when the smith\u2019s young and\nbeautiful wife died, and was buried in the churchyard. The night after\nthe funeral the smith came upon the brute scraping the earth from the\nnewly-made grave, and attacked it vigorously. The snake swallowed him\nwhole; but as he slipped down its throat he suddenly shot out his\nspikes, rolling about violently inside. This was more than the\ncreature had bargained for; and in a short time the smith by strenuous\nefforts tore his way through his enemy\u2019s carcase. There lay the\nserpent quite dead, and for three days following the river Ken ran red\nwith its blood. \u201cHere,\u201d says Mr. Andrew Lang, \u201cthe story should\nproperly end; but a later and more romantic fancy has added that at\nthe very moment of victory the second knight arrived on the spot, and,\nin a fury of disappointed ambition, attacked the smith, who of course\nwas as victorious in the second fight as he had been in the\nfirst.\u201d[88.1] With all deference to Mr. Lang\u2019s great authority, I\nventure to think that the second knight\u2019s attack was part of the\noriginal story, embodying as it seems to do the germ of the Impostor\nincident so common in Rescue tales. Be this, however, as it may, the\npoint whereto I desire to direct attention is that the connection of\nthe snake with a prehistoric tumulus, and that of other dragons with\nhills or mounds, both in this country and on the Continent, is\nprobably not without its significance. {89} There, if anywhere,\nsacrifices would have been offered in early times; and their memory,\ntransformed by the popular imagination into the form of a dragon with\na propensity for human flesh, may have lingered for many a century\nafter their abolition. But to raise this beyond the value of a\nconjecture careful inquiry and comparison of instances, for which I\nhave no opportunity at present, would be required. I may point out,\nhowever, that the conjecture is countenanced by analogous legends of\ndragons haunting other sacred spots. At Aarhuus in Denmark, for\ninstance, bodies placed overnight for the funeral solemnities in the\ncathedral frequently disappeared by the morning. A dragon whose lair\nwas near the cathedral had eaten them. At length a strolling glazier\ndevised a coffin of mirrors, pierced by one hole just large enough to\nthrust a sword through; and he caused himself to be laid within it in\nthe cathedral. Around the coffin stood four tapers, which he lighted\nat midnight. When the prowling dragon beheld its reflection in the\nmirrors it drew nigh, deeming the image to be its mate. The glazier\ninstantly thrust his sword through the hole of the coffin into his\nenemy\u2019s throat; but he himself perished in the floods of blood and\nvenom that spouted from the body of the dying monster. An ancient\nimage in the church is said to preserve the memory of the heroic act,\nas at Mansfeld, Deerhurst, and elsewhere.[89.1]\n\nIt is hardly necessary for the completion of the argument to enumerate\nany stories of rescue of human sacrifices to beings confessedly\nworshipped as divine, or at least superhuman. Yet one or two specimens\nmay not be without interest. They cannot be numerous, because the\nrescue {90} itself implies an insult to, and almost a denial of, the\ndivinity. Wherefore we must look for them only, or chiefly, among\nraces who practise a tolerant religion like the Buddhist, which\nwhithersoever its conquests extended, permitted the continuance of\nofferings to the overshadowed and indigenous gods. We will begin with\nJapan, where we have already found legends corresponding to that of\nAndromeda. A young warrior wandering in the northern province one\nevening lost his way in the mountains; and reaching at length a small\nsecluded shrine, where there was only just room for him to lie down,\nhe took shelter within it and soon fell fast asleep. About midnight he\nwas awakened by a noise. Peeping through the interstices of the timber\nwalls of his refuge, he espied a troop of cats engaged in a wild,\nunnatural dance by the light of the moon, and yelling in fiendish\ntones. As he kept perfectly still in his hiding-place and listened, he\ncould distinguish, incessantly repeated amid their shrieks, the words:\n\u201cDon\u2019t tell Shippei Taro! Keep it secret! Don\u2019t tell Shippei Taro!\u201d\nThe midnight hour passed away, and with it the mysterious cats,\nleaving him in peace for the rest of the night. In the morning he\nfound a path leading to a village. As he drew near he heard a sound of\nweeping, and entering the nearest hut, he inquired what was the\nmatter. He was told that the mountain-spirit required the sacrifice of\na maiden every year, and the very next night was the appointed time.\nOn further inquiry he learnt that the shrine he had just left was the\nscene of the offering, and that it was customary to place the victim\nin a cage in the immediate neighbourhood. Recalling the incidents of\nthe past night he next inquired who Shippei Taro was, and was told\nthat Shippei Taro was the name of the great dog belonging {91} to the\nchief officer of the prince who lived not very far away. To this\npersonage accordingly he went, and asked for the loan of the dog for\nthe following night. After hearing his story the dog\u2019s master\nconsented and handed over Shippei Taro to the stranger. To arrange\nwith the girl\u2019s parents to keep her safely at home, and to put Shippei\nTaro into the cage in her stead was the next business. Having\naccomplished these things the youth betook himself to the shrine and\nawaited what would happen. At midnight when the moon had risen over\nthe mountains the cats returned in full cry led by a gigantic black\ntom-cat, in whom our adventurer without difficulty recognised the\ndreaded mountain-spirit. The tom-cat approached the cage with hideous\nshrieks of delight and danced around it. At length he opened it and\npeered in, searching for his victim. In an instant Shippei Taro leaped\nupon him and held him with his teeth, while the warrior with one\nwell-aimed blow put an end to the brute. Turning then on the other\ncats, hound and man speedily put them to flight and destroyed not a\nfew. The rout was complete; and from that time no more human\nsacrifices have been offered to the mountain-spirit.[91.1]\n\n{92}\n\nOne of the aboriginal tribes of India, now Buddhist, has preserved a\nsomewhat similar instance of the abolition of these offerings. \u201cThe\nearly religion of L\u00e1haul is still known under the name of _Lung pe\nChhoi_, that is, the religion of the valley. When it was flourishing\nmany bloody, and even human, sacrifices seem to have been regularly\noffered up to certain _Ch\u00e1_, that is, gods or evil spirits residing\nin or near old pencil cedar-trees, rocks, caves, etc. This cruel\ncustom disappeared gradually after the doctrine of the Buddhists had\ninfluenced for a time the minds of the people. There is a story which\nI shall relate, as it seems to show that this was the case. Near the\nvillage of Kailang a large dry pencil cedar-tree was standing till\nlast year, when we felled it for firewood: the story goes that before\nthis tree in ancient times a child of eight years old was annually\nsacrificed to make the spirit who resided in it well disposed towards\nthe inhabitants of Kailang. The children seem to have been supplied in\nturn by the different families of the village. It happened one year to\nbe a widow who had to give up an only child of the required age of\neight years. The day before her only one was to be taken from her, she\nwas crying loudly, when a travelling L\u00e1ma from Tibet met her, and\nasked the cause of her distress. Having heard her story, the L\u00e1ma\nsaid: \u2018Well, I will go instead of your child.\u2019 He did so, but did not\nallow himself to be killed. \u2018The spirit must kill me himself if he\nwants human flesh,\u2019 said he: so saying, he sat down before the tree\nand waited for a long time, but as the demon made no attack on him he\nbecame angry, took down from the tree the signs and effigies, and\nthrew them into the Bh\u00e1ga river, telling the people not to sacrifice\nany more human beings, which advice was followed from that {93} time\nforward. The demon fled and settled on the top of the Koko Pass, where\nit still dwells under the name of _Kailang Ch\u00e1_, or god of Kailang,\ngetting now only the annual sacrifice of a sheep supplied by the\nshepherds.\u201d The writer from whom I quote goes on to state that\n(contrary to the principles of Buddhism) sheep and goats are yearly\nkilled near not a few villages in L\u00e1haul, and offered up to the Ch\u00e1,\nand he hazards the opinion these animals have taken the place of\nmen.[93.1] I am not aware what evidence there may be for this\nsubstitution beyond the foregoing tradition. At Man\u00e1li in K\u00fal\u00fa,\nalso in Northern India, is a temple of some antiquity to Man\u00fa Rikhi.\nIn front of it stands an altar of stone, supporting a pile of spruce\nlogs, which are replaced, three at a time, every three years. An\nannual fair is held on the spot, at which a _kepr\u00e1_ (literally, evil\nform) or mask of Tundi is carried about. Tundi Bh\u00fat was a local\n_dait_ or demon who conquered the _deotas_ or gods, and demanded one\nof their sisters in marriage. Man\u00fa in turn vanquished him at Khoksar\nin Lahul and compelled him to marry instead \u201cthe daughter of a Th\u00e1wi\nor mason, named T\u00fanar Sh\u00e1chk\u00e1, who appears in other stories as a\nRakhsh\u00e1in.\u201d The temple was erected to commemorate Man\u00fa\u2019s success;\nbut the tale does not account for the spruce logs. To explain these it\nis popularly said that Tundi devoured men and that Man\u00fa, having\nconquered him, put the logs into his mouth and killed him.[93.2]\nWhatever the real significance of the logs may be, it is probable that\nwe have here a legend of the suppression of human sacrifice. Other\nstories of substitution have been mentioned in the {94} course of the\nforegoing pages. And the legend of Abraham, which will occur to every\nreader, points back to a period when the fathers of the Hebrew nation,\nin common with the surrounding peoples, practised human sacrifices.\nBut with substitution, as distinguished from rescue, we are hardly\nconcerned.\n\nStill less need we discuss the revolting subject of human sacrifice in\ngeneral. The stories I have cited (and they could easily be\nmultiplied) are intended to confirm the hypothesis that we have in the\nincident of the Rescue of Andromeda a reminiscence of the abolition of\nhuman sacrifices to deities in the shape of the lower animals. I have\nshown that in certain stages of civilisation sacrifices of the kind\nare practised, and that they are frequently offered to water-spirits\nconceived in animal form. In offerings to water, and in traditions of\nwater-spirits, we have the product of savage animism. And it may, of\ncourse, be that the monster sent to devour Andromeda, and that which\nappears so often in the legend of Saint George, are to be regarded\nsimply as the personification of water, or of specific rivers and\npools, in their sinister aspect. Strictly speaking, however,\npersonification belongs to a higher plane of thought than that which\nfinds the spirit embodied as an actual living creature. Moreover, the\ndragon is by no means invariably connected with water; and in\nestimating the probability of this explanation we must not overlook\nthe tales which represent it as having its abode on a hill or mound,\nor in a cave.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XIX.\n THE MEDUSA-WITCH IN M\u00c4RCHEN.\n\n{95}\n\nThe stories analysed in the first three chapters are abundant\nevidence that the form assumed by the Quest of the Gorgon\u2019s Head in\nmodern _m\u00e4rchen_ is that of a sojourn in a witch\u2019s dwelling,\nresulting in death or petrifaction by enchantment, followed by rescue\nand the annihilation of the witch. This incident is not confined, any\nmore than the others with which we have dealt, to tales of the Perseus\ncycle--that is, to tales wherein one or more of the other three\nprincipal incidents of the Perseus _m\u00e4rchen_ occur. In company with\nthe incident of the Life-token it is frequently found in stories\nbelonging to the type of _The Two Sisters who envied their\nCadette_.[95.1] From many of such stories, however, the Life-token\nappears to have dropped. The Greek _m\u00e4rchen_ of _The Tzitzin\u00e6na_ is\nan example. There, as in the _Arabian Nights_, a king overhears three\nmaidens boasting what they could do if they could only marry the royal\nconfectioner, the royal cook, and the king himself respectively. The\nboast of the youngest sister is that she would bear her lord three\nchildren--Sun, Moon, and Star. The king gratifies their desires, to\nthe annoyance of his mother, who plays the part of the envious sisters\nin {96} Galland\u2019s tale. She so arranges matters that when the children\n(two fair boys and a girl) are born they are thrown into the sea; and\nafter the third abortion, as the king is led to believe, the\nunfortunate queen is shut up in a foul and noisome prison. The\nchildren are found by a solitary monk, and brought up until they are\nold enough to shift for themselves. He then gives them money and sends\nthem into the world. They settle in the town; and there the eldest\nbuys from a Jew a mysterious casket which contains a green, winged\nhorse. The midwife who had been charged with the destruction of the\nchildren now discovers them still living; and in order to put an end\nto them, she excites in the maiden a desire to possess the golden\napple watched in a certain garden by forty dragons. With his enchanted\nhorse the eldest brother obtains for her not only the golden apple,\nbut also, on a second journey, a golden bough on which all the birds\nof the world gather to sing. He is then sent for the Tzitzin\u00e6na to\nexplain what the birds say. On arriving at the Tzitzin\u00e6na\u2019s house the\nhorse directs him to call it. The creature replies, \u201cMarble\u201d; and the\nyouth is petrified to the knees. The calls are exchanged until he\nbecomes marble to the girdle. He then remembers that on bidding\nhimself and his brother and sister farewell the monk had given him\nsome hairs from his beard, with directions to burn one of them when in\nneed. He burns one accordingly; and the monk appears, and calls the\nTzitzin\u00e6na, compelling it to bring a bottle of water of immortality\nand sprinkle the youth and his steed. By the power of this water they\nare loosed from the spell. But they have not been the Tzitzin\u00e6na\u2019s\nonly victims. In obedience to the monk it delivers them all, and among\nthem the hero\u2019s brother, who had been lost. {97} The Tzitzin\u00e6na, thus\ncaptured, like the Talking Bird, is the means of revealing the truth\nto the king and restoring to him his wife and children.[97.1] The\nstory is obviously imperfect, whole episodes, like the loss of one of\nthe brothers, being referred to but not detailed. Hence there can be\nlittle doubt that it once contained the Life-token. It is doubtless a\nwaif from the coffee-houses of the Levant stranded on Hellenic shores.\nIn a variant from Epirus the errands are to obtain the Flying Horse of\nthe Plain and the Beauty of the Land. The latter had turned many men\ninto stone; but she goes with the hero, becomes his wife, and\ncontrives the solution of the plot, as in the typical tale.[97.2]\n\nIn the former of these two cases the transformation is effected by the\nwitch\u2019s word; in the latter we are left in doubt. A German tale from\nthe Odenwald brings us nearer to Galland\u2019s version in this respect.\nThere, as in the Greek stories, a king, to his mother\u2019s disgust,\nmarries beneath him, with the usual catastrophe. The children are two\ngirls and a boy. A branch of the Tree with Golden Fruits is the object\nof desire. The hero takes it; but on his way back he hears some one\ncalling him, and turning to reply he is changed into a pillar of salt.\nThis fate also befalls the elder sister on seeking the Talking Bird in\nthe same garden where the Tree grew. The younger, fetching the Leaping\nWater, resists the temptation, and by sprinkling the water on the two\npillars recovers her brother and sister.[97.3] A Swabian tale\nbelonging to the same cycle presents the task as the disenchantment of\na castle in the {98} forest by fetching thence a certain blackbird in\na cage. This could only be done between eleven and twelve at noon. The\nfirst of the princes having entered the castle allows the precious\nhour to pass while he is listening to the lovely music that resounds\nthrough the ensorcelled chambers. Noon strikes, the doors close, and\nhe is caught fast in the trap. The second prince fares no better; but\ntheir sister finds the bird and hastens out before the fatal hour,\nthus undoing the spell and restoring to their proper human form a\nlion, a bear, and a number of apes which inhabited the building.[98.1]\n\nThe villain of a Catalonian variant is no less a personage than the\nDevil himself, to whom the heroine had been given by her father. A\nking found her in the Devil\u2019s den, and stole her away, to marry her.\nIt is the Devil who arranges the catastrophe by means of forged\nletters to and from her husband when she gives birth to twins, a boy\nand a girl. The secondary villain is a witch bribed by \u201cthe ladies of\nthe people\u201d to excite the maiden\u2019s longing, first, for a tree bearing\nleaves of all colours, next, for water of all colours, and lastly, for\na bird with plumes of all colours, which sings all songs. These are to\nbe found in the garden of the Castle of Go-and-not-return. The\nmaiden\u2019s brother, by the help of the wise Solomon, who dwells in a\ncastle on the way, succeeds in the quest of the first two; but\ndisregarding the counsels which have been given him, he takes the\nwrong bird on his third journey and remains enchanted at the gate,\nuntil rescued by his sister. The bird, here also, once captured,\nbecomes the means of retrieving the happiness of the family.[98.2]\n\nThe Kabyle tale of _The Children and the Bat_ makes the {99} villain\nout of the heroine\u2019s barren fellow-wife. The children are seven sons\nand a daughter. They are carried by the envious woman into the forest\none after another as they are born. An old woman induces the maiden to\nask her brothers to get a bat; and an old man directs the brothers one\nafter another to a certain date-palm on the sea-shore. \u201cWhat wild\nbeast comes here?\u201d asks the bat from the top of the tree. \u201cGo to\nsleep, old head,\u201d answers the lad. The bat changes the adventurer\u2019s\ngun into a bit of wood, and renders the adventurer himself\n\u201cmicroscopic.\u201d When she has thus lost all her brothers the maiden goes\nto seek the bat. She does not answer the creature, but waits until it\nis asleep. Then she climbs the tree, seizes the bat, and compels it to\nrestore her brothers, promising in return to clothe it in silver and\ngold. The bat conducts the band of children back to their father,\nsaves them from partaking of the poison offered to them by their\nstepmother, and reunites them to their parents. The stepmother is\nbound to a horse\u2019s tail and dragged to death, while the bat is\nreturned to its tree and clad in silver and gold.[99.1] A version from\nMirzapur comprises the Supernatural Birth. The children are three in\nnumber, two lovely boys and a girl, born of the king\u2019s favourite wife,\nin consequence of eating three fruits given by a fakir. Their mother\u2019s\nfellow-wives play the usual treacherous part at their birth. When,\nyears after, the wicked queens find out that the children are still\nalive and dwelling in a miraculous palace, the gift of the friendly\nfakir, they send to persuade the maiden (it is always the woman) to\nask for a nightingale that dwelt in a certain jungle, could sing a\nthousand notes, and could talk like a man. The fakir warns the elder\nbrother not to {100} answer when the bird cries out to him, else he\nwill be turned into stone. The youth succeeds; and as in the other\nvariants, the evil devised by the wicked queens recoils on their own\nheads, for it is by means of the bird that the truth is brought to\nlight and punishment inflicted.[100.1]\n\nA Lesbian tale looks like an ill-remembered variant of the Perseus\ngroup. A king, we are told, who had thirty-nine sons, longed for a\ndaughter. A son, however, was born, and at the same time his favourite\nmare foaled, and the colt was allotted to the boy. When he was sixteen\nthe brothers all set out together to seek their fortune. The youth,\nwhile his brothers slept, conquered forty dragons which had come to\ndraw water at a spring where they were reposing. The next night he\nslays a seven-headed beast at another fountain, and cuts out its\ntongues. The following day the band of brethren separated, and the\nyoungest pursued his way alone. A sorceress advises him how to pass a\nmonster whom he will meet in the way, and warns him that he will reach\nthe castle of another witch, who will offer him all sorts of fruits,\nof which he may partake with safety, but he must beware of drinking\nthe wine she will present, otherwise she will petrify him. Instead, he\nis to give it to his dog, and he will see it instantly changed to\nmarble. The witch, however, will have power to recall the animal to\nlife. The youth follows her directions, and finds his brothers already\nturned to statues in the witch\u2019s palace. He compels her to restore\nthem as well as his dog, and having put her to death leads his\nbrothers back to their father.[100.2]\n\nWe may reasonably suspect that the Life-token has originally been part\nof all these variants, as in Galland\u2019s {101} tale. It is needless to\nfollow the instances where it still remains an integral portion of the\nnarrative. Another point is worthy of notice. In most cases the object\nof search is a bird. So in a tale told by the Armenian immigrants of\nthe Land beyond the Forest a king\u2019s three sons set out to obtain a\nwonderful nightingale, the only thing wanting to complete the beauty\nof a church that he has built. The eldest son, however, settles down\ncomfortably as the husband of a king\u2019s daughter, and shirks the quest.\nThe second is found by a gigantic Moor stretched at rest in a grassy\nglade of the forest, and asked: \u201cWhat do you want here?\u201d On his\nreplying, \u201cNothing,\u201d the Moor spits upon him and turns him to stone.\nThe youngest son, returning successful with the nightingale, comes to\nthe same spot, and is confronted by the Moor with the same question.\nHe asks in turn, What are all these many stones he sees around him?\nThe Moor answers that they were men whom his spittle had turned into\nstone, and threatens him with the same fate. Thereupon the nightingale\nbegan to sing, and the Moor fell down upon the ground, a heap of\nashes. The stones promptly became men once more, the king\u2019s second son\namong them. It is sad to relate that in the sequel, in spite of this\ndeliverance, the second son joined his elder brother in betraying the\nyoungest, and leaving him to perish in the depths of a fountain, while\nthey hurried home with the prize. Fortunately the youth found his way\nout, vindicated his claims, married the fairy to whom the nightingale\nbelonged, forgave his brothers, and they all lived happy ever\nafter.[101.1]\n\nIn the romance of _Hatim Ta\u00ef_ the enchantment is caused by failing to\nkill the bird, and dissolved by its death. The {102} renowned\nKaiumarath, when hunting, found a diamond weighing three hundred\nmiskals. To preserve it in safety he founded the bath of Bagdad, where\nhe placed the stone in the body of a caged parrot. On the chair within\nthe hall was laid a bow with arrows. Every visitor was allowed to\nshoot three arrows at the parrot, and if he hit it right through the\nhead he would break the enchantment; otherwise he would become a\nmarble statue. The mysterious mansion was uninhabited save by those\nstatues; and the foregoing information was conveyed by an inscription\nover the door. Hatim failed twice, and became stone to his middle.\nPersevering, however, he put his trust in God, took aim, and shutting\nhis eyes let fly the third arrow. It pierced the parrot\u2019s brain, when\nthe whole enchantment disappeared amid thunder, lightning, and\nwhirlwinds. All the marble statues started into life, and falling at\nHatim\u2019s feet, vowed to serve him. He took the diamond, which was the\nobject of his search, and thus accomplished the last of his seven\nadventures.[102.1]\n\nThe search is not always for a bird. The hero of a Gipsy tale from\nTransylvania undertakes to deliver the daughter of a good _urme_ from\na wicked _urme_ who has carried her off. In the wicked _urme\u2019s_\nservice he has to perform a number of tasks: among them to find a ring\nwhich has been dropped into a fountain and hang it up below a round\nmirror in the large hall. The water in the fountain is boiling hot;\nbut he plunges without harm, having previously bathed in the milk of\nthe _urme\u2019s_ cow. The real danger was a voice that sounded in his ear\nas he hung up the ring: \u201cThou art a handsome youth, a handsome youth.\nOnly look in the glass!\u201d Had he complied {103} with this flattering\nsuggestion he would have been turned into stone. He resisted it,\nhowever, to encounter the still more flattering offer from the _urme_\nto wed him. It was necessary before doing this that he should cut her\nup and throw the pieces into a Medean kettle, whence she would issue\nthe most beautiful woman on earth, and they would then live happy and\ncontented together. But he had already seen too much of this lady to\ntrust himself with her; so having obeyed her instructions to cut her\nup, he threw the pieces into the boiling fountain instead of the\nkettle, thus destroying her and the enchanted castle with her. The\nmaiden whom he came to free drew from her head some hairs, and letting\nthem fly in the wind, she sang:\n\n \u201cYe who have been changed to stone,\n Beast or human creature\u2019s son,\n Hither, hither, every one!\u201d\n\nAt once all the stones which had been men and beasts, but had had the\nmisfortune to look in the magical mirror, returned to their proper\nforms and danced around the maiden for joy. It remained to obviate the\nonly other danger. The _urme_ had left a son, a dragon who was to have\nwedded the maiden. He was luckily absent; but before he went away his\nmother had cut his hair and thrown the pieces among the stones. These\nthey gathered up and burnt. The maiden then prevailed on her deliverer\nto come home with her and be her husband. They therefore all returned\nto the good _urme_ in the speediest manner by swallowing the ashes of\nthe dragon\u2019s hair and wishing themselves at their destination.[103.1]\n\nThis of course is the ordinary bride-quest of fairy tales. {104} The\ndestined lady is in the power of a magician, who may be her father or\nmerely her master. The hero, usually by her help, performs various\ntasks, which end in his winning her and destroying, or foiling, the\nmagician. The transformation by the magician of his captives is not,\nperhaps, a very common incident in the plot. More frequently they are\nslain and their heads adorn in truly savage fashion the palisades of\nhis dwelling. In a story from the neighbourhood of Bologna, they are\nturned into statues of salt.[104.1] Elsewhere, as in a Breton tale,\nthey are changed into trees.[104.2]\n\nThe incident of the Medusa-witch in the foregoing stories, while in\nsome cases it approaches more closely to the classical saga, lacks the\nspecial development gained in the modern Perseus-_m\u00e4rchen_. Tales,\nhowever, are not wanting in European tradition where the incident in\nthat form appears divorced from the other incidents of the complete\n_m\u00e4rchen_. The Portuguese tale of _The Tower of Ill Luck_ is an\nexample. A boy sets forth on adventures accompanied by a horse and a\nlion, and arrives at the Tower of Ill Luck whence no one ever returns.\nAn old woman within tells him to put his animals in the stable, and\ngives him a fine hair to tie them up with by rolling it round their\nnecks. When he has done this she challenges him to wrestle. Finding\nhimself overpowered he calls his beasts. But the hag cries out: \u201cBe\nthickened, thin hair, into a strong coil, binding your horse and\nlion!\u201d Immediately the hair becomes a thick iron chain which\neffectually prevents the animals from rescuing their master; and he is\nat length killed. The same result attends the second brother\u2019s\nventure. The third is too clever. He cuts up the hair {105} into\nlittle bits and throws them into the sea. Hence, when he calls, his\nanimals are free to help him. He compels the witch to give him a salve\nto anoint his brothers\u2019 bodies and a scent for them to smell. The\nsalve and the scent revive them; and they feel no compunction in\nburying the hag alive.[105.1] A story obtained in the Orkney Islands\ngives the three animals as a hound, a hawk, and a horse. The lad finds\na castle, blows the horn, and the door opens. He walks in, but meeting\nwith no one, he sits down by the fire and eats a good supper, which is\nalready prepared. At midnight in comes the Dr\u00e4glin\u2019 Hogney. \u201cHe sat\ndown over against the young man and glowered at him. Then said the\nDr\u00e4glin\u2019 Hogney: \u2018Does yer horse kick ony?\u2019 \u2018Ou ay,\u2019 said the young\nman. \u2018There\u2019s a hair to fling ower him.\u2019 The young man flung it over\nhis horse. \u2018Does yer hound bite ony?\u2019 \u2018Ou ay,\u2019 said the young man.\n\u2018There\u2019s a hair to fling ower him.\u2019 Again, \u2018Does yer hawk pick ony?\u2019\n\u2018Ay, ay,\u2019 said the young man. \u2018There\u2019s a hair to fling ower him.\u2019 With\nthat the Dr\u00e4glin\u2019 Hogney _whiecked_ (whisked) frae the tae side to\nthe tither, till he fell upon the young man and killed him.\u201d His next\nbrother fares no better. But the third brother throws the hairs on the\nfire. \u201cWhat\u2019s that crackin\u2019?\u201d asks the Dr\u00e4glin\u2019 Hogney each time as\nhe hears the hair in the fire. \u201cIt\u2019s the craps o\u2019 the green wud come\nyer waysay,\u201d replies the lad. When by the help of his animals he has\nslain the Dr\u00e4glin\u2019 Hogney he \u201cransacks the castle, finds the\nenchanter\u2019s wand, disenchants his two brothers, their horses, hawks\nand hounds, divides the spoil, sends for their father, and, in the old\nwind-up of a Scotch fairy tale, they live happy, and dee happy, and\nnever drink {106} out of a dry cappy.\u201d[106.1] A Slavonic story in\nwhich the two elder brothers, serving at a certain castle and warned\nagainst entering the forest, successively persist in doing so, seems\nto belong to this type. Both youths are petrified, with their dogs,\nbut are rescued by their youngest brother.[106.2]\n\nIn Buddhist literature the story takes a much more civilised shape.\nThe Bodisat is the eldest of three brothers, sons of Brahmadatta, king\nof Benares. The mother of the two elder was dead; and the mother of\nthe youngest having plotted to secure the succession for her son, the\ntwo elder, by their father\u2019s counsel, withdrew from the city. Their\nbrother, however, joined them, being unwilling to be left behind. In\nthe course of their wanderings they came into the Himalayas. While\nresting one day the Bodisat sent the youngest down to a pool near at\nhand for water. \u201cNow that pool had been delivered over to a certain\nwater-sprite by Vessavana, who said to him: \u2018With the exception of\nsuch as know what is truly godlike, all that go down into this pool\nare yours to devour. Over those that do not enter the waters, you have\nno power granted to you.\u2019 And thenceforth the water-sprite used to ask\nall who went down into the water what was truly godlike, devouring\nevery one who did not know.\u201d He put the question to Prince Sun, the\nBodisat\u2019s younger brother, who replied: \u201cThe sun and moon.\u201d \u201c_You_\ndon\u2019t know,\u201d said the monster, and pulled him down into the depths of\nthe water. Prince Moon, the Bodisat\u2019s elder brother, being sent after\nthe first, makes the equally foolish answer: \u201cThe four quarters of\nheaven,\u201d and {107} is likewise imprisoned in the water-sprite\u2019s abode.\nThe Bodisat himself then suspecting the truth, girt with his sword and\narmed with his bow, tracked his brothers\u2019 footsteps to the water and\nwaited beside the pool. Finding that he did not enter it the demon\nappeared in the shape of a forester to the Bodisat and inquired why he\ndid not bathe. But the Bodisat recognised him and charged him with\nseizing his brothers. The demon explained that he had done so because\nthey did not know what was godlike. Subsequently the Bodisat declares\nthat they only are godlike \u201cwho shrink from sin, the white-souled,\ntranquil votaries of Good.\u201d The demon, pleased with this, offers to\ngive up one of his brothers; and the Bodisat chooses the younger. When\ntaken to task for this choice by the ogre, he justifies it on the\nground that it was on this boy\u2019s account that they had sought refuge\nin the forest, and that not a soul would believe him if he were to\ngive out that the child had been devoured by a demon. The water-sprite\nadmits his wisdom; and \u201cin token of his pleasure and approval he\nbrought forth the two brothers and gave them both to the\u201d Bodisat.\nThen the latter undertook the demon\u2019s conversion, which happily\neffected, he continued to dwell at that spot under the reformed\nmonster\u2019s protection, until one day he read in the stars (a primitive\nbut accurate kind of court journal) that his father was dead. \u201cThen\ntaking the water-sprite with him, he returned to Benares and took\npossession of the kingdom, making Prince Moon his viceroy, and Prince\nSun his generalissimo. For the water-sprite he made a home in a\npleasant spot and took measures to ensure his being provided with the\nchoicest garlands, flowers and food,\u201d so that he was under no\ntemptation to return to his evil courses. The Bodisat {108} \u201chimself\nruled in righteousness until he passed away to fare according to his\ndeeds.\u201d[108.1]\n\nIt is abundantly clear that the European tales I have cited cannot\nhave been derived from this highly moral _J\u00e1taka_, in which nobody is\npunished, but on the contrary things are made comfortable all\nround--even for the demon. The story must have been found in a more\nsavage form, and fashioned by the early teachers--perhaps by Gautama\nhimself--into an apologue that would have done no dishonour to a\nChristian apostle.\n\nTo examine every kind of enchantment current in _m\u00e4rchen_ would be an\nendless task. In the classical story, as well as in a large number of\nmodern _m\u00e4rchen_, petrification is the result of the evil spell. This\nis softened in the _J\u00e1taka_, and in some other tales, to mere\nimprisonment; while metamorphosis into trees or into brute forms is\nthe result in other cases. Petrifaction, or change into stones or\nrocks, is a fate whereto not merely human beings are liable at the\nhands of supernatural powers: with the hero his horse and other\nanimals undergo this misfortune. In a totally different cycle of\nstories--that of _The Magical Steed_--petrifaction is occasionally\npractised on the horse only. It is then done as a means of\npreservation for use when wanted. In the intervals between the hero\u2019s\ntasks his enchanted pony vanishes, sometimes of its own accord,\nsometimes also by the hero\u2019s appointment. \u201cNow,\u201d said the pony in an\nIrish tale cited in a previous chapter, \u201cstrike a blow with your rod\nof druidism upon me, and make of me a rock of stone, and whatever time\nat all you are in need of me, you have nothing to do but strike\nanother {109} blow on me, and I am up as I was before.\u201d[109.1]\nEverything in the world is according to savage belief subject to the\nmysterious energies of the wizard. In the remains of prehistoric\nsuperstition imbedded in the Irish folktales we get a truer view of\nDruidism than that conveyed to us by classical writers, who\ninterpreted the religion of the Celts by their own more advanced\npolytheism. The Druids were in fact shamans, innocent, as I have\nalready pointed out, of any systematic philosophy.\n\nLastly, we may notice one of the most interesting \u201cproperties\u201d\npossessed by the Medusa-witch, namely, the hair she gives the hero to\nbind his dogs withal. It appears in many of the tales, though it is\nnot always used in the same way. A Russian story, whether strictly\nbelonging to the Perseus cycle I am not able to say, relates that\n\u201cIvan D\u00e9vich (Ivan the servant-maid\u2019s son) meets a Baba Yaga, who\nplucks one of her hairs, gives it to him, and says: \u2018Tie three knots\nand then blow.\u2019 He does so, and both he and his horse turn into stone.\nThe Baba Yaga places them in her mortar, pounds them to bits, and\nburies their remains under a stone. A little later comes Ivan\nD\u00e9vich\u2019s comrade, Prince Ivan. Him also the Yaga attempts to destroy,\nbut he feigns ignorance, and persuades her to show him how to tie\nknots and to blow. The result is that she becomes petrified herself.\nPrince Ivan puts her in her own mortar, and proceeds to pound her\ntherein, until she tells him where the fragments of his comrade are,\nand what he must do to restore them to life.\u201d[109.2]\n\nIn the glorious _mabinogi_ of _Kulhwch and Olwen_ the hair {110} is\nput to its more ordinary use. Among the tasks laid upon Kulhwch as a\ncondition precedent to his marriage with Olwen, the fair daughter of\nYspaddaden Penkawr, is that of procuring a leash made from the beard\nof Dillus Varvawc, the son of Eurei, for Drudwyn, the cub of Greid,\nthe son of Eri. No other leash in the world would hold the cub; and\nfor this purpose it was to be plucked with wooden tweezers while\nDillus Varvawc was yet alive, otherwise it would be brittle. The\nepisode of the quest of this leash furnishes an explanation of a\nsnatch of song, probably an old popular rhyme, imbedded in the tale\nand attributed to King Arthur.[110.1] Here it is the supernatural\nstrength of the hair which constitutes its value, as in the stories\nalready passed in review in this and earlier chapters. So too Kerza,\nin a Slavonic tale, takes a hair from the long white beard of a dwarf\nmagician and therewith binds the magician\u2019s wicked wife, who has taken\nthe form of a wooden pillar the better to carry out her evil ends, and\nbinds her so effectually that she is thenceforth unable to resume her\nproper shape, or to use her magical powers.[110.2]\n\nA different example of the power of a hair is found in the _Arabian\nNights_, where the king\u2019s daughter in defence of the Second Calendar\ndraws a hair from her head, and waving it in the air mutters over it\nfor a while, until it becomes a trenchant sword-blade, with which to\ncut in twain the Ifrit.[110.3] The Princess Lab\u00e1m in a Hindu tale\npulls out a hair from her head and gives it to the hero. Her father\nhas imposed on him the task of dividing a thick tree-trunk with a\nwaxen hatchet. \u201cTo-morrow,\u201d she said, {111} \u201cwhen no one is near you,\nyou must say to the tree-trunk, \u2018The Princess Lab\u00e1m commands you to\nlet yourself be cut in two by this hair.\u2019 Then stretch the hair down\nthe edge of the wax hatchet\u2019s blade.\u201d And we are told that \u201cthe minute\nthe hair that was stretched down the edge of the hatchet blade touched\nthe tree-trunk, it split into two pieces.\u201d[111.1] A similar quality is\nthat of the hair of the Giant of the Mountain, as related on the\nisland of Zante. By its means, on touching the mountain it opens and\nadmits the Giant into his own kingdom.[111.2]\n\nThe hair, of course, in all these tales, though severed from the\nperson of the magician, is still in invisible union with him, and is\nthe depositary of his undivided might. Its relation to its original\nowner is made clear in another story from Zante where the king\u2019s son\nfinds two hairs from the three-headed snake he is destined to subdue.\nAt the proper moment he binds them on his hands, and they draw him\ndirect to the sea-shore over-against an island on which the monster\nhas made his lair. The youth crosses the water, slays and flays the\ndragon, and brings its hide and horns to the Lady of Earth and Sea,\nthus completing his tasks and winning her as his bride: an unhappy\nmatch, for the masterful dame ends by calling the waters upon the land\nand drowning every human creature, while she hovers aloft in the air\nlooking on. She then, by sowing stones, creates a new race of men,\nwhom she rules, mistress of the whole world, from her hereditary\nthrone.[111.3]\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XX.\n THE MEDUSA-WITCH IN SAGA AND SUPERSTITION.\n\n{112}\n\nBelief of a more or less serious character in the power of the\nwitch\u2019s hair is one for which readers who have followed the arguments\nand illustrations of previous chapters will not have been wholly\nunprepared. If a belief not very often exhibited in sagas, it is yet,\nas we might anticipate, not wholly absent. The Goodwife of Laggan, a\nHighland witch, one day showed herself in the form of a shivering,\nweather-beaten cat to a hunter, who was warming himself during a storm\nin his hunting-hut, in the forest of Gaick in Badenoch. His hounds\nwere stretched by his side, his only company. As the cat entered they\nbristled up and rose to attack her. There is no record that the hunter\nwas astonished when the terror-stricken cat addressed him with a human\nvoice and the rhetoric of a century ago: \u201cGreat hunter of the hills, I\nclaim your protection. I know your hatred to my craft, and perhaps it\nis just. Still spare, oh spare a poor jaded wretch, who thus flies to\nyou for protection from the cruelty and oppression of her sisterhood!\u201d\nOn the contrary, he pacified his dogs, and invited her to come forward\nto the fire and warm herself. \u201cNay,\u201d she replied, if we are to believe\nthe grandiloquent reporter of the interview, \u201cin the first place you\nwill please bind with {113} this long hair those two furious hounds of\nyours, for I am afraid they will tear my poor hams to pieces. I pray\nyou, therefore, my dear sir, that you would have the goodness to bind\nthem together by the necks with this long hair.\u201d Here the hunter smelt\nmischief; so, instead of binding his dogs, he threw the hair across a\nbeam of wood which connected the couple of the bothy. Supposing the\ndogs bound, the cat then drew near to the fire and sat down to dry\nherself. In a few minutes she began to grow. \u201cA bad death to you, you\nnasty beast,\u201d exclaimed the hunter jocosely, \u201cyou are getting very\nlarge.\u201d \u201cAy, ay,\u201d answered the cat, \u201cas my hairs imbibe the heat they\nnaturally expand.\u201d But she grew bigger and bigger, until in the\ntwinkling of an eye, she transformed herself into her proper likeness\nof the Goodwife of Laggan, and thus addressed the man: \u201cHunter of the\nhills, your hour of reckoning is arrived. Behold me before you, the\navowed champion of my devoted sisterhood, of whom Macgillichallum of\nRazay and you were always the most relentless of enemies. But Razay is\nno more. His last breath is fled. He lies a lifeless corpse on the\nbottom of the main; and now, Hunter of the hills, it is your turn.\u201d\nWith these words the witch made a terrific spring at the hunter; and\nthe dogs in their turn leaped up at her. A tremendous conflict ensued.\n\u201cFasten, hair, fasten,\u201d she cried repeatedly, thinking the dogs were\nbound by it. The hair, obediently coiling round the beam, fastened so\neffectually that at last it snapt the timber in twain. Finding herself\novermatched, she tried to flee. But the hounds had fixed themselves in\nher breasts; nor did they loose their hold as she trailed them after\nher, until she had all-to broken every tooth in their heads. Then\nchanging herself into a raven she flew {114} away over the mountains,\nwhile the bleeding dogs crept back to their master\u2019s feet to die. When\nthe hunter returned to his home, the Goodwife of Laggan was found sick\nunto death. I spare my readers the edifying scene wherein she most\nproperly acknowledged her crimes in the presence of the hunter and all\nher neighbours, before breathing her last. It is written by Mr.\nStewart in the purest Johnsonese he could command, together with the\nfurther narrative of the apparition which announced that the Evil One\nhad finally seized her soul before it had time to reach the protection\nof the sacred precincts of the churchyard of Dalarossie.[114.1]\n\nThe Eskimo have a tradition pertinent to our present point. Off the\nsouthernmost part of Greenland was an island to which many of the\ninhabitants of the mainland objected, because it cut them off from the\nopen sea. Two of them accordingly went in their kayaks and, fastening\na hair from the head of a little child to the far side of the island,\npulled away to the north, chanting a magic lay. Another old man,\nhowever, desired to retain the island; and he from the main shore held\nit by a thong of sealskin. The contest lasted for a while; but at\nlength the hair and the magical song prevailed. The island was floated\noff and planted in front of Ilulissat, where it is now known as Disco\nIsland.[114.2] Similarly, the people of the Lewis aver that their\nisland once formed part of France. The Wickings having conquered a\nprovince of that country determined to carry it to Norway. They,\ntherefore, made a cable of four strands, one of heather, one of hemp,\nanother of wool, and another of woman\u2019s hair, and fixed it to the\ncliffs. For a time their enterprise promised success. But a large\npiece, {115} now called Ireland, broke off and sank. A storm came on;\nand one portion after another broke away to form the Hebrides.\nBy-and-bye their cable itself snapped, and they were forced to leave\nthe Lewis and adjacent islands in the situation they at present\noccupy. On the western side of the Butt of Lewis is a fine natural\narch, called the _Suil an Rodh_, \u201cthe eye of the butt.\u201d This was the\nhole drilled through the cliff in days of yore by the Wickings to hold\ntheir cable; and it is the best proof of the truth of the\ntradition.[115.1]\n\nAllied to the enchanted hair of these tales is the fetter that binds\nFenri the wolf. It is spun from the sound of a cat\u2019s footsteps, a\nwoman\u2019s beard, the roots of a stone, a bear\u2019s sinews, a fish\u2019s breath,\nand a bird\u2019s spittle; and it is as soft and smooth as a silken\nstring.[115.2] So likewise when Finn MacCumhail hunted in high\nKeshcorran, Conaran, son of Imidel, a chief of the Tuatha De Danann,\nbade his three daughters, that were full of sorcery, take vengeance\nupon the hero. Accordingly the beldams went and sat in the entrance of\na cave. \u201cUpon three crooked and wry sticks of holly they hung as many\nheathenish bewitched hasps of yarn, which they began to reel off\nlefthandwise in front of the cave.\u201d The attention of Finn and his\ncompanion, Conan Mael MacMorna, was attracted; they approached to view\nthe women, and passed through the hasps; \u201cwhereupon a deadly tremor\noccupied them, and presently they lost their strength, so that by\nthose valiant hags they were fast bound indissolubly. Another pair of\nthe Fianna came, and with them the sons of Nemhuann: through the yarn\nthey passed to where Finn and Conan {116} were; they too lost their\npower, and by the same hags were lashed down in rigid bonds. These\nwarriors then they carried away into the cave.\u201d Oscar and MacLugach,\nand in short \u201cthe children of Sm\u00f3l and the Fianna all\u201d were drawn to\nthe spot, and when they saw the yarns their pith and valour departed:\n\u201cthere was not in any one man of them all so much as a newly delivered\nwoman\u2019s strength.\u201d Both gentle and simple, they were bound, \u201cso that\nas helplessly pinioned and tightly tethered culprit-prisoners the hags\ntransported them into black, mysterious holes, into dark, perplexing\nlabyrinths.\u201d When the witches could find no further straggler of the\nFianna, they were about to hew their prisoners to pieces. The\ngreat-souled Goll MacMorna, however, was yet at large. He attacked and\ndestroyed two of the hags; the third he spared in consideration of her\nsetting the prisoners free. But when another sister appeared to avenge\nthose who were slain, he fought her also, and drove his sword through\nher heart.[116.1]\n\nThe story of the Enchanted Cave of Keshcorran is perhaps dangerously\nnear the border line of sagas and _m\u00e4rchen_. But it is difficult to\nsay that the Irish had entirely abandoned their belief in the real\ntruth of the adventures attributed to the Fianna. Nations, especially\nnations involved in a struggle for national existence, do not easily\npart with a literal interpretation of traditions which are their\nbirthright. The Iroquois likewise held to the actual existence of the\nsupernatural personages of the following tale; but how far they\ncredited the adventures of the human beings may admit of a difference\nof opinion. Ten brothers whose parents were dead resided with their\nuncle. One by one the elder ones, going out to hunt, failed to {117}\nreturn, until at last only the youngest was left. He and his uncle\nfound in the woods and befriended a strange man, who turned out to be\na brother of the Great Head, a creature consisting simply of a head,\nmade terrific with huge eyes and long hair. The Great Head had his\nhome upon a rock over which his hair streamed in shaggy fierceness;\nand when the hurricane swept across the land it was his voice that was\nheard howling through it. One day the Great Head came to the lodge.\nAided by his brother, the uncle and nephew succeeded in conciliating\nhim, and induced him to take the youth to the witch who had fordone\nhis elders, and revenge their deaths. They heard the witch crooning\nher magical song. When she uttered the word _Schis-t-ki-a\u00f1_, the\nobjects of her spells turned to dry bones. The Great Head said to the\nyouth: \u201cI will ask the question, \u2018How long have you been here?\u2019 and\nthe hair will fall from my head and you must replace it, and it will\ngrow fast; and then I will bite her flesh and pull it from her, and as\nit comes off you must take it from my mouth and throw it off, saying,\n\u2018Be a fox, a bird, or anything else,\u2019 and it will then run off never\nto return.\u201d The young man obeyed these instructions; and the witch was\nsoon brought to sue for mercy. But the Great Head replied: \u201cYou had no\nmercy; see the dry bones; you must die.\u201d In this way they slew her;\nher flesh was turned into beasts and birds and fish; her bones they\nburnt to ashes. Then they sought for the bones of her victims, and\nplaced together in rows the bones of the nine elder brothers. The\nGreat Head flew over them on a tempest, and called out of the wind to\nthe nine brothers to awake. They heard his voice, and arose to life,\nshouting for joy at seeing each other and their youngest brother\nagain.[117.1]\n\n{118}\n\nThe instrument of enchantment in this Iroquoian tradition is not the\nmagical fetter, but the magical word; whereof we seem to find a\nreminiscence (perhaps of the fetter also) in the sequel of Thorkill\u2019s\nsecond voyage as recounted in the veracious pages of Saxo. Gorm\nHaraldson, king of Denmark, having grown old, was tormented with the\nquestion that still troubles mankind of the immortality and fate of\nthe soul. Wherefore he sent Thorkill, who had in former days led him\nand three hundred of his warriors through mysterious regions, for\ncertain information to Utgard-Loki, his god. On the hero\u2019s return it\nwas prophesied to Gorm that he would suddenly die if he learnt the\ntidings Thorkill had brought. Men were accordingly hired by the king\u2019s\ncommand to put the adventurer to death. But he foiled the design and\nreproached his master for the ingratitude he displayed. The king,\nthen, overcome by curiosity, bade Thorkill relate in order what had\nhappened to him. Thorkill had such unfavourable revelations to make of\nUtgard-Loki that Gorm Haraldson could not endure to hear them. \u201cHis\nvery life could not brook such words, and he yielded it up in the\nmidst of Thorkill\u2019s narrative. Thus,\u201d piously adds the chronicler,\n\u201cwhilst he was so zealous in the worship of a false god, he came to\nfind where the true prison of sorrows really was. Moreover, the reek\nof the hair, which Thorkill plucked from the locks of the giant,\u201d and\nbrought back with him, \u201cto testify to the greatness of his own deeds,\nwas exhaled upon the bystanders, so that many perished of it.\u201d[118.1]\n\nThe truth is that in the lower stages of culture supernatural power is\nascribed, not merely to special words, but {119} to any curses.\nIllustrations of this attitude of mind are needless; for in the horror\nwith which even the least superstitious of us listen when we are by\nsome accident compelled to hear an outburst of imprecation, we may\ntrace more than mere revulsion from the spirit of vulgar hatred and\nanger dictating it: our revulsion bears at least a tinge of fear and\nghastly anticipation of doom upon him who dares to call down evil, if\nnot upon the object of his wrath. Properly performed, however, by the\npriest on the first day of Lent, and uttered in merely general terms\n\u201cgathered out of the seven-and-twentieth chapter of Deuteronomy and\nother places of Scripture,\u201d we devoutly repeat Amen to every clause,\nand make believe that we desire to escape \u201cthe dreadful judgment\nhanging over our heads and always ready to fall upon us,\u201d by thus\ntransferring the weight of condemnation to sinners worse than\nourselves. Originally special virtue was doubtless attached, as it\nstill is by savages, to the proper sequence of words and the suitable\naccompaniment of rites. In a Chaldean conjuration the effect is thus\ndescribed:\n\n \u201cThe malicious imprecation acts on man like a wicked demon,\n the voice which curses has power over him;\n the voice which curses has power over him;\n the malicious imprecation is the spell [which produces] the disease of his head.\n The malicious imprecation slaughters this man like a lamb;\u2026\n the voice which curses covers him and loads him like a veil.\u201d[119.1]\n\nNor is it altogether improbable that certain of the Psalms which are\nsuch a stumblingblock to Christians may have been held, when correctly\nchanted, to have a direct influence over the objects of the psalmist\u2019s\nholy ire? When a {120} native of Borneo has planted fruit-trees, and\nthey are bearing, he places some round stones in cleft sticks near the\ntrees, and then proceeds to curse anybody who may venture to steal the\nfruit, calling on the stones to witness the anathema. The curse is to\nthis effect: \u201cMay whoever steals my fruit suffer from stones in the\nstomach as large as these stones, and, if necessary, become a figure\nof stone!\u201d And woe betide the man who in defiance of this curse dares\nto pluck the fruit![120.1]\n\nBut neither the form of the malediction nor the accurate performance\nof a ceremony is an invariable requirement. A few illustrations of the\npetrifying potency of curses, oftentimes the more awful because\nuttered in mere carelessness or wantonness, may be given from peoples\non different levels of civilisation. An Altaic tale relates that\nSartaktai was building a stone bridge over the Katunya; and in order\nto complete it by the following day it was necessary that his son\nshould preserve continence. The young man, however, disregarded his\nfather\u2019s taboo, and frustrated the work. Wherefore the old man cursed\nhis daughter-in-law, so that she stands, a white rock on one side of\nthe river, and cursed and spat upon his son, so that he remained on\nthe other side, the mountain called to-day T\u00e4ld\u00e4kp\u00e4n.[120.2] A\nlocal legend concerning the fort of Jangada, in India, attributes its\nerection to R\u00e2j\u00e2 Kesari, who built it of lac, or sealing-wax, in\norder that missiles discharged against it should be held by its\nnatural tenacity. The secret was betrayed to a besieging army by an\nold woman; and the walls began to melt under the power of the fire and\nbellows she advised the soldiers to use. The r\u00e2j\u00e2, as he died in the\ntrench with sword in hand, cursed the traitress to be turned into\nstone. {121} The curse was immediately fulfilled, as witness the satti\npillar outside the fort, regarded as her image to this day.[121.1] At\na certain farmhouse in Iceland it befell that several years\nsuccessively the inmates who were left to take care of the house while\ntheir fellows went to church on Christmas Eve were found the next\nmorning either stark mad or dead. Naturally nobody cared to stay in\nthe place; but at last a young girl was found brave enough to do so.\nDuring the night something came to the window, and began to praise her\nhands. She was ready at once with a spirited retort. Her eyes and her\nfeet were then made the subject of eulogy by the mysterious visitor,\nwho got from the maiden each time a proper answer. By-and-bye the\ncreature mentioned the dawn standing ready to appear. \u201cStand thou,\ntoo, and become stone, and hurt no one!\u201d exclaimed the girl. And when\nthe people returned from church in the morning they were astounded to\nsee a big stone standing before the window; and there it remains ever\nsince.[121.2] There is a hill on the boundary of the manor of Bagdad\nnear Wirsitz, in the province of Posen, surmounted by a great stone of\na reddish colour, somewhat in the form of a gravestone. This was\nformerly a girl who went out with her mother to gather wild\nstrawberries in the pine-wood which then covered the height. The\nmother wandered off in another direction, and lost her daughter. Not\nbeing able to find her, she angrily shouted: \u201cAs you are not coming,\nturn to stone!\u201d Her prayer was instantly answered, as in a similar\ncase at Strelno, in the same province, where a lazy slut going with\nher pitcher to the spring, and being unconscionably long on the\nerrand, was cursed by a fellow-servant, {122} under whose orders she\nwas, and transformed into stone. The block is shown at the village of\nMlyny, near the town; and at a distance it is said to bear some\nresemblance to a girl with a pitcher. Nor is this the only tale of the\nkind current in Posen. A great stone, whose top was not unlike a roof,\nlay several years ago on the boundary between Czempin and Piechanin,\nand was held to be the roof of a castle, enchanted by a wizard who had\nbegged a night\u2019s lodging there in vain. His curses buried the castle\nin the earth, and turned its inhabitants and dependants into a number\nof smaller stones which lay around the large one.[122.1] Near Gbel, in\nBohemia, is a stone called The Enchanted Huntsman. A luckless hunter,\nwe learn, pursued and shot at a roe, which thereupon changed into an\nold hag, and cried out: \u201cHow dare you shoot at me? I am the witch\nNera! But you with your pack shall be turned into stone and guarded\nfor ever with invisible flames!\u201d Since that hour none dares to go near\nthe stone at midnight, lest he be consumed by the flames.[122.2] A\nwitch is likewise the agent of evil in the Rollright legends. The\nKing-stone at Rollright was once a king indeed, who was bent on the\nconquest of all England. He had got as far as the hill on which\nRollright stands when the witch appeared. From the crest of the hill\nthe village of Long Compton is visible in the combe below. The king\nwas approaching the top when the witch addressed him: \u201cSeven long\nstrides shalt thou take, and--\n\n If Long Compton thou canst see,\n King of England thou shalt be.\u201d\n\n{123}\n\nThe king, now certain of success, exclaimed:\n\n \u201cStick, stock, stone,\n As King of England I shall be known!\u201d\n\nBut as he took the seven strides forward there rose before him the\nlong mound of earth which crowns the hill, and prevented him from\nseeing Long Compton. The witch then cried:\n\n \u201cAs Long Compton thou canst not see,\n King of England thou shalt not be.\n Rise up, stick, and stand still, stone,\n For king of England thou shalt be none;\n Thou and thy men hoar stones shall be,\n And I myself an eldern-tree.\u201d\n\nForthwith \u201cthe king and his army were turned into stones where they\nstood, the king on the side of the mound and his army in a circle\nbehind him, while the witch herself became an elder-tree. But some\nday, they do say, the spell will be broken. The stones will turn into\nflesh and blood once more, and the king will start as an armed warrior\nat the head of his army to overcome his enemies and rule over all the\nland.\u201d[123.1]\n\nIn the last tradition the witch\u2019s words fell upon her own head, as\nwell as upon her foes. Incautious or wicked words often have this\neffect in European folklore; and I strongly suspect they owe their\norigin to Christian teaching. Tales of imprecations fulfilled upon the\nperjurer pervade English history from the great, and probably\ninnocent, Earl Godwin downwards. Joan Flower, not more guilty,\nmentioned in an earlier chapter, is another example. The case of\nDorothy Mately of Ashover, related with all circumstance {124} by the\nmaster-pen of John Bunyan, is more famous. In fact, the tales are\nendless; but I must limit my illustrations to two or three of such as\naccount for stones and rocks.\n\nOn the island of Sardinia, near the village of Tresnuraghes, in the\ndistrict of Oristano, are two stones, once a peasant and his ox. This\nunhappy man was ploughing on the vigil of Saint Mark, and neglected to\ndoff his cap when the saint\u2019s colossal statue was carried by in\nprocession. Being remonstrated with by one of the confraternity, he\nanswered that he did not worship a piece of wood. What could be\nexpected after such profanity, but that he and his ox should be turned\nto stone? A similar judgment is recorded as the origin of a monolith\nstanding near the church of Saint Constantine, on the side of a hill\nin the district of Sedilo, on the same island. It is the custom there\nto perform a ceremony called _S\u2019ardia_, or the Guard, which consists\nin a cavalcade of about a hundred persons running at full speed thrice\naround the church, and then flinging themselves down the valley upon a\nsacred enclosure containing a cross. This enclosure they encompass in\nthe same manner. The spectacle, considered as a religious rite, is\ndoubtless grotesque enough; and a woman who once witnessed it was\nprofane enough to burst out laughing. She stands there still, never to\nlaugh again.[124.1] A bridal train on the Frisian island of Sylt once\nmet an old woman who recognised the bride as a witch, and called out\nto warn the party. The leader replied: \u201cIf our bride be a witch, I\nwould that we might all sink down here and rise up again grey stones.\u201d\nNo sooner said than done; and the identical stones were on view up to\nthe early years of {125} this century.[125.1] So it is related of an\nunwilling bride from the village of Bonese, in Altmark, that when she\narrived with her cavalcade on the boundary of the district of Markau,\nwhere she was to wed the son of a rich magistrate, she sprang from her\nseat after an altercation with her kinsmen and exclaimed: \u201cRather will\nI be turned to stone than overstep the boundary of Markau!\u201d and she\nalighted on the ground a stone. Round that stone at midnight, when the\nfull moon sheds her rays, the many-coloured bridal ribbons gleam even\nyet.[125.2] Sometimes the catastrophe is occasioned by the mere breach\nof a taboo. Such is the case in a story told by the Lapps concerning\nthe origin of the Aniov Islands. Three giants who were shamans\ndetermined to cut a piece of land off Norway and bring it away with\nall its reindeer and other wealth in order to increase their own\nstores. They succeeded in doing so, and were conveying it round to its\ndestination, when their mother dreamed she saw them returning. She ran\nout of the hut and, hearing a noise, cried: \u201cSee! my children are\ncoming, they bring goods, oxen, reindeer; they spoke truth.\u201d But she\nthus violated the rule of strict silence during the performance of\nmagical rites, and was punished by being turned, together with the\nwhole parish, into stone, while her sons and the reindeer they had\nstolen were drowned, and the land they had cut off became two\nislands.[125.3] Another woman underwent the like transformation in the\nisland of Coll, off the western coast of Scotland. She was gathering\nshellfish when the tide rose, and \u201cfinding no other means of escape\nmade a last effort by climbing {126} the rocks. When at the top, and\nalmost out of danger, she said: \u2018I am safe now, in spite of God and\nmen!\u2019\u201d Her blasphemy was immediately avenged by her conversion into a\nstone, which now forms part of the rock whence the headland of\nCailleach Point (the Old Wife\u2019s Headland) takes its name.[126.1]\n\nOften, however, the Deity himself, or some holy man endowed with a\nportion of divine power, by curses or prayers effects the\nmetamorphosis. Thus, it is believed in Bombay that the moon once\nbecame enamoured of Ahaly\u00e1, the wife of the Rishi Gautama, and\nvisited her in her husband\u2019s absence. Unluckily the Rishi returned and\nfound the guilty pair together. His wife was turned into stone as the\neffect of his curses; and the moon bears, and will bear for ever, the\nblack mark of the blow he received from the Rishi\u2019s well-aimed\nshoe.[126.2] So, too, when Ino fleeing from Juno\u2019s wrath flung herself\ninto the sea, and was made immortal by Neptune at the prayer of Venus,\nher attendants, as Ovid tells us, reproaching the vengeful goddess,\nwere metamorphosed. Juno exclaimed: \u201cI will make you terrible\nmonuments of my displeasure.\u201d As she uttered the words, some of the\nwomen, attempting to follow their mistress into the water, were\nstiffened in the various attitudes of the moment into rocks on the\nshore, while others were transformed into seabirds that now stretch\ntheir wings over every wave of the Ionian sea.[126.3] The kind of\nsuperstition here portrayed has of course survived into Christianity.\nIt is partly the superhuman might of the priest as such, and partly\nthe strength of his incantations, which nobody but he knows so well\nhow to perform that {127} gives effect to his words when, like the\nCardinal Lord Archbishop of Rheims, and other priests before and\nsince, he calls for his candle, his bell, and his book. It was the\nsuperhuman might of the shaman that was acknowledged by Balak in the\nHebrew saga, when he sent for Balaam to come and curse Israel; \u201cfor I\nknow that he whom thou blessest is blessed, and he whom thou cursest\nis cursed.\u201d Balaam, indeed, performed his function with due solemnity\nand order; yet the ceremonies, however valuable in themselves, would\nhardly have been effectual if performed by a lesser man. This belief\nhas constantly tended, in all religions alike, to invest the lightest\nword of a saint with efficacy graduated according to his sanctity.\nTake the following Christian examples out of many. Saint Constant,\npursued by a party of heathen up a hill in the neighbourhood of\nDeonero, in the Italian province of Cuneo, launched his maledictions\nupon them with such effect that they were changed into stones, many of\nwhich are still to be seen on the spot. His potency must have been\nexhausted by the effort; for he had scarcely reached the top when\nanother band of persecutors seized and put him to death. But the night\nfell murky and wet; and a labourer, going home after an evening\u2019s\nenjoyment, beheld the saint toiling up the steep laden with stones. In\nthe morning the Church of Villar San Costanzo stood on the place of\nthe martyrdom, built by the saint\u2019s own hands out of some of the very\nmen whom he had conveniently petrified; and there it is to be seen at\nthe present day. Strangely enough, his holiness did not avail to\nprocure him mortar. Nor was it needful, for the stones, whether\nnaturally or supernaturally fitted together, stand perfectly well\nwithout it. When his work was done, his body, which had been left by\nhis murderers {128} where it fell, disappeared. Some say that it was\ntransported by angels into heaven; and there can be no more difficulty\nin crediting this than the rest of the story.[128.1] In the Isle of\nMan Saint Patrick cursed a sea-monster, which was following to devour\nhim, and turned it into a solid rock at the foot of Peel Hill.[128.2]\nAccording to Sardinian belief a greater than Saint Constant, or even\nSaint Patrick, inflicted the same vengeance for a smaller crime. One\nday Our Lord and Saint Peter presented themselves at a threshing-floor\nnear Mores, and prayed for alms, but were denied. Thereupon Jesus\nChrist uttered an imprecation; and in a moment the corn became sand,\nwhile the guilty farmer and his innocent workmen were alike\ntransformed into stones.[128.3] Judging doubtless by their own unhappy\nexperience, the greater the personage the more trifling is the\noccasion to which the peasants ascribe his wrath. On the right-hand\nside of the road from Flatow to Lobsens, in the province of Posen,\nabout half a German mile from the latter place, is a great stone,\nformerly a landed proprietor, who, being out hunting, put his horse to\njump a ditch at that spot. The horse refused, perhaps for some similar\nreason to that which animated Balaam\u2019s talking donkey, since we are\ntold that the Lord flew into a passion and cried, \u201cBecome stone!\u201d\nForthwith horse and rider were turned into a stone which is alive at\nthis day to testify to the truth of the story, though many have been\nthe attempts to destroy it.[128.4]\n\nSo far the power of words. Another magical power {129} which appears\nin the _m\u00e4rchen_ is that of a blow. Nor is it absent from sagas told\nto explain the origin of rocks whose form has appealed to the\nimagination of uncultured peoples. The story of the discovery of\nInishbofin, an island off the coast of Galway, relates that two\nfishermen lost in a fog landed on an unknown shore. When the fog\nlifted they found themselves on what is now called the north Beach of\nInishbofin.\n\n On one side lay the ocean, and on one\n Lay a great water;\n\nand close at hand they beheld an old woman driving a white cow down to\nthe lake. She drove the cow right into the water, and struck her with\na stick, whereupon the cow was metamorphosed into a rock. One of the\nfishermen got so angry at the sight that he struck the woman; and both\nhe and she were turned into stones. The rock and stones are still to\nbe seen. \u201cThe cow used to rise up out of the lake and walk about the\nisland when any great event was about to happen; but it is now more\nthan thirty years since she was last seen.\u201d From this cow the island\ntakes its name (Inis-bo-finne, the Island of the White Cow).[129.1] In\nthe south-west of Ireland is a cliff called Fail Mahisht, once the\ndaughter of the king of the White Nation and wife of Finn MacCumhail,\nwhom she won by playing at chess with him for a wager. The condition\nwas that he was to be her husband until he had seven shovelfuls of\nearth put on his head. After various adventures Diarmaid fulfilled the\ncondition, and with a blow of his fist sent the lady spinning through\nthe air until she fell at the water\u2019s edge, where she now stands, and\nfrom that day to this gives {130} food to the people of Erin from the\nlimpets and periwinkles that cluster upon her beyond any other cliff\nin Ireland.[130.1] The heroic cycle of Ireland as now found in the\nmouths of the people is full of tales of petrifaction from a\nblow;[130.2] but how far they are now believed as records of fact must\nbe regarded as more than doubtful, whatever might have been the case\nat the time the legend of the Enchanted Cave, already mentioned, was\nwritten. No such uncertainty seems to rest on the Sardinian tale\nconcerning a stone on the side of the Montesanto of Mores. It is\ncalled Saint Elisha\u2019s Stone, and was once a man whom the saint threw\nfrom the top of the mountain and, when he saw him fast below, called\nout: \u201cDost thou stand well?\u201d \u201cYes, sir,\u201d replied the stone; and there\nit remains immovable.[130.3]\n\nThe mixed population of Missouri tell a story, probably of Indian\norigin, about a beautiful but mysterious witch, who seduced the young\nbraves, and with a touch from her right hand turned their hearts into\nstone. The people, fearful of attacking her, waited long for vengeance\nfrom on high to repay her iniquities. She used to feed on fish that\ncame out of the river in response to her call. One day she went down\nto the water and summoned the fish in vain. At last, after she had\nuttered in her rage and impatience words that would dismay devils,\nthere came up a little fish like silver. She essayed to swallow it;\nbut it swelled and {131} stuck in her throat, and at length stiffened\ninto stone. In her agony she clutched her throat and beat her breast\nwith the fatal hand. So now she stands upon, and part of, the rocky\nbluff on the banks of the Missouri.[131.1]\n\nAt Jaunpur, in India, is the shrine of Ker\u00e1rb\u00edr, where a great stone\nis the object of worship. The stone in question is part of the body of\nthe giant-demon Kerar, slain by R\u00e1mchandra for his wickedness.[131.2]\nTwo rocks observed in descending the pass of Markundi into the valley\nof the Son, in Mirzapur, are worshipped and connected with the flight\nof two lovers from a barbarian king who ruled at the fort of Agori.\nOne of these rocks was cloven by a blow of the fugitives\u2019 sword; the\nother is the pursuer\u2019s elephant, decapitated by the same means.[131.3]\n\nDivine vengeance, without any visible or audible intervention, has\noften been invoked in various parts of the world to account for the\nexistence of rocks and stones. Niobe, weeping for her children slain\nby Apollo, was turned to stone, as anybody, says Pausanias, may\nreasonably be persuaded. She stood, a rock, on Mount Sipylos in\nB\u0153otia, and in summer-time was reported to weep.[131.4] Such, too,\nwas the fate which overtook Lot\u2019s wife. Her legend doubtless grew up\nto account for some prominent pile on the cliffs overlooking the Dead\nSea; and perhaps the arch\u00e6ologists who are now striving to\nrehabilitate the writings of Moses will point out the crag and prove\nthe truth of the story. Of course they will be equally ready and\nwilling to prove a thousand other tales. Let me mention a few equally\nauthentic.\n\n{132}\n\nI pass over instances like those of the Stone-woman near the village\nof Moras in the department of Is\u00e8re, France, manifestly a mere\ntransplantation of the Biblical tradition.[132.1] There are cases,\nhowever, in which the crime of looking back in disobedience to an\nexpress taboo has been punished by petrifaction, and where the\nconnection with Lot\u2019s wife is by no means so easily proved. Once upon\na time the Hindu saint, Sri Dharamnathji, was doing penance in the\njungle near Pattan. His disciple Gharibn\u00e1thji used to beg alms in the\ncity, but as the people were not charitable he was obliged to maintain\nhimself by carrying bundles of firewood and selling them in the town.\nFrom the proceeds he purchased flour, which a shepherd\u2019s wife baked\nfor him, adding a loaf from herself. The sage, \u201cobserving the bald\npatch on his disciple\u2019s head caused by the loads he carried, cursed\nthe city to be swallowed up. He had previously warned the shepherd\u2019s\nwife to leave the place and not look back. The city was swallowed up;\nand the woman, disobeying the saint\u2019s command, was turned into a\nstone.\u201d[132.2]\n\nHere the destruction of the city was caused by niggardliness towards a\npersonage of supernatural power. Another Indian saga shows us this\ncrime punished by petrifaction. Near the village of Dudhi, in South\nMirzapur, are two stones, once a bride and bridegroom who were thus\ntransformed by an angry bh\u00fat, or malevolent spirit. His proper\nofferings had been forgotten, and he wrought his vengeance in this\nway.[132.3] Sometimes the fault is breach of tribal custom or social\nconvention. When a rajah\u2019s daughter made a rash vow only to wed him\nwho could count the palm-trees {133} within view of her father\u2019s\npalace, and a low-born wizard fulfilled the condition, the earth\nherself interfered and, rather than allow so shameful a marriage to be\naccomplished, she turned the princess into a stone, which now lies\nwithin the ruined fort of R\u00e1j\u00e1 Sahay, protected from human touch by\na number of enormous snakes.[133.1] Among the Gonds of Central India,\nthe bride goes in procession to the bridegroom, instead of his coming\nto her, as is usual among the Hindus. It is intended in this way to\nprevent the repetition of the catastrophe which overtook a luckless\npair who were about to be married in the ordinary way. The youth,\nborne on his uncle\u2019s shoulders in the procession, came within sight of\nhis bride, and unable to restrain his impatience he leaped to the\nground and looked with all his might to the place where he expected to\nsee her. She felt no less eager, and their eyes met. In a moment not\nonly the young couple but also the bridegroom\u2019s uncle were turned into\nsandstone spires yet visible on the road in descending into the valley\nof the Narbada over the Vindhyan range from Bhop\u00e1l.[133.2] The same\ncause may perhaps be understood in an Enganese tale accounting for a\nblock of coral and a rock bearing some resemblance to human form off\nthe coast of the island, near the anchorages of Barah\u00e1u and\nKai-Kokoh. The one represents a husband who was deserting his wife\nbecause he found she had a disgusting malady, and the other the\ndeserted wife.[133.3] It is more obvious in the case of two stones in\nthe tanks near the temples at Arang, in the R\u00e1epur district of India,\nand at Deob\u00e1luda. The erection of the pinnacle of a temple is {134}\nthe act of completion; and it seems that it is necessary to be\nperformed naked. These two temples were built simultaneously. When\nthey were ready to receive their pinnacles the mason and his sister\nagreed to put them on at the same auspicious moment. Stripping\nthemselves according to custom, they climbed to the top. As they\nreached it, each could see the other, and each through shame jumped\ndown into the tank beneath and was changed into stone. Both stones are\nvisible in seasons of drought, when the water in the tanks is\nlow.[134.1]\n\nPetrifaction in the traditions of Christian Europe, when directly\ninflicted by divine intervention, is usually the punishment of a\nserious infraction of the divine law, often amounting to\n_l\u00e8se-majest\u00e9_. Various stone circles in Cornwall, such as the\nHurlers, the Nine Maids and the Merry Maidens, were once human beings\ntransformed for Sabbath-breaking by hurling or dancing.[134.2] Stories\nof this kind are commonplace all over Europe. We will be satisfied\nwith the following samples taken from Germany and Bohemia. The legend\nof the two stone Jews at Ottorowo on the crossroad to Krzeszkowice, in\nthe province of Posen, relates that these culprits suffered\nmetamorphosis for profaning a crucifix.[134.3] In the neighbourhood of\nthe town of Gabel in Bohemia stand three blocks of stone surmounted by\ncrosses. They were girls who went to work in the fields on Easter\nSunday. They carried their disregard of holy things so far as to mock\nwhen the sanctus bell sounded at the completion of the sacred rite;\nand each time it rang they threw up to heaven the sickles they were\nusing to cut the grass. The third time the sickles fell not down\nagain, {135} and the girls were turned into stone. Near Commotau, in\nthe same country, lie seven great stones, once girls who led an evil\nlife, and were therefore transformed.[135.1] In Styria the same\npenalty fell on a maiden who would spin on Sundays. A violent storm\ndestroyed the hut wherein she dwelt and transported her to the top of\na neighbouring rock, where she stands for ever, a warning against\nblasphemy and greed.[135.2] On some pasture lands not far from\nJevenstedt stands a stone circle with two larger stones in the midst.\nThese were a bridal party who danced on Sunday during divine\nservice.[135.3] Bridal parties in the West as in the East seem\nspecially obnoxious to the displeasure of the higher powers. In\nAltmark, near Dahrendorf, not far from the Hanoverian border, is a\nlarge piece of granite surrounded by smaller stones, formerly a bride,\nnamed Lene, from the state of Hanover, who with her attendants was\nchanged, no one knows why, into stone. We have already met with\nseveral other instances. A circle of stones near Wirchow, in Neumark,\nwas a party of persons who added to their scorn of Whitsunday the\nshameless eccentricity of dancing naked, and are now called the Adam\u2019s\nDance. It has ever been held by the folk a grave misdemeanour to treat\nwith wanton disrespect the necessaries of life; and singular judgments\nhave, both in this country and elsewhere in Europe, fallen on such as\nhave dealt improperly with bread and other common kinds of food. Seven\nboys were thus turned into stone, and are still to be seen near the\nlittle town of Morin in Neumark.[135.4] Let us hope that the children\nof the district are duly impressed by their awful doom.\n\n{136}\n\nSimilar to the fate of the Styrian maiden was that of a pair of lovers\nin Sardinia, who in consequence of the opposition of their families to\ntheir union entered, the one a monastery, and the other a nunnery. But\nlove triumphs over even the vows of celibacy. The young monk escaped\nfrom his convent, carried off his sweetheart and lived with her in the\nwilds. The infraction of their vows could not, however, be passed\nover. God raised one day an impetuous wind, which transported the\nlovers to the top of Monte Ruju, where they rest changed into\nstone.[136.1]\n\nOn the western continent are to be found many legends accounting for\nrocks of peculiar form as human victims of supernatural caprice. The\nZu\u00f1i tradition mentioned in a previous chapter is but one example of\nmany. Mrs. Stevenson, who reports this tale, also records the\ntradition of an allied people, the Sia, concerning two brothers of\nancient days, the culture-heroes of their tribe, renowned for\ngiant-slaying and other feats. On two occasions they went disguised as\npoor, dirty, beggar-boys to villages of the Oraibi and the Katsuna\nwhere feasts were being held. They were refused food save by one\nfamily at each place; and the people were in consequence turned into\nstone.[136.2] {137} More frequently, perhaps, in aboriginal folklore\nthe metamorphosis is suffered by a fugitive. In such cases it seems a\nlittle doubtful whether the pursuers are thus foiled or satiated of\ntheir revenge. The story of the Peruvian goddess, Cavillaca, will be\nremembered in this connection.[137.1] \u201cThere is a Winnebago tradition\nthat a woman carrying her child was running from her enemies, so she\njumped down a steep place and was turned into a rock. And now when\nthey [the Winnebagoes] pass that place they make offerings to\nher.\u201d[137.2] A similar saga of the Nasqually Indians of British\nColumbia is told to account for an isolated rock on the coast.[137.3]\nMany other instances are to be found.\n\nAmong savages, however, it hardly seems necessary for their\nfore-elders to render themselves obnoxious to superior beings as a\ncause of this transformation. The natives of North Australia have\ntales of persons, some good and others bad, who were turned on death\ninto stones or trees.[137.4] A Chinese legend, descending doubtless\nfrom a more barbarous period, explains the existence of three rocks in\nthe Yang-tsze river and the Poyang lake, through which it runs. A boat\ncontaining a man, his wife and their two children was capsized on the\nriver during a storm. The man and woman perished at once; but the lads\nwere assisted by a compassionate frog, which took them on its back and\nmade for their home on the banks of the lake. The younger boy,\ngrieving at his parents\u2019 death, threw himself off and was drowned,\nreappearing shortly after in the {138} form of a bold limestone rock,\nnow known as the Little Orphan, situate in the middle of the river\nabout twenty miles below the egress of the lake. The surviving orphan\nheld on until the frog had entered the lake, when he fell\nbroken-hearted into the water and became the large rock, surmounted in\nlater ages by a Buddhist monastery and pagoda, and called the Great\nOrphan. The frog, in the bitterness of grief at his unsuccessful\nefforts, also yielded up his life, and in due course emerged from the\nwaves as the Frog Rock.[138.1] In Japan the peasants discern high up\non the weatherworn cliffs of Matsura, \u201cthe figure of a lady in long\ntrailing court-dress with face and figure eagerly bent over the\nwestern waves.\u201d It is Satyohim\u00e9, the wife of Sat\u00e9-hiko, petrified\nwhile gazing to catch the last glimpse of the sails that bore her\nhusband away to Corea, as one of the Mikado\u2019s body-guard, sent to\nassist the Japanese allies at Hiaksai, in the year 536 A.D. Her sad\nfate has rendered her name the symbol in Japanese literature of\ndevoted love.[138.2]\n\nI have left to the last the Gorgonian power of petrifying with a look.\nThe fatal head was regarded, we know, as the most powerful of Athene\u2019s\nweapons. As a single illustration we may take a curious case mentioned\nby Pausanias. Describing the temple of Athene near Coronea, in\nB\u0153otia, where the Panb\u0153otian festival was held, he says that a\npriestess named Iodamia coming into the temple once at night was\nconfronted by the goddess herself armed with Medusa\u2019s head, and was\nturned into stone. An altar called by the unfortunate priestess\u2019 name\nseems to have stood in the temple when Pausanias wrote; and a woman\ndaily put fire thereon, saying in the language of the country that\n{139} Iodamia was living and demanded fire.[139.1] The memory of\nMedusa yet lingers, as we have seen, in Seriphos, where her head on\nthe coinage of the island seems to have preserved it. If we may trust\nmedi\u00e6val writers like Walter Map, Gervase of Tilbury and Roger of\nHoveden, a more definite recollection, though still confused and\ndistorted, formerly remained in the Levant. Gervase tells us that\nbetween Rhodes and Cyprus are the Syrtes, commonly called the Gulf of\nSatalia, where the Gorgon\u2019s head was said to have been thrown into the\nsea. They are opposite the town of Satalia, claimed by the Sultan of\nIconium. The Gorgon was held to have been a prostitute whose beauty\ndrove men out of their wits, until Perseus threw her head into the\ndeep. This of course was a piece of euhemerism on the part of the\nMarshal of Arles or his informants, whoever they may have been. He\ngoes on, however, to say that the natives report that a soldier fell\nin love with a certain queen, and not being able to obtain her during\nher life, he secretly violated her sepulchre. From his posthumous\nembraces the corpse bore a monstrous head, which, the soldier was\nwarned by a voice in the air at the moment of his crime, would by its\nmere look destroy all things that it beheld. Accordingly at the proper\ntime he opened the tomb and found the head, carefully averting himself\nfrom its gaze. Whenever he exhibited it to his foes they and their\ncities were destroyed. Afterwards he found another love; and one day,\nwhile sailing the sea he was sleeping peacefully in her lap, when she\ntook the opportunity to steal the key and open the casket wherein the\nhead was kept. Her curiosity proved her bane. Her lover awoke and,\nplunged in grief at the catastrophe, he took out the {140} fatal head,\nstuck it up and perished with his ship from its glance. Every seven\nyears, it was believed, the head rose to the surface of the sea and\nimperilled the safety of all who navigated those waters.[140.1] Map\u2019s\naccount is that the hero was a cordwainer of exceeding great skill,\nwho flourished at Constantinople in the time of Gerbert, that is to\nsay, about a hundred and fifty years before his own time. Falling in\nlove with a noble maiden whose naked foot he had been called upon to\nclothe in the course of business, he sold everything and took service\nin the army, in order to rise in the world and become worthy of her.\nShe, however, died in his absence. The violation of her tomb follows.\nThe Gorgonian head is expressly declared to have _stiffened_ the\nwretches upon whom its gaze was brought to bear. The soldier at length\nweds the daughter and heiress of the Emperor. She gives him no peace\nuntil he tells her the contents of his casket; and having learnt the\nsecret she tries the effect of the head upon her husband as he wakes\nfrom sleep. Having thus fordone him by her wiles, she orders his body\nand the instrument of his enormities to be cast together into the\nGrecian Sea. A terrific storm arose when her command was fulfilled;\nand on its subsiding a vast and destructive whirlpool remained ever\nthereafter, called Satalia, or more commonly, the Gulf of Satalia,\nfrom the maiden\u2019s name.[140.2]\n\nMore nearly akin to the classical myth is a Danish tradition that in\nformer days a troll who dwelt in the Issefiord was accustomed to stop\nevery passing vessel and take a man by way of toll. At last it became\nknown that the troll\u2019s power would endure until the head of Pope\nLucius, {141} who had suffered decapitation in Rome ages before,\nshould be shown him. Some monks were accordingly despatched to Rome\nfor the head. \u201cWhen the ship returned and was about to run into the\nfiord the troll made his appearance; but as soon as they held forth\nthe head and the troll got a sight of it, he with a horrid howl\ntransformed himself into a rock.\u201d Representations in Roeskilde\nCathedral commemorate the event.[141.1] One of the commonest of\nScandinavian sagas is that which attributes the power of transforming\ntrolls and giants to the sun. The earliest mention of it is in the\nHelgi poems, which are only known to us in a single manuscript, the\nCodex Regius at Copenhagen, but which probably date from the tenth\ncentury. In one of these poems, Rimegerd, the giantess, whose father\nHelgi has slain, appears by night and calls on the hero to recompense\nher for her father\u2019s slaughter. Helgi and Atli his warder detain her\nin a war of words until the sun rises, when Atli exclaims: \u201cLook\neastward now, Rimegerd! Helgi hath stricken thee with the wand of\nDeath.\u2026 It is day, Rimegerd! Atli has lured thee to deadly delay. It\nwill be a laughter-moving harbour-mark, methinks, that thou wilt make\nnow thou art turned to stone!\u201d The same catastrophe is implied in the\n_Alv\u00edssmal_, also found only in the Codex Regius, but at least as old\nas the Helgi poems. Allwise the dwarf has come to fetch Freya, whom he\nhas entrapped the Anses into a promise to give him as wife. He comes\nby night; and one of the Anses detains him with questions calculated\nto bring out his extensive cosmological knowledge, until the day\nbreaks and the hall is full of sunshine. We are then to understand,\nfrom the triumphant expressions of his interlocutor, that the power\n{142} of the sun effects his petrifaction.[142.1] In a Norwegian\nballad of _Hermod the Young_ the hero rescues a beautiful maiden from\na giantess, riding off with her on Christmas Day. The giantess pursues\nall night, and is on the point of catching the fugitives, when the sun\narises and she is changed to a stone.[142.2] Two tall isolated cliffs\nlift themselves out of the sound between Eysturoy and Streymoy, two of\nthe F\u00e6roe Islands. They were a giant and his wife who had been sent\nfrom Iceland to drag the F\u00e6roe Islands nearer to that island. It was\nat night. The giant stood in the sea while the giantess took the other\nend of the rope, and after an ineffectual attempt made it fast to the\ntop of one of the hills. She saw the glimmering of dawn and hastened\ndown; but too late. Before she and her husband could wade back to\nIceland with their charge the sun came up out of the sea and they were\ninstantly turned to stone, to stand there for ever looking northward\nbut unable to move from the spot.[142.3] These are sufficient as\nsamples of the Scandinavian belief in the transforming influence\nexercised by the gaze of the sun upon the evil powers of darkness. The\nincident has passed into a Lapp _m\u00e4rchen_ from Tanen, where a king\u2019s\nson, by the help of a friendly fox, has stolen a maiden called\nEvening-glow, the sun\u2019s sister, from some giants who held her captive.\nThe fox leads the pursuing giants astray until the dawn, when he\nexclaims: \u201cSee, there comes the sun\u2019s sister!\u201d They raise their eyes\nto the morning glow, and are forthwith changed into stone\npillars.[142.4] The incident here probably owes its origin to the\nadjacent Norsemen; the Quich\u00e9 {143} saga of the three tribal gods,\nTohil, Avilix, and Hacavitz is, however, quite independent.\nOriginally, we learn, there was neither sun, moon, nor star. When for\nthe first time the sun rose, it petrified these and other ferocious\ndeities, but without taking away from them the power of changing their\nforms and resuming mobility when they pleased.[143.1] According to the\nstory of the inhabitants of Hispaniola, men came out of two caves. A\ngiant, Machakael, was set to guard these caves and prevent mankind\nfrom looking upon the light of the sun. One night he wandered from his\npost, and could not return before sunrise. The sun rose out of the sea\nand looked with anger upon the giant, who was forthwith turned into a\nrock called Kauta.[143.2]\n\nThe power of petrification is, however, usually regarded as equivalent\nto that of striking dead with a glance. This is expressed, as we have\nalready seen,[143.3] in the case of Balor of Tory Island. A long list\nof stories wherein a glance is credited with this terrible might could\nbe culled from every nation, beginning with that of Isis punishing at\nByblos an unlucky boy who disturbed her in her grief.[143.4] In some\ncases, as in a variant of the tale of Balor, the baleful eye not only\nslays but reduces its victim to ashes.[143.5] The elephant head of the\nHindu god, Ganesa, is a substitute for his original head burned to\ncinders by the gaze of Sani. Nor is the murderous property confined to\nsupernatural beings. Witches, who of course partake of more than {144}\nordinary human qualities, are credited with it. Men of special\nholiness have sometimes the fatal gift, like Rabbi Juda in rabbinical\ntradition, who thus killed four-and-twenty of his scholars in a single\nday;[144.1] or a Samoan high-priest of the heavenly gods, whose very\nlook was poison; \u201cif he looked at a cocoa-nut tree it died, and if he\nglanced at a bread-fruit tree it also withered away.\u201d[144.2] Various\nwriters, classic and medi\u00e6val, have told us of the women of a certain\nScythian tribe, of the Sardinians, or of a remote island in the ocean,\nwhose glance is death.[144.3] To such writers we owe the fable of the\nCatoblepas, or Downlooker, an animal \u201cso wicked and so venomous that\nno man may behold it right in the face, but he die anon without\nremedy.\u201d Some of the soldiers of Marius in his expedition against\nJugurtha, not knowing the creature and attacking it incautiously, were\nslain by the eye of this terrible beast.[144.4] In various parts of\nAsia and Africa serpents also have naturally been reputed to possess\nthe same horrible gift; while countries like Spain have not yet parted\nwith the belief in the basilisk.[144.5] Among American tribes the\nsuperstition and the stories of the deadly glance are found in similar\nterms to those of the Old World. I have already mentioned the Quich\u00e9\ngods petrified by the sun. The Cegihas have a tale of a mysterious\nbeing called Two Faces that slew every one {145} who looked at\nit.[145.1] The Ts\u2019ets\u2019\u0101ut of British Columbia account for the\nprohibition to a man to look at his adult sister by a legend of one of\ntheir fore-elders who married his sister. Their brothers were ashamed,\ntied them together by way of punishment, and deserted them. But the\nman broke the ropes; and having killed a ram, an ewe and a kid of the\nmountain-goats, he clad himself, his wife and their child in the\nskins, and they assumed the shape of goats. \u201cHe had acquired the power\nof killing everything by a glance of his eyes. One day his tribe came\nup the river for the purpose of hunting, and he killed them. Then he\ntravelled all over the world, leaving signs of his presence\neverywhere, such as remarkable rocks.\u201d[145.2] Iroquois traditions tell\nof an Onondaga chief, named Todod\u00e4ho, whose head was covered with\ntangled serpents, and whose angry look sufficed to strike the\nbeholders dead. He submitted, however, to be tamed, and to have the\nserpents combed out of his locks.[145.3] But the saga which presents\nthe closest parallel to the incident of the Slaughter of the Gorgon\ncomes to us from Brazil, and comes with every mark of indigenous\ngrowth. Some of the Brazilian tribes tell of a bird which kills with a\nlook. The story goes that a hunter succeeded in slaying one, and cut\noff its head, without the dreadful eye being turned upon him. Like\nPerseus, he killed his game thenceforward by turning the eye upon it.\n\u201cHis wife, not dreaming of its destructive power, however, once turned\nit toward her husband and {146} killed him, and then accidentally\nturned it toward herself and died.\u201d[146.1]\n\nThe truth is that we are here in presence of the worldwide belief in\nthe Evil Eye: one more demonstration of the inseparable connection\nbetween tale, superstition, and custom. The awful weapon of the\nmythical Brazilian bird was Medusa\u2019s power, the same as is to-day the\nterror of the Italian peasant, and is not yet regarded with\nindifference even in lands, like our own, which boast of being in the\nvan of civilisation. From all parts of the world we read of the\nsuperstition that certain persons wield, intentionally or\nunintentionally--as often the latter as the former--the power of\nblasting others by their look. This power was dreaded in Palestine\nfrom time immemorial. The maxim, \u201cEat thou not the bread of him that\nhath an Evil Eye\u201d is found among the Hebrew proverbs; and Jesus Christ\nalludes to the superstition, though only to warn the Pharisees against\n\u201can Evil Eye\u201d as a moral quality proceeding out of the heart.[146.2]\nThe superstition has left its traces in language. To the ancient Roman\n\u201cEnvy, eldest born of Hell,\u201d was really _Invidia_, the Evil Eye; and\nthe English rustic still speaks of being \u201coverlooked.\u201d Wizards and\nwitches are thus gifted, of course: the Evil Eye is amongst their\nmightiest weapons. But it is by no means theirs alone. Innocent women,\naccording to many nations, are periodically cursed with it. In fact,\nanybody may have an Evil Eye, even without knowing it; the most sacred\npersonages are not exempt. The Samoan high priest and the Rabbi Juda\nare examples from the opposite ends of the {147} earth. Pius the\nNinth, infallible head of the church as he was, vicar of Christ and\nwhat not, was afflicted with the Evil Eye. There was nothing so fatal\nas his blessing; and the flock he tended cowered and quailed before\ntheir shepherd\u2019s sight.[147.1]\n\nSo much has been written of late on the Evil Eye that it is enough to\nmention in these general terms a superstition at once much less\ncomplex and much more fully known to anthropological students than\nsome of those investigated in other chapters of these volumes. Its\norigin is doubtless to be sought in the evil passions of which the\nhuman countenance is so admirable and so terrible an exponent,\nstriking inevitably with horror and awe even beholders who are not the\nobject of the resentment or the jealousy expressed--much more,\nfascinating and paralysing with fear the unhappy victims, as a bird is\nsaid to be fascinated by a snake.[147.2]\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XXI.\n THE STORY AS A WHOLE. THE PROBLEM OF ITS PLACE OF ORIGIN. CONCLUSION.\n\n{148}\n\nMy task draws towards its close. We have now examined the four\nleading trains of incident as developed in modern folktales belonging\nto the Perseus cycle. We have found the Supernatural Birth, the\nLife-token, and the Medusa-witch founded on superstitions common to\nall mankind and arising in the depths of savagery. The Rescue of\nAndromeda, on the other hand, appears to be restricted to nations\nwhich have attained a certain grade of civilisation, and to spring out\nof the suppression of human sacrifices to divinities in bestial form.\n\nWe have now to return to the story as an artistic whole, and to\ninquire where and when it originated.\n\nIn seeking the origin of the story as a whole it is well to begin with\na caution, to which I have alluded in a note to an earlier chapter,\nnamely, that it is dangerous in these matters to assert that a story\nor a custom is not found outside a given area. Anthropological\nresearch is so modern that much material is certain to have already\nperished unrecorded, and much that still exists as yet is unrecorded,\neither because {149} it has been overlooked, or because scientific\nobservers have not yet reached it. All assertions or assumptions,\ntherefore, of a negative character must be taken with the limitations\nimposed by this condition of things. They can only be provisional, for\nthey may, any of them, be upset by further research. Moreover, the\nmass of anthropological data is already so great, and is growing with\nsuch rapidity, that nothing is easier than for a single inquirer, how\ndiligent soever he may be, to overlook facts duly recorded which may\nbe in conflict with his conclusions. To assert, for example, and to\nbase any portion of an argument upon the assertion, that tales of the\ngroup under consideration are not found in Hindustan in anything like\nthe shape wherein we find them in Europe, would be to run the risk of\nhaving to revise the argument in the face of new discoveries, or of\nold records which have not been brought to the writer\u2019s knowledge.\n\nThus much premised, let us turn to the facts so far as we know them.\nThe geographical boundaries within which the story, as a whole, may be\nfound, are the geographical and ethnical boundaries of that stage of\nculture which forms the seed-plot of the incident of most restricted\nrange. We can only look for it among nations who have approached and\npassed the level of barbarism where human sacrifices are offered to\nbrutes; for it is only among such that the Rescue of Andromeda can\nhave been conceived. This excludes races like the Australians, who\nseem never to have practised sacrifices of the kind referred to, even\nif their country were infested with beasts or reptiles addicted to\nsuch food. It does not exclude peoples like the ancient Quich\u00e9, who\nassuredly offered human sacrifices, and whose legend, partly cited in\nthe last chapter, looks back to a {150} time when such offerings were\nmade to wild animals. Among the ferocious gods petrified by the sun\nwhen it rose upon the primeval darkness, we are told, were those\n\u201cconnected with the lion, the tiger, the viper, and other fierce and\ndangerous animals. Perhaps we should not be alive at this moment,\u201d\ncontinues the chronicler, \u201cbecause of the voracity of these fierce\nanimals, had not the sun caused this petrifaction.\u201d But this did not\nend the mischief; for these gods could recover life and mobility when\nthey pleased. And the four Quich\u00e9 patriarchs were impelled,\napparently by a supernatural vision, to wet their altars with the\nblood of human victims. Wherefore they watched in their mountain\nstronghold for lonely travellers belonging to the neighbouring tribes,\nand, having seized and overpowered them, slew them for a sacrifice;\nand wherever the blood of a victim was found, there also were always\nfound the tracks of many tigers. This was the craft--so the tale\nsays--of the priests; but at last the tribes that suffered thus found\nout that the loss of their friends was due not to attacks of wild\nanimals but to the desire of the Quich\u00e9 patriarchs to provide\nofferings for their gods; and they made war upon the aggressors. They\nwere beaten by the aid of a miraculous horde of wasps and hornets; but\ntheir lives were spared and they became tributaries to the Quich\u00e9 for\never.[150.1] The legend records, in traditional form, the change from\nthe worship of living creatures to that of gods of stone. But it does\nnot record the abandonment of human sacrifices, for that never took\nplace; and being told from the point of view of the conquerors it\ncontains no rescue-incident. What the subject-nations may have had to\nsay upon the matter we do not know. Inasmuch, {151} however, as they\nprobably continued to furnish the victims from time to time, we may\nassume that no rescue-incident was included in their folklore. At all\nevents the incident has not been recorded among any people on the\nWestern Continent, save in circumstances pointing to importation since\nthe days of Columbus.[151.1]\n\nIn the eastern world it is found from Ireland to Japan, from\nScandinavia to Quilimane. If we set aside the story from\nQuilimane[151.2] as sporadic, and introduced by the Portuguese, the\nsouthern limit of the extension of the Perseus group may perhaps be\nfixed on the shores of the Red Sea, where, \u00c6lian tells us, in ancient\ntimes Perseus, the son of Zeus, was honoured, and where we may be\nallowed to indulge the hope that our arch\u00e6ological explorers will\nsooner or later recover some trace of the tale. Eastward, a variant\nembodying the incidents of the Life-token, the Rescue of Andromeda,\nand the Medusa-witch, has been found in Cambodia; and the Rescue of\nAndromeda has been found alone in Japan. The area, therefore, within\nwhich the place of origin is to be sought may roughly be said to\ninclude the whole of Europe and Asia, and the parts of Africa which\nlie to the north and east of the Great Desert.\n\nComparing the classical version of the legend, as it has come down to\nus in the writings chiefly of Ovid and Lucian, with what may be\nregarded as the typical shape of the {152} modern _m\u00e4rchen_, we are\nstruck by a number of differences, among which we may reckon the\ndifference in the mode of the supernatural conception; the absence\nfrom the ancient tale of the Life-token and of the impostor who\npretends to have slain the dragon; the displacement of the incident of\nthe Medusa-witch and its elevation in the classical story to a more\nprominent position than it usually occupies elsewhere; the\nsubstitution in modern tales of the Helpful Beasts for the divine gift\nof weapons; and lastly the enthralling power of Fate, supplying the\nartistic motive for the romance of Perseus, but absent from most of\nthe folktales gathered in later times. Some of these differences of\ndetail, however, are more apparent than real. In Phineus, who,\naccording to Ovid, invades the wedding banquet, we have an analogue of\nthe impostor. Too cowardly to fight the monster and save his\nbetrothed, he comes forward with a posse of friends to take her by\nforce from the victor, and is only vanquished when Perseus exhibits\nthe Gorgon\u2019s head. It is tempting to suggest that in the prototype of\nthe story Perseus attacked and slew the monster on his outward\njourney, that he passed on to the slaughter of Medusa before\ncelebrating his union with Andromeda, and that meanwhile Phineus laid\nclaim to the victory and its guerdon, and was confounded on the hero\u2019s\nreturn, either by production of the Gorgon\u2019s head, as in Ovid\u2019s text,\nor by proof in the shape of the dragon\u2019s head or tongue, as in the\nmore modern tales. This conjecture might be supported by the fact that\nPerseus is represented by Ovid[152.1] as using only his sword in the\ncombat with the {153} monster, as well as by the consideration that it\nsupplies a motive for the inexplicable desertion by the victor of the\nlady whom he has saved from the dragon\u2019s maw, which occurs in so large\na number of variants. The order in question does occur, though rarely,\nin modern stories;[153.1] but, as we shall see hereafter, there is a\ndecisive reason against supposing it ever to have formed part of the\nclassical legend.\n\nThe versions preserved by the author of the _Metamorphoses_ and in a\nmore fragmentary way by Lucian are substantially similar. That other\nversions were current in antiquity we know from many sources. I have\nalready in the opening chapter given several instances of inconsistent\nstatements pointing unmistakably to this conclusion. The most\nimportant of them for this inquiry are derived from \u00c6lian. Writing in\nthe third century after Christ, he tells us of a fish found in the Red\nSea and called after Perseus, who was honoured by the Arabs dwelling\non the shore. If the modern _m\u00e4rchen_ did not refer to a fish as the\nsource of life of the twin-heroes this would be puzzling, since no\nreference is made in the classical saga to a fish. But in face of the\nfacts it seems to show, not merely that the literary form of the saga\nis only one of two or more current in antiquity, but that one at least\nof the popular and unrecorded variants included a version of the\nSupernatural Birth which was allied to that in the Breton tale of _The\nKing of the Fishes_. The same writer in a later passage associates a\nmarine crustacean with Perseus. Many persons abstained from eating it,\nbecause they deemed it sacred. This I understand to be an assertion of\na practice not {154} confined to the island of Seriphos; whose\ninhabitants, \u00c6lian goes on to say, if they found it dead would bury\nit, if they caught it alive would not keep it in their nets, but\nreturned it to the sea. They would even weep over dead specimens, for\nthey held these creatures to be dear to Perseus, the son of\nZeus.[154.1] The custom of solemnly burying, and mourning for, dead\nanimals is very widespread, and is connected with totemism.[154.2] We\nare probably right in believing that in the first instance the\ncrustacean referred to was the totem of some of the inhabitants of\nSeriphos, that the national hero was either identified with it or held\nto be its offspring, and that in process of time this hero was either\naccepted and glorified as Perseus, the son of Zeus, by the more\npolished Greeks of the mainland, or from the similarity of his birth\nand exploits became merged in the hero of Argos and Mykene. Doubtless\nin the ruder ages tales common in their origin but independent in\ntheir development were told both at Seriphos and on the mainland. As\nintercourse increased, the tales of Argos and Mykene would become\nknown to the people of Seriphos, and _vice vers\u00e2_, their similarity\nwould be recognised and their heroes identified. If the Seriphiote\nsaga connected its hero with the rock-lobster, which was regarded as a\ntotem, as the triplet boys are connected in the Breton _m\u00e4rchen_ with\nthe King of the Fishes, all the conditions would be fulfilled to\naccount for the Seriphiote practices. We seem here, therefore, to have\na third version of the story. The two versions which did not reach\nliterary immortality both brought the hero into close relations with a\nmarine animal. We can hardly doubt that in both {155} cases those\nrelations were such as described in so many of the modern variants.\n\nThe next question to consider is that of the relation between the\nancient and modern variants of the story. If it were confined to that\nbetween the ancient variants and the variants current to-day in Italy\nand Greece, it would be comparatively simple. The problem is, in fact,\nmuch larger; for we have to take into account variants found all over\nthe area, already described, within which the place of origin is to be\nsought. We cannot conclude, I need hardly say, that the first-recorded\nversion of a tale is the parent of all the rest, or of any of them.\nOur scepticism must go much further. It often happens that the\nfirst-recorded version is one current in a higher grade of\ncivilisation, and therefore more refined and artistic, than a version\nsubsequently gathered from oral tradition. Emphatically is this the\ncase with classical stories and Buddhist parables, as writers on\nfolklore have often observed. But what has not been equally insisted\non is, that the reason why these classic stories and Buddhist parables\nhave found their way into literature is because they are the more\nrefined and artistic versions. It is quite certain that if Ovid had\nhad to choose between the picturesque narrative of the shower of gold,\nwith the parentage of the highest god of Olympus, on the one hand, and\na totemistic tale about a fish or a rock-lobster on the other hand, he\ncould not have hesitated to which of these sources he should, for\nliterary purposes, assign the begetting of Perseus. So, to take an\ninstance outside the range of the present study, if the compilers of\nthe _J\u0101taka_ could have chosen between the Tar-baby of Negro\nstory-tellers and the Demon with the matted hair, they would have\npreserved in their collection the story in {156} the form which\nactually appears.[156.1] Probably neither alternative was actually\noffered, the causes which would have operated in the mind of the poet\nor the parable-writer having already wrought, less consciously indeed,\nbut not less effectively, in the popular mind, so as to render, by a\nprocess, analogous with that of natural selection, which we may call\ntraditional selection, the version that has reached us predominant\nover all others. For \u00e6sthetic and ethical development speedily\noutstripped that of abstract thought and criticism. Savages often\nattain a high degree of taste and skill in the production and\nornamentation of their utensils and weapons. The beauty of medi\u00e6val\narchitecture has rarely been approached and never been surpassed,\nthough the generations which built the great cathedrals of Europe were\nunder bondage to one of the most cruel and extravagant systems of\nsuperstition that the wit of man has elaborated. At the same time in\nmany directions, and at all events theoretically, they had attained a\ncomparatively advanced moral elevation. The arts of poetry and\nstory-telling come to maturity later than the material arts, because\nthey are dependent upon the critical sense; but even they are quite\ncompatible with very gross credulity. No people has displayed a finer\ncritical sense than the ancient Greeks; yet no people has told more\nabsurd stories about its divinities or practised sillier customs; and\nthat, even in the age which produced their most finished sculptures\nand their most exquisite poems. The unbelief of the philosophers was\nconfined to a small class; and the populace that applauded the verses\nand appreciated the art of Euripides pinned its faith to omens, {157}\nfound presages in the flight of birds, and gave implicit credence to\nthe magical effect of incantations, to say nothing of the ridiculous\nand impossible tales about the gods which were part of its religious\nfaith, and as such were literally and devoutly accepted. Yet even\namong these a process of selection was going forward, tending to\neliminate the ruder and coarser, preserving and refining, not\nnecessarily the more credible, but the more artistic. From the more\ncultured cities of Greece a literary and \u00e6sthetic influence was\ndiffused throughout all Greek-speaking communities. To this aggressive\ninfluence local beliefs and local customs gradually yielded. They were\neither identified and amalgamated with the beliefs and customs to\nwhich it gave a continually wider and wider currency, gaining in the\nprocess a less barbarous exterior; or, if too stubborn for\nidentification and amalgamation, they were thrust aside bit by bit and\nleft to rustics and to slaves. The same process, repeated in the\nmodern world, has caused the powers and distinguishing marks of the\nancient superseded deities to be attributed to the Madonna and the\nsaints, and many of the heathen shrines and superstitions to be\nbaptized into the Christian Church. The rest have been relegated to\nthe peasantry, and driven into more and more remote districts by the\ncontinual pressure, direct and indirect, of the triumphant religion\nand the increasing civilisation. So it has been everywhere, not only\nin Europe, but wherever in the whole world a higher has been carried,\neither by arms, commerce or persuasion, across the frontiers of a\nlower culture. We may conclude, therefore, that the story of Danae\nmade its way throughout the Eastern Mediterranean, to the disadvantage\nof the stories told in various places of the birth of a hero similar\n{158} in the rest of his life to Perseus, because of its own \u00e6sthetic\nqualities, and because it was accepted by the most intellectual\npeoples of Greece. These two causes, it will be seen, are at bottom\none. For it was precisely the intellectual characteristics of the\npolished peninsular Greeks which had given the tale its artistic form,\nand thus fitted it for prevailing over its competitors. Traditional\nselection, first in the inhabitants of Argos and the neighbourhood,\nand afterwards in all those with whom they and their allies and\nfellow-countrymen came into contact, determined its shape and secured\nits victory.\n\nBut though Ovid may have been ignorant of other versions of the story,\nit is manifest that others existed. And here it is material to observe\nthat the incident of the Rescue of Andromeda stands in the poet\u2019s\naccount on a very different footing from that of the remaining\nincidents. Though it is now (perhaps by virtue of the Christian\nsymbolism read into it from early days of Christianity) the incident\nwhich first springs into the mind on mention of the name of Perseus,\nin the _Metamorphoses_ it is a mere episode, not organically connected\nwith the hero\u2019s story. The encounter with Andromeda is represented as\nfortuitous. It is not led up to by the previous narrative. It affects\nthe after-incidents in no way. The dragon is not even petrified by the\nGorgon\u2019s head. On the other hand, the fatal prophecy is the foundation\nof all the rest of the saga, from which nothing could be omitted\n(save, it may be, the visit to Atlas) without impairing the natural,\nthe inevitable, development of the legend as an artistic whole. We\nmust infer that the Rescue is an intrusive episode, and that, as in\nmany modern variants, the tale comprised at first only the other two\ntrains of incident, already characterised as {159} the Birth and the\nQuest of the Gorgon\u2019s Head. The remaining versions current in\nantiquity, or some of them, probably omitted Andromeda with all her\npicturesque possibilities; and it may be permitted to conjecture that\nthe story we regard as classical may have been formed by the imperfect\nfusion of a legend consisting of the Birth and the Quest of the\nGorgon\u2019s Head, with one recognised for some reason as kindred, and\nconsisting only of the Birth and the Rescue of Andromeda. The Albanian\n_m\u00e4rchen_, related in our opening chapter, may represent the latter\nby direct transmission, while the sagas involved in \u00c6lian\u2019s\nallusions--perchance also as known to Herodotus--may have been\nguiltless of the fight with the Dragon.\n\nWe cannot pursue the conjecture into the region of probabilities,\nbecause of the obvious confusion of the Albanian tale, and of the\nimperfect state of our knowledge with regard to local legends not\ntaken up into Greek and Roman literature, and with regard to Egyptian\nand Babylonian cults. The Tuscan tale from Pratovecchio[159.1] seems,\nhowever, to have descended in right line from the familiar version of\nOvid and Lucian--not, that is to say, from their writings, but from\nthe oral sources whence they drew--though on its way to us it has not\npassed wholly uncontaminated by other streams. But can we venture to\nassert the same either of the Irish, German, Swedish, and Russian\ntales which I have assigned to the _Danae_ type; or of the various\nmodern Italian and Greek stories wherein the hero\u2019s birth is ascribed\nto entirely different causes? Of the latter, some are perhaps derived\nfrom local variants current in antiquity. Yet even to assume this will\ncarry us but a little way towards the solution of the problem {160} of\norigin of a _m\u00e4rchen_ told as far afield as Ireland and Cambodia.\n\nThe legend in classical literature is the product of a comparatively\nhigh stage of civilisation. In proof of this, it is only necessary to\nrefer to the divine gift of weapons. The helmet, the shield of metal,\nbrightly polished as a mirror, the sword, are not the weapons of the\nunsophisticated savage. They are replaced in a large number of modern\nvariants by the gift of Helpful Animals. Now, everywhere in the lowest\nplanes of culture we find stories of birds, beasts, reptiles, and even\ninsects, talking and acting in human fashion, sometimes hostile, more\nusually perhaps helpful to man. It would seem as though man, at\nvariance with his fellow-man, and therefore having unintermittent\nreason to suspect him, beset, too, by the awful supernatural powers of\nhis imagination, turned for sympathy, perforce, and consolation to his\nfellow-creatures of a different shape, whom he credited with ability\nto aid him in his need. No line was drawn between nature and that\nwhich was beyond or above nature. But while he imagined in his own\nform the powers whose enmity he dreaded, he sought, of necessity, his\nallies among those of other forms. He observed their characteristics;\nhe experienced their usefulness in supplying his wants; he felt\nhimself akin to them; out of them he framed totems, and ultimately\ngods. The modern incident, therefore, of the Helpful Animals cannot be\nderived from the classical gift of weapons; for not only is it utterly\ndifferent in character, but it comes up from a deeper depth of\nbarbarism. Thus it constitutes a strong presumption that the stories\nwherein it occurs, however they may have been modified in the course\nof ages, are not to be traced back to the classic literary saga. Still\nless can {161} we venture to assert that they are derived from the\nlocal variants of antiquity. They would be likely to owe their origin\nrather to a tale already common property, than to one merely local.\nAnd of the local variants we only know that Perseus was connected in\none of them with a fish; whereas the corresponding heroes of modern\nvariants are frequently so connected, while they are never connected\nwith a crustacean, but often with other artificial means of\ngeneration, not noticed in any of the hints that have reached us from\nancient times.\n\nTo elucidate the matter, I have compiled and placed in an Appendix\ntables of the variants accessible to me. I do not, of course, pretend\nthat they are complete. Statistics of the kind never are; and they\nmust not be taken for more than they are worth. Still, I have no\nreason to think that they would be seriously modified by the addition\nof other variants. If we glance at Table A we shall see that out of\n110 examples (comprising stories properly belonging to the cycle, and\nalso stories wherein the Rescue of Andromeda is the only incident\nbelonging to the Legend of Perseus) forty-four represent the Helpful\nBeasts as congenital with the heroes, while four others represent some\nof the Beasts as congenital, the rest of them being obtained in\nanother way. By _congenital_ I mean born of the same material which\ncauses the birth of the heroes, as in the case of the fish, where one\npart given to the woman originates the children, and another given to\na mare or a bitch originates the foals or the puppies. This, the most\nsavage conceit of the manner in which the Helpful Beasts were\nobtained, is thus found in more than forty-one per cent. of the\nstories. They are told throughout the whole of Europe, from Donegal to\nGeorgia, from Sweden to Greece. One {162} of them, indeed, has been\ncarried, as we may assume, from Portugal to Quilimane, where the\norigin of the Helpful Beasts is reproduced by the natives in the most\nintensely savage form of all; for the woman gives birth not only to\nthe heroes but to their dogs, and even their spears and their guns. In\nten cases in the table the Beasts are given by their parent animals,\nwhile in ten others (or eleven, if we add, as we probably may, the\nServian case[162.1]) they attach themselves to the heroes out of\ngratitude.[162.2] The total percentage of stories in which the Beasts\nattach themselves, or are given by the parent animals out of\ngratitude, to the heroes is thus nearly twenty. In sixteen cases, less\nthan fifteen per cent., they are obtained by exchange of some other\nanimals, or of arms or corn. In nine cases, or little more than eight\nper cent., they are acquired from conquered foes; while in only eight\ncases, a still smaller percentage, they are obtained in the classical\nway from a mysterious personage. If we add the two classes of exchange\nand gift by a mysterious personage together, we obtain twenty-four\ncases, or a little under twenty-two per cent., of which three alone\nproperly belong to the Perseus group: that is, contain more than one\nof the four chief trains of incident which compose it. One of these\nthree is the Tuscan story I have already indicated as probably a\ndirect descendant of the classical tale. The rest of the twenty-four\ncome from different parts of European Russia, Transylvania, Bohemia,\n{163} Germany, Italy, the Celtiberian Peninsula, Brittany, and Achill\nIsland, two variants having been carried to North America, possibly by\nthe French.\n\nIf we turn to Table B, relating to the Gift of Weapons, we find\nresults not very different. Out of a total number of seventy-two\nstories, twenty-two (or thirty per cent.) represent the Weapons as\ncongenital. These are all from Central Europe, Sweden, Denmark, Italy,\nSicily, Spain and Portugal, including the story from Quilimane; and\nthey all belong to the Perseus group. Then we have twelve, or, if we\nadd the Lithuanian tale in which the Weapons are taken from an\nuninhabited house, thirteen variants, or eighteen per cent., in which\nthe Weapons are obtained from conquered foes. None of these thirteen\nstories contain any other of the four chief trains of incident than\nthe Rescue of Andromeda. They are more widely spread than the former,\nranging from the west of Ireland to Lithuania and the Levant. There\nare next seven instances (just under ten per cent.) in which the\nWeapon is forged to order or bought by the hero. Of these, three come\nfrom Scotland, one from Brittany, one is Basque, one is found in the\nisland of Syra, and one in Georgia. Lastly, we have ten cases in which\nthe Weapons are given by a mysterious person without any\nconsideration, two in which they are given to redeem stolen eyes, five\nin which they are given out of gratitude, two in payment for services\nrendered or in exchange, and one in which they are given by a fish: in\nall, twenty cases, or not quite twenty-eight per cent.\n\nThis class of stories, embracing nearly one-third of those represented\nin Table B, is much the most interesting, not only as scattered over a\nfar wider area than the others, but also, made up as it is partly of\nstories within the true Perseus {164} cycle, and partly of stories\nbeyond it, because several of the stories present problems of\ndifficulty and importance. The direct derivation of the Tuscan tale\nalready referred to from the classical legend may be assumed. In it\nthe mirror, replacing the classical shield, is given by two old women,\nwho are the degraded representatives of the Graiai. The same incident\nis found in another form in a Norwegian tale given by Asbj\u00f6rnsen,\nwhere the hero steals the single eye of each of three one-eyed hags\nsuccessively, and thus succeeds in wresting from them a magical sword,\na magical ship, and the art, equally magical, of brewing one hundred\nlasts of malt in one brew. It is curious that this highly barbarous\nincident has not been recovered elsewhere. We cannot suppose the\ndirect descent of the Norwegian tale from the classical, since the\nremaining incidents are so different. But it is, of course, possible\nthat during the numerous Norse raids in the Middle Ages the incident\nmay have been picked up by Wicking adventurers, and carried home from\nthe Mediterranean shores with other spoils to Scandinavia, where it\nbecame imbedded in a native tale recognised in other respects as\nsimilar, and there replaced some equivalent incident. The conjecture\ncannot be rated very highly; and alternative modes of transmission\nwill naturally present themselves to the reader. On the whole,\nhowever, transmission of the incident, not of the entire story, seems\nbest to account for the facts.[164.1]\n\n{165}\n\nThe only two variants of the Perseus group recovered from the East\nbelong to this class. Somadeva\u2019s tale of Ind\u00edvarasena has already\nbeen abstracted at length.[165.1] Its divergencies from the type to\nwhich it belongs are striking--so striking that we cannot postulate\ntransmission from Europe without conceding such alterations on the way\nas almost to disguise it out of all recognition. On the other hand, it\nis even harder to suppose that any European version can derive its\norigin from either the _Kath\u00e1-sarit-S\u00e1gara_ or from the oral\nnarrative worked up into Somadeva\u2019s rhetorical periods. Let us examine\nthe other Eastern variant. It is found in Cambodia, and has been\npublished since the first volume of this inquiry was issued. Its\nheroes are not described as twins, though children of the same\nparents, and nearly of the same age. From their childhood they were,\nlike the heroes of many Western _m\u00e4rchen_, incurably idle. To avoid\nbeing put to work, they left home together. A magician gives them two\nenchanted sabres, either of which will vanquish a whole army.\nMoreover, if one of the youths die, the sabre of the other will rust;\nand by means of it the dead youth can be brought back to life. These\ngifts they accept, though almost too lazy to carry them. They reach a\ncity in mourning on account of the depredations of two yaks, winged\nmonsters which have devoured already more than twenty of the king\u2019s\nchildren, and have now demanded the last of them, {166} his beautiful\ndaughter, Neang (Miss) Pou. In vain the king had kindly offered them\nthe daughter of one of his subjects in her place. They insisted on\nhaving Pou, and threatened terrible misfortunes on both the people and\nthe king if he refused. Compelled by the prayers of his subjects, he\nhad therefore caused poor Pou to be conducted to the house where the\nogres were wont to hold their banquets of royal flesh. The brothers,\npassing through the city, arrived at the yaks\u2019 house, and lay down to\nsleep away the heat of the day, in spite of the princess\u2019 warnings.\nWhile they were talking to her the yaks drew nigh, and the whirr of\ntheir enormous wings resounded above the house. The princess fainted\nfrom terror, while the brothers addressed themselves to the fight, and\nwith their enchanted weapons speedily laid the monsters low. After the\nfight they took the trouble to restore the princess to consciousness,\nbut, too lazy to take her home, rambled forth again. The king,\nmeanwhile, sent two officers to gather up her bones for burial. These\nmen, finding the yaks dead, dipped their staves in the blood, reported\nto their master that they had slain the monsters, and demanded a\nreward. Two other mandarins were then sent to find the lady\u2019s bones\nand tresses; and after some search they found her alive, and hidden in\nthe brushwood beside the road. She refused to return to a father who\nhad so cruelly given her up to be eaten, until he went himself mounted\non the royal elephant, and forced her into the palanquin he had\nbrought for the purpose. The king then proposed to give her in\nmarriage to one of the mandarins who pretended to have killed the\nyaks; but when she told her father the facts, he sent to find the\nbrothers, who were her true deliverers. They refused to go back with\nthe messengers; they were too lazy; {167} and, armed as they were,\nthey repudiated allegiance to the king, and laughed at the threat of\ncompulsion. However, the bodies of the yaks were unburied; they\npoisoned the air; and even a thousand men were unable to remove them.\nNay, all the inhabitants were requisitioned, and an attempt with ten\nthousand proved unsuccessful in stirring one of the corpses. The\nbrothers had not left the country, and they were incommoded by the\nterrible odour. Wherefore at last they offered their services, which\nwere gladly accepted. A single touch of their sabres made a great hole\nin the earth, into which they pushed the yaks, and with another touch\nthrew back the soil and covered them over. The elder brother then weds\nthe princess, while the other sets forth on his travels again, taking\nthe precaution, at his brother\u2019s request, to sow along his path the\nseeds of a certain rare tree, to show the way he has gone. The\nadventurer arrives at a depopulated city, where he is attacked by a\ntroop of gigantic birds, and overcomes them only after a fearful\nfight. Then he sat down to rest on a gong which he found lying in an\ninner court of the palace, and from a hole in which an agreeable\nperfume arose. He had not sat there more than an instant, when he was\npricked from beneath. He jumped up and examined his seat, but could\nfind nothing but the small hole he had noticed before. So he sat down\nagain. Again he was pricked. He jumped up once more, and taking his\nsabre he clove the gong in two, when to his astonishment a lovely girl\nemerged, magnificently clad, and shedding around her a delicious\nperfume. This leads to explanations. She is called the Maiden of the\nScented Locks, and is the king\u2019s daughter. The dreadful birds he had\nslain had devastated the kingdom, and her father had shut her up in\nthe gong to carry {168} her away to a place of safety. She excused\nherself for pricking her deliverer because he had sat down on the hole\nwhich gave her air, and she was being stifled. The people, who had\nfled away, by-and-by returned--all save the maiden\u2019s father. He had\ndeserved the misfortunes and desolation of the country, and he\nreturned no more. The younger brother accordingly married the Maiden\nof the Scented Locks, and they became king and queen. One day the\nqueen\u2019s favourite waiting-woman was carried away by the current of the\nriver while bathing. She was not, however, drowned; and ultimately she\nwas made attendant on the leprous king of a neighbouring country. From\nher the leper learns about her mistress of the Scented Locks. Here we\nhave, in a rationalistic form, the incident familiar to us in the\nEgyptian tale of _The Two Brothers_. The leprous king offers to make\nhis attendant (woman though she was) viceroy if she will only get him\nthe Lady of the Scented Locks. The temptation was too great for her.\nShe returned to her former mistress; and, received by her with joy,\nshe watched her opportunity to murder the king by touching him with\nhis own enchanted sabre. To divert the widow from her grief, she\ninduces her to walk along the river-bank, and to board a trading junk\nfor the purpose of looking at the silks and other merchandise it\ncontains. But the trade was a sham; and before she knew it, the\nhapless queen was far away down the river, in the hands of the\nservants of the leprous king. All this time the elder brother was\noften wondering what had become of his cadet since he departed. One\nday he found the blade of his sabre rusted, and knew that his brother\nwas dead. Setting out in search of him, he soon found his realm and\nhis tomb. With his magical sabre he opened {169} the tomb, and brought\nhis brother back to life. Then both, disguising themselves with long\nbeards and old garments, set out for the capital of the leprous king.\nAnnouncing themselves as able to cure leprosy, they are conducted to\nthe monarch. The treacherous favourite has extorted a promise from the\nwidowed Lady of the Scented Locks to yield to the desires of the king\nif his leprosy be cured; for leprosy is well known to be an incurable\ndisease. By directions of the pretended physicians a house is built\nright in the middle of the river; and there they induce the king to\nput himself under a shower-bath, with which they are to mingle some\ndrops from a bottle containing an infallible remedy. Instead of curing\nhim, they scald him to death. They fling off their disguise, deliver\nthe younger brother\u2019s queen, and conquer the kingdom by means of their\nsabres. The treacherous favourite is not put to death, but simply\nbanished; and the others live happy ever after.[169.1]\n\nThis tale presents more than one point of interest. Save that the\nbrothers are two (instead of three, as in so large a number of\nEuropean variants), and that the magical weapon is a sword, it bears\nhardly any material resemblance to Somadeva\u2019s tale. It comprises three\nout of the four cardinal incidents of the cycle (though the\nMedusa-witch appears much modified), as well as the secondary\nincidents of the Gift of Weapons and the Impostor; yet without\nattaining any very close similarity in the manner of its telling to\nthe European tales. To its most striking peculiarity I have already\nreferred, namely, the incorporation of an incident found in the tale\nof _The Two Brothers_. The form of the incident in the Cambodian is\nobviously much later than in {170} the Egyptian story. The comic scene\nof the Lady in the gong is a tolerably good guarantee that, by\nwhatever route the incident arrived in Cambodia and became annexed to\nthe tale, it was conveyed not by literary means, but by oral\ntradition. Other parts of the story betray Indian influence;[170.1]\nbut so far as I know, the Lady of the Scented Locks has never yet been\ndiscovered in Hindustan. A near kinsman, however, appears in a\n_m\u00e4rchen_ told by the Santals, where the hero has hair twelve cubits\nlong. He sat down one day to dress it on the river-bank. \u201cIn combing\nhis tangled tresses a quantity was wrenched out; this he wrapped up in\na leaf and threw into the stream. It was carried by the current a\ngreat distance down to where a raja\u2019s daughter and her companions were\nbathing. The raja\u2019s daughter saw the leaf floating towards her, and\nordered one of her attendants to bring it to her. When the leaf was\nopened it was found to contain hair twelve cubits in length.\nImmediately after measuring the hair the raja\u2019s daughter complained of\nfever, and hasted home to her couch.\u201d The long and short of the\nmatter, of course, was that she had fallen in love with the unseen\nowner of the hair; and her father was compelled to search all over the\nworld for him that she might marry him.[170.2] Upon this it is to be\nobserved that the story, {171} of which I have given only a single\nincident, is, as we should expect, much more savage than the Cambodian\ntale, and that it could not have influenced the latter. But it points\nto some such incident as that of the lost lock being, like the lost\nslipper, part of the story-plasm out of which the folk-tales of the\neastern world have been evolved. The special form of the incident in\nM. Lecl\u00e8re\u2019s tale renders probable its transmission somehow from\nEgypt--in the absence, that is, of any evidence of a more archaic\nshape from which alike the Egyptian and the Cambodian incidents with\ntheir peculiarities could have been derived. This does not necessarily\ninvolve the transmission of the entire story from Egypt, where neither\nin ancient nor in modern times have we found any variant from which it\ncould have been descended. But it does smooth the way for us to accept\nthe probability that the entire tale was transmitted from the West;\nand so far as it goes it is evidence against its oriental origin.\n\nHitherto we have not reached any very definite results in our quest.\nIn Tables A and B I have exhibited the distribution of the stories\ncontaining either the Helpful Animals or the Magical Weapons. If these\ntables establish anything, it is that the greater number of the modern\nmembers of the Perseus group are independent of the classical legend.\nIn an overwhelmingly large proportion of cases the Helpful Animals and\nthe Magical Weapons are obtained in some other than the classical way,\nand usually they are congenital. In the tables account is taken not\nonly of stories including two or more of the chief incidents, and\ntherefore reckoned as properly members of the cycle, but also of those\nwhich only contain the incident of the Rescue of Andromeda. If we\nreckon the former alone, {172} the proportion is greatly increased.\nThe total number of cases in Tables A and B respectively will then be\nreduced to 65 and 39; while of these, the cases in which the Helpful\nAnimals and the Weapons are respectively congenital will be 42 and 22,\nor 65 and 56 per cent. Both the Helpful Animals and the Weapons are\nindeed subordinate incidents in the story; but they are incidents,\nespecially when congenital, which are important enough to influence\nits entire development. The stories in which horses, dogs, and lances\nare congenital with the heroes cannot be derived from the classical\nlegend; and although some of the ancient variants are known to connect\na fish with the demi-god, Perseus, we have no means of ascertaining\nwhether anything corresponding to these animals and weapons was\nincluded in any of them.\n\nThe independence of the classical legend and most of the modern\nvariants is confirmed by another test. There is no feature more marked\nin the modern stories than that of the Impostor and the Tokens. Of the\nImpostor we find a trace in antiquity, but none of the Tokens. It is\ntrue that another classical story, located at Megara, mentions both.\nIt is preserved by the scholiast upon Apollonius Rhodius, who\nattributes it to Derichidas, the historian of Megara. Alkathoos, the\nson of Pelops, we are told, having been exiled for the murder of\nChrysippe, encountered on the territory of Megara a lion which\ndesolated the country, and which the king had commissioned some of his\nsubjects to destroy. Alkathoos after a fight succeeded in killing the\nanimal. Thereupon he cut out its tongue, which he placed in his\nwallet, and proceeded to Megara. But the men whom the king had sent\nagainst the brute claimed the honour of the victory; nor were they\nconvicted of the imposture {173} until Alkathoos in the king\u2019s\npresence drew forth the tongue. The king offered the tongue in\nsacrifice to the gods, and gave his daughter Euaichme in marriage to\nAlkathoos, who ultimately succeeded him upon the throne.[173.1] Now it\nis fairly certain that this striking incident could never have been\npart of the ancient legend of Perseus, otherwise it would have come\ndown to us in one or other of the classical writers. But not only is\nit absent from the versions of Ovid and Lucian; another account,\nmentioned by the mythographer Hyginus, points in a diametrically\nopposite direction. He calls the betrothed of Andromeda, Agenor, and\ndeclares that when Perseus wished to take Andromeda away, her father,\nCepheus, and Agenor, attempted secretly to murder him, and were turned\nwith their followers to stone by the exhibition of the Gorgon\u2019s\nhead.[173.2] This is more inconsistent with the modern variants than\nOvid\u2019s narrative.\n\nSo far, then, our results are the same; and it can only be claimed\nthat the modern stories are at most (with the exception of a few\nvariants) derived from a common stock with the classical legend. But\nit may be suggested that the former have been contaminated by the\nlocal tradition of Megara. The possibility of such contamination\ncannot be denied. An examination, however, of Table C fails to\ndisclose any sure ground for believing it probable. For it will be\nobserved that of the stories properly belonging to the cycle, upwards\nof fifty-two per cent. give the tongues alone {174} as the tokens of\nidentity; while, if we reckon the tales wherein the tongues are found,\neither alone or in combination with other tokens, we reach more than\nseventy per cent. And they are by no means confined to countries and\nnationalities which have come directly under classical influence, but\nseem to be scattered impartially over the whole of Europe. A less\ncertain mark of contamination, but not without some value, is the\ncharacter of the impostors. In the Megaran tradition they were the men\nwhom the king had commissioned to slay the lion; therefore of the\nclass of warriors or nobles. In stories properly belonging to the\ncycle less than thirty-two per cent. of the impostors come under this\ndescription, including all cases where vague description may mean any\nservant of the king other than menial, whereas fifty per cent. are\ncharcoal-burners, coachmen, gipsies, and members of other despised\nclasses. What is most remarkable is that an overwhelming proportion of\nthe cases in which the impostors may be considered as of the class\nindicated in the Megaran tradition are found in lands beyond the\ndirect classical influence. In the Balkan peninsula and the Greek\nislands, in Italy, Spain, and France, the all but invariable impulse\nof the story-teller is to degrade the impostor in rank and to render\nhim physically, as well as morally, repellent. If all the stories,\nboth within the Perseus group and beyond it, be taken into the\ncalculation, the results will not be found very different. It would\nseem, therefore, that, to whatever cause we must ascribe the\nremarkable uniformity of the incident in the folk-tales of Europe, the\nevidence hardly warrants us in attributing it to contamination by the\none local legend of Megara.[174.1]\n\n{175}\n\nTurning for a moment to the saga forms assumed by the Rescue incident,\nthere is one instance wherein contamination by a local legend may have\ntaken place, though to an altogether smaller extent. All our\ninformation points to an eastern origin for the legend of Saint\nGeorge. I have already discussed the cause of the appropriation of the\nRescue incident to the Christian martyr; and I need not repeat what\nwas then said. Mr. Baring-Gould\u2019s theory ascribes the tale to a\nmisunderstanding of the words of a definite hagiologist. Whether we\naccept that theory or not, the only difference will be one of date at\nwhich the legend became current; it will not alter the geographical\ndirection in which we must look for its origin. As preserved in some\nof the songs and legends of the Balkan peoples, it shows traces of\nbeing affected by the story, handed down to us by Diodorus Siculus and\nby Tzetzes the scholiast, of the Rescue of Hesione by Herakles.\n\u201cTroyan, the white city\u201d of the Bosnian ballad, inevitably recalls to\nus the Troy of Laomedon. Diodorus knew nothing of the version\npreserved by Tzetzes, which represents the slaughter of the monster as\neffected from the inside; or, if he did, he suppressed it, either as\nless probable or less artistic. It is clear from the story of\nKleostratos recorded by Pausanias, and from the ancient vase referred\nto in a note on an earlier page,[175.1] that the incident of a\ndragon-slaughter was current {176} in antiquity in both forms. It may\nbe suggested that, with growth in civilisation, the fight face to face\ngradually superseded the ruder notion of the hero being swallowed and\nfighting his way forth from the serpent\u2019s belly. Probably, therefore,\nthe feat ascribed to Saint George in Bosnian song and Bulgarian legend\nis that of Herakles, rather than that of Perseus contaminated by that\nof Herakles. The tale of Troy was, like the story of Perseus, much\nmore than a local legend. It was the common property of the classical\nworld, and may well have formed part of the inheritance of all the\nBalkan nations. The intrusive barbarians who settled from time to time\nduring the decadence of the empire about the Danube and the Balkans,\nmust also have had their legends of dragon-slaying, whose essential\nidentity with those of the original population would be recognised.\nThe confusion thus caused would render it all the easier to substitute\na new hero consecrated by religion, and consequently having claims\nupon belief which the older heroes had ceased to wield. Yet the\nprevious details would not be all effaced; and in such as were\npreserved we should find evidence of the double procession. Thus the\ninterference of \u201cthe thundering Elijah\u201d bears witness to Slavonic\ninfluences, for Elijah as a saint is but a Christian disguise of the\npagan Slavonic thunder-god. In the same way the name of Troyan enables\nus to say which of the classical Rescue legends it is that has been\nworked up, with the Slavonic tradition, into the ballad of Saint\nGeorge. The names and special details connected with the feat of\nPerseus are conspicuously absent.\n\nWe need not, however, conclude that everywhere the legends and songs\nconcerning Saint George embodied the saga of Hermione rather than that\nof Andromeda. The {177} generally accepted ecclesiastical version laid\nthe scene of the conflict at a town of Libya, which would assuredly\npoint to the latter; while the local traditions whereof the martial\nsaint is hero indicate anything but descent from a story told of so\nfamous a city as Troy. Nor must we leave out of view the probability\nthat in antiquity, as in modern times, beside the sagas fitted with\nnames of heroes and of places, there was current a variety of\n_m\u00e4rchen_, similar in plot, and to some extent in detail, ready to be\nadapted to any names which might happen to lay hold of the popular\nfancy. Such might easily infect the legend of Saint George while it\nwas taking shape among the folk, and as yet no version had acquired\npreponderant authority, and thus form variants either of local, or, if\nfortune smiled upon them, of more than local, acceptance.\n\nBut this christianised saga was not quite the only form of the Rescue\nstory known during the Middle Ages. Cuchulainn\u2019s fight with the Fomori\nwas told as early as the legend of Saint George, if not indeed\nearlier. I have already noted its remarkable resemblance to the\ncorresponding incident in _m\u00e4rchen_ of the _Herdsman_ type--a highly\nspecialised type, differing considerably from any form of the\nclassical story, and peculiar to the west of Europe. We have no direct\nevidence as to the date when the stories of the _Herdsman_ type arose;\nbut it will be recollected that there is reason to think the type\nbelongs to the Celto-Iberian race, and therefore is of prehistoric\nage. Nor will the reader fail to note that the Rescue of Devorgoil\nfrom the Fomori appears to be an offshoot of the same type, that it is\nfound among one of the branches of the same Celto-Iberian race, and\nthat it is one of the oldest--nay, perhaps, the oldest--post-classical\nvariant in Europe of the Perseus {178} group. All these considerations\nmake for its independence of the classical tale; and their cumulative\nweight may fairly be called decisive.\n\nIt has been contended, and it may be thought, that we should look for\nevidence of transmission rather to the general identity and sequence\nof the main incidents than to the recurrence of trivial details. An\nable and well-known writer, criticising M. B\u00e9dier\u2019s use of special\naccessories as a test of transmission, has lately traversed its\nvalidity as applied to folklore. \u201cIt is obviously derived,\u201d he says,\n\u201cfrom considerations current in literary criticism, as might be\nexpected from M. B\u00e9dier\u2019s training. His method is exactly the process\nby which literary critics prove the derivation of one species of\nmss. from an archetype, or affiliate a translation in one language\nto its original in another. Minute and unimportant accessories, _e.g._\nthe form of a proper name, are just the tests in such cases. But with\noral tradition, with transmission in folklore, I would exactly reverse\nthe process and adopt M. B\u00e9dier\u2019s test\u201d--namely, similarity in the\ngeneral idea--\u201cas a proof of such transmission.\u201d[178.1]\n\nIf Mr. Jacobs be a disciple of M. Cosquin, he here diverges widely\nfrom his master, who has rightly insisted on the value of trivial\ndetails in proving the connection between two folktales belonging to\nthe same cycle. His opinions on this point are gathered up in a small\ncompass in a paper contributed to the International Folklore Congress\nof 1891, where he examines a number of stories of the rescue of a\nmaiden from the monster, with a view to showing the repetition of\nminute details.[178.2] One of the most {179} curious and important of\nthese details is the lousing of the hero by the maiden.[179.1] In\nTable D I have brought together as many of such tales as I could find.\nUnder the lady\u2019s gentle fingers the hero usually falls asleep; and M.\nCosquin points particularly to the fact that when the dragon comes on\nthe scene the deliverer is in many variants aroused by the damsel\u2019s\ntears. The table shows that this is, in fact, the usual method of\nawakening him; for it occurs in no fewer than fifty per cent. of the\nstories. But what will strike the reader is, that with the exception\nof a Portuguese tale from Brazil, all the stories in which it occurs\nare found within an area whose salient angles may be placed in\nGeorgia, Nubia, and Bosnia. In only one of the variants from that part\nof the world can the mode of awakening be definitely said not to be by\na tear, while in one other it is left uncertain. Now, it is not\nexpressly said in every instance that the maiden performed the\ndelicate office of lousing the hero; but I think that where this\nrealistic trait has disappeared it has probably dropped out, in M.\nCosquin\u2019s phrase, \u201cby an excess of delicacy on the part of the\ncollector.\u201d The trait is unquestionably a savage one. It is also one\nwell known both in real life and in other stories to the peasantry, at\nall events of southern and eastern Europe, if not elsewhere. Outside\nthe sphere centring in the Levant it is, however, found attached to\nthe Rescue of Andromeda only in the Iberian peninsula, in Scotland,\nIreland, and Sweden, the most numerous instances having been recovered\nin the west of Scotland. There, in four cases out of five, the lady\nawakens the hero by inflicting personal mutilation or bestowing\npersonal adornments which afterwards serve to identify him, while in\nthe fifth case the mode of awakening is not {180} recorded. The\nphenomena both in the Levant and in Scotland are thus entirely in\nfavour of the value of similar details as proving transmission. For,\nas M. Cosquin says, it is evidently impossible to believe that these\ndetails have been separately developed. The form under which the\nsavage idea is presented must have been imported already specialised.\n\nWe are not, however, left to seek all over the world for the place of\norigin of either of these two modes of awakening the sleeping\ndeliverer. We are shut up in each case to a fairly defined area within\nwhich the detail is found, and within which, therefore, it probably\noriginated. Something of the sort meets us in the case of the Impostor\nand the Tokens. If we extend our view to include stories which\ncomprise the Rescue of Andromeda alone of the four cardinal incidents\nof the Perseus group, we appear to find some geographical connection\nin the tokens. Teeth, for example, are the tokens in Hungary and\nOldenburg, ears in the Caucasus and Armenia, mutilations of the hero\u2019s\nperson in the Western Highlands. But we have no such guide where\ntongues are the tokens; for their distribution, in Europe at all\nevents, is as wide as the story itself. In like manner, if we glance\nover the other tables, or turn to the distribution of the various\ntypes of the story as distinguished in the earlier chapters of this\nwork, we can undoubtedly find geographical limits for many, both of\ntypes and of details. To discuss them individually after the examples\nalready given would be tedious; nor would it lead to any more assured\nresult. There are a few cases, like that of the Scented Locks, where\nwe think we can with tolerable certainty trace an accessory back to\nits source. Even in such cases, however, we have no decisive evidence,\nas in {181} literary questions, to fix the exact provenience. The\npeculiarities of a manuscript are not quite parallel with those of a\ntale. We cannot be positive that the incident in the Cambodian story\nis derived from the Egyptian. We can only say that its form is later\nin civilisation, and therefore perhaps in time. For aught we know the\nincident in the Egyptian _m\u00e4rchen_ may in its turn be derived from an\nearlier one, which may be the common parent of the incident in the\ntale of _The Two Brothers_ and in the Cambodian variant of the Perseus\ngroup. There is no record which will enable us to pronounce with\nentire confidence an opinion on the point. Much more then in examples,\nlike those of the Deliverer\u2019s Sleep, where the form discloses no\ndifference in civilisation or in manners, we are at a loss to say\nwhence the detail has come. We can put boundaries within which it has\nprobably arisen; but we have no means of tracing it from Syra to\nNubia, or from Nubia to Syra, from Bosnia to Georgia, or from Armenia\nto Bulgaria. The form of the savage idea may have been imported, as M.\nCosquin says, already specialised; but imported whence, imported\nwhither? Those are questions too hard for us with our present means of\nknowledge. And what is true of the detail is true of the type. We\ncannot say, in more than a few isolated cases, whether a type has been\nevolved from another type, either by development or decay. The modern\ntypes of the story, we can indeed say, have not been derived from the\nclassical type. It is possible that they may have been derived from\nsome local variant of ancient Greece or the Red Sea shores, of which\nwe have no more than hints in classical writers. It is, at least,\nequally possible that they and the local variants and the classic\nlegend all alike owe their origin to a common ancestor. Nor can we\n{182} assign to the modern types any order of precedence among\nthemselves.\n\nOur difficulty in solving these problems arises not merely, or\nchiefly, from the want of records; still more does it issue from the\nconditions of oral transmission. Narrative tradition is fluid and\nchangeable. It may be run into any mould, and from one mould to\nanother with equal ease. To change the figure, its constituents are,\nlike chemical elements, found in combinations which are sometimes\ncomparatively stable, at other times tending to change and the\nformation of new combinations. The permanence of the new combinations\ndepends upon the stability and isolation of the culture-conditions,\nupon the ability of the storytellers and the customs which bind them,\nnow encouraging invention, and anon imprisoning them with the chains\nof verbal, if not literal, accuracy. This is not the place to consider\nthe conditions of conservation and of variation. Enough here to draw\nattention to the reason of the difficulty which lies in the path of\nhim who would trace a folktale to its source.\n\nThe truth is that when we speak of a _m\u00e4rchen_ as an artistic whole,\nwe must be careful to guard ourselves against conveying a false\nimpression. Like every human work, there is, of course, a sense in\nwhich it is true so to speak of it. Every tale-teller is more or less\nof an artist, and every tale he tells is a work of art. It is formed\nof his recollections of other tales told by other tellers, joined and\ncemented together as best he can by the aid of his own invention. A\nplot is composed of incidents cohering sometimes more firmly,\nsometimes less. Often the tale-teller forgets one, patches the story\nwith another from his stock, or inserts an additional incident at\npleasure. The new element {183} thus introduced may or may not unite\nwith the old. The character of the tale will be modified, and may be\nentirely changed, by the substitution or addition. As with the\nincidents, so with the accessories. Every time the tale is passed\nthrough the memory it is exposed to the risk of variation, not only in\nits main lines, but also, and still more, in its details. Hence we can\nspeak of the story embodied in the Perseus cycle as an abstract ideal\nwhole with even less propriety than we can, by eliminating individual\npeculiarities from the entire series of pictures of the Annunciation,\nor the Marriage of the Virgin, from the earliest to the latest, speak\nof the scene they present with so many variations as one abstract\nideal whole. The medi\u00e6val painters and the painters of the Renascence\ndeveloped and modified the traditional scene as they would, or as\ntheir skill and circumstances dictated. But the limitations of the\nlimner\u2019s art preserved a certain unity amid all changes. The art of\nthe story-teller is not thus circumscribed. He can run on from one\nsubject to another, as his memory or his imagination may prompt, for\nthe purpose of giving pleasure. He unites the incidents of the\nLife-token, the Rescue of Andromeda, and the Slaughter of the Gorgon,\nwith that of the Fatal Bird whose flesh gives wealth or exalts its\neater to kingship; or he unwinds from the Supernatural Birth the\ntangled skein of a Bluebeard story. But, save in rare examples, it is\nimpossible to predicate the order of succession, or to say why this\nline of development has been followed rather than that.\n\nSuch may seem an impotent conclusion of the inquiry. Disappointing it\nmust be admitted to be; and, so far as the results of research as to\none story may enable us to forecast {184} the results of research as\nto others, it favours the view of those students who declare that the\nhope of tracking a folktale to its pristine home is illusory, and the\nattempt a waste of time. If a story which must have taken up its\ncrucial incident so late in civilisation cannot be assigned to its\nprimitive tellers, how can we hope to find the birth-places of other\ntales, all whose elements are rooted in a distant and dateless\nsavagery? Henceforth, if it be true, as Mr. Jacobs alleges, that \u201cthe\nproblem of diffusion is of prior urgency to that of\norigin\u201d[184.1]--that is to say, if we cannot employ the tales as\nevidence of belief until we know whence they come--it seems likely\nthat we shall have to deny ourselves the use of this evidence, and\nrely wholly upon evidence of a more direct character. But is the\ncontention true? I have elsewhere tried to give some grounds for\nthinking that we need not wait to know where a tale was first\nconceived ere we use it as evidence of the belief of the peoples who\ntell it.[184.2] And I would fain hope that fresh and more cogent\nreasons to the same effect may be gathered from the foregoing pages.\nIn this connection I should like to insist on the fact that these\nevidences of belief are to be found, not in the tale as a whole, but\nin the separate incidents of which it is composed. To such, and even\nlesser details, our attention must be directed, if we would avail\nourselves of the full advantage which the study of folktales gives us\nin investigating the early ideas of mankind.\n\nThe story of Perseus opens a thousand vistas to the student. In these\npages we have been content to follow only a few of them, though there\nis not one but would have led us upon enchanted ground. It remains to\ngather {185} up in a few words the results of our inquiry. After\nreviewing and illustrating the principal types of the story, we took\nits four leading incidents and sought for their distribution in other\ncombinations, or alone, and for their sources and meaning. The\nSupernatural Birth we found related in various forms, not merely for\namusement, but as sober fact, over so large an area of the world as to\njustify the belief that it was universal. Every nation has its heroes;\nand in the popular mind the mightier the hero, the greater the need\nfor providing him with a worthy entrance upon his mortal existence.\nNay more. We found that the abnormal means of impregnation, to which\nthe heroes of the stories we examined owed their birth, were, and\nstill are, actually held capable of causing a similar result;\ntherefore were, and are, prescribed for, and used by, women who desire\nchildren and are unable to obtain them in the natural way.\n\nThe Life-token presented other problems. Both in tale and in custom it\nis not less generally known than the former incident. Its virtue is\nderived from the belief that it is part of the substance of the\npersonage whose welfare it indicates. It is the converse and essential\ncorrelative of the External Soul. At this point it became necessary,\nfor the elucidation of the idea at the root of both the External Soul\nand the Life-token, to enter upon a discussion whose length I trust\nthe reader will hold fully excused by the importance of the subject;\nfor it involved nothing less than the savage conception of life in its\nrelation to personality: a conception that permeates savage society; a\nconception without which it is impossible to understand savage\ninstitutions or savage customs; indeed, a conception that underlies\nmuch of our modern civilisation, {186} and from which the most sacred\nact of Christian worship derives its meaning and its virtue.\n\nLike the Supernatural Birth and the Life-token, the Medusa-witch is\nwidely famous, and the superstition out of which the incident of her\nslaughter--at all events in its classical form--springs is universal.\nIt is that of the Evil Eye. Recent works by other writers rendered it\nneedless to examine this superstition at length.\n\nThe incident of the Rescue of Andromeda, though celebrated throughout\na large part of the Old World, is more limited in its range than the\nothers. It is based on the change of a horrible custom which has not\neverywhere been practised, and where it has been practised has not\neverywhere passed away in such circumstances as to leave behind it the\npossibility of a Rescue myth. It is therefore the youngest of the four\nchief incidents of the tale. This limitation of range of the Rescue\nincident restricts the area within which to seek for the birthplace of\nthe tale as a whole. The search has been interesting; but while it has\nproduced some substantial results, it has failed in its main object.\nOn the causes of failure I have already sufficiently dwelt.\n\nYet the inquiry has not been wholly in vain, even in regard to\nstoryology pure and simple. We have seen that the classical form of a\ntale distributed throughout a large part of the Old World owed its\npeculiar features to the fact of its entrance into the higher\nliterature of the race at a period of relatively advanced\ncivilisation: a traditional selection had been established against the\nruder forms of the saga. That ruder forms existed is evident from the\nhints and allusions preserved by classical writers. The classical\nform, in spite of its acceptance and {187} of its literary handling by\nsome of the authors of antiquity most widely read, affected to a very\nslight extent the versions current in tradition. The latter go back in\nvery few instances to the classical form; they frequently contain\nimportant incidents--not mere episodes, but incidents of the fibre of\nthe narrative--such as that of the Helpful Beasts, far more barbarous\nthan the classical story; while they are further distinguished by the\nremarkable peculiarity that they have preserved the cardinal incident\nof the Life-token, which in the classical saga is entirely wanting. We\nare bound, therefore, to postulate the existence in Greece, in an\nearlier and more barbarous age than that which was familiar with the\nlegend in its classical shape, of a folktale substantially similar to\nthat recovered in the last hundred years from all parts of the area I\nhave described. For if the modern form of the tale be not derived from\nthe legend as found in classical literature, neither can it be\nascribed to derivation in post-classical days from the special\nstory-store of India. On the contrary, so far as derivation on either\nside is considered necessary, we are compelled to treat the variants\nfrom India and Further India as derivatives, and not as sources. To\nestablish, if not with mathematical, at least with reasonable\ncertainty, the prehistoric age of a famous _m\u00e4rchen_, as well as the\nfact that the lower and ruder forms are not killed out by the higher\nliterary forms, but survive them, and to circumscribe the native\nregion of the tale by the limits of Europe, south-western Asia, and\nnorthern Africa, may be considered worth the pains spent in the\ninvestigation.\n\nI have written of the Legend of Perseus with no polemical object. Yet,\nvaluing the science of folklore, as I do, chiefly for the light it\nthrows on the mental constitution {188} of mankind and the genesis of\nideas and of institutions, I cannot hide from myself the important\nbearing that some of the subjects dealt with in these pages may have\nupon matters of Christian controversy. Our illustrations of the\nSupernatural Birth have been drawn entirely from certain forms of the\nstory, to the exclusion of other forms which, interesting as they are\nin themselves, were for our purpose irrelevant. But sufficient has\nbeen said to raise questions which may be summarily stated thus:--If\nthese legends be universal, if they must be rejected in every case but\none as the product of an inevitable tendency of human imagination,\nthen why not in that one case also? Assuredly that one case can be\nregarded as exceptional, only if it stand upon historical evidence\ntotally different in kind from the others, and of inevitable cogency.\nBut can any one who sits down (as it is the duty at least of every\neducated man to do) calmly and, so far as he can, with scrupulous\nimpartiality to weigh the evidence, say that the testimony of\necclesiastical tradition, or even of our Gospels, is different in kind\nfrom, or of greater cogency than, that which we reject, without\nhesitation, in the case of S\u00e1kyamuni, or of Alexander the Great?\nAbout ecclesiastical tradition I need say nothing. The records in the\ntwo Gospels which bear the names of Saint Matthew and Saint Luke are,\ncarefully considered, irreconcilable. Both Gospels are now admitted to\nbe secondary documents. It is hardly claimed for either of them that\nit was written less than sixty years after the event. It is by no\nmeans certain that they were in existence, as we now have them, when\nJustin Martyr wrote in the middle of the second century. Outside them\nthere is no record, no unambiguous allusion even, that can be dated\nwithin one hundred and ten years {189} of the Birth, and then only if\nwe admit the genuineness of the questionable _Epistles_ of Saint\nIgnatius, and the earliest possible date for his very doubtful\njourney. Is this the testimony on which belief in so amazing an event\ncan be safely built?\n\nOur researches into sacramental beliefs and practices, and the ideas\nunderlying them, must have suggested once and again the central rite\nof Christianity. The institution of the Eucharist is not an event of\nthe same supernatural character as the Birth is alleged to be. Yet if\nthe difficulties of testimony be smaller, those of interpretation are\neven greater. That sacramental superstitions were rife as well in\nJud\u00e6a as elsewhere in the time of Jesus Christ is certain, though our\ninformation concerning them is still lamentably deficient. The\ninfluence of the Mysteries upon Christianity has been hitherto little\nstudied. But it is manifest that we cannot appreciate the intention of\nthe rite, or understand the course of its history, without a more\nextended knowledge of these things.\n\nDoubt is often a more imperative duty than belief. Nor is it the less\na duty because it is painful. To the priest, everywhere and in all\ntime, it is the gravest of sins; for the corporate interest of a\npriesthood adds strength to the sincere belief of the individual, a\nbelief usually founded upon complete ignorance of all but his own side\nof the question. Priests, therefore, always favour the growth of\nbeliefs of which they are the centre, so leading men deeper and deeper\ninto the slough of superstition. Pleading that it is safer to believe\ntoo much than too little, they are not content with a ready-made\ncreed, imperfectly verified, if verified at all. Their inclination and\ninterest alike tend to its enlargement by continual additions, whose\nonly test is {190} consonance with the emotions awakened by something\npreviously accepted. They cannot away with reason, with patient\ninquiry, and the judicial temper. They seek to prejudice the question\nbefore it be tried. Hence they conspire with reactionary statesmen to\nobtain, or to keep, the control of education. This treachery against\ncivilisation, against the public weal, against truth itself, may\nsucceed for a moment; but only to evoke a retribution which will be\nstrictly measured by its success. It is no light thing to divorce the\nintellect of a nation from its religion; it is disastrous to attempt\nto coop the intellect within the bounds of a religion which have\nbecome too strait for it.\n\nBut abhorrent as doubt and inquiry may be to the priest, they are the\nmeans whereby we have gradually reached a more correct and adequate\nview of the universe, and of human history, than was formerly imposed\nin the name of divine revelation. He who seeks truth by such means\nbears a more devoted allegiance to himself and to humanity than he\nwho, for the sake of safety or of ease, flings himself into the lap of\na priesthood, which professes to assure to him in the next world\neternal salvation, and can certainly bestow upon him, in this, comfort\nand social consideration and freedom from petty parochial persecution.\nHe will recognise it as a duty to withhold his assent from dogmas,\neven though the most solemn articles of the Christian faith, until in\nthe open court of reason his objections have been answered and his\ndifficulties solved by sounder arguments and a deeper historical and\nscientific knowledge than have yet been applied by apologists to the\nissues.\n\n [The End]\n\n\n\n\n APPENDIX\n\n{191}\n\n TABLE A.\n HELPFUL ANIMALS.\n\n ===\n  Authority.\n  Country.\n  Animals.\n  How obtained.\n ===\n  i. Campbell, 71\n  Argyllshire\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Luzel, _Contes Bretons_, 63\n  Brittany\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  i. Cosquin, 60\n  Lorraine\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  i. Cosquin, 64\n  Lorraine\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  ii. Cosquin, 56\n  Lorraine\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Z\u00e9liqzon, 63\n  Lorraine\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Blad\u00e9, _Agenais_, 9\n  Gascony\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Webster, 87\n  Basque Provinces\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Caballero, 27\n  Spain\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  i. Gonzenbach, 269\n  Sicily\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  xviii. Pitr\u00e8, 45\n  Sicily\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  vii. Pitr\u00e8, 296\n  Sicily (Albanian)\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  i. Finamore, pt. i., 105\n  Abruzzi\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  iii. De Nino, 321\n  Abruzzi\n  Horse and dog\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Nerucci, 61; and Imbriani, 375\n  Tuscany\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  De Gubernatis, 40\n  Tuscany\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Visentini, 104\n  Mantua\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Schneller, 186\n  Tirol\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Schneller, 79\n  Tirol\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n\n{192}\n\n ===\n  Authority.\n  Country.\n  Animals.\n  How obtained.\n ===\n  Zingerle, _K. und Hausm._, 122\n  Tirol\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Wolf, _Deutsche M._, 134\n  Germany\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Cavallius, 348\n  Sweden\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Leskien, 385\n  Lithuania\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Von Wlislocki, _Volksdicht._, 316\n  Transylvania (Gipsy)\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Vernaleken, 193\n  Lower Austria\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Leskien, 543 (from Juki\u00e9)\n  Bosnia\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Leskien, 544 (from Valjavec)\n  Croatia\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Leskien, 544 (from Mikuli\u0115i\u00e9)\n  Croatia\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Karajich, 174\n  Servia\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  i. Von Hahn, 166; and Geldart, 74\n  Epirus\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Legrand, 161\n  Greece\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  *Leskien, 546 (from Afanasief)\n  Russia\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  *Leskien, 546 (from Valjavec)\n  Croatia\n  Horses and dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  ix. _Rev. Trad. Pop._, 174\n  Brittany\n  Horses and dogs\n  ?\n ===\n  Coelho, 120\n  Portugal\n  Horses\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Grimm, i. _Tales_, 331\n  Hesse\n  Horses\n  Congenital\n ===\n  *Leskien, 546 (from Erlenvein)\n  Great Russia\n  Horses\n  Congenital\n ===\n  De Gubernatis, 41\n  Tuscany\n  Dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  ii. Von Hahn, 214\n  Greece\n  Dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  ii. Macdonald, 341\n  Quilimane (probably from Portugal)\n  Dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n\n{193}\n\n ===\n  Authority.\n  Country.\n  Animals.\n  How obtained.\n ===\n  Wardrop, 25\n  Georgia\n  Eight Dogs\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Leskien, 546 (from Vr\u00e1na)\n  Moravia\n  Dogs\n  ?\n ===\n  v. _Folklore_, 156\n  Donegal\n  Horses, dogs, and hawks\n  Congenital\n ===\n  i. Grundtvig, 277\n  Denmark\n  Horses, dogs, and sparrowhawks\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Pedroso, 100\n  Portugal\n  Horses and lions\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Braga, i. _Contos_, 117\n  Portugal\n  Horses and lions\n  Congenital\n ===\n  i. Campbell, 93\n  South Uist\n  Horses and dogs / Lion, wolf, and falcon\n  Congenital / Gratitude for dividing carcase justly\n ===\n  Cavallius, 354\n  Sweden\n  Horses and dogs / Bears, wolves, and foxes\n  Congenital / Given by parent animals\n ===\n  Kuhn und Schwartz, 337\n  North Germany\n  Horses and dogs / Bears, wolves, and lions\n  Congenital / Given by parent animals\n ===\n  i. Comparetti, 126; and Crane, 30\n  Pisa\n  Horses and dogs / Lion, eagle, and ant / Dog-fish\n  Congenital / Gratitude for dividing carcase / Gratitude for saving\n    life\n ===\n  Cavallius, 95\n  Sweden\n  Dogs / Bears, wolves, and foxes\n  Given by mother / Given by parent animals\n ===\n  *Cox, _Cinderella_, 450 (from iii. _Journ. Gipsy Lore Soc._, 208)\n  England (Gipsy)\n  Bull-calf\n  Given by father\n ===\n  *Zingerle, _K. und Hausm._, 35; and Busk, _Hofer_, 207\n  Tirol\n  Three dogs\n  Left to hero by his father\n ===\n  *Dennys, 110\n  China\n  Dog\n  Supplied by heroine\u2019s father\n ===\n  Grimm, i. _Tales_, 244\n  Hesse\n  Hares, foxes, wolves, bears, and lions\n  Given by parent animals\n ===\n  Grimm, i. _Tales_, 419\n  Hesse\n  Bears, lions, and wolves\n  Given by parent animals\n ===\n  Stier, i.; and Jones and Kropf, 110\n  Hungary\n  Wolves, bears, and lions\n  Given by parent animals\n ===\n\n{194}\n\n ===\n  Authority.\n  Country.\n  Animals.\n  How obtained.\n ===\n  Leskien, 544 (from Radostova)\n  Bohemia\n  Wolves, bears, and lions\n  Given by parent animals\n ===\n  Leskien, 389\n  Lithuania\n  Wolves, boars, foxes, lions, hares, and bears\n  Given by parent animals\n ===\n  Leskien, 544 (from Nowosielski)\n  Little Russia\n  Hares, foxes, wolves, bears, and lions\n  Given by parent animals\n ===\n  *Schott, 135\n  Wallachia\n  Fox, wolf, and bear\n  Given by parent animals\n ===\n  *i. _M\u00e9lusine_, 57\n  Brittany\n  Hare, fox, and bear\n  Gratitude for sparing lives\n ===\n  Meier, _M\u00e4rchen_, 204\n  Swabia\n  Bear, wolf, and lion\n  Gratitude for sparing their lives\n ===\n  Zingerle, _K. und Hausm. aus S\u00fcddeutsch._, 260\n  Tirol\n  Fox, wolf, and bear\n  Gratitude for sparing lives\n ===\n  *Schleicher, 54\n  Lithuania\n  Hare, she-wolf and lioness\n  Gratitude for sparing lives\n ===\n  i. Campbell, 98\n  Berneray\n  Fox, wolf, and hoodie\n  Gratitude for dividing carcase justly\n ===\n  *Dasent, _Fjeld_, 237 (from Asbj\u00f6rnsen)\n  Norway\n  Lion, falcon, and ant\n  Gratitude for dividing carcase justly\n ===\n  Carnoy, _Contes F._, 135\n  Normandy\n  Dogs\n  Given by fish to father in gratitude for sparing life\n ===\n  i. Gonzenbach, 272\n  Sicily\n  Horses\n  Given by fish in gratitude for sparing life\n ===\n  Denton, 256\n  Servia\n  Bears, wolves, dogs, and cats / Winged horse\n  Bought from persons about to kill, or who were torturing them /\n    Conquered\n ===\n  Pitr\u00e8, _Toscane_, 1\n  Tuscany\n  Flying horse\n  Given by an old man\n ===\n  Leskien, 542 (from Afanasief)\n  Russia\n  Horses\n  Given by an old man\n ===\n  *Larminie, 196\n  Achill Island\n  Pony\n  Given by Druid by means of magical bridle\n ===\n\n{195}\n\n ===\n  Authority.\n  Country.\n  Animals.\n  How obtained.\n ===\n  *Webster, 22\n  Basque Provinces\n  Horses and dog\n  Given by Tartaro in gratitude for release\n ===\n  Auning, 87\n  Lithuania\n  Horses and hounds\n  Given by an old man\n ===\n  *Bernoni, _Fiabe._ 50\n  Venice\n  Three dogs\n  Given by priest\n ===\n  *ii. Kirby, 6 (from Kreutzwald)\n  Esthonia\n  Three dogs\n  Sold by one-eyed old man\n ===\n  *Schleicher, 4\n  Lithuania\n  Three dogs\n  Given by man in exchange for calves\n ===\n  *Waldau, 468\n  Bohemia\n  Three dogs\n  Given by butcher in exchange for sheep\n ===\n  *Haltrich, 101\n  Transylvania (Saxon)\n  Three dogs\n  Given by butcher in exchange for goat and cock\n ===\n  *ii. Strackerjan, 330\n  Oldenburg\n  Three dogs\n  Given by man in exchange for sheep left by hero\u2019s father\n ===\n  *ii. Strackerjan, 333\n  Oldenburg\n  Three dogs\n  Given by man in exchange for cow left by hero\u2019s parents\n ===\n  *Pitr\u00e8, _Toscane_, 9\n  Tuscany\n  Three dogs\n  Given by a fair gentleman in exchange for cattle\n ===\n  *ii. _Rivista_, 28\n  Maremma\n  Three dogs\n  Given by man in exchange for cattle\n ===\n  *Visentini, 85\n  Mantua\n  Three dogs\n  Given by man in exchange for corn\n ===\n  *De Gubernatis, ii. _Zool. Myth._, 36 note\n  Piedmont\n  Three dogs\n  Given by hunter in exchange for sheep\n ===\n  *Coelho, 114 (English version, 61)\n  Portugal\n  Three dogs\n  Given by Our Lord disguised as beggar in exchange for sheep\n ===\n  *x. _Bibl. Trad. Pop. Espa\u00f1._, 258\n  Extremadura\n  Three dogs\n  Given by old man in exchange for cows\n ===\n  *x. _Bibl. Trad. Pop. Espa\u00f1._, 249\n  Extremadura\n  Three dogs\n  ?\n ===\n  *Dorsey, _Cegiha_, 114\n  Omaha (N. A. Ind. Probably from France)\n  Two white dogs\n  Given by man in exchange for bow that never missed\n ===\n\n{196}\n\n ===\n  Authority.\n  Country.\n  Animals.\n  How obtained.\n ===\n  *Dorsey, _Cegiha_, 127\n  Omaha (N. A. Ind. Probably from France)\n  Two dogs\n  Given by man in exchange for gun that never missed\n ===\n  *_F. L. Andaluz_, 357\n  Andalucia\n  Five dogs, / Horse\n  Given by man in exchange for goats / Came out of dung heap\n ===\n  *ix. _Rev. Trad. Pop._, 173\n  Brittany\n  Three dogs / White horse\n  Obtained in exchange for cow / Found in castle of witch slain by\n    hero\n ===\n  *Grimm, i. _Tales_, 420\n  Germany\n  Dogs / Hare, deer, and bear\n  Given by forester in exchange for goats / ?\n ===\n  i. _F. L. Journ._, 54\n  Tralee, Ireland\n  Horse\n  From castle of giant conquered by hero\n ===\n  *Curtin, _Ireland_, 157\n  West of Ireland\n  Three horses\n  Acquired by conquest of three giants\n ===\n  *vi. _Folklore_, 309 (from O\u2019Faherty, _Siamsa an gheimhridh_, 60)\n  Connaught\n  Horse\n  Taken from giants killed by hero\n ===\n  *i. Campbell, 97\n  Argyllshire\n  Horses\n  Acquired from conquered giants\n ===\n  *ix. _Rev. Trad. Pop._, 280\n  Brittany\n  Three horses\n  Taken from castle of foes slain by hero. [In the abstract of the\n    tale given by M. S\u00e9billot it is not explicitly said that hero made\n    use of horses]\n ===\n  *Romero, 129\n  Brazil (Portuguese)\n  Three horses\n  Taken from palace of ogre\n ===\n  *Vinson, 56\n  Basque Provinces\n  Three olanos (dogs)\n  Taken from castle of ogre conquered by hero\n ===\n  *Wolf, _Deutsche Hausm._, 369\n  Odenwald\n  Three horses\n  Taken from uninhabited castle\n ===\n  *Luzel, ii. _Contes Pop._, 296\n  Brittany\n  Horse\n  Transformation of Murlu, a mythical creature (enchanted form of\n    hero\u2019s father\u2019s first wife), released by hero from captivity\n ===\n\n{197}\n\n ===\n  Authority.\n  Country.\n  Animals.\n  How obtained.\n ===\n  *Vasconcellos, 274\n  Portugal\n  Two dogs\n  Come out of eyes of witch destroyed by help of St. Antony\n ===\n  *Romero, 83\n  Brazil (Portuguese)\n  Three dogs\n  Issue from head of old woman slain by hero\n ===\n  *Von Wlislocki, _Volksdicht._, 323\n  Transylvania (Gipsy)\n  Horse\n  Transformation of horse\u2019s head found by hero under a tree\n ===\n  *_Roumanian F. T._, 48\n  Roumania\n  Bull\n  Found in hole made in earth by hero\u2019s arrow\n ===\n  *Von Wlislocki, _Volksdicht._, 260\n  Transylvania (Gipsy)\n  Horse\n  Sent by dead river-nymph\n ===\n  *Leskien, 396\n  Lithuania\n  Lion, bear, boar, fox, and hare\n  Caught\n ===\n  Zingerle, _K. und Hausm. aus S\u00fcddeutsch._, 124\n  Tirol\n  Dancing bears\n  Caught\n ===\n\n* Stories thus marked do not belong to the Perseus cycle though\ncontaining the incident of the Slaughter of the Dragon.\n\n\n\n\n TABLE B.\n WEAPONS.\n\n{198}\n\n ===\n  Authority.\n  Country.\n  Weapons.\n  How acquired.\n ===\n  i. Cosquin, 60\n  Lorraine\n  Lances\n  Congenital\n ===\n  i. Cosquin, 64\n  Lorraine\n  Lances\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Pedroso, 100\n  Portugal\n  Lances\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Braga, i. _Contos_, 117\n  Portugal\n  Lances\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Coelho, 120\n  Portugal\n  Lances\n  Congenital\n ===\n  i. Finamore, pt. i. 105\n  Abruzzi\n  Lances\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Nerucci, 61; and Imbriani, 375\n  Tuscany\n  Lances\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Schneller, 186\n  Tirol\n  Lances\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Leskien, 543 (from Juki\u00e9)\n  Bosnia\n  Lances\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Caballero, 27\n  Spain\n  Lances and shields\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Z\u00e9liqzon, 63\n  Lorraine\n  Sabres\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Cavallius, 348\n  Sweden\n  Swords\n  Congenital\n ===\n  i. Grundtvig, 277\n  Denmark\n  Swords\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Wolf, _Deutsche M._, 134\n  Germany\n  Swords\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Karajich, 174\n  Servia\n  Swords\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Visentini, 104\n  Mantua\n  Swords\n  Congenital\n ===\n  De Gubernatis, 41\n  Tuscany\n  Swords\n  Congenital\n ===\n  iii. De Nino, 321\n  Abruzzi\n  Sword\n  Congenital\n ===\n  i. Gonzenbach, 269\n  Sicily\n  Swords\n  Congenital\n ===\n  xviii. Pitr\u00e8, 45\n  Sicily\n  Cutlass\n  Congenital\n ===\n  Kuhn und Schwartz, 337\n  North Germany\n  Sabres, pistols, and guns\n  Congenital\n ===\n  ii. Macdonald, 341\n  Quilimane (probably from Portugal)\n  Spears and guns\n  Congenital\n ===\n\n{199}\n\n ===\n  Authority.\n  Country.\n  Weapons.\n  How acquired.\n ===\n  Chambers, 89\n  Scotland\n  Magical wand\n  Given by old woman\n ===\n  Webster, 33\n  Basque Provinces\n  Stick\n  Given by old woman\n ===\n  Leskien, 542 (from Afanasief)\n  Russia\n  Sabres\n  Given by old man\n ===\n  i. _Zeits. f. Volksk._, 230\n  Lithuania\n  Bow and arrows\n  Given by angel\n ===\n  i. _Kath\u00e1_, 381\n  India\n  Sword\n  Given by goddess Durg\u00e1\n ===\n  Lecl\u00e8re, 112\n  Cambodia\n  Sabres\n  Given by magician\n ===\n  *Leskien, 404\n  Lithuania\n  Sword\n  Given by old man\n ===\n  *Von Wlislocki, _Volksdicht._, 260\n  Transylvania (Gipsy)\n  Silver sickle\n  Given by river-nymph\n ===\n  Cavallius, 78\n  Sweden\n  Knife\n  Given by mother\n ===\n  Cavallius, 95\n  Sweden\n  Spear\n  Given by father\n ===\n  Cavallius, 356\n  Sweden\n  Sword\n  Given by a sister, who is married to a dragon\n ===\n  *Dennys, 110\n  China\n  Sword\n  Supplied by heroine\u2019s father\n ===\n  Thorpe, _Yuletide Stories_, 300; and Dasent, 131 (from Asbj\u00f6rnsen)\n  Norway\n  Sword, ship, and art of brewing 100 lasts of malt\n  Given by one-eyed hags whose eyes hero has stolen (Graiai)\n ===\n  Pitr\u00e8, _Toscane_, 1\n  Tuscany\n  Mirror\n  Given by two old women with one eye between them (Graiai)\n ===\n  i. Gonzenbach, 272\n  Sicily\n  Defensive armour and swords\n  Given by fish in gratitude\n ===\n  Meier, _M\u00e4rchen_, 101\n  Swabia\n  Magical pipe\n  Given by princess whom hero has freed from giants\n ===\n  *Luzel, ii. _Contes Pop._, 296\n  Brittany\n  Sword\n  Given by Murlu, a mythical creature (enchanted form of hero\u2019s\n    father\u2019s first wife), released by hero from captivity\n ===\n  *S\u00e9billot, i. _Contes Pop._, 172\n  Brittany\n  Consecrated stole\n  Given by priest as reward for restoring treasures of chapel stolen\n    by robbers\n ===\n\n{200}\n\n ===\n  Authority.\n  Country.\n  Weapons.\n  How acquired.\n ===\n  *Webster, 22\n  Basque Provinces\n  Sword and bottle of scented water\n  Given by Tartaro, a mythical creature released by hero\n ===\n  *ii. _Rivista_, 109\n  Sardinia\n  Consecrated stole\n  Given by priest as reward for restoring treasures of chapel stolen\n    by robbers\n ===\n  Grimm, i. _Tales_, 420\n  Germany\n  Gun, powder-horn, and bag\n  Given by huntsman who has already given dogs in exchange for goats\n ===\n  *Dorsey, _Cegiha_, 114\n  Omaha (N. A. Indian. Probably from France)\n  Sword\n  Given by a man in exchange for a bow that never misses\n ===\n  *Grimm, ii. _Tales_, 102\n  Hesse\n  Air-gun that never misses\n  Given by huntsman in payment for services during apprenticeship\n ===\n  i. Campbell, 71\n  Argyllshire\n  Sword\n  Forged by smith to order\n ===\n  i. Campbell, 93\n  South Uist\n  Iron staff\n  Forged by smith to order\n ===\n  *MacInnes, 279\n  Argyllshire\n  Club\n  Forged by smith to order\n ===\n  *ix. _Rev. Trad. Pop._, 172\n  Brittany\n  Club weighing 500 lbs.\n  Forged by smith to order\n ===\n  *ii. Von Hahn, 259\n  Island of Syra\n  Iron staff\n  Forged by smith to order\n ===\n  *Wardrop, 68\n  Georgia\n  Pair of shoes and bow and arrow\n  Made by smith to order\n ===\n  *Vinson, 56\n  Basque Provinces\n  Mace\n  Bought by hero\n ===\n  *Cox, _Cinderella_, 450 (iii. _Journ. Gipsy Lore Soc._, 208)\n  England (Gipsy)\n  Gut of bull-calf\n  Bull-calf given by father\n ===\n  *Von Wlislocki, _Armenier_, 3\n  Transylvania (Armenian)\n  Iron staff\n  Made by hero out of golden bird which is the life of a giant\n    destroyed by him\n ===\n\n{201}\n\n ===\n  Authority.\n  Country.\n  Weapons.\n  How acquired.\n ===\n  *vi. _Folklore_, 309 (from O\u2019Faherty, _Siamsa angheimhridh_, 60)\n  Connaught\n  Sword of light\n  Taken from giants killed by hero\n ===\n  *Curtin, _Ireland_, 157\n  West of Ireland\n  Three swords / Brown apple\n  Acquired by conquest of three giants / Given by third giant\u2019s\n    housekeeper\n ===\n  *i. Campbell, 97\n  Argyllshire\n  Sword?\n  Acquired from conquered giants\n ===\n  *ii. Strackerjan, 333\n  Oldenburg\n  Ointment\n  Taken from dwelling of robbers killed by hero\n ===\n  *Haltrich, 101\n  Transylvania (Saxon)\n  Sword\n  Taken from house of robbers conquered by hero\n ===\n  *Schleicher, 54\n  Lithuania\n  Stick / Gun and sword\n  Taken by hero from his father / Taken from dwelling of conquered\n    robbers\n ===\n  *iii. _Archivio_, 537\n  Abruzzi\n  Sword\n  Taken from slaughtered giant\n ===\n  *i. Gonzenbach, 299\n  Sicily\n  Sword\n  Acquired by conquest of giant who held hero\u2019s sister in thrall\n ===\n  *ii. Von Hahn, 49\n  Island of Syra\n  Sword\n  Taken from castle of ogre conquered by hero\n ===\n  *Burton, vi. _Suppl. Nights_, 363 (from _Galland_ MSS.)\n  Levant\n  Sword\n  Belonging to ogre killed by hero\n ===\n  *Romero, 129\n  Brazil (Portuguese)\n  Arms not specified\n  Taken from palace of ogre\n ===\n  *Schleicher, 4\n  Lithuania\n  Gun, sabre, and bottle of oil\n  Taken from uninhabited house\n ===\n  Grimm, i. _Tales_, 244\n  Hesse\n  Sword\n  Found buried before threshold of church on the dragon\u2019s hill\n ===\n\n{202}\n\n ===\n  Authority.\n  Country.\n  Weapons.\n  How acquired.\n ===\n  *Wolf, _Deutsche Hausm._, 369\n  Odenwald\n  Sword and whistle\n  Dug up by direction of a little grey dwarf at a crossway\n ===\n  *_Roumanian F. T._, 48\n  Roumania\n  Sword which petrifies\n  Found in hole in the earth made by hero\u2019s arrow\n ===\n  *Temple, i. _Leg. Panj._, 17\n  Panj\u00e1b\n  Sword, heel-ropes, and arrow\n  Magical by inherent power of their owner, the hero\n ===\n  *i. Cosquin, 18, 74 (from Schiefner)\n  Avares of Caucasus\n  Diamond sword\n  ?\n ===\n  *ii. Gr\u00e4sse, 29 (from M\u00fcller, _Siegburg und der Siegkreis_)\n  Rhine Prov.\n  Crucifix\n  ?\n ===\n\n* Stories thus marked do not belong to the Perseus cycle, though\ncontaining the incident of the Slaughter of the Dragon.\n\n\n\n\n TABLE C.\n THE IMPOSTOR AND THE TOKENS.\n\n{203}\n\n ===\n  Authority.\n  Country.\n  Token of identity.\n  Impostor.\n ===\n  i. Cosquin, 60\n  Lorraine\n  Tongues\n  Three charcoal-burners\n ===\n  i. Cosquin, 64\n  Lorraine\n  Tongues\n  Charcoal-burner\n ===\n  Z\u00e9liqzon, 63\n  Lorraine\n  Tongues\n  Charcoal-burner\n ===\n  *Luzel, ii. _Contes Pop._, 296\n  Brittany\n  Tongues\n  Charcoal-burner\n ===\n  *i. _M\u00e9lusine_, 57\n  Brittany\n  Tongues\n  Charcoal-burner\n ===\n  *ix. _Rev. Trad. Pop._, 172\n  Brittany\n  Tongues\n  Charcoal-burner\n ===\n  *ix. _Rev. Trad. Pop._, 173\n  Brittany\n  Tongues\n  Thatcher\n ===\n  *S\u00e9billot, i. _Contes Pop._, 72\n  Brittany\n  Tongues\n  A passing man\n ===\n  *MacInnes, 478, citing the Tristan-saga\n  France (12th century)\n  Tongue\n  Cook\n ===\n  Blad\u00e9, _Agenais_, 9\n  Gascony\n  Tongues\n  \n ===\n  *Henderson, 285\n  Co. Durham\n  Tongue\n  The lord of Mitford Castle. [He brings head and is successful]\n ===\n  Grimm, i. _Tales_, 419\n  Germany\n  Tongues\n  King\u2019s marshal\n ===\n  Kuhn und Schwartz, 337\n  North Germany\n  Tongues\n  Coachman\n ===\n  Meier, _M\u00e4rchen_, 204\n  Swabia\n  Tongues\n  Coachman\n ===\n  Meier, _M\u00e4rchen_, 306\n  Swabia\n  Tongues\n  Cupbearer\n ===\n  *Zingerle, _K. und Hausm._, 35; and Busk, _Hofer_, 207\n  Tirol\n  Tongue\n  \n ===\n\n{204}\n\n ===\n  Authority.\n  Country.\n  Token of identity.\n  Impostor.\n ===\n  Zingerle, _K. und Hausm. aus S\u00fcddeutsch._, 260\n  Tirol\n  Tongues\n  King\u2019s servant\n ===\n  i. Grundtvig, 277\n  Denmark\n  Tongues\n  The Red Knight\n ===\n  *_F. L. Andaluz_, 357\n  Andalucia\n  Tongues\n  Charcoal-burner\n ===\n  *x. _Bibl. Trad. Pop. Espa\u00f1._, 249\n  Extremadura\n  Tongues\n  Negro\n ===\n  *i. Braga, 125\n  Portugal\n  Points of tongues\n  Not specified\n ===\n  ii. Macdonald, 341\n  Quilimane (probably from Portugal)\n  Tongue\n  Captain of soldiers\n ===\n  *Romero, 83\n  Brazil (Portuguese)\n  Points of tongues\n  Negro\n ===\n  *Romero, 129\n  Brazil (Portuguese)\n  Points of tongues\n  A prince\n ===\n  *ii. _Rivista_, 109\n  Sardinia\n  Tongues\n  A passing man\n ===\n  *De Gubernatis, ii. _Zool. Myth._, 36 note\n  Piedmont\n  Tongues\n  Chimney-sweeper\n ===\n  *Andrews, 230\n  Riviera\n  Tongues\n  Charcoal-burner\n ===\n  *Bernoni, _Fiabe_, 50\n  Venice\n  Tongues\n  Chimney-sweeper. [Detected by not knowing the names of hero\u2019s dogs]\n ===\n  Pitr\u00e8, _Nov. Pop. Tosc._, 1\n  Tuscany\n  Tongues\n  Cobbler\n ===\n  De Gubernatis, 40\n  Tuscany\n  Tongues\n  Woodcutter\n ===\n  De Gubernatis, 41\n  Tuscany\n  Tongue\n  Charcoal-burner\n ===\n  Nerucci, 61; and Imbriani, 375\n  Tuscany\n  Tongues\n  Cobbler\n ===\n  *Pitr\u00e8, _Nov. Pop. Tosc._, 9\n  Tuscany\n  Tongues\n  An ugly Moor\n ===\n  *Leland, _Etr. Rom._, 109\n  Tuscany\n  Tongues\n  A poor youth. [He is successful]\n ===\n  *_Tuscan F. T._, 21\n  Tuscany\n  Tongues\n  \n ===\n  iii. De Nino, 321\n  Abruzzi\n  Tongues\n  Charcoal-burner\n ===\n  *iii. _Archivio_, 537\n  Abruzzi\n  Tongues\n  Hero\u2019s two comrades (soldiers)\n ===\n\n{205}\n\n ===\n  Authority.\n  Country.\n  Token of identity.\n  Impostor.\n ===\n  i. Finamore, pt. i., 105\n  Abruzzi\n  Tongues cut out and thrown away\n  \n ===\n  i. _Pentamerone_, 90; and i. Basile, 87\n  South Italy\n  Tongues\n  Peasant\n ===\n  *i. Gonzenbach, 299\n  Sicily\n  Tongues\n  Slave\n ===\n  Legrand, 161\n  Greece\n  Tongues\n  Charcoal-burner\n ===\n  *Maury, _Croy. et L\u00e9g._, 196, quoting a scholion on Apollonius\n    Rhodius\n  Megara, Ancient Greece\n  Tongue\n  King\u2019s men\n ===\n  *Carnoy et Nicolaides, 75; and Garnett, i. _Wom._, 165\n  Lesbos\n  Tongues\n  Charcoal-burners\n ===\n  *Georgeakis, 84\n  Lesbos\n  Tongues\n  \n ===\n  *Schott, 135\n  Wallachia\n  Tongues\n  Gipsy\n ===\n  *iii. _Rev. Trad. Pop._, 628\n  Roumania\n  Tongues\n  Gipsy, the emperor\u2019s cook\n ===\n  Leskien, 385\n  Lithuania\n  Tongues\n  Coachman\n ===\n  *Leskien, 396\n  Lithuania\n  Tongues\n  Coachman\n ===\n  *Leskien, 404\n  Lithuania\n  Tongues\n  Coachman\n ===\n  *Schleicher, 54\n  Lithuania\n  Tongues\n  King\u2019s servant\n ===\n  Auning, 79\n  Lettish\n  Tongues\n  Coachman\n ===\n  Auning, 87\n  Lettish\n  Tongues\n  Coachman\n ===\n  Auning, 92\n  Lettish\n  Tongues\n  Soldier\n ===\n  *Waldau, 468\n  Bohemia\n  Tongues\n  Coachman\n ===\n  *Dorsey, _Cegiha_, 114, and 127 (variant)\n  Omaha (N. Am. Indian. Probably from France)\n  Tongues\n  Black man\n ===\n  Thorpe, _Yuletide Stories_, 300; and Dasent, 131 (from Asbj\u00f6rnsen)\n  Norway\n  Tongues and lungs\n  The Red Knight. [He takes the tokens: hero recognised by bringing\n    contents of the slain trolls\u2019 ships]\n ===\n  Meier, _M\u00e4rchen_, 101\n  Swabia\n  Tongues and eyes\n  Nobleman\n ===\n  Grimm, i. _Tales_, 244\n  Hesse\n  Tongues; and handkerchief given by princess\n  King\u2019s marshal\n ===\n  *x. _Archivio_, 316\n  Dalmatia\n  Tongues wrapt in lady\u2019s handkerchief\n  An old hunchbacked porter\n ===\n\n{206}\n\n ===\n  Authority.\n  Country.\n  Token of identity.\n  Impostor.\n ===\n  i. Gonzenbach, 272\n  Sicily\n  Tongues wrapt in lady\u2019s handkerchief\n  Slave\n ===\n  *Haltrich, 101\n  Transylvania\n  Tongues; and lady\u2019s handkerchief and silken band bound by her round\n    each of hero\u2019s dogs\u2019 necks\n  Coachman\n ===\n  Zingerle, _K. und Hausm._, 122\n  Tirol\n  Tongues; and lady\u2019s veil\n  Lamplighter\n ===\n  Webster, 87\n  Basque Provinces\n  Tongues; and seven pieces cut by hero from lady\u2019s robes\n  Charcoal-burner\n ===\n  *Webster, 22\n  Basque Provinces\n  Tongues; and 42 pieces cut by hero from lady\u2019s robes\n  Charcoal-burner\n ===\n  *Webster, 33\n  Basque Provinces\n  Tongues; and seven pieces of silk cut by hero from lady\u2019s robes\n  Charcoal-burner\n ===\n  *Vinson, 56\n  Basque Provinces\n  Tongues wrapt in seven pieces of silk cut by hero from lady\u2019s robes\n  Charcoal-burner\n ===\n  *Vasconcellos, 274\n  Portugal\n  Tongues wrapt in lady\u2019s robe\n  \u201cUm curioso\u201d\n ===\n  *Leskien, 407\n  Lithuania\n  Tongues; and lady\u2019s clothes\n  Three generals\n ===\n  *Grimm, ii. _Tales_, 102\n  Hesse\n  Tongues; corner of lady\u2019s handkerchief, her slipper, and piece cut\n    from her nightdress\n  One-eyed captain\n ===\n  Pr\u00f6hle, _K. und Volksm._, 20\n  Germany\n  Tongues; ring, and handkerchief given by lady\n  Servant\n ===\n  Zingerle, _K. und Hausm. aus S\u00fcddeutsch._, 217\n  Tirol\n  Tongues; ring, chain, and handkerchief given by lady\n  King\u2019s servant\n ===\n\n{207}\n\n ===\n  Authority.\n  Country.\n  Token of identity.\n  Impostor.\n ===\n  *Cox, _Cinderella_, 450 (from iii. _Journ. Gipsy Soc._, 208)\n  England (Gipsy)\n  Tongue; and lady\u2019s ring, and hero\u2019s first finger bitten off by\n    dragon\n  Gentlemen from all over England\n ===\n  *x. _Bibl. Trad. Pop. Espa\u00f1._, 258\n  Extremadura\n  Tongues; and lady\u2019s ring\n  Negro\n ===\n  *Coelho, 114 (Eng. version, 61)\n  Portugal\n  Tongues; and lady\u2019s ring\n  Negro\n ===\n  *ii. Von Hahn, 49\n  Island of Syra\n  Tongues; and lady\u2019s ring\n  Moor\n ===\n  *vi. _Folklore_, 309 (from O\u2019Faherty, _Siamsa an gheimhridh_, 60)\n  Connaught\n  Tongue; and hair cut by lady from hero\u2019s head\n  Courtiers\n ===\n  ii. Cosquin, 56\n  Lorraine\n  Heads\n  Hero\u2019s brothers\n ===\n  Auning, 91\n  Lettish\n  Heads\n  \n ===\n  *Steel and Temple, 143\n  Panj\u00e1b\n  Ogre\u2019s head\n  Scavenger. [He produces the head, and is successful; but the hero is\n    subsequently recognised]\n ===\n  *Day, 64\n  Bengal\n  Rakshasi\u2019s head\n  Woodcutters\n ===\n  Cavallius, 78\n  Sweden\n  Troll\u2019s eyes\n  Courtier\n ===\n  Stier, 1 (from Erdelyi); and Jones and Kropf, 110\n  Hungary\n  Tooth from each head of dragon\n  The Red Knight\n ===\n  *ii. Strackerjan, 330\n  Oldenburg\n  Some of dragon\u2019s teeth\n  Coachman\n ===\n  *Kirby, ii. _Hero of Esthonia_, 6 (from Kreutzwald)\n  Esthonia\n  Horns and tusks (or claw)\n  Coachman\n ===\n  *i. Cosquin, 18, 74\n  Avares of the Caucasus\n  Ears\n  \n ===\n  *x. _Rev. Trad. Pop._, 193\n  Armenia\n  Ears\n  [A feminin deliverer]\n ===\n  *i. Cosquin, 76 (from xxiv. _Asiatic Journ._, N.S., 196)\n  Hala Canara (India)\n  Lion\u2019s tail\n  King\u2019s washerman\n ===\n\n{208}\n\n ===\n  Authority.\n  Country.\n  Token of identity.\n  Impostor.\n ===\n  Cavallius, 95\n  Sweden\n  Ring fastened by lady in hero\u2019s hair\n  Coachman\n ===\n  Cavallius, 348\n  Sweden\n  Ring fastened by lady in hero\u2019s hair\n  Coachman\n ===\n  *Dasent, _Fjeld_, 261 (from Asbj\u00f6rnsen)\n  Norway\n  Ring fastened by lady in hero\u2019s hair\n  A man named Glibtongue\n ===\n  Leskien, 389\n  Lithuania\n  Lady\u2019s ring and half her handkerchief\n  Coachman and lackey\n ===\n  *_Roumanian F. T._, 48\n  Roumania\n  Lady\u2019s ring and handkerchief\n  Gipsy\n ===\n  i. Campbell, 71\n  Argyllshire\n  Lady\u2019s rings; only hero can take the beast\u2019s heads off the withy on\n    which he has bound them\n  General\n ===\n  *i. _Arch\u00e6ol. Rev._, 303\n  Ireland\n  Strip from lady\u2019s garment bound on hero\u2019s wounded wrist\n  Many\n ===\n  *Schleicher, 4\n  Lithuania\n  Lady\u2019s handkerchief\n  Coachman\n ===\n  i. Campbell, 93\n  South Uist\n  Scratch on hero\u2019s forehead made by lady; only he can untie the\n    beast\u2019s heads off the withy\n  \n ===\n  *i. Campbell, 97\n  Argyllshire\n  Joint bitten off hero\u2019s little finger by damsel, patch cut by her\n    from top of his head, and notch from his ear; only he can untie\n    heads from withy\n  A red-headed lad\n ===\n  i. Campbell, 98\n  Berneray\n  Joint bitten off hero\u2019s little finger by lady, patch cut by her from\n    top of his head, and notch from his ear\n  Many who counterfeited the marks\n ===\n\n{209}\n\n ===\n  Authority.\n  Country.\n  Token of identity.\n  Impostor.\n ===\n  *MacInnes, 279\n  Argyllshire\n  Point of hero\u2019s little finger cut off by lady\n  Cook\n ===\n  *Larminie, 139\n  West of Ireland\n  Piece of hero\u2019s coat and lock of his hair, both cut by lady; and his\n    shoe\n  Son of King of Prussia\n ===\n  *Curtin, _Ireland_, 157; Larminie, 196; and i. _F. L. Journ._, 54.\n    [_Cf._ Curtin, _Ireland_, 114, where hero conquers giants and\n    proves his victory by their tongues, while the son of the King of\n    Tisean has brought their heads]\n  Ireland\n  Blue glass boot of hero\n  Many\n ===\n  *Wolf, _D. Hausm._, 369\n  Odenwald\n  Hero wounded in leg at subsequent tournament\n  \n ===\n  *De Rochemonteix, 25\n  Nubia\n  Lady\u2019s thigh marked by hero with his hand dipped in monster\u2019s blood\n  \n ===\n  *Edwards, 90\n  Bahama (Negro)\n  Only hero can take out red stain he has made on lady\u2019s handkerchief\n  All the high people of the place [Relic of Coachman]\n ===\n  *B\u00e9renger-F\u00e9raud, _S\u00e9n\u00e9g._, 39\n  Senegambia\n  Only hero can untie a dog, brandish a lance and put on a sandal\n  Warriors\n ===\n  *Auning, 96\n  Lettish\n  Hero\u2019s beasts\n  King\u2019s servant\n ===\n  *ii. Strackerjan, 333\n  Oldenburg\n  \n  Charioteer\n ===\n  Lecl\u00e8re, 112\n  Cambodia\n  \n  Two Mandarins\n ===\n\n{210}\n\n ===\n  Authority.\n  Country.\n  Token of identity.\n  Impostor.\n ===\n  Ovid, _Metam._, iv.\n  Greece (ancient)\n  \n  Lady\u2019s betrothed attacks wedding party, claiming bride\n ===\n  Grimm, i. _Tales_, 420\n  Germany\n  \n  Lady\u2019s betrothed tries to kill hero\n ===\n  *ii. _Rivista_, 28\n  Maremma\n  \n  King endeavours to wed lady to a rich baron instead of hero\n ===\n\n* Stories thus marked do not belong to the Perseus cycle, though\ncontaining the incident of the Slaughter of the Dragon.\n\n\n\n\n TABLE D.\n THE DELIVERER\u2019S SLEEP.\n\n{211}\n\n ===\n  Authority.\n  Country.\n  How hero awakened.\n ===\n  *De Rochemonteix, 25\n  Nubia\n  Lady drops tear into hero\u2019s face\n ===\n  *ii. Von Hahn, 49\n  Island of Syra\n  Lady drops tear on hero\u2019s cheek\n ===\n  *ix. _Archivio_, 484\n  Bosnia\n  Lady\u2019s tears fall on hero\u2019s face\n ===\n  *Ralston, _Russian F. T._, 347\n  Bulgaria\n  Lady\u2019s tears fall on hero\u2019s face\n ===\n  *Schott, 135\n  Wallachia\n  Lady drops tears on hero\u2019s face\n ===\n  *Burton, vi. _Suppl. Nights_, 363 (from _Galland MSS._)\n  Levant\n  [No lousing.] Lady drops tear on hero\u2019s face\n ===\n  *Wardrop, 68\n  Georgia\n  [No lousing.] Lady drops tear on hero\u2019s cheek\n ===\n  *_Roumanian F. T._, 48\n  Roumania\n  [No lousing.] Lady drops tears on hero\u2019s face\n ===\n  *Romero, 83\n  Brazil (Portuguese)\n  [No lousing.] Lady drops tear into hero\u2019s face\n ===\n  *Georgeakis, 256\n  Lesbos\n  Lady calls hero\n ===\n  *_F. L. Andaluz_, 357\n  Andalucia\n  [No lousing.] Lady calls hero\n ===\n  *Curtin, _Ireland_, 157\n  W. of Ireland\n  [No lousing.] Roused by lady\n ===\n  *MacInnes, 279\n  Argyllshire\n  Lady cuts off joint of little finger of hero\u2019s right hand\n ===\n  i. Campbell, 97\n  Argyllshire\n  Lady cuts (1) joint from hero\u2019s little finger, (2) patch from top of\n    his head, (3) notch from his ear\n ===\n\n{212}\n\n ===\n  Authority.\n  Country.\n  How hero awakened.\n ===\n  i. Campbell, 98\n  Berneray\n  [No lousing.] Lady cuts (1) joint from hero\u2019s little finger, (2)\n    patch from top of his head, (3) notch from his ear\n ===\n  i. Campbell, 71\n  Argyllshire\n  [No lousing.] Lady puts (1) ring from her finger on hero\u2019s finger,\n    (2) her earring in his ear, (3) her other earring in his other ear\n ===\n  i. Campbell, 93\n  South Uist\n  ?\n ===\n  *Denton, 309\n  Servia\n  ?\n ===\n  Cavallius, 95\n  Sweden\n  \n ===\n  Cosquin, in _Congress Report_ (1891), 70, citing Chalatiauz\n  Armenia\n  [No lousing.] Lady drops tear (?)\n ===\n\n* Stories thus marked do not belong to the Perseus cycle, though\ncontaining the incident of the Slaughter of the Dragon.\n\n\n\n\n SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF WORKS REFERRED TO\n\nAddy. Household Tales with other Traditional Remains. Collected in\nthe Counties of York, Lincoln, Derby, and Nottingham, by Sidney Oldall\nAddy, M.A. London, 1895.\n\nAinsworth. A Personal Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition. By\nWilliam Ainsworth. 2 vols. London, 1888.\n\n_Am Urdsbrunnen._ Am Urdhs-Brunnen. Organ des Vereins f\u00fcr Verbreitung\nvolksth\u00fcmlich-wissenschaftlicher Kunde. 6 vols. 1881-89. [Printed at\nLunden in Holstein. The latter vols. appeared under the title of Am\nUrds-Brunnen. Mittheilungen f\u00fcr Freunde\nvolksth\u00fcmlich-wissenschaftlicher Kunde.]\n\nAndree, _Anthropophagie_. Die Anthropophagie. Eine ethnographische\nStudie von Richard Andree. Leipzig, 1887.\n\n----_Ethnog. Par._ Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche von\nRichard Andree. First series, Stuttgart, 1878; second series, Leipzig,\n1889.\n\nAndrews. Contes Ligures. Traditions de la Rivi\u00e8re recueillies entre\nMenton et G\u00eanes, par James Bruyn Andrews. Paris, 1892.\n\nAnrich. Das antike Mysterienwesen in seinem Einfluss auf das\nChristentum. Von Lic. Gustav Anrich. G\u00f6ttingen, 1894.\n\n_Anthropologia._ Anthropologia: in which are included the Proceedings\nof the London Anthropological Society. Vol. I., 1873-5. [All\npublished.] London.\n\n_Anthr. Rev._ The Anthropological Review. 8 vols. London, 1863-70.\n\n_Antigua._ Antigua and the Antiguans: a full account of the Colony and\nits Inhabitants from the time of the Caribs to the present day. 2\nvols. London, 1844.\n\nArber, _Eng. Garner._ An English Garner. Ingatherings from our\nHistory and Literature. By Edward Arber, F.S.A. 7 vols. 1877-83.\n\n_Arch. Camb._ Arch\u00e6ologia Cambrensis, the Journal of the Cambrian\nArch\u00e6ological Association. 51 vols. London, 1846-95. [Still\nproceeding.]\n\n_Arch\u00e6ologia._ Arch\u00e6ologia: or Miscellaneous Tracts relating to\nAntiquity, published by the Society of Antiquaries of London. 54 vols.\nLondon, 1770-1895. [Still proceeding.]\n\nArnason, _Sagen._ Isl\u00e4ndische Volkssagen. Aus der Sammlung von J\u00f3n\n\u00c1rnason ausgew\u00e4hlt und aus dem Isl\u00e4ndischen \u00fcbersetzt von M.\nLehmann-Filh\u00e9s. 2 vols. Berlin, 1889-91.\n\n_Asiatic Q. Rev._ The Imperial and Asiatic Quarterly Review and\nOriental and Colonial Record. 5 vols. 1891-95. Woking. [Still\nproceeding.]\n\nAtkinson. Forty Years in a Moorland Parish. Reminiscences and\nResearches in Danby in Cleveland by Rev. J. C. Atkinson, D.C.L.\nLondon, 1891.\n\nAubrey, _Gentilisme._ Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme. By John\nAubrey, R.S.S., 1686-87. Edited and annotated by James Britten, F.L.S.\nLondon, 1881. [Folklore Society.]\n\n\nBackhouse. A Narrative of a visit to the Australian Colonies. By\nJames Backhouse. London, 1843.\n\nBarbosa. A Description of the coasts of East Africa and Malabar in\nthe beginning of the sixteenth century, by Duarte Barbosa. Translated\nby the Hon. Henry E. J. Stanley. London, 1866.\n\nBaring-Gould, _Curious Myths._ Curious Myths of the Middle Ages, by\nS. Baring-Gould, M.A. London, 1869.\n\nBartels. Die Medicin der Naturv\u00f6lker. Ethnologische Beitr\u00e4ge zur\nUrgeschichte der Medicin. Von Dr. Max Bartels. Leipzig, 1893.\n\nBarthol. Angl., Steele. Medieval Lore: an epitome of the Science,\nGeography, Animal and Plant Lore and Myth of the Middle Age: being\nclassified gleanings from the Encyclopedia of Bartholomew Anglicus on\nthe Properties of Things. Edited by Robert Steele. London, 1893.\n\nBartsch, _Sagen._ Sagen, M\u00e4rchen und Gebr\u00e4uche aus Meklenburg.\nGesammelt und herausgegeben von Karl Bartsch. 2 vols. Wien, 1879-80.\n\nBasset. Contes Populaires Berb\u00e8res recueillis, traduits et annot\u00e9s\npar Ren\u00e9 Basset. Paris, 1887.\n\nBatchelor. The Ainu of Japan. The Religion, Superstitions, and\nGeneral History of the Hairy Aborigines of Japan by the Rev. John\nBatchelor. London, 1892.\n\nBellew. A General Report on the Yusufzais, in six Chapters, with a\nMap. By H. W. Bellew. Lahore, 1864.\n\nBent. The Ruined Cities of Mashonaland by J. Theodore Bent, F.S.A.,\nF.R.G.S. London, 1892.\n\nB\u00e9renger-F\u00e9raud, _S\u00e9n\u00e9g._ Recueil de Contes Populaires de la\nS\u00e9n\u00e9gambie recueillis par L. J. B. B\u00e9renger-F\u00e9raud. Paris, 1885.\n\n----_Superstitions._ Superstitions et Survivances \u00e9tudi\u00e9es au point\nde vue de leur Origine et de leurs Transformations, par L. J. B.\nB\u00e9renger-F\u00e9raud. 2 vols. Paris, 1896.\n\nBernau. Missionary Labours in British Guiana; with remarks on the\nManners, Customs, and Superstitious Rites of the Aborigines. By the\nRev. J. H. Bernau. London, 1847.\n\nBernoni, _Fiabe._ Fiabe e Novelle Popolari Veneziane raccolte da\nDom. Giuseppe Bernoni. Venezia, 1873.\n\n_Bib. Trad. Pop. Espa\u00f1._ Folklore. Biblioteca de las Tradiciones\nPopulares Espa\u00f1olas. 11 vols. Sevilla, Madrid, 1883-86.\n\nBiddulph. Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh, by Major J. Biddulph, B.S.C.\nCalcutta, 1880.\n\nBinger. Du Niger au Golfe de Guin\u00e9e par le pays de Kong et le Mossi\npar le Capitaine Binger. 2 vols. Paris, 1892.\n\nBlack. Folk-Medicine; a chapter in the History of Culture. By\nWilliam George Black, F.S.A. Scot. London, 1883. [Folklore Society.]\n\nBleek, _Report._ Cape of Good Hope. Second Report concerning Bushman\nResearches, with a short account of Bushman Folk-lore, by W. H. I.\nBleek, Ph.D. Cape Town, 1875.\n\nBlunt. Vestiges of Ancient Manners and Customs, discoverable in\nModern Italy and Sicily. By the Rev. John James Blunt. London, 1823.\n\nBoddam-Whetham. Roraima and British Guiana, with a glance at\nBermuda, the West Indies, and the Spanish Main. By J. W.\nBoddam-Whetham. London, 1879.\n\nBodin. Joannis Bodini, Andegavensis, De Magorum D\u00e6monomania, seu\ndetestando Lamiarum ac Magorum cum Satana commercio, libri iv.,\nFrancofurti, 1603.\n\nBourke. Scatologic Rites of all Nations. By Captain John G. Bourke.\nWashington, D.C., 1891.\n\nBrand. Observations on Popular Antiquities. By John Brand, M.A., F.\nand Sec. S.A., arranged and revised, with additions, by Henry Ellis,\nF.R.S., Sec. S.A. 2 vols. London, 1813.\n\nBrauns. Japanische M\u00e4rchen und Sagen gesammelt und herausgegeben\nvon David Brauns. Leipzig, 1885.\n\nBrayley. The Graphic and Historical Illustrator: an original\nMiscellany of literary, antiquarian, and topographical information.\nEdited by Edward W. Brayley, Esq., F.S.A., M.R.S.L., etc. London,\n1834.\n\nBrinton. _Amer. Race._ The American Race; a linguistic\nclassification and ethnographical description of the native tribes of\nNorth and South America. By Daniel G. Brinton, A.M., M.D. New York,\n1891.\n\n----_Cakchiquels._ The Annals of the Cakchiquels. The Original Text,\nwith a translation, notes, and introduction. By Daniel G. Brinton,\nA.M., M.D. Philadelphia, 1885.\n\nBudge, _Saint George._ The Martyrdom and Miracles of Saint George of\nCappadocia. The Coptic Texts edited with an English Translation by\nErnest A. Wallis Budge, M.A. London, 1888.\n\nBurton, _Sindh._ Sindh, by Richard F. Burton. London, 1851.\n\nBusk, _F. L. Rome._ The Folklore of Rome, collected by word of mouth\nfrom the people, by R. H. Busk. London, 1874.\n\n----_Hofer._ Household Stories from the Land of Hofer; or Popular\nMyths of Tirol, including the Rose Garden of King Lareyn. By the\nAuthor of \u201cPatra\u00f1as, or Spanish Stories,\u201d etc. London, 1871.\n\n\nCaballero. Cuentos, Oraciones, Adivinas y Refranes Populares \u00e9\nInfantiles recogidos por Fernan Caballero. Madrid, 1878.\n\nCampbell, _Circ. Notes._ My Circular Notes, by J. F. Campbell. 2\nvols. London, 1876.\n\nCampbell, _Clan Traditions._ Waifs and Strays of Celtic Tradition.\nArgyllshire Series, No. v. Clan Traditions and Popular Tales of the\nWestern Highlands and Islands, collected from oral sources by the late\nRev. John Gregorson Campbell. Edited by Jessie Wallace and Duncan\nMacIsaac, with introduction by Alfred Nutt. London, 1895.\n\nCampbell, _Khondistan._ A Personal Narrative of thirteen years\u2019\nservice amongst the Wild Tribes of Khondistan for the suppression of\nHuman Sacrifice. By Major-General John Campbell, C.B. London, 1864.\n\nCarnoy et Nicolaides. Traditions Populaires de l\u2019Asie Mineure par E.\nHenry Carnoy et Jean Nicolaides. Paris, 1889.\n\nCasati. Ten Years in Equatoria and the Return with Emin Pasha, by\nMajor Gaetano Casati, translated by the Hon. Mrs. J. Randolph Clay,\nassisted by Mr. J. Walker Savage. 2 vols. London, 1891.\n\nCastr\u00e9n, _Vorlesungen._ M. Alexander Castr\u00e9n\u2019s Vorlesungen \u00fcber\ndie Finnische Mythologie. Aus dem Schwedischen \u00fcbertragen und mit\nAnmerkungen begleitet von A. Schiefner. St. Petersburg, 1853.\n\nCatlin. Illustrations of the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the\nNorth American Indians. With letters and notes. By George Catlin. 2\nvols. London, 1876.\n\nCaxton, _Recuyell._ The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye, written\nin French by Raoul Lefevre, translated and printed by William Caxton.\nReproduced by H. Oskar Sommer, Ph.D. 2 vols. London, 1894.\n\nChatelain. Folk-tales of Angola. Collected and edited by Heli\nChatelain. Boston, 1894. [Amer. F. L. Soc.]\n\n_Churchill\u2019s Voyages._ A Collection of Voyages and Travels, some now\nfirst printed from original manuscripts, others now first published in\nEnglish. In 6 volumes. Third Edition. London, printed by assignment\nfrom Messrs. Churchill, 1744.\n\nClouston, _Lands Squire\u2019s Tale._ John Lane\u2019s Continuation of\nChaucer\u2019s \u2018Squire\u2019s Tale.\u2019 Edited from the original MS. by Fred. J.\nFurnivall, M.A., Hon. Doc. Phil., with notes by W. A. Clouston.\nLondon, 1888-90.\n\n----_Pop. Tales._ Popular Tales and Fictions; their Migrations and\nTransformations, by W. A. Clouston. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1887.\n\nCooper. Travels of a Pioneer of Commerce in Pigtail and Petticoats:\nor an Overland Journey from China towards India. By T. T. Cooper.\nLondon, 1871.\n\n_Corp. Poet. Bor._ Corpus Poeticum Boreale. The Poetry of the Old\nNorthern Tongue from the earliest times to the thirteenth century.\nEdited, classified, and translated, with introduction, excursus, and\nnotes by Gudbrand Vigfusson, M.A., and F. York Powell, M.A. 2 vols.\nOxford, 1883.\n\n_County F. L., Gloucestershire._ County Folklore. Printed Extracts,\nNo. I., Gloucestershire. Edited by Edwin Sidney Hartland, F.S.A.\nLondon, 1892. [Folklore Soc.]\n\nCrawfurd. History of the Indian Archipelago, by John Crawfurd,\nF.R.S. 3 vols. Edinburgh, 1820.\n\nCrooke. An Introduction to the Popular Religion and Folk lore of\nNorthern India. By W. Crooke, B.A. Allahabad, 1894.\n\nCurr. The Australian Race: its origin, languages, customs, place of\nlanding in Australia, and the routes by which it spread itself over\nthat continent. By Edward M. Curr. 4 vols. Melbourne, 1886-7.\n\nCurtin, _Hero-Tales._ Hero-Tales of Ireland, collected by Jeremiah\nCurtin. London, 1894.\n\n----_Ireland._ Myths and Folklore of Ireland, by Jeremiah Curtin.\nLondon, 1890.\n\n_Cymru Fu N. and Q._ Cymru Fu: Notes and Queries relating to the past\nHistory of Wales and the Border Counties. 2 vols. Cardiff, 1887-90.\n\n\nDalpatr\u00e1m Day\u00e1. Bhut Nibandh: an Essay, descriptive of the\nDemonology and other Popular Superstitions of Guzerat. By Dalpatr\u00e1m\nDay\u00e1. Translated by Alexander Kinloch Forbes. Bombay, N.D.\n\nDalyell. The Darker Superstitions of Scotland. By John Graham\nDalyell, Esq., F.A.S.E. Glasgow, 1835.\n\nD\u2019Arbois, _Droit Celt._ \u00c9tudes sur le Droit Celtique, par H.\nD\u2019Arbois de Jubainville, avec la collaboration de Paul Collinet\nDocteur en Droit. Tome I. Paris, 1895.\n\nDarwin, _Journ._ Journal of Researches into the Natural History and\nGeology of the Countries visited during the voyage of H.M.S. _Beagle_\n[etc.]. By Charles Darwin, M.A., F.R.S. London, 1876.\n\nDasent, _Fjeld._ Tales from the Fjeld. A Series of Popular Tales\nfrom the Norse of P. Ch. Asbj\u00f6rnsen, by Sir George Dasent, D.C.L.\nLondon, 1896.\n\nDawson. Australian Aborigines. The Languages and Customs of several\ntribes of Aborigines in the western district of Victoria, Australia,\nby James Dawson. Melbourne, 1881.\n\nDe Acosta. The Natural and Moral History of the Indies, by Father\nJoseph De Acosta. Reprinted from the English translated edition of\nEdward Grimston, 1604. And edited by Clements R. Markham, C.B., F.R.S.\n2 vols. [paged continuously]. London, 1880. [Hakluyt Soc.]\n\nDe Charencey, _Folklore._ Comte H. De Charencey. Le Folklore dans\nles deux Mondes. Paris, 1894.\n\nDe Groot. The Religious System of China, its Ancient Forms,\nEvolution [etc.]. By J. J. M. De Groot, Ph.D. [2 vols. paged\ncontinuously, only published yet.] Leyden, 1892-94.\n\nDe Gubernatis, _Myth. Plantes._ La Mythologie des Plantes ou Les\nL\u00e9gendes du R\u00e8gne V\u00e9g\u00e9tal par Angelo de Gubernatis. 2 vols. Paris,\n1878-82.\n\n----_Usi Nuz._ A. de Gubernatis. Storia Comparata degli Usi Nuziali in\nItalia e presso gli altri popoli indo-europei. Milano, 1878.\n\nDe Mensignac. Recherches Ethnographiques sur la Salive et le\nCrachat. Par Camille de Mensignac. Extrait des Bulletins de la\nSoci\u00e9t\u00e9 d\u2019Anthropologie de Bordeaux et du Sud-ouest. Bordeaux, 1892.\n\n_Denham Tracts._ The Denham Tracts. A Collection of Folklore by\nMichael Aislabie Denham, and reprinted from the Original Tracts and\nPamphlets printed by Mr. Denham between 1846 and 1859. Edited by Dr.\nJames Hardy. 2 vols. London, 1892-95. [Folklore Soc.]\n\nDenton. Serbian Folklore. Popular Tales selected and translated by\nMadam Csedomille Mijatovics. Edited by the Rev. W. Denton, M.A.\nLondon, 1874.\n\nDomenech. Seven Years\u2019 Residence in the Great Deserts of North\nAmerica, by the Abb\u00e9 Em. Domenech. 2 vols. London, 1860.\n\nDoolittle. Social Life of the Chinese: with some account of their\nReligious [etc.] Customs and Opinions. With special but not exclusive\nreference to Fuhchau. By Rev. Justus Doolittle. 2 vols. London, 1866.\n\nDobrizhoffer. An Account of the Abipones, an equestrian people of\nParaguay. From the Latin of Martin Dobrizhoffer. 3 vols. London, 1822.\n\nDorsey, _Cegiha._ The Cegiha Language, by James Owen Dorsey.\nWashington, 1890.\n\n----_Omaha Soc._ Omaha Sociology. By J. Owen Dorsey. Washington, 1884.\n\nDouglas. Scottish Fairy and Folk-Tales, selected and edited, with an\nintroduction, by Sir George Douglas, Bart. London, N.D.\n\nDozon. Contes Albanais recueillis et traduits par Auguste Dozon.\nParis, 1881.\n\nDu Chaillu, _Ashangoland._ A Journey to Ashangoland: and further\nPenetration into Equatorial Africa. By Paul B. Du Chaillu. London,\n1867.\n\n----_Equat. Afr._ Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa. By\nPaul B. Du Chaillu. London, 1861.\n\n----_Midnight Sun._ Land of the Midnight Sun; Summer and Winter\nJourneys through Sweden, Norway, Lapland, and Northern Finland. By\nPaul B. Du Chaillu. London, 1881.\n\n----_Viking Age._ The Viking Age. By Paul B. Du Chaillu. 2 vols.\nLondon, 1889.\n\nDyer. English Folklore. By the Rev. T. F. Thiselton Dyer, M.A.\nLondon, 1880.\n\n\n_Early Ideas._ Early Ideas. A Group of Hindu Stories. Collected and\ncollated by Anaryan [F. F. Arbuthnot]. London, 1881.\n\nEdwards, _Bahama._ Bahama Songs and Stories. A Contribution to\nFolklore. By Charles L. Edwards, Ph.D. Boston, 1895. [Amer. F. L.\nSoc.]\n\nEllis, _Land of Fetish._ The Land of Fetish. By A. B. Ellis. London,\n1883.\n\nEllis, _Tour._ Narrative of a Tour through Hawaii or Owhyhee; with\nremarks on the History, Traditions [etc.] of the Inhabitants of the\nSandwich Islands. By William Ellis. London, 1826.\n\nElworthy. The Evil Eye. An Account of this ancient and widespread\nSuperstition. By Frederick Thomas Elworthy. London, 1895.\n\nErman. Travels in Siberia: including excursions northwards, down the\nObi [etc.]. By Adolph Erman. Translated from the German by William\nDesborough Cooley. 2 vols. London, 1848.\n\n\nFavre, _Wild Tribes._ An Account of the Wild Tribes inhabiting the\nMalay Peninsula, Sumatra, and a few Neighbouring Islands. By the Rev.\nP. Favre. Singapore, 1848. [Reprinted from the _Journ. Ind. Arch._]\n\nFison and Howitt. Kamilaroi and Kurnai: Group Marriage and\nRelationship, and Marriage by Elopement. Drawn chiefly from the usage\nof the Australian Aborigines [etc.]. By Lorimer Fison, M.A., and A. W.\nHowitt, F.G.S. Melbourne, 1880.\n\n_F. L. Andaluz._ El Folklore Andaluz. Organo de la Sociedad de este\nNombre. 1882 \u00e1 1883. Sevilla.\n\nForsyth. The Highlands of Central India. Notes on their Forests and\nWild Tribes, Natural History and Sports. By Captain J. Forsyth.\nLondon, 1889.\n\nFrazer, _Totemism._ Totemism, by J. G. Frazer, M.A. Edinburgh, 1887.\n\n_Fur. Corresp._ Further Correspondence respecting British New Guinea.\nPresented to Parliament, April 1891.\n\n\nGaidoz, _Vieux Rite._ Un Vieux Rite M\u00e9dical. Par Henri Gaidoz.\nParis, 1892.\n\nGarcilasso. First Part of the Royal Commentaries of the Yncas, by\nthe Ynca Garcilasso de la Vega. Translated by Clements R. Markham. 2\nvols. London, 1869. [Hakluyt Soc.].\n\nGeldart. Folklore of Modern Greece: the Tales of the People. Edited\nby the Rev. E. M. Geldart, M.A. London, 1884.\n\n_Gent. Mag. Lib._ The Gentleman\u2019s Magazine Library: being a classified\ncollection of the chief contents of the _Gentleman\u2019s Magazine_ from\n1731 to 1868. Edited by George Lawrence Gomme, F.S.A. 20 vols. [not\nnumbered, but distinguished by their contents]. London, 1884-96.\n[Still proceeding.]\n\nGeorgeakis. Le Folklore de Lesbos. Par G. Georgeakis et L\u00e9on\nPineau. Paris, 1894.\n\nGeorgi. Description de toutes les Nations de l\u2019Empire de Russie.\nTroisi\u00e8me Collection, contenant Les Nations Samoy\u00e8des [etc.].\nTraduite de l\u2019Allemand. [By J. Georgi.] St. Petersbourg, 1777.\n\nGigli. Superstizioni Pregiudizi e Tradizioni in Terra d\u2019Otranto, con\nun\u2019Aggiunta di Conti e Fiabe Popolari. Per Giuseppe Gigli. Firenze,\n1893.\n\nGomme, _Ethn._ Ethnology in Folklore. By George Laurence Gomme,\nF.S.A. London, 1892.\n\nGomme, Mrs. _Traditional Games._ The Traditional Games of England,\nScotland, and Ireland, with Tunes [etc.]. Collected and annotated by\nAlice Bertha Gomme. [1 vol. only issued yet.] London, 1894.\n\nGraf, _Roma._ Roma nella Memoria e nelle Immaginazioni del Medio Evo\ndi Arturo Graf. 2 vols. Torino, 1882-83.\n\nGr\u00e4sse. Sagenbuch des Preussischen Staats. Von Dr. J. G. Th.\nGr\u00e4sse. 2 vols. Glogau, [1867]-1871.\n\nGray. China. A History of the Laws, Manners, and Customs of the\nPeople. By John Henry Gray, M.A., LL.D. Edited by William Gow Gregor.\n2 vols. London, 1878.\n\nGregor. Notes on the Folklore of the North-East of Scotland. By the\nRev. Walter Gregor, M.A. London, 1881 [Folklore Soc.]\n\nGriffis. Corea, the Hermit Nation. By William Elliot Griffis.\nLondon, 1882.\n\nGrimm, _D. Sagen._ Deutsche Sagen. Herausgegeben von den Br\u00fcdern\nGrimm. 2 vols. Berlin, 1816-18.\n\nGrohmann. Sagen aus B\u00f6hmen. Gesammelt und herausgegeben von Dr.\nJosef Virgil Grohmann. Prag, 1863.\n\nGuhl and Koner. The Life of the Greeks and Romans described from\nAntique Monuments. By E. Guhl and W. Koner. Translated from the third\nGerman edition by F. Hueffer. London, N.D.\n\n\nHansen. Sagen und Erz\u00e4hlungen der Sylter Friesen, nebst einer\nBeschreibung der Insel Sylt als Einleitung. Von C. P. Hansen. Garding,\n1875.\n\nHarou. Le Folklore de Godarville (Hainault). Par Alfred Harou.\nAnvers, 1893.\n\n_Hatim Ta\u00ef._ The Adventures of Hatim Ta\u00ef, a Romance. Translated from\nthe Persian, by Duncan Forbes, A.M. London, 1830.\n\nHearn. The Aryan Household, its Structure and its Development. An\nintroduction to Comparative Jurisprudence. By William Edward Hearn,\nLL.D. London, 1879.\n\n_Heimskringla._ The Stories of the Kings of Norway, called the Round\nWorld (Heimskringla). By Snorri Sturluson. Done into English out of\nthe Icelandic by William Morris and Eir\u00edkr Magn\u00fasson. [3 vols. only\nissued yet.] London, 1893-95.\n\nHenderson. Notes on the Folklore of the Northern Counties of England\nand the Borders. By William Henderson. London, 1879. [Folklore Soc.]\n\nHickson. A Naturalist in North Celebes. By Sidney J. Hickson, M.A.,\nD.Sc. London, 1889.\n\nHillner. Volksth\u00fcmlicher Brauch und Glaube bei Geburt und Taufe in\nSiebenb\u00fcrger Sachsenlande. Ein Beitrag zur Culturgeschichte von\nJohann Hillner. Program des Evang. Gymnasium in Sch\u00e4ssburg. 1877.\n\nHodgkinson. Australia, from Port Macquarie to Moreton Bay; with\nDescriptions of the Natives, their Manners and Customs [etc.]. By\nClement Hodgkinson. London, 1845.\n\nHodgson. On the Aborigines of India, by B. H. Hodgson, Esq., B.C.S.\nEssay the First; on the Kocch, B\u00f3do, and Dhim\u00e1l Tribes. Calcutta,\n1847.\n\nHunt. Popular Romances of the West of England; or, the Drolls,\nTraditions, and Superstitions of Old Cornwall, collected and edited by\nRobert Hunt, F.R.S. London, 1881.\n\nHunter, _Captivity._ Memoirs of a Captivity among the Indians of\nNorth America, from Childhood to the Age of Nineteen [etc.]. By John\nD. Hunter. London, 1823.\n\n\nJahn, _Volkssagen._ Volkssagen aus Pommern und R\u00fcgen. Gesammelt und\nherausgegeben von Dr. Ulrich Jahn. Stettin, 1886.\n\n_J\u0101taka._ The J\u0101taka; or Stories of the Buddha\u2019s Former Births.\nTranslated from the P\u0101li by various hands, under the editorship of\nProfessor E. B. Cowell. Vol. I. translated by Robert Chalmers, B.A.;\nVol. II. translated by W. H. D. Rouse, M.A. Cambridge, 1895. [Still\nproceeding.]\n\nJeremias, _H\u00f6llenfahrt._ Die H\u00f6llenfahrt der Istar. Eine\naltbabylonische Beschw\u00f6rungslegende. Von Alfred Jeremias. M\u00fcnchen,\n1886.\n\nJones and Kropf. The Folk-Tales of the Magyars. Collected by Kriza,\nErd\u00e9lyi, Pap, and others. Translated and edited by the Rev. W. Henry\nJones and Lewis L. Kropf. London, 1889.\n\n_Journ. Ethn. Soc._ The Journal of the Ethnological Society of London.\n9 vols. London, 1848-56.\n\n_Journ. Ind. Arch._ The Journal of the Indian Archipelago. 18 vols.\nSingapore, 1847-59.\n\n_Journ. Kilk. Arch. Soc._ The Journal of the Kilkenny and South-East\nof Ireland Arch\u00e6ological Society. New Series. 6 vols., 1856-71.\nDublin.\n\nJ\u00fclg. See _Siddhi-K\u00fcr_.\n\n\nKane. Wanderings of an Artist among the Indians of North America. By\nPaul Kane. London, 1859.\n\nKarajich. Volksm\u00e4rchen der Serben. Gesammelt und herausgegeben von\nWuk Stephanowitsch Karadschitsch. Ins Deutsche \u00fcbersetzt von dessen\nTochter Wilhelmine. Berlin, 1854.\n\nKerr. The Far Interior: a Narrative of Travel and Adventure from the\nCape of Good Hope across the Zambesi to the Lake Regions of Central\nAfrica. By Walter Montagu Kerr, C.E., F.R.G.S. 2 vols. London, 1887.\n\nKirby. The Hero of Esthonia, and other Studies in the Romantic\nLiterature of that Country. Compiled from Esthonian and German sources\nby W. F. Kirby, F.L.S., F.E.S. 2 vols. London, 1895.\n\nKnoop, _Posen._ Sagen und Erz\u00e4hlungen aus der Provinz Posen.\nGesammelt von Otto Knoop. Posen, 1893.\n\nKobert. Historische Studien aus dem Pharmakologischen Institute der\nKaiserlichen Universit\u00e4t Dorpat. Herausgegeben von Dr. Rudolph\nKobert. 4 vols. [still proceeding]. Vol. IV. Halle a S., 1894.\n\nKuhn, _M\u00e4rkische Sagen._ M\u00e4rkische Sagen und M\u00e4rchen nebst einem\nAnhange von Gebr\u00e4uchen und Aberglauben gesammelt und herausgegeben\nvon Adalbert Kuhn. Berlin, 1843.\n\n----_Sagen aus Westf._ Sagen, Gebr\u00e4uche, und M\u00e4rchen aus Westfalen\nund einigen andern, besonders den angrenzenden Gegenden\nNordeutschlands. Gesammelt und herausgegeben von Adalbert Kuhn. 2\nvols. Leipzig, 1859.\n\n\nLaisnel. Croyances et L\u00e9gendes du Centre de la France. Souvenirs du\nVieux Temps. Par Laisnel de la Salle. 2 vols. Paris, 1875.\n\nLandor. Alone with the Hairy Ainu. Or, 3800 Miles on a Pack-Saddle\nin Yezo and a Cruise to the Kurile Islands. By A. H. Savage Landor.\nLondon, 1893.\n\nLang, _Myth R. and R._ Myth, Ritual, and Religion. By Andrew Lang. 2\nvols. London, 1887.\n\nLarminie. West Irish Folk-Tales and Romances. Collected and\nTranslated by William Larminie. London, 1893.\n\nLecl\u00e8re. Cambodge. Contes et L\u00e9gendes, recueillis et publi\u00e9s en\nFran\u00e7ais par Adh\u00e9mard Lecl\u00e8re. Paris, 1895.\n\nLehmann-Filh\u00e9s. _See_ Arnason.\n\nLeland, _Etr. Rom._ Etruscan Roman Remains in Popular Tradition. By\nCharles Godfrey Leland. London, 1892.\n\nLenormant. Chaldean Magic: Its Origin and Development. Translated\nfrom the French. By Fran\u00e7ois Lenormant. London, N.D. [1887.\nTranslated by W. R. Cooper.]\n\nLetourneau, _L\u2019\u00c9v. Rel._ L\u2019\u00c9volution Religieuse dans les diverses\nraces humaines. Par Ch. Letourneau. Paris, 1892.\n\nLewin. Wild Races of South-Eastern India. By Captain T. H. Lewin.\nLondon, 1870.\n\nLivingstone, _Miss. Travels._ Missionary Travels and Researches in\nSouth Africa, including a Sketch of Sixteen Years\u2019 Residence in the\nInterior of Africa [etc.]. By David Livingstone, LL.D., D.C.L. London,\n1857.\n\n----_Zambesi._ Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi and its\nTributaries; and of the Discovery of Lakes Shirwa and Nyassa. By David\nand Charles Livingstone. London, 1865.\n\nLloyd, _Report._ A Short Account of Further Bushman Material\ncollected. By L. C. Lloyd. London, 1889.\n\nLubbock. The Origin of Civilisation and the Primitive Condition of\nMan. Mental and Social Condition of Savages. By Sir John Lubbock,\nBart., M.P., F.R.S., D.C.L., LL.D. London, 1889.\n\nLummis. The Man who Married the Moon, and other Pueblo Indian\nFolk-Stories. By Charles F. Lummis. New York, 1894.\n\nLuzel, _Le Magicien._ Le Magicien et son Valet (M\u00e9tamorphoses). Par\nF. M. Luzel. Extrait du Bulletin de la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 Arch\u00e9ologique de\nFinist\u00e8re. Quimper, 1885.\n\n\nMacInnes. Waifs and Strays of Celtic Tradition. Argyllshire Series,\nNo. 11. Folk and Hero Tales. Collected, edited and translated by the\nRev. D. MacInnes. With notes by the Editor and Alfred Nutt. London,\n1890.\n\nMackenzie. The Prophecies of the Brahan Seer. By Alexander\nMackenzie. Inverness, 1878.\n\nMacLennan. Studies in Ancient History, comprising a Reprint of\nPrimitive Marriage: An Inquiry into the Origin of the Form of Capture\nin Marriage Ceremonies. By the late John Ferguson McLennan. London,\n1886. The Second Series, comprising an Inquiry into the Origin of\nExogamy. Edited by his Widow and Arthur Platt. London, 1896. 2 vols.\n\nMage. Voyage dans le Soudan Occidental (S\u00e9n\u00e9gambie-Niger). Par M.\nE. Mage. Paris, 1868.\n\nMallet. Northern Antiquities; or, an Historical Account of the\nManners, Customs, Religion [etc.] of the Ancient Scandinavians.\nTranslated from the French of M. Mallet by Bishop Percy. New edition,\nby I. A. Blackwell, Esq. London, 1847.\n\nMannhardt, _Wald- und Feld-Kulte._ Wald- und Feld-Kulte. Von Wilhelm\nMannhardt. 2 vols. Berlin, 1875-77. Vol. I., Der Baumkultus der\nGermanen und ihrer Nachbarst\u00e4mme. Vol. II, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte\naus Nordeurop\u00e4ischer \u00dcberlieferung.\n\nMap, _De Nug. Cur._ Gualteri Mapes De Nugis Curialium Distinctiones\nQuinque. Edited from the unique manuscript in the Bodleian Library at\nOxford, by Thomas Wright, Esq., M.A., F.S.A., etc. London, 1850.\n[Camden Soc.]\n\nMarcellus. Marcelli de Medicamentis Liber. Edidit Georgius\nHelmreich. Lipsiae, 1889.\n\nMarshall. A Phrenologist amongst the Todas; or the Study of a\nPrimitive Tribe in South India [etc.]. By William E. Marshall. London,\n1873.\n\nMaspons, _Cuentos Pop. Cat._ Cuentos Populars Catalans. Per lo Dr.\nD. Francisco de S. Maspons y Labr\u00f3s. Barcelona, 1885.\n\nMaspons, _Rond._ Lo Rondallayre. Quentos Populars Catalans.\nColeccionats per Francisco Maspons y Labr\u00f3s. 3 series. Barcelona,\n1871-72-74.\n\nMaury, _Croy. et L\u00e9g._ Croyances et L\u00e9g\u00e9ndes de l\u2019Antiquit\u00e9. Par\nL. F. Alfred Maury. Paris, 1863.\n\n_Mem. Cong. Anthr._ Memoirs of the International Congress of\nAnthropology. Edited by C. Staniland Wake, on behalf of the\nPublication Committee. Chicago, 1894.\n\nMestres. Folklore Catal\u00e1. Volum Primer. Tradici\u00f3ns recullidas y\nescritas per Apeles Mestres. Barcelona, 1895.\n\nMiddleton. A Free Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers which are\nsupposed to have subsisted in the Christian Church, from the Earliest\nAges through several successive Centuries [etc.]. By Conyers\nMiddleton, D.D. London, 1749.\n\nMitford. Tales of Old Japan. By A. B. Mitford. 2 vols. London, 1871.\n\nModigliani, _Batacchi._ Fra i Batacchi Indipendenti. Viaggio di Elio\nModigliani pubblicato a cura della Societ\u00e0 Geografica Italiana. Roma,\n1892.\n\n----_Isola delle Donne._ L\u2019Isola delle Donne. Viagio ad Engano di Elio\nModigliani. Milano, 1894.\n\nMonseur. Eug\u00e8ne Monseur. Le Folklore Wallon. Bruxelles, N.D.\n[1892.]\n\nMoore. The Folklore of the Isle of Man. By A. W. Moore, M.A. London,\n1891.\n\nMoore, _Africa._ Travels into the Inland Parts of Africa. By Francis\nMoore. London, 1738.\n\nMorgan, _Anc. Soc._ Ancient Society; or Researches in the Lines of\nHuman Progress from Savagery, through Barbarism to Civilisation. By\nLewis H. Morgan, LL.D. London, 1877.\n\nMouat. Adventures and Researches among the Andaman Islanders. By\nFrederic J. Mouat, M.D., F.R.C.S. London, 1863.\n\nM\u00fcller, _Siebenb. Sagen._ Siebenb\u00fcrgische Sagen. Gesammelt und\nherausgegeben von Dr. Friedrich M\u00fcller. Wien, 1885.\n\n_Mythog. Lat._ Auctores Mythographi Latini. C. J. Hyginus, F. P.\nFulgentius, Lactantius Placidus, Albricus Philosophus cum integris\ncommentariis Jacobi Micylli [etc.]. Curante Augustino van Staveren.\nLugd. Bat., 1742.\n\n\nNerucci. Sessanta Novelle Popolari Montalesi. Raccolte da Gherardo\nNerucci. Firenze, 1880.\n\nNichols. The History and Antiquities of the County of Leicester.\nCompiled from the best and most antient Historians; inquisitiones post\nmortem, and other valuable records [etc.]. By John Nichols, F.S.A.\nEdinb. and Perth. [4 vols., each in 2 parts.] London, 1795-1811.\n\n_N. Ind. N. and Q._ North Indian Notes and Queries: a monthly\nperiodical. Edited by William Crooke, B.A. 5 vols. Allahabad, 1891-96.\n[Still proceeding.]\n\nNorthall. English Folk-Rhymes: a Collection of Traditional Verses\nrelating to Places and Persons, Customs, Superstitions, etc. By G. F.\nNorthall. London, 1892.\n\n\nOckley. The History of the Saracens, comprising the Lives of\nMohammed and his Successors, to the Death of Abdalmelik, the eleventh\nCaliph. By Simon Ockley, B.D. London, 1847.\n\n_Odd Ways._ Odd Ways in Olden Days down West; or, Tales of the\nReformation in Devon and Cornwall. By Vic. Birmingham, 1892. [Extracts\nfrom the registers of the Consistory Court of Exeter, with running\ncomments.]\n\nOstermann. Prof. V. Ostermann. La Vita in Friuli. Usi, Costumi,\nCredenzi, Pregiudiz\u00ee, e Superstizioni Popolari. Udine, 1894.\n\nOuseley. Travels in various Countries of the East, more particularly\nPersia. By Sir William Ouseley, Kt. [etc.]. 3 vols. London, 1819-23.\n\nOwen, _Crosses._ Old Stone Crosses of the Vale of Clwyd and\nNeighbouring Parishes, together with some Account of the Ancient\nManners and Customs and Legendary Lore connected with the Parishes. By\nthe Rev. Elias Owen, M.A. London, N.D.\n\nOwen, _Old Rabbit._ Old Rabbit, the Voodoo, and other Sorcerers. By\nMary Alicia Owen. London, 1893.\n\n\n_Panj\u00e1b N. and Q._ Panj\u00e1b Notes and Queries, a monthly periodical\ndevoted to the systematic collection of authentic notes and scraps of\ninformation regarding the country and the people. Edited by Captain R.\nC. Temple, F.R.G.S., M.R.A.S., M.A.I., etc. 4 vols. Allahabad,\n1883-87. [The last volume is entitled \u201cIndian Notes and Queries.\u201d]\n\nPark, Mungo. Travels in the Interior of Africa. By Mungo Park.\nEdinburgh, 1860.\n\nParkinson. Yorkshire Legends and Traditions, as told by her Ancient\nChroniclers, her Poets and Journalists. By the Rev. Thomas Parkinson,\nF.R.Hist.S. 2 vols. London, 1889.\n\nPaulitschke. Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas. Die Materielle Cultur der\nDan\u00e2kil, Galla, und Som\u00e2l. Von Dr. Philipp Paulitschke. Berlin,\n1893.\n\nPedroso. Portuguese Folk-Tales collected by Consiglieri Pedroso, and\ntranslated from the original MS. by Miss Henriqueta Monteiro. With an\nIntroduction by W. R. S. Ralston, M.A. London, 1882. [Folklore Soc.]\n\nPennant. Tours in Wales by Thomas Pennant, Esq. With Notes, Preface,\nand Copious Index, by the Editor, John Rhys, M.A. 3 vols. Carnarvon,\n1883.\n\nPettigrew. On Superstitions connected with the History and Practice\nof Medicine and Surgery. By Thomas Joseph Pettigrew, F.R.S., F.S.A.\nLondon, 1845.\n\nPineau, _F. L._ Le Folklore du Poitou. Par L\u00e9on Pineau. Paris,\n1892.\n\nPlowden. Travels in Abyssinia and the Galla Country, with an Account\nof a Mission to Ras Ali in 1848. From the MSS. of the late Walter\nChichele Plowden. Edited by his brother, Trevor Chichele Plowden.\nLondon, 1868.\n\nPluquet. Contes Populaires, Pr\u00e9jug\u00e9s [etc.] de l\u2019Arrondissement de\nBayeux. Recueillis et publi\u00e9s par Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Pluquet. Rouen, 1834.\n\nPoestion. Lappl\u00e4ndische M\u00e4rchen, Volkssagen, R\u00e4thsel und\nSprichw\u00f6rter. Nach lappl\u00e4ndischen, norwegischen, und schwedischen\nQuellen von J. C. Poestion. Wien, 1886.\n\n_Posilecheata._ Posilecheata di Pompeo Sarnelli. MDCLXXXIV. Ristampa\ndi 250 esemplari curata da Vittorio Imbriani. Napoli, 1885.\n\nPowell. Wanderings in a Wild Country; or, Three Years amongst the\nCannibals of New Britain. By Wilfred Powell, F.R.G.S. London, 1884.\n\n_Proc. Belfast Nat. Field Club._ Annual Report and Proceedings of the\nBelfast Naturalists\u2019 Field Club. Belfast.\n\n_Proc. Roy. Ir. Ac._ Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Third\nSeries. 3 vols. Dublin, 1888-95. [Still proceeding.]\n\n_Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._ Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of\nScotland. 27 vols. Edinburgh, 1855-95. [Still proceeding.]\n\nPr\u00f6hle, _Sagen._ Deutsche Sagen. Herausgegeben von Dr. Heinrich\nPr\u00f6hle. Berlin, 1863.\n\n\nRamage. The Nooks and By-ways of Italy. Wanderings in Search of its\nAncient Remains and Modern Superstitions. By Craufurd Tait Ramage,\nLL.D. Liverpool, 1868.\n\nRand. Legends of the Micmacs. By the Rev. Silas Tertius Rand, D.D.,\nD.C.L., LL.D. New York, 1894.\n\nReclus. Primitive Folk. Studies in Comparative Ethnology. By \u00c9lie\nReclus. London, N.D. [1891].\n\n_Records of the Past, N.S._ Records of the Past; being English\nTranslations of the Ancient Monuments of Egypt and Western Asia. New\nSeries. Edited by A. H. Sayce. 6 vols. London, N.D. [1888-92.]\n\n_Rev. de l\u2019Hist. des Rel._ Annales du Mus\u00e9e Guimet. Revue de\nl\u2019Histoire des Religions. vols. Paris, 1880-96. [Still proceeding.]\n\nRichardson, _Folly of Pilgrimages._ The Great Folly, Superstition,\nand Idolatry of Pilgrimages in Ireland; especially that to St.\nPatrick\u2019s Purgatory. By John Richardson. Dublin, 1727.\n\nRiggs, _Dakota Grammar._ Dakota Grammar, Texts, and Ethnography. By\nStephen Return Riggs. Edited by James Owen Dorsey. Washington, 1893.\n\n_Rivista._ Rivista delle Tradizioni Popolari Italiane diretta da\nAngelo de Gubernatis. 2 vols. Roma, 1893-94. [Organ of the Societ\u00e0\nNazionale per le Tradizione Popolari Italiane.]\n\nRogers. Scotland Social and Domestic: Memorials of Life and Manners\nin North Britain. By the Rev. Charles Rogers, LL.D., F.S.A. Scot.\nLondon, 1869.\n\nRomero. Contos Populares do Brazil colligidos pelo Dr. Sylvio\nRom\u00e9ro. Lisboa, 1855.\n\nRoth. The Aborigines of Tasmania, by H. Ling Roth, assisted by\nMarion E. Butler. London, 1890.\n\n_Roumanian F. T._ Roumanian Fairy Tales and Legends. [Preface signed\nE. B. M.] London, 1881.\n\n\nSauv\u00e9. Le Folklore des Hautes Vosges par L. F. Sauv\u00e9. Paris, 1889.\n\nSchleicher. Litauische M\u00e4rchen, Sprichworte, R\u00e4tsel und Lieder.\nGesammelt und \u00fcbersetzt von August Schleicher. Weimar, 1857.\n\nSchmidt. Griechische M\u00e4rchen, Sagen und Volkslieder gesammelt,\n\u00fcbersetzt und erl\u00e4utert von Bernhard Schmidt. Leipzig, 1877.\n\nSchneider. Die Religion der Afrikanischen Naturv\u00f6lker. Von. Prof.\nDr. Wilhelm Schneider. M\u00fcnster-i-W., 1891.\n\nSchouten. Voiage de Gautier Schouten aux Indes Orientales commenc\u00e9\nl\u2019an 1658 et fini l\u2019an 1665. Traduit du Hollandois. 2 vols. Amsterdam,\n1757.\n\nSchuyler, _Turkistan._ Turkistan. Notes of a Journey in Russian\nTurkistan, Khokand, Bukhara, Kuldja. By Eugene Schuyler, Ph.D. 2 vols.\nLondon, 1876.\n\nScot. The Discoverie of Witchcraft, by Reginald Scot, Esquire.\nReprint of first edition (1584) by Brinsley Nicholson, M.D. London,\n1886.\n\nS\u00e9billot, _Coutumes._ Coutumes Populaires de la Haute-Bretagne par\nPaul S\u00e9billot. Paris, 1886.\n\nSibree. The Great African Island. Chapters on Madagascar. By the\nRev. James Sibree, junr., F.R.G.S. London, 1880.\n\n_Siddhi-K\u00fcr._ Die M\u00e4rchen des Siddi-K\u00fcr. Kalm\u00fckischer Text mit\ndeutscher \u00dcbersetzung. Herausgegeben von B. J\u00fclg. Leipzig, 1866.\n\nSmith, _Guinea._ A New Voyage to Guinea, by William Smith. London,\n1744.\n\nSmith, Robertson, _Kinship._ Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia.\nBy W. Robertson Smith. Cambridge, 1885.\n\n----_Rel. Sem._ Lectures on the Religion of the Semites. First Series.\nThe Fundamental Institutions. By W. Robertson Smith, M.A., LL.D.\nEdinburgh, 1889.\n\nSpeke. Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile, by John\nHanning Speke, Capt. London, 1863.\n\nSpiess, _Obererz._ Aberglauben, Sitten und Gebr\u00e4uche des\ns\u00e4chsischen Obererzgebirges [etc.] von Dr. Moritz Spiess. Dresden,\n1862.\n\nStevens. Flint Chips. A Guide to Prehistoric Arch\u00e6ology, as\nillustrated by the Collection in the Blackmore Museum, Salisbury. By\nEdward G. Stevens. London, 1870.\n\nStewart. The Popular Superstitions and Festive Amusements of the\nHighlanders of Scotland [by W. Grant Stewart]. Edinburgh, 1823.\n\nStier. Ungarische Sagen und M\u00e4rchen. Aus der Erd\u00e9lyischen Sammlung\n\u00fcbersetzt von G. Stier. Berlin, 1850.\n\nStoll. Die Ethnologie der Indianerst\u00e4mme von Guatemala von Dr. Otto\nStoll. Leiden, 1889.\n\nStrack. Der Blutaberglaube in der Menschheit, Blutmorde und\nBlutritus. Von Hermann L. Strack. M\u00fcnchen, 1892.\n\nStrackerjan. Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg.\nHerausgegeben von L. Strackerjan. 2 vols. Oldenburg, 1867.\n\n\nTanner. A Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner.\nPrepared for the press by Edwin James, M.D. New York, 1830.\n\nTeirlinck. Le Folklore Flamand par Is. Teirlinck. Bruxelles, N.D.\n[1896. The first vol., dealing with Folklore Mythologique, only yet\npublished.]\n\nTemme, _Volkss. Altm._ Die Volkssagen der Altmark [etc.] Gesammelt\nvon J. D. H. Temme. Berlin, 1839.\n\nThomas, _Prob. Ohio Mounds._ The Problem of the Ohio Mounds, by\nCyrus Thomas. Washington, 1889.\n\nThorpe, _N. Myth._ Northern Mythology, comprising the principal\nPopular Traditions and Superstitions of Scandinavia, North Germany,\nand the Netherlands. Compiled from original and other sources by\nBenjamin Thorpe. 3 vols. London, 1851-52.\n\nTimmins. A History of Warwickshire. By Sam. Timmins, F.S.A. London,\n1889.\n\nT\u00f6ppen. Aberglauben aus Masuren. Mitgetheilt von Dr. M. T\u00f6ppen.\nK\u00f6nigsberg, 1867.\n\nTrain. An Historical and Statistical Account of the Isle of Man,\nfrom the earliest times to the present date. By Joseph Train, F.S.A.\nScot. 2 vols. Douglas, 1845.\n\nTrumbull. The Blood Covenant a Primitive Rite, and its bearings on\nScripture, by H. Clay Trumbull, D.D. London, 1887.\n\n_Tuscan F. T._ Tuscan Fairy Tales. (Taken down from the mouths of the\npeople.) London, N.D.\n\n\nVernaleken. In the Land of Marvels. Folktales from Austria and\nBohemia. By Theodor Vernaleken. London, 1889.\n\nVinson. Le Folklore du Pays Basque par Julien Vinson. Paris, 1883.\n\nVoges. Sagen aus dem Lande Braunschweig gesammelt von Th. Voges.\nBraunschweig, 1895.\n\nVon Dargun. Studien zum \u00e4ltesten Familien-recht. Von Dr. Lothar von\nDargun. Erster Theil. Mutterrecht und Vaterrecht. Erste H\u00e4lfte.\nLeipzig, 1892 [all yet published].\n\nVon Wlislocki, _Armenier._ See Von Wlislocki, _Bukowinaer_.\n\n----_Transs. Zig. and Zigeuner. See_ Von Wlislocki, _M\u00e4rchen_.\n\n\nWaldau. B\u00f6hmisches M\u00e4rchenbuch, Deutsch von Alfred Waldau. Prag,\n1860.\n\nWallace. A Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro, with an\naccount of the Native Tribes [etc.], by A. R. Wallace, LL.D. London,\n1890.\n\nWardrop. Georgian Folktales, translated by Marjory Wardrop. London,\n1894.\n\nWebster. Basque Legends: collected, chiefly in the Labourd, by Rev.\nWentworth Webster, M.A. London, 1879.\n\nWenzig. Westslawischer M\u00e4rchenschatz. Deutsch bearbeitet von Joseph\nWenzig. Leipzig, 1866.\n\nWestermarck. The History of Human Marriage, by Edward Westermarck.\nLondon, 1891.\n\nWilken, _Haaropfer._ Ueber das Haaropfer und einige andere\nTrauergebr\u00e4uche bei den V\u00f6lkern Indonesien\u2019s von Dr. G. A. Wilken.\nSeparatabdruck von der Revue Coloniale Internationale. Amsterdam,\n1886-87. [In two parts, of which the second is the only one referred\nto in the following pages.]\n\nWilkinson. Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, including\ntheir Private Life [etc.]. By Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson, F.R.S.,\nM.R.S.L., etc. 3 vols. Second Edition. London, 1842. Second series, 3\nvols., London, 1841. [Cited as a consecutive work in six volumes.]\n\nWilson, _Works._ Essays and Lectures, chiefly on the Religion of the\nHindus, by the late H. H. Wilson, M.A., F.R.S. Collected and edited by\nDr. Reinhold Rost. 12 vols. London, 1862-77.\n\nWirth. Danae in Christlichen Legenden von Albrecht Wirth. Wien,\n1892.\n\nWissmann. My Second Journey through Equatorial Africa, from the\nCongo to the Zambesi, in the years 1886 and 1887, by Hermann von\nWissmann. Translated from the German by Minna J. A. Bergmann. London,\n1891.\n\nWolf, _Deutsche M._ Deutsche M\u00e4rchen und Sagen. Gesammelt und mit\nAnmerkungen begleitet herausgegeben von Johannes Wilhelm Wolf.\nLeipzig, 1845.\n\n----_Hess. Sagen._ Hessiche Sagen. Herausgegeben von J. W. Wolf.\nG\u00f6ttingen, 1853.\n\nWoycicki. Polnische Volkssagen und M\u00e4rchen. Aus dem Polnischen des\nK. W. Woycicki von Friedrich Heinrich Lewestam. Berlin, 1839.\n\n\nYule, _Marco Polo._ The Book of Marco Polo, the Venetian, concerning\nthe Kingdoms and Marvels of the East. Newly translated and edited,\nwith notes, by Colonel Henry Yule, C.B. 2 vols. London, 1871.\n\n\nZanetti. Dott. Zeno Zanetti. La Medicina delle Nostre Donne. Studio\nFolklorico. Citt\u00e0 di Castello, 1892.\n\n_Zeits. des Vereins._ Zeitschrift des Vereins f\u00fcr Volkskunde. Im\nAuftrage des Vereins herausgegeben von Karl Weinhold. 5 vols. Berlin,\n1891-95. [Still proceeding.]\n\nZ\u00e9liqzon. Lothringische Mundarten von L\u00e9on Z\u00e9liqzon. Metz, 1889.\n\n\n\n\n ENDNOTES\n\n CHAPTER XVI NOTES\n\n [2.1]\n Basset, 72 (Story No. 35).\n\n [2.2]\n ii. Von Hahn, 259 (variant of Story No. 64).\n\n [3.1]\n ii. Von Hahn, 262.\n\n [3.2]\n Von Wlislocki, _Armenier_, 3 (Story No. 2).\n\n [4.1]\n MacInnes, 279 (Story No. 8).\n\n [4.2]\n i. Campbell, 97.\n\n [6.1]\n Curtin, _Ireland_, 157; Larminie, 196; i. _F.L. Journ._, 54; vi.\n _Folklore_, 309. In Larminie\u2019s version, however, a new series of\n adventures follows the marriage.\n\n [7.1]\n S\u00e9billot, in ix. _Rev. Trad. Pop._, 280; Luzel, ii. _Contes Pop._,\n 296.\n\n [7.2]\n Webster, 22. The story belongs to the _Outcast Child_ group (see iv.\n _F.L. Journ._, 308); and the hero\u2019s reconciliation with his father\n takes place at the wedding.\n\n [8.1]\n Webster, 33.\n\n [9.1]\n Vinson, 56.\n\n [9.2]\n Wolf, _Deutsche Hausm._, 369.\n\n [10.1]\n _Supr\u00e0_, vol. i. p. 65.\n\n [11.1]\n Dasent, _Fjeld_, 261, from Asbj\u00f6rnsen. The story is defective.\n\n [11.2]\n Edwards, _Bahama_, 90. This story likewise is the worse for wear.\n\n [12.1]\n Romero, 129 (Story No. 38).\n\n [14.1]\n Burton, iv. _Suppl. Nights_, 258.\n\n [14.2]\n Burton, iv. _Suppl. Nights_, 244, cited _supr\u00e0_, vol. i. p. 54.\n\n [15.1]\n Douglas, 58.\n\n [16.1]\n Von Wlislocki, _Volksdicht._, 323 (Story No. 55). In savage tales the\n attack on a monster from the inside is not very uncommon. See, for\n example, Riggs, _Dakota Grammar_, 91, 141; Edwards, _Bahama_, 72. The\n Qu\u00e8res Pueblos relate that the Coyote swallowed the Horned Toad. After\n being swallowed, the latter erected its spines, and so killed the\n Coyote. Lummis, 86. Cf. the story of the Lambton Worm (Henderson,\n 288), the tale from Galloway given by Mr. Andrew Lang in the\n _Academy_, October 1885, the classic Saga of Kleostratos (_infra_, p.\n 37), and others.\n\n [18.1]\n Schleicher, 54. Compare a tale from Oldenburg, ii. Strackerjan, 333\n (variant of Story No. 630).\n\n [18.2]\n Pitr\u00e8, _Toscane_, 9 (Story No. 2); _F.L. Andaluz_, 357; Romero, 83\n (Story No. 23).\n\n [18.3]\n De Gubernatis, ii. _Zool. Myth._, 36, note.\n\n [19.1]\n Waldau, 468; Haltrich, 101 (Story No. 25).\n\n [20.1]\n Bernoni, _Fiabe_, 50 (Story No. 10). We hear no more of the ring; and\n the lady plays no part in the final scene.\n\n [20.2]\n i. Gonzenbach, 299 (Story No. 44).\n\n [21.1]\n Wardrop, 68 (Story No. 12).\n\n [23.1]\n Burton, vi. _Suppl. Nights_, 363.\n\n [24.1]\n Carnoy et Nicolaides, 75; Garnett, i. _Wom._, 165. A shorter version\n in Georgeakis, 35. Substantially the same story is found in the island\n of Syra, in the Cyclades. ii. Von Hahn, 49 (Story No. 70).\n\n [24.2]\n i. Cosquin, 18, 74, citing Schiefner.\n\n [25.1]\n De Rochemonteix, 25 (Story No. 3).\n\n [25.2]\n Schott, 135 (Story No. 10). In a Lithuanian variant the maiden\n sacrificed to the dragon is confounded with one of the princesses\n carried captive by a dragon into the well. Leskien, 407.\n\n [26.1]\n S\u00e9billot, i. _Contes Pop._, 72 (Story No. 11); ii. _Rivista_, 109.\n Two Breton variants, also collected by M. S\u00e9billot, ix. _Rev. Trad.\n Pop._, 172, 173.\n\n [26.2]\n ii. Strackerjan, 330 (Story No. 630).\n\n [27.1]\n Dasent, _Fjeld_, 237, from Asbj\u00f6rnsen.\n\n [28.1]\n Von Wlislocki, _Volksdicht._, 198 (Story No. 13). As to the Keshalyi\u2019s\n hairs, see _supr\u00e0_, vol. i., pp. 124, 155.\n\n [29.1]\n Von Wlislocki, _Volksdicht._, 260 (Story No. 34). Compare the\n classical legend of Tiresias. In the Hindu mythology, the daughter of\n Manu changed her sex several times. So did Loki in the Scandinavian\n mythology. Change of sex is also, as I need hardly remind the reader,\n found in several classical stories.\n\n [29.2]\n Dozon, 109 (Story No. 14).\n\n [30.1]\n Steel and Temple, 138.\n\n [30.2]\n _Ibid._, 304.\n\n [31.1]\n _Siddhi-K\u00fcr_, 60 (Story No. 2). Miss Busk gives a free rendering,\n Sagas, 18.\n\n [31.2]\n _Hatim Ta\u00ef_, 45.\n\n [32.1]\n V. Bettei, in xiii. _Archivio_, 543, translating the story. The\n incident of binding the dragon, whether by an oath or a more\n substantial bond, is of extreme rarity in _m\u00e4rchen_, but is by no\n means uncommon in sagas, as we shall find in the next chapter. See,\n however, the Greek _m\u00e4rchen_ cited _supr\u00e0_, p. 3; and a Russian tale,\n viii. _Rev. Trad. Pop._, 69.\n\n [33.1]\n Dorsey, _Cegiha_, 114. The other version follows it.\n\n [35.1]\n Leland, _Etr. Rom._, 109.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XVII NOTES\n\n [37.1]\n Pausanias, ix. 26. Nor are the cases of Herakles and Kleostratos the\n only cases in antiquity of what I may call combat with a dragon from\n the inside. In the Vatican Museum is a beautiful Attic vase found at\n Caere, and probably imported into Etruria in the fifth century before\n Christ, which contains a representation of Jason vomited forth from\n the dragon\u2019s maw. The hero is identified by name; and the Golden\n Fleece hangs on a tree in the background; while Athene, with owl and\n spear and Gorgon\u2019s head, superintends the operation. The scene is\n reproduced by Roscher, _Lexikon, s.v._ Jason. This version of the\n story does not seem to have found its way into literature: a sample of\n the endless number of variants of the classical stories which have\n perished, or only lived on in tradition to give us at the end of the\n nineteenth century the chance of recovering them as _m\u00e4rchen_ from\n the mouths of the peasantry, ere they be finally swept away by the\n deluge of modern civilisation.\n\n [38.1]\n Budge, _Saint George_, xxxii. Yet the very arm that slew the dragon is\n preserved at Venice (Graf, ii. _Roma_, 30 note), and the cave which\n was the dragon\u2019s lair is shown at Beyrout! B\u00e9renger-F\u00e9raud,\n _Superstitions_, 216, citing Th\u00e9venot.\n\n [40.1]\n _Leg. Aur._, lviii.\n\n [41.1]\n Rudder, 461 note, prints the notice from a MS. of the time of Henry\n VI. I have reproduced it _verbatim et literatim_ in _County F.L.,\n Gloucestershire_, 48.\n\n [43.1]\n Dr. Krauss, in ix. _Archivio_, 484, translating a Bosnian ballad\n obtained by him from the mouth of an orthodox peasant at Vukasovci.\n\n [43.2]\n Denton, 309; Ralston, _Russian F.T._, 347.\n\n [44.1]\n Georgeakis, 256.\n\n [44.2]\n G. Ragusa-Moleti, in x. _Archivio_, 420.\n\n [45.1]\n Baring-Gould, _Curious Myths_, 301. The whole essay on Saint George\n ought to be read as an important contribution to the subject; though\n the sun-myth, by which the author explains the legend, is now as\n thoroughly exploded as Dr. Heylin\u2019s identification, which he combats,\n of the saint with the Arian bishop of Alexandria. Mr. Budge, however,\n says: \u201cThe Coptic text shows us clearly that the dragon which George\n fought and overcame was none other than the impious Dadianus, and it\n proves, if further proof is needed, that George the martyr and George,\n the opponent of Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, were two distinct\n persons; the fact being that Athanasius the Bishop has been confused\n with Athanasius the sorcerer, whom George the martyr overcame.\u201d Budge,\n _Saint George_, xxxi. Mr. Baring-Gould, moreover, is certainly wrong\n in saying: \u201cHospinian, relating the sufferings of the martyr, affirms\n distinctly that his constancy was the occasion of the creation of the\n legend by Voragine.\u201d Any affirmation by Hospinian on the subject\n would, of course, be of very little value; but all he says is that the\n saint\u2019s fortitude and unshaken constancy gave occasion to the story,\n as it is to be read in Jacob \u00e0 Voragine and Peter de Natalibus. His\n own interpretation is that the tale is a form under which the ancients\n figured the redemption of the human race. Thus, George is Christ, the\n Dragon is the Devil, the citizens of Silea (_sic_) are an image of the\n whole human race, a prey to the Devil, from whom the only power that\n can deliver them is Christ, for which we owe Him everlasting thanks\n and worship, etc., etc. _De Festis Christianorum, sub die_ 23rd April.\n Some countenance is given to the theory of misunderstanding by a\n Russian song which enumerates the conquests of a fiery dragon among\n the saint\u2019s trials during his prolonged martyrdom. Ralston, _Songs_,\n 232. I do not know whether this occurs elsewhere.\n\n [46.1]\n Maury, _L\u00e9gendes Pieuses_, 144, 145.\n\n [46.2]\n i. Gr\u00e4sse, 460 (Story No. 502). There is a similar statue and\n tradition, but wanting the maiden, at Helmstedt. Voges, 194 (Story No.\n 165). A monument in the church at Brent Pelham is thus described by\n Weever in his _Funerall Monuments_: \u201cIn the wall of this church lieth\n a most ancient monument: a stone whereon is figured a man, and about\n him an Eagle, a Lion, and a Bull, all having wings, and a fourth of\n the shape of an Angell, as if they should represent the four\n Evangelists: under the feet of the man is a crosse fleurie, and under\n the crosse a serpent. He is thought to have been some time the lord of\n an ancient decaied house, well moated, not farre from this place,\n called O Piers Shoonkes. He flourished _Ann. \u00e0 conquestu vicesimo\n primo_.\u201d In effect there seems to have been a family named Shonke\n resident at Pelham during the Middle Ages; and there is said to be a\n traditional tale current concerning the person buried beneath the\n stone, \u201cwhich represents him as having so offended the devil by\n killing a serpent, that his Highness threatened to secure him, whether\n buried within or without the walls of a church; to avoid which he was\n deposited in the wall itself.\u201d _Gent. Mag. Lib._, v. Topography, 223,\n quoting Weever, Brayley, and others.\n\n [47.1]\n i. _Rivista_, 748. Lilies of the valley which spring from the blood of\n Saint Leonard, another dragon-slayer, still reveal the scenes of the\n saint\u2019s combats with the dragon of Saint Leonard\u2019s Forest in Sussex.\n Henderson, 300.\n\n [49.1]\n Henderson, 285, citing a communication from \u201cCol. Johnson, whose\n family have long been owners of a portion of the Pollard lands.\u201d A\n similar legend accounts for the armorial bearings of the town of\n Bradford. ii. Parkinson, 165. Compare, too, the tenure of the manor of\n Sockburn, also in the bishopric of Durham. Henderson, 284.\n\n [50.1]\n Kuno Meyer, in i. _Arch. Rev._, 303, translating the saga; MacInnes,\n 477. See also Rhys, _Hibbert Lectures_, 595.\n\n [51.1]\n Campbell, i. _Circ. Notes_, 326.\n\n [53.1]\n Brauns, 112. This should be compared with Campbell\u2019s version, which\n is more directly from oral tradition, though probably affected by\n literary influences; and with Mr. Pfoundes\u2019 version referred to\n further on (p. 91, note).\n\n [54.1]\n _The Ancient and Present State of Gloucestershire_, by Sir Robert\n Atkyns, knight, 2nd edition, London, 1768 (the original edition bears\n date 1712), 202; _A New History of Gloucestershire_, Cirencester:\n printed by Samuel Rudder (1779), 402. I quote Rudder. Atkyns, who\n neither describes the ancient nor any other state of Gloucestershire,\n omits the detail of the milk.\n\n [55.1]\n Readers who are unacquainted with this interesting church will pardon\n my mentioning that, among other curious relics of the past, it\n preserves the arrangement of seats around the Communion Table in the\n chancel, which was introduced after the Reformation, but which the\n reaction under Laud and at the Restoration in most cases destroyed.\n The Rev. George Butterworth, who was incumbent until three or four\n years ago, and who has written an excellent little book upon\n Deerhurst, kept with reverent care in its ancient situation the carved\n oaken Communion Table. But his successor has removed it as lumber to\n the north aisle, and replaced it by a brand-new deal altar and\n super-altar, with all the gewgaws of the present ecclesiastical\n fashion, to the disgust of his parishioners and of every one who\n values historical remains. It will hardly be believed that this\n gentleman bears the name and claims the blood of the antiquary Lysons.\n Is it not time that the nation took over every church with any\n pretensions to the character of an historical monument, and forbade\n under heavy penalties the injuries lately, and still, wrought all over\n England by fussy parsons and over-zealous architects? Or are we to\n wait until every genuine record of the past has been effaced?\n\n [56.1]\n _Ante_, p. 16, note; i. Henderson, 298, 292, 296.\n\n [56.2]\n i. Cosquin, 75, citing ii. _Orient und Occident_, 753.\n\n [57.1]\n Plowden, 84. The story of Menelek is interesting but irrelevant here.\n The name of the king\u2019s daughter in the Bosnian ballad cited above (p.\n 41) is a curious coincidence, if it be nothing more.\n\n [58.1]\n Mage, 672. A similar story is told in Senegambia. B\u00e9renger-F\u00e9raud,\n _S\u00e9n\u00e9g._, 185.\n\n [59.1]\n _Leg. Aur._, xciii. Such tales are told of several female saints. M.\n Maury mentions Saint Martha, Saint Veneranda and Saint Radegund. Saint\n Veneranda or Venera (Venus?) is a saint held in high honour in Sicily\n and Southern Italy. Her legend is given by Wirth, 24.\n\n [60.1]\n ii. Gr\u00e4sse, 29, citing M\u00fcller, _Siegburg und der Siegkreis_.\n\n [62.1]\n Dennys, 110, quoting translation by W. F. Mayers in i. _N. and Q. on\n China and Japan_, 148.\n\n [63.1]\n i. _Leg. Panj\u00e2b_, 17; Steel, 258. Compare the _m\u00e4rchen_ related,\n _ante_, p. 30. The legend seems to be localised at Poo in the Sutlej\n valley. Mrs. Murray-Aynsley, in iii. _Rev. Trad. Pop._, 431.\n\n [63.2]\n Saxo, 302; Elton\u2019s version, 364.\n\n [64.1]\n Liebrecht, 66, referring to the _Saga_ and some other sources given by\n Uhland.\n\n [64.2]\n Some of these omissions, but not all, are indicated by Prof. York\n Powell, Elton\u2019s version, xcii.\n\n [65.1]\n i. _Bl\u00e4tt. f. Pomm. Volksk._, 4, citing Dr. Zechlin, who gives it from\n the narration of a fisherman.\n\n [65.2]\n _Science of Fairy Tales_, 235. M. Teirlinck refers to several\n dragon-stories current in Flanders, whereof some at least belong to\n the Enchanted Princess group. The others would seem to be Rescue\n tales. But he gives no details. i. Teirlinck, 147.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XVIII NOTES\n\n [69.1]\n _De Iside_, 31.\n\n [70.1]\n Z\u00e9lie Colvile, in cliii. _Blackwood\u2019s Mag._, 375 (March 1893).\n\n [70.2]\n ii. _Journ. Ind. Arch._, 174, translating _Tijds. v. Neerl. Ind._, 9th\n Jaarg., 10th Afl.\n\n [70.3]\n Dr. Tylor\u2019s Presidential Address in xxi. _Journ. Anthr. Inst._, 408.\n\n [71.1]\n i. Schouten, 115. The islanders were grievously offended when the\n travellers caught any crocodiles, and attempted to prevent them from\n doing so. Compare a Tupi custom which, if accurately reported, looks\n like human sacrifice. Featherman, _Chiapo-Mar._, 346. I do not feel at\n liberty to do more than call attention to it here.\n\n [71.2]\n ii. Gray, 306.\n\n [72.1]\n Ellis, i. _Pol. Res._, 358, 357.\n\n [72.2]\n Plut. _Parallels_, 35.\n\n [72.3]\n Pausanias, viii. 2. See Mr. Lang\u2019s comments, ii. _Myth, R. and R._,\n 177. Another Greek vestige of human sacrifice to a bestial god seems\n to be the ceremony in the temple of Artemis Tauropolos at Hal\u00e6, in\n which blood was drawn from a man\u2019s throat by the edge of a sword. See\n Lang, ii. _Myth, R. and R._, 216.\n\n [73.1]\n Ellis, _Land of Fetish_, 122.\n\n [74.1]\n ix. _Rev. Trad. Pop._, 76, quoting Abel R\u00e9musat, _Histoire de la\n ville de Khotan_.\n\n [75.1]\n ii. _N. Ind. N. and Q._, 27, quoting Cunningham, _Arch\u00e6ol. Rep._\n\n [75.2]\n Such legends are common in certain parts of Europe. See _Science of F.\n T._, ch. ix., where I have examined a number of them.\n\n [76.1]\n Crooke, 297. Compare the legend of the canal of Chamba, iv. _Ind. N.\n and Q._, 12; _Science of F. T._, 82.\n\n [76.2]\n Plutarch, _Rivers_, i.; Crooke, 296.\n\n [77.1]\n Frazer, i. _Golden Bough_, 276, citing Major Temple in xi. _Ind.\n Ant._, 297.\n\n [77.2]\n Crooke, 295, 297. This belief, Mr. Crooke points out, is among the\n difficulties constantly recurring at the census. Eusebius tells a\n curious tale of a victim thrown into a certain spring at C\u00e6sarea\n Philippi, on the occasion of a festival, and disappearing by the power\n of the demon, until one day Astyrius, a Roman senator who had been\n converted to Christianity, was present at the rite and put an end to\n the pagan miracle by his prayers. But it does not appear that the\n victim was human. Eusebius, vii. 17.\n\n [78.1]\n Matilda C. Stevenson, in _Mem. Cong. Anthrop._, Chicago, 316.\n\n [78.2]\n Ovid, _Fasti_, v. 621; Dion. Halicarn. i. 38; Lactantius, _Inst._, i.\n 12. See Mannhardt, ii. _Wald- und Feld-kulte_, 265; and Jevons, _Plut.\n R. Q._, lxxxi. With the Vestal Virgins were joined in the performance\n of the rite the Pontifices, the Pr\u00e6tors, and certain other of the\n citizens; but probably they only assisted in the sense of being\n present and performing some of the subordinate ceremonies.\n\n [78.3]\n Crooke, 296, 298.\n\n [79.1]\n Athen\u00e6us. xi. 15.\n\n [79.2]\n Frazer, i. _Golden Bough_, 279; and see the authorities there referred\n to.\n\n [80.1]\n Meier, _Sagen_, 373.\n\n [80.2]\n Kuhn, _Sagen aus Westf._, 130.\n\n [80.3]\n ii. Witzschel, 193.\n\n [80.4]\n Frazer, i. _Golden Bough_, 258.\n\n [81.1]\n Mannhardt, ii. _Wald- und Feld-kulte_, 414; Ralston, 244. I quote from\n Frazer, i. _Golden Bough_, 273, who follows Mannhardt. The authority\n both of Mannhardt and Ralston appears to be Afanasief.\n\n [81.2]\n Meier, _Sagen_, 374.\n\n [81.3]\n ii. Witzschel, 287, 293. I was not aware, or rather I had forgotten,\n when I wrote the above that Grimm had already pointed out that the\n common phrase: \u201cThe river-sprite demands his yearly victim,\u201d pointed\n to actual human sacrifices in heathen times. Grimm, ii. _Myth._, 494.\n\n [82.1]\n Jahn, _Volkss. aus Pom._, 144, 150.\n\n [82.2]\n Wolf, _Hess. Sag._, 130, 129; Grimm, iv. _Teut. Myth._, 1430.\n\n [83.1]\n Wolf, _Hess. Sag._, 129.\n\n [83.2]\n Pluquet, 116.\n\n [83.3]\n ii. _Denham Tracts_, 42, 78; Henderson, 265; ii. Parkinson, 106;\n Burne, 79.\n\n [84.1]\n Boddam-Whetham, 210. Lander reports a similar custom on the part of\n the river-tribes of the Niger.\n\n [84.2]\n Rev. J. Macdonald, in iii. _Folklore_, 342. Among the Bechuana the\n water-snake, often found in fountains, is sacred; and it is believed\n that if one of them be killed the fountain will be dried up. Callaway,\n _Tales_, 290 note, quoting Philip, _Researches in S. Africa_.\n\n [85.1]\n B\u00e9renger-F\u00e9raud, ii. _Superstitions_, 19. According to the Senephos\n of Kenedugu the aboriginal spirits of the country retired, on the\n Bambara conquest, to the depths of certain pools, where they drown any\n one whom they hear speaking a word of Bambara in the neighbourhood of\n their watery dwellings. But we are told nothing about the shape of\n these spirits. vii. _Rev. Trad. Pop._, 761, quoting the report of Dr.\n Crozat on his mission to Mossi (French Soudan).\n\n [85.2]\n Rev. J. Macdonald in iii. _Folklore_, 342, 356. A story told at the\n last reference looks like the germ of a Rescue legend.\n\n [85.3]\n Callaway, _Tales_, 56, 86.\n\n [86.1]\n Callaway, _Tales_, 349 note, quoting Shaw _The Story of my Mission_.\n\n [87.1]\n Zelia Nuttall, in viii. _Journ. Am. F. L._, 123, quoting Sahagun.\n\n [88.1]\n _Academy_, October 1885, apparently from oral tradition at\n Balmaclenan. Compare the curious legend of the Senecas concerning a\n dragon which fed on corpses. ii. _Rep. Bur. Ethn._, 54.\n\n [89.1]\n vii. _Rev. Trad. Pop._, 590.\n\n [91.1]\n Brauns, 50; C. Pfoundes, in i. _F. L. Record_, 120. The latter relates\n that the rescued maiden married her deliverer, and contains some other\n unimportant variations. Both versions have been subjected to literary\n manipulation. The version of the tale of Susa No (_ante_, p. 51) given\n by Mr. Pfoundes (i. _F. L. Record_, 122) describes the maiden eaten by\n the serpent as \u201cthe yearly offering of a human sacrifice\u201d to\n propitiate \u201cthe deity of the mountain.\u201d But I hesitate to put this\n into the text, because Mr. Pfoundes does not give his authority,\n though I do not suggest it is not perfectly trustworthy. I am only\n anxious not to grasp too readily at evidence so exactly to my purpose.\n\n [93.1]\n i. _N. Ind. N. and Q._, 147, extracting a passage from the _Settlement\n Report_.\n\n [93.2]\n H. A. Rose, in iv. _N. Ind. N. and Q._, 18.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XIX NOTES\n\n [95.1]\n _Supr\u00e0_, vol. i. page 53.\n\n [97.1]\n Legrand, 77.\n\n [97.2]\n ii. Von Hahn, 287; cf. 40 (Story No. 69).\n\n [97.3]\n Wolf, _Deutsche Hausm._, 168.\n\n [98.1]\n Meier, _M\u00e4rchen_, 246 (Story No. 72).\n\n [98.2]\n Maspons, i. _Rond._, 60.\n\n [99.1]\n Rivi\u00e8re, 71.\n\n [100.1]\n ii. _N. Ind. N. and Q._, 83.\n\n [100.2]\n Georgeakis, 84.\n\n [101.1]\n Von Wlislocki, _Armenier_, 27 (Story No. 14).\n\n [102.1]\n _Hatim Ta\u00ef_, 211. A miskal is a dram and a half.\n\n [103.1]\n Von Wlislocki, _Zigeuner_, 24 (Story No. 12).\n\n [104.1]\n vi. _Archivio_, 196.\n\n [104.2]\n Luzel, ii. _Contes Pop._, 20.\n\n [105.1]\n Pedroso, 45 (Story No. 11).\n\n [106.1]\n i. _Folklore_, 310. Compare with this type of story those belonging to\n the _Fearless Johnny_ cycle.\n\n [106.2]\n Leskien, 546.\n\n [108.1]\n i. _J\u0101taka_, 24 (Story No. 6).\n\n [109.1]\n Larminie, 201. The power of a second blow to restore to life, or heal\n a mortal wound inflicted with the same instrument, is well known in\n folktales.\n\n [109.2]\n Ralston, _Russian F. T._, 147, citing Erlenvein.\n\n [110.1]\n _Mabinogion_, 241, 250; i. _Y Llyvyr Coch_, 124, 133.\n\n [110.2]\n Stokes, 269, citing Vogl\u2019s _Volksm\u00e4rchen_.\n\n [110.3]\n Burton, i. _Nights_, 134.\n\n [111.1]\n Stokes, 163 (Story No. 22). Other illustrations of the power of a hair\n are given, _ibid._ 269.\n\n [111.2]\n Schmidt, 101 (Story No. 13).\n\n [111.3]\n Schmidt, 79 (Story No. 7).\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XX NOTES\n\n [114.1]\n Stewart, 189.\n\n [114.2]\n Rink, 464.\n\n [115.1]\n Rev. M. MacPhail, in vi. _Folklore_, 162.\n\n [115.2]\n Mallet, 424; Thorpe, i. _N. Myth._, 51.\n\n [116.1]\n ii. _Silva Gad._, 343.\n\n [117.1]\n ii. _Rep. Bur. Ethn._, 59.\n\n [118.1]\n Saxo, 292; Elton\u2019s version (from which I quote), 352.\n\n [119.1]\n Lenormant, 64.\n\n [120.1]\n C. Hose, in xxiii. _Journ. Anthr. Inst._, 161.\n\n [120.2]\n i. Radloff, 188.\n\n [121.1]\n ii. _N. Ind. N. and Q._, 84, quoting _Arch\u00e6ol. Rep._\n\n [121.2]\n Maurer, 52, citing Arnason.\n\n [122.1]\n Knoop, _Sagen aus Posen_, 272, 277, 280.\n\n [122.2]\n Grohmann, 271.\n\n [123.1]\n Arthur J. Evans, in vi. _Folklore_, 18.\n\n [124.1]\n F. Corona, in i. _Rivista_, 750.\n\n [125.1]\n Pr\u00f6hle, _D. Sagen_, 116 (Story No. 77); Hansen, 46 (Story No. 3).\n\n [125.2]\n Temme, _Altmark_, 39 (Story No. 48).\n\n [125.3]\n xxiv. _Journ. Anthr. Inst._, 150.\n\n [126.1]\n Campbell, _Clan Traditions_, 66.\n\n [126.2]\n Crooke, 8.\n\n [126.3]\n Ovid, _Metam._, iv. 543.\n\n [128.1]\n Adele Pellegrino, in i. _Rivista_, 332.\n\n [128.2]\n A. W. Moore, in xxxi. _Antiquary_, 73.\n\n [128.3]\n G. Calvia-Secchi, in i. _Rivista_, 426.\n\n [128.4]\n Knoop, _Sagen aus Posen_, 273.\n\n [129.1]\n Browne, _Ethnog. Inishbofin_, in iii. _Proc. Roy. Ir. Ac._, 3rd ser.,\n 360.\n\n [130.1]\n Curtin, _Hero-Tales_, 437.\n\n [130.2]\n See Curtin, _op. cit._, 90, 208, 275, 433.\n\n [130.3]\n G. Calvia-Secchi, in i. _Rivista_, 427. The saint\u2019s question is, of\n course, an equivocation. \u201cStai bene?\u201d may be an ironical inquiry\n after the victim\u2019s health. In Slavonic sagas it is occasionally the\n devil who is thus petrified. See Grohmann, 278, and ix. _Rev. Trad.\n Pop._, 505. But they cannot be true, as it is well known that he is\n still very much alive.\n\n [131.1]\n Owen, 297.\n\n [131.2]\n ii. _N. Ind. N. and Q._, 1, citing the _Calcutta Rev_.\n\n [131.3]\n Crooke, 292.\n\n [131.4]\n Pausanias, i. 21; viii. 2.\n\n [132.1]\n x. _Rev. Trad. Pop._, 104. Cf. i. _Rivista_, 32.\n\n [132.2]\n i. _N. Ind. N. and Q._, 119, quoting Forbes, _R\u00e1s M\u00e1la_.\n\n [132.3]\n W. Crooke, in i. _N. Ind. N. and Q._, 140.\n\n [133.1]\n Babu Rae Krishna Bahadur, in iv. _N. Ind. N. and Q._, 87.\n\n [133.2]\n Crooke, 76, quoting Gen. Sleeman\u2019s _Rambles and Recollections_.\n\n [133.3]\n Modigliani, _Isola delle Donne_, 284.\n\n [134.1]\n Crooke, 42, quoting Cunningham, _Arch\u00e6ol. Reports_.\n\n [134.2]\n Hunt, 177.\n\n [134.3]\n Knoop, _Posen_, 276.\n\n [135.1]\n Grohmann, 273, 274.\n\n [135.2]\n Pr\u00f6hle, _D. Sagen_, 194 (Story No. 141).\n\n [135.3]\n ii. _Am Urdsbrunnen_, 28.\n\n [135.4]\n Temme, _Altmark_, 38, 99, 100. In Upper Styria a grassy alp was\n covered with stones because some cowherds played at skittles with\n butter; but I do not understand that the cowherds themselves underwent\n transformation. i. _Zeits. des Vereins_, 215.\n\n [136.1]\n G. C. Secchi, in i. _Rivista_, 514. B\u00e9renger-F\u00e9raud, ii.\n _Superstitions_, 286, 309, 322, 371, _et seq._, gives a number of\n instances analogous to those mentioned in the preceding paragraphs,\n too often without mentioning his authorities. As an example in the\n legends of the Church, take the unhappy shepherd who betrayed Saint\n Barbara to her father. Wirth, 13.\n\n [136.2]\n _Ant\u00e8_, p. 77; xi. _Rep. Bur. Ethn._, 54. The similarity of this\n incident to those of European tradition where the mendicants are\n Christ and the Apostle Peter need hardly be pointed out.\n\n [137.1]\n _Supr\u00e0_, vol. i., p. 118.\n\n [137.2]\n Dorsey, in xi. _Rep. Bur. Ethn._, 425, quoting information supplied by\n a missionary, the Rev. W. Hamilton.\n\n [137.3]\n Kane, 250.\n\n [137.4]\n i. Curr, 253, 254; xxiv. _Journ. Anthr. Inst._, 191, 192.\n\n [138.1]\n ii. Gray, 346.\n\n [138.2]\n Griffis, 58.\n\n [139.1]\n Pausanias, ix. 34.\n\n [140.1]\n Gerv. Tilb., ii. 12.\n\n [140.2]\n Map, _De Nug. Cur._, iv. 12. Roger of Hoveden gives the name of the\n girl as Yse. Liebrecht, in Gerv. Tilb., 92, quotes the passage.\n\n [141.1]\n Thorpe, ii. _N. Myth._, 247, from Thiele.\n\n [142.1]\n i. _Corp. Poet. Bor._, 154, 81.\n\n [142.2]\n Rydberg, 573.\n\n [142.3]\n ii. _Zeits. des Vereins_, 15. Cf. Maurer, 51, 52, and many other\n stories.\n\n [142.4]\n Poestion, 227.\n\n [143.1]\n _Popol Vuh_, 243, 253.\n\n [143.2]\n M\u00fcller, _Amer. Urrel._, 179.\n\n [143.3]\n _Supr\u00e0_, vol. i. p. 15. Other modern versions of the tale have been\n more recently published by Curtin, _Hero-tales_, 283, 296.\n\n [143.4]\n Plutarch, _De Iside_, xvii.\n\n [143.5]\n Curtin, _Hero-tales_, 293, 309. If I do not misinterpret the scholiast\n a Pacceka-Buddha destroyed an insolent prince in this manner. See ii.\n _J\u0101taka_, 137 note.\n\n [144.1]\n Hertz, 19, citing Lightfoot.\n\n [144.2]\n Turner, _Samoa_, 23.\n\n [144.3]\n Hertz, 19. Compare the Bushman stories of men changed into stone by\n the glance of a maiden, \u201cprobably,\u201d as Dr. Bleek remarks, \u201cat a\n time when she would be usually kept in strict retirement.\u201d Bleek,\n _2nd Report_, 14; Lloyd, _Report_, 10.\n\n [144.4]\n Pliny, _Nat. Hist._, viii. 32; Athen\u00e6us, v. 64; Barthol. Angl.,\n Steele, 76.\n\n [144.5]\n Instances are collected by Hertz, 21; Mestres, 226; B\u00e9renger-F\u00e9raud,\n i. _Superstitions_, 253; Forsyth, 425.\n\n [145.1]\n Dorsey, _Cegiha_, 215.\n\n [145.2]\n Boas, _Report on N.-W. Tribes of Canada, Brit. Ass. Report_ (1895),\n 565.\n\n [145.3]\n MacLennan, ii. _Studies_, 353, citing Morgan, _League of the\n Iroquois_.\n\n [146.1]\n Dorman, 284, citing Smith\u2019s _Brazil_.\n\n [146.2]\n Prov. xxiii. 6; Mark vii. 22. See also Ecclesiasticus xiv. 8-10.\n Socrates alludes to the superstition, _Phaedo_, xlv.\n\n [147.1]\n A curious example of the prevalence of the superstition is to be seen\n in the Lateran museum. A painting by Crivelli, dated in 1482, of the\n Madonna surrounded by several saints, represents the Bambino as\n wearing a necklace of pearls, from which, inlaid into the picture,\n depends a common phallic amulet of coral. Even the Holy Babe, it\n seems, needed a magical protection against the Evil Eye.\n\n [147.2]\n Students desirous of pursuing the subject of the Evil Eye are referred\n to the elaborate compilation of M. Tuchmann on _La Fascination_ in\n _M\u00e9lusine_; Mr. F. T. Elworthy\u2019s valuable work; Hertz, _op. cit._;\n Grimm, iii. _Teut. Myth._, 1099; and Andree, i. _Ethnog. Par._, 35.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XXI NOTES\n\n [150.1]\n _Popol Vuh_, 243.\n\n [151.1]\n A curious tale is told by the Iroquois concerning the slaughter by\n their Thunder-God of a serpent which dwelt underground and fed upon\n human flesh. To increase its supply of food it poisoned the springs.\n But, whatever the story may mean, there is no exposure of victims, and\n consequently no rescue. ii. _Rep. Bur. Ethn._, 54.\n\n [151.2]\n _Supr\u00e0_, vol. i. p. 63.\n\n [152.1]\n Lucian, however (_Dial. Mar._, 14, and _De \u0152co_, 22), says expressly\n that Perseus used the sword in one hand and the Gorgon\u2019s head in the\n other, at once killing the monster and turning it to stone.\n\n [153.1]\n _Supr\u00e0_, vol. i. p. 57.\n\n [154.1]\n _Supr\u00e0_, vol. i. p. 9.\n\n [154.2]\n Frazer, _Totemism_, 14.\n\n [156.1]\n iv. _Folklore_, 90.\n\n [159.1]\n _Supr\u00e0_, vol. i. p. 11.\n\n [162.1]\n Denton, 256.\n\n [162.2]\n In some cases they bestow the power of transformation, instead of\n accompanying the hero. In other cases they only come at call. I have\n treated these as equivalent; and I have included two cases of dogs and\n horses given by fish. Some of those taken from the castles of\n conquered giants ought perhaps to be added.\n\n [164.1]\n A similar incident is found elsewhere in Norway in quite a different\n connection. Dasent, _Fjeld_, 222, from Asbj\u00f6rnsen. \u00c6schylus, in a\n tragedy now lost, seems to have referred to the Graiai as the warders\n of the Gorgons. Hyginus, quoting this, goes on to say that Perseus,\n having possessed himself of their one eye, threw it into the Tritonian\n marsh, and the warders being thus deprived of sight, he easily slew\n Medusa while stupefied with sleep. _Poet. Astron._ ii. 12 (_Mythog.\n Lat._ 445). \u00c6schylus also, in the _Prometheus_, represents the Graiai\n as in the form of swans, dwelling in perpetual darkness on the\n Gorgonian plains. These are versions, so far as I remember, not found\n in any modern _m\u00e4rchen_.\n\n [165.1]\n _Supr\u00e0_, vol. i. p. 44.\n\n [169.1]\n Lecl\u00e8re, 112 (Story No. 4).\n\n [170.1]\n The heroes\u2019 names, for example, are Chan-Prea-Khat, and\n Son-Prea-Khat. Here Chan, the name of the elder, is that of the moon;\n Son, that of the sun. Khat is the Sanskrit Kshatriya, derived through\n the Pali Khattam. The names appear to mean Holy Warrior Moon and Holy\n Warrior Sun. The word _yak_ appears also to come from the Sanskrit;\n and there are other indications. They may, however, be all no more\n than signs of general Indian influence on the civilisation of\n Cambodia, without involving any evidence of the provenience of the\n tale.\n\n [170.2]\n Campbell, _Santal F. T._, 111.\n\n [173.1]\n Maury, _Croy. et L\u00e9g._ 196, citing the scholiast.\n\n [173.2]\n Hyginus, _Fab._ lxiv., in _Mythog. Lat._ 131. Euripides appears to\n have represented both Cepheus and Cassiopeia, his wife, as\n endeavouring to dissuade Andromeda from wedding Perseus. But this may\n be merely a poet\u2019s licence. Hyginus, _Poet. Astron._ ii. 11 (_Mythog.\n Lat._ 444).\n\n [174.1]\n In fact, the cutting out of the tongues as proof of victory extends\n far beyond stories containing the Rescue incident. (See, among others,\n Denton, 150; i. _Rev. Celt._, 260; i. _Rivista_, 531.) Mr. Frazer, ii.\n _Golden Bough_, 129, note, has some observations upon it and the\n custom which it records, and which is found in both hemispheres. I\n gather, however, that he feels a little uncertain as to the true\n interpretation. It demands further inquiry, for which I have no room\n here. I only want to point out that the fact of the widespread custom\n makes decidedly against the theory of contamination by a merely local\n legend.\n\n [175.1]\n _Supr\u00e0_, p. 37.\n\n [178.1]\n Jacobs, in vii. _Folklore_, 63, reviewing B\u00e9dier, _Les Fabliaux_.\n\n [178.2]\n _Congress Report_ (1891), 68.\n\n [179.1]\n See _ante_, pp. 3, 42, 43.\n\n [184.1]\n ii. _Folklore_, 125.\n\n [184.2]\n _Congress Rep._ (1891), 19 _sqq._\n\n\n APPENDIX: TABLE A NOTES\n\n Cf. Day, 73, where there seems a relic of winged horses.\n\n\n\n\n TRANSCRIBER\u2019S NOTES\n\nThe title page is used as a cover.\n\nChapter numbering continues from the previous volume.\n\nPage numbers are given in {curly} brackets.\n\nPlain text version only: endnote markers are given in [square]\nbrackets; table rows are separated by \u201c===\u201d with each cell on its own\nline.\n\nMinor spelling inconsistencies (_e.g._ by-and-bye/by and bye,\nfolktales/folk-tales, panj\u00e2b/panj\u00e1b, etc.) have been preserved.\n\nSome instances of \u201cSiddhi-K\u00fcr\u201d in the source text have a\ncircumflex over the _\u00fc_. As this character doesn\u2019t appear to be\navailable in the utf-8 codeset, it has been left with just the\ndiaeresis.\n\nTable A (p. 194) has a footnote with no visible anchor in the table.\nIt has been placed in the Endnotes section and left unlinked. Please\ncontact Project Gutenberg support if you can provide the note\u2019s\nlocation.\n\nAlterations to the text:\n\nConvert footnotes to endnotes. Relabel note markers: append the\noriginal note number to the page number.\n\nAdd endnotes entry to TOC.\n\nOmit the Index and adjust the TOC accordingly.\n\n[List of Works]\n\nMove the LOW to the end of the main text and adjust the TOC\naccordingly.\n\nA few trivial punctuation and italics corrections.\n\nChange \u201cdealing with Folklore _Mytholologique_, only yet published\u201d to\n_Mythologique_.\n\n[Chapter XVI]\n\n\u201cabnormal kind briefly to mention A _m\u00e4rchen_ of the\u201d add period after\n_mention_.\n\n[Endnotes]\n\nA few trivial punctuation and italics corrections.\n\n(p. 81, note 3) change _Witzchel_ to _Witzschel_.\n\n(p. 151, note 1) \u201ca serpent which dwelt _under ground_ and fed upon\u201d\nto _underground_.\n\n[End of text]","title":"The legend of Perseus, Volume 3 (of 3) : $b Andromeda. Medusa.","tradition":"myth-cosmogony","translated_text":null,"word_count":71339}