{"collection":"scripture-revelation","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_71157/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_71157","id":"gutenberg_71157","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/71157","summary":null,"tags":["Category: Essays, Letters & Speeches","Category: Philosophy & Ethics","Category: Religion/Spirituality","Zen Buddhism"],"text":"ESSAYS IN ZEN BUDDHISM\n\n\n\n\n                        ESSAYS IN ZEN BUDDHISM\n\n                                  BY\n\n                        DAISETZ TEITARO SUZUKI\n\n     _Professor of Zen Buddhism at Otani Buddhist College, Kyoto_\n\n                            (FIRST SERIES)\n\n                            [Illustration]\n\n                                LONDON\n\n                           LUZAC AND COMPANY\n\n                        46 Great Russell Street\n\n       Published for The Eastern Buddhist Society, Kyoto, Japan\n\n                                 1927\n\n    ALL RIGHTS OF REPRINTING AND TRANSLATION RESERVED BY THE AUTHOR\n\n   _Made in Great Britain and printed at The Vincent Works, Oxford_\n\n\n\n\n                                PREFACE\n\n\nThe most fruitful growth of Buddhism in the Far East has resulted in\nthe development of Zen and Shin. Zen attained its maturity in China and\nShin in Japan. The vigour and vitality which Buddhism still has after\nmore than two thousand years of history, will be realised when one\ncomes in contact with these two branches of Buddhism. The one appeals\nto the inmost religious consciousness of mankind, while the other\ntouches the intellectual and practical aspects of the Oriental mind,\nwhich is more intuitive than discursive, more mystical than logical.\nIf Zen is the ultra \u201cself-power\u201d wing of Buddhism, Shin represents the\nother extreme wing known as the \u201cother-power,\u201d and these two extremes\nare synthesised in the enlightened Buddha-consciousness.\n\nSince the publication of my short note on Zen Buddhism in the _Journal\nof the Pali Text Society_, 1907, nothing of importance has been\npublished in English on the subject except Professor Kwaiten Nukariya\u2019s\n_Religion of the Samurai_, 1913. In fact, even in Japanese or Chinese,\nthis branch of Buddhism has received very slight attention from modern\nwriters of Buddhism. This is due to the peculiar difficulties which\naccompany the study of it. The \u201cGoroku\u201d[f1][1] (sayings) is the only\nliterary form in which Zen expresses itself; and to understand it\nrequires some special practical training in Zen, for mere knowledge\nof the Chinese, classical and historical, is far from being enough;\neven with the masterly understanding of the philosophy of general\nBuddhism, Zen is found quite hard to fathom. Some of such scholars\nsometimes try to explain the truth and development of Zen, but they\nsadly fail to do justice to the subject.\n\nOn the other hand, the Zen masters so called are unable to present\ntheir understanding in the light of modern thought. Their most\nintellectually-productive years are spent in the Meditation Hall,\nand when they successively graduate from it, they are looked up to\nas adepts thoroughly versed in the k\u014d-ans.[2] So far so good; but,\nunfortunately from the scholarly point of view, they remain contented\nwith this, and do not show any lively intellectual interest in the\npsychology and philosophy of Zen. Thus Zen is left to lie quietly\nsealed up in the \u201cSayings\u201d of the masters and in the technical study of\nthe k\u014d-ans; it is thus incapacitated to walk out of the seclusion of\nthe cloisters.\n\nOf course, great mistake it would be if one should ever take the notion\neven for a moment that Zen could be mastered from its philosophical\npresentation or its psychological description; but this ought not to\nmean that Zen is not to be intelligently approached or to be made\nsomewhat accessible by our ordinary means of reasoning. I need not\nmention that my attempts in the following pages are anything but\nadequate for the rational treatment of the subject. But as a tentative\nexperiment to present Zen from our common-sense point of view and as a\ndirect lineage of Buddhist faith as first proclaimed or rather realised\nby the Buddha, I hope I have worked towards removing some of the\ndifficulties usually besetting us in the mastery of Zen thought. How\nfar I have succeeded or how utterly I have failed,\u2014this is naturally\nfor the reader to judge.\n\nThe book is a collection of the Essays originally published in _The\nEastern Buddhist_ except one on the \u201cHistory of Zen Buddhism\u201d which\nwas written specially for this volume; but all of them have been\nthoroughly revised and in some parts entirely re-written and\nnew chapters added. The book will be followed by a second series of\nEssays before long, in which some more of the important points in the\nconstitution of Zen will be treated.\n\nThe publication of these Essays in bookform is principally due to the\nmost liberal encouragement, both material and moral, of Mr Yakichi\nAtaka, of Osaka, who is an old friend of the author\u2019s and who has not\nforgotten the pledge half-seriously and half-dreamily made in our\nyouthful days. The author also owes a great deal to his wife in the\npreparation and revision of the MS, without which the book would have\nshown many more imperfections than it does now in various ways.\n\nLastly, in sending this humble work, not written in the author\u2019s native\ntongue, out to the world, he cannot help thinking of his late teacher\nin Zen, Soyen Shaku, of Engakuji, Kamakura, with regret that his life\nhad not been spared for several years yet, not only for the sake of\nJapanese Buddhism but for many of his lamenting friends. This is the\nseventh autumn for the maple-trees to scatter their crimson leaves over\nhis grave at Matsu-ga-oka. Might his spirit not for once be awakened\nfrom deep meditation and criticise the book now before the reader!\n\n                                          Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki\n\n_Kyoto, October,_ 1926\n\n\n\n\n                               CONTENTS\n\n\n                                                                   PAGE\n  Preface                                                             v\n\n                                 ESSAY I\n  Introduction                                                        1\n\n                                 ESSAY II\n  Zen as the Chinese Interpretation of the Doctrine of Enlightenment 26\n\n                                ESSAY III\n  Enlightenment and Ignorance                                       105\n\n                                 ESSAY IV\n  History of Zen Buddhism in China, from Bodhi-dharma to the Sixth\n  Patriarch (Hui-n\u00eang)                                              149\n\n                                 ESSAY V\n  Satori                                                            213\n\n                                 ESSAY VI\n  Practical Methods of Zen Instruction                              251\n\n                             ESSAY VII\n  The Meditation Hall and the Ideals of Zen Life                    299\n\n                               ESSAY VIII\n  The Ten Cow-Herding Pictures                                      347\n\n                                  APPENDIX\n  Chinese Notes                                                     367\n\n  Index                                                             413\n\n\n\n\n                             INTRODUCTION\n\n\n                           INTRODUCTION[f2]\n\nZen in its essence is the art of seeing into the nature of one\u2019s own\nbeing, and it points the way from bondage to freedom. By making us\ndrink right from the fountain of life, it liberates us from all the\nyokes under which we finite beings are usually suffering in this world.\nWe can say that Zen liberates all the energies properly and naturally\nstored in each of us, which are in ordinary circumstances cramped and\ndistorted so that they find no adequate channel for activity. This body\nof ours is something like an electric battery in which a mysterious\npower latently lies. When this power is not properly brought into\noperation, it either grows mouldy and withers away or is warped and\nexpresses itself abnormally. It is the object of Zen, therefore, to\nsave us from going crazy or being crippled. This is what I mean by\nfreedom, giving free play to all the creative and benevolent impulses\ninherently lying in our hearts. Generally, we are blind to this fact,\nthat we are in possession of all the necessary faculties that will\nmake us happy and loving towards one another. All the struggles that\nwe see around us come from this ignorance. Zen, therefore, wants us to\nopen a \u201cthird eye,\u201d as Buddhists call it, to the hitherto undreamed-of\nregion shut away from us through our own ignorance. When the cloud of\nignorance disappears, the infinity of the heavens is manifested where\nwe see for the first time into the nature of our own being. We now\nknow the signification of life, we know that it is not blind striving,\nnor is it a mere display of brutal forces, but that while we know not\ndefinitely what the ultimate purport of life is, there is something in\nit that makes us feel infinitely blessed in the living of it and\nremain quite contented with it in all its evolution, without raising\nquestions or entertaining pessimistic doubts.\n\nWhen we are full of vitality and not yet awakened to the knowledge\nof life, we cannot comprehend the seriousness of all the conflicts\ninvolved in it which are apparently for the moment in a state of\nquiescence. But sooner or later the time will come when we have to\nface life squarely and solve its most perplexing and most pressing\nriddles. Says Confucius, \u201cAt fifteen my mind was directed to study, and\nat thirty I knew where to stand.\u201d This is one of the wisest sayings of\nthe Chinese sage. Psychologists will all agree to this statement of\nhis; for, generally speaking, fifteen is about the age youth begins to\nlook around seriously and inquire into the meaning of life. All the\nspiritual powers until now securely hidden in the subconscious part\nof the mind break out almost simultaneously. And when this breaking\nout is too precipitous and violent, the mind may lose its balance more\nor less permanently; in fact, so many cases of nervous prostration\nreported during adolescence are chiefly due to this loss of the mental\nequilibrium. In most cases the effect is not very grave and the crisis\nmay pass without leaving deep marks. But in some characters, either\nthrough their inherent tendencies or on account of the influence of\nenvironment upon their plastic constitution, the spiritual awakening\nstirs them up to the very depths of their personality. This is the\ntime you will be asked to choose between the \u201cEverlasting No\u201d and the\n\u201cEverlasting Yea.\u201d This choosing is what Confucius means by \u201cstudy,\u201d it\nis not studying the classics, but deeply delving into the mysteries of\nlife.\n\nNormally, the outcome of the struggle is the \u201cEverlasting Yea,\u201d or \u201cLet\nthy will be done\u201d; for life is after all a form of affirmation however\nnegatively it might be conceived by the pessimists. But we cannot deny\nthe fact that there are many things in this world which will turn our\ntoo sensitive minds towards the other direction and make us exclaim\nwith Andreyev in \u201cThe Life of Man\u201d: \u201cI curse everything that you have\ngiven. I curse the day on which I was born. I curse the day on which I\nshall die. I curse the whole of my life. I fling everything back at\nyour cruel face, senseless Fate! Be accursed, be forever accursed! With\nmy curses I conquer you. What else can you do to me?... With my last\nthought I will shout into your asinine ears: Be accursed, be accursed!\u201d\nThis is a terrible indictment of life, it is a complete negation of\nlife, it is a most dismal picture of the destiny of man on earth.\n\u201cLeaving no trace\u201d is quite true, for we know nothing of our future\nexcept that we all pass away including the very earth from which we\nhave come. There are certainly things justifying pessimism.\n\nLife, as most of us live it, is suffering. There is no denying the\nfact. As long as life is a form of struggle, it cannot be anything but\npain. Does not a struggle mean the impact of two conflicting forces,\neach trying to get the upperhand of the other? If the battle is lost,\nthe outcome is death, and death is the fearsomest thing in the world.\nEven when death is conquered, one is left alone, and the loneliness\nis sometimes more unbearable than the struggle itself. One may not\nbe conscious of all this, and may go on indulging in those momentary\npleasures that are afforded by the senses. But this being unconscious\ndoes not in the least alter the facts of life. However insistently the\nblind may deny the existence of the sun, they cannot annihilate it.\nThe tropical heat will mercilessly scorch them, and if they do not\ntake proper care, they will all be wiped away from the surface of the\nearth. The Buddha was perfectly right when he propounded his \u201cFourfold\nNoble Truth\u201d the first of which is that life is pain. Did not everyone\nof us come to this world screaming and in a way protesting? To come\nout into cold and prohibitive surroundings after a soft, warm motherly\nwomb was surely a painful incident to say the least. Growth is always\nattended with pain. Teething is more or less a painful process. Puberty\nis usually accompanied with a mental as well as a physical disturbance.\nThe growth of the organism called society is also marked with painful\ncataclysms, and we are at present witnessing one of its birth-throes.\nWe may calmly reason and say that this is all inevitable, that inasmuch\nas every reconstruction means the destruction of the old regime,\nwe cannot help going through a painful operation. But this cold\nintellectual analysis does not alleviate whatever harrowing feelings\nwe have to undergo. The pain heartlessly inflicted on our nerves is\nineradicable. Life is, after all arguing, a painful struggle.\n\nThis however is providential. For the more you suffer the deeper grows\nyour character, and with the deepening of your character you read the\nmore penetratingly into the secrets of life. All great artists, all\ngreat religious leaders, and all great social reformers have come out\nof the intensest struggles which they fought bravely, quite frequently\nin tears and with bleeding hearts. Unless you eat your bread in sorrow,\nyou cannot taste of real life. Mencius is right when he says that when\nHeaven wants to perfect a great man it tries him in every possible way\nuntil he comes out triumphantly from all his painful experiences. To\nme Oscar Wilde seems always posing or striving for an effect; he may\nbe a great artist, but there is something in him that turns me away\nfrom him. Yet he exclaims in his _De Profundis_: \u201cDuring the last few\nmonths I have, after terrible difficulties and struggles, been able to\ncomprehend some of the lessons hidden in the heart of pain. Clergymen\nand people who use phrases without wisdom sometimes talk of suffering\nas a mystery. It is really a revelation. One discerns things one never\ndiscerned before. One approaches the whole of history from a different\nstandpoint.\u201d You will observe here what sanctifying effects his prison\nlife produced on his character. If he had had to go through a similar\ntrial in the beginning of his career, he might have been able to\nproduce far greater works than those we have of him at present.\n\nWe are too ego-centred. The ego-shell in which we live is the hardest\nthing to outgrow. We seem to carry it all the time from childhood up\nto the time we finally pass away. We are, however, given many chances\nto break through this shell, and the first and greatest of them is\nwhen we reach adolescence. This is the first time the ego really comes\nto recognise the \u201cother.\u201d I mean the awakening of sexual love. An ego,\nentire and undivided, now begins to feel a sort of split in itself.\nLove hitherto dormant deep in his heart lifts its head and causes\na great commotion in it. For the love now stirred demands at once\nthe assertion of the ego and its annihilation. Love makes the ego\nlose itself in the object it loves, and yet at the same time it wants\nto have the object as its own. This is a contradiction, and a great\ntragedy of life. This elemental feeling must be one of the divine\nagencies whereby man is urged to advance in his upward walk. God\ngives tragedies to perfect man. The greatest bulk of literature ever\nproduced in this world is but the harping on the same string of love,\nand we never seem to grow weary of it. But this is not the topic we\nare concerned with here. What I want to emphasise in this connection\nis this, that through the awakening of love we get a glimpse into the\ninfinity of things, and that this glimpse urges youth to Romanticism\nor to Rationalism according to his temperament and environment and\neducation.\n\nWhen the ego-shell is broken and the \u201cother\u201d is taken into its own\nbody, we can say that the ego has denied itself or that the ego has\ntaken its first steps towards the infinite. Religiously, here ensues\nan intense struggle between the finite and the infinite, between the\nintellect and a higher power, or, more plainly, between the flesh and\nthe spirit. This is the problem of problems that has driven many a\nyouth into the hands of Satan. When a grown-up man looks back to these\nyouthful days, he cannot but feel a sort of shudder going through\nhis entire frame. The struggle to be fought in sincerity may go on\nup to the age of thirty when Confucius states that he knew where to\nstand. The religious consciousness is now fully awakened, and all the\npossible ways of escaping from the struggle or bringing it to an end\nare most earnestly sought in every direction. Books are read, lectures\nare attended, sermons are greedily taken in, and various religious\nexercises or disciplines are tried. And naturally Zen too comes to be\ninquired into.\n\nHow does Zen solve the problem of problems?\n\nIn the first place, Zen proposes its solution by directly appealing\nto facts of personal experience and not to book-knowledge. The nature\nof one\u2019s own being where apparently rages the struggle between the\nfinite and the infinite is to be grasped by a higher faculty than the\nintellect. For Zen says it is the latter that first made us raise\nthe question which it could not answer by itself, and that therefore\nit is to be put aside to make room for something higher and more\nenlightening. For the intellect has a peculiarly disquieting quality\nin it. Though it raises questions enough to disturb the serenity of\nthe mind, it is too frequently unable to give satisfactory answers\nto them. It upsets the blissful peace of ignorance and yet it does\nnot restore the former state of things by offering something else.\nBecause it points out ignorance, it is often considered illuminating,\nwhereas the fact is that it disturbs, not necessarily always bringing\nlight on its path. It is not final, it waits for something higher than\nitself for the solution of all the questions it will raise regardless\nof consequences. If it were able to bring a new order into the\ndisturbance and settle it once for all, there would have been no need\nfor philosophy after it had been first systematised by a great thinker,\nby an Aristotle, or by a Hegel. But the history of thought proves that\neach new structure raised by a man of extraordinary intellect is sure\nto be pulled down by the succeeding ones. This constant pulling down\nand building up is all right as far as philosophy itself is concerned;\nfor the inherent nature of the intellect, as I take it, demands it and\nwe cannot put a stop to the progress of philosophical inquiries any\nmore than to our breathing. But when it comes to the question of life\nitself we cannot wait for the ultimate solution to be offered by the\nintellect even if it could do so. We cannot suspend even for a moment\nour life-activity for philosophy to unravel its mysteries. Let the\nmysteries remain as they are, but live we must. The hungry cannot wait\nuntil a complete analysis of food is obtained and the nourishing value\nof each element is determined. For the dead the scientific knowledge\nof food will be of no use whatever. Zen therefore does not rely on the\nintellect for the solution of its deepest problems.\n\nBy personal experience it is meant to get at the fact at first hand\nand not through any intermediary whatever this may be. Its favorite\nanalogy is: to point at the moon a finger is needed, but woe to\nthose who take the finger for the moon; a basket is welcome to carry\nour fish home, but when the fish are safely on the table why should\nwe eternally bother ourselves with the basket? Here stands the fact,\nand let us grasp it with the naked hands lest it should slip away\u2014this\nis what Zen proposes to do. As nature abhors a vacuum, Zen abhors\nanything coming between the fact and ourselves. According to Zen, there\nis no struggle in the fact itself such as between the finite and the\ninfinite, between the flesh and the spirit. These are idle distinctions\nfictitiously designed by the intellect for its own interest. Those who\ntake them too seriously or those who try to read them into the very\nfact of life are those who take the finger for the moon. When we are\nhungry we eat; when we are sleepy we lay ourselves down; and where\ndoes the infinite or the finite come in here? Are not we complete in\nourselves and each in himself? Life as it is lived suffices. It is only\nwhen the disquieting intellect steps in and tries to murder it that\nwe stop to live and imagine ourselves to be short of or in something.\nLet the intellect alone, it has its usefulness in its proper sphere,\nbut let it not interfere with the flowing of the life-stream. If you\nare at all tempted to look into it, do so while letting it flow. The\nfact of flowing must under no circumstances be arrested or meddled\nwith; for the moment your hands are dipped into it, its transparency is\ndisturbed, it ceases to reflect your image which you have had from the\nvery beginning and will continue to have to the end of time.\n\nAlmost corresponding to the \u201cFour Maxims\u201d of the Nichiren Sect, Zen has\nits own four statements:\n\n  \u201cA special transmission outside the Scriptures;\n   No dependence upon words and letters;\n   Direct pointing to the soul of man;\n   Seeing into one\u2019s nature and the attainment of Buddhahood.\u201d[f3][1.1]\n\nThis sums up all that is claimed by Zen as religion. Of course we\nmust not forget that there is a historical background to this bold\npronunciamento. At the time of the introduction of Zen into China,\nmost of the Buddhists were addicted to the discussion of highly\nmetaphysical questions, or satisfied with the merely observing of\nthe ethical precepts laid down by the Buddha or with the leading\nof a lethargic life entirely absorbed in the contemplation of the\nevanescence of things worldly. They all missed apprehending the great\nfact of life itself which flows altogether outside of these vain\nexercises of the intellect or of the imagination. Bodhi-Dharma and\nhis successors recognised this pitiful state of affairs. Hence their\nproclamation of \u201cThe Four Great Statements\u201d of Zen as above cited. In\na word they mean that Zen has its own way of pointing to the nature of\none\u2019s own being and that when this is done, one attains to Buddhahood\nin which all the contradictions and disturbances caused by the\nintellect are entirely harmonised in a unity of higher order.\n\nFor this reason Zen never explains but indicates, it does not\nappeal to circumlocution, nor does it generalise. It always deals\nwith facts, concrete and tangible. Logically considered, Zen may be\nfull of contradictions and repetitions. But as it stands above all\nthings, it goes serenely on its own way. As a Zen master aptly puts\nit, \u201ccarrying his home-made cane on the shoulder, he goes right on\namong the mountains one rising above another.\u201d It does not challenge\nlogic, it simply walks its path of facts, leaving all the rest to\ntheir own fates. It is only when logic neglecting its proper functions\ntries to step into the track of Zen that it loudly proclaims its\nprinciples and forcibly drives out the intruder. Zen is not an enemy\nof anything. There is no reason why it should antagonise the intellect\nwhich may sometimes be utilised for the cause of Zen itself. To show\nsome examples of Zen\u2019s direct dealing with the fundamental facts of\nexistence, the following are selected:\n\nRinzai[f4][1.2] (Lin-chi) once delivered a sermon, saying \u201cOver a mass\nof reddish flesh there sits a true man who has no title; he is all the\ntime coming in and out from your sense-organs. If you have not yet\ntestified to the fact, Look! Look!\u201d A monk came forward and asked,\n\u201cWho is this true man of no title?\u201d Rinzai came right down from his\nstraw-chair and taking hold of the monk exclaimed, \u201cSpeak! Speak!\u201d The\nmonk remained irresolute not knowing what to say, whereupon the master\nletting him go remarked, \u201cWhat worthless stuff is this true man of no\ntitle!\u201d Rinzai then went straight back to his room.[1.3]\n\nRinzai was noted for his \u201crough\u201d and direct treatment of his disciples.\nHe never liked those roundabout dealings which generally characterised\nthe methods of a lukewarm master. He must have got this directness\nfrom his own teacher Obaku (Huang-nieh),[1.4] by whom he was struck\nthree times by asking what the fundamental principle of Buddhism was.\nIt goes without saying that Zen has nothing to do with mere striking\nor roughly shaking the questioner. If you take this as constituting\nthe essentials of Zen, you would commit the same gross error as one\nwho took the finger for the moon. As in everything else, but most\nparticularly in Zen, all its outward manifestations or demonstrations\nmust never be regarded as final. They just indicate the way where to\nlook for the facts. Therefore these indicators are important, we cannot\ndo well without them. But once caught in them which are like entangling\nmeshes we are doomed; for Zen can never be comprehended. Some may\nthink Zen is always trying to catch you in the net of logic or by the\nsnare of words. If you once slip your steps, you are bound for eternal\ndamnation, you will never get to freedom for which your hearts are so\nburning. Therefore, Rinzai grasps with his naked hands what is directly\npresented to us all. If a third eye of ours is opened undimmed, we\nshall know in a most unmistakable manner where Rinzai is driving us.\nWe have first of all to get into the very spirit of the master and\ninterview the inner man right there. No amount of wordy explanations\nwill ever lead us into the nature of our own selves. The more you\nexplain, the further it runs away from you. It is like trying to get\nhold of your own shadow. You run after it and it runs with you at the\nidentical rate of speed. When you realise it, you read deep into the\nspirit of Rinzai or Obaku, and their real kind-heartedness will begin\nto be appreciated.\n\nUmmon[f5][1.5] (Y\u00fcn-m\u00ean), was another great master of Zen at the\nend of the T\u2018ang dynasty. He had to lose one of his legs in order to\nget an insight into the life-principle from which the whole universe\ntakes rise, including his own humble existence. He had to visit his\nteacher Bokuju (Mu-chou)[1.6] who was a senior disciple of Rinzai\nunder Obaku, three times before he was admitted to see him. The master\nasked, \u201cWho are you?\u201d \u201cI am Bun-yen (W\u00ean-yen),\u201d answered the monk.\n(Bun-yen was his name, while Ummon was the name of the monastery where\nhe was settled later). When the truth-seeking monk was allowed to go\ninside the gate, the master took hold of him by the chest and demanded,\n\u201cSpeak! Speak!\u201d Ummon hesitated, whereupon the master pushed him out of\nthe gate, saying, \u201cOh, you good-for-nothing fellow!\u201d[f6][1.7] While the\ngate was hastily shut, one of Ummon\u2019s legs was caught and broken. The\nintense pain resulting from this apparently awakened the poor fellow to\nthe greatest fact of life. He was no more a solicitous, pity-begging\nmonk, the realisation now gained paid more than enough for the loss of\nhis leg. He was not however a solitary instance in this respect, there\nwere many such in the history of Zen who were willing to sacrifice a\npart of the body for the truth. Says Confucius: \u201cIf a man understands\nthe Tao in the morning, it is well with him even when he dies in the\nevening.\u201d Some would feel indeed that truth is of more value than mere\nliving, mere vegetative or animal living. But in the world, alas,\nthere are so many living corpses wallowing in the mud of ignorance and\nsensuality.\n\nThis is where Zen is most difficult to understand. Why this sarcastic\nvituperation? Why this seeming heartlessness? What fault had Ummon\nto deserve the loss of his leg? He was a poor truth-seeking monk,\nearnestly anxious to get enlightenment from the master. Was it really\nnecessary for the latter from his way of understanding Zen to shut him\nout three times, and when the gate was half opened to close it again\nso violently, so inhumanly? Was this the truth of Buddhism Ummon was\nso eager to get? But the outcome of all this singularly was what\nwas desired by both of them. As to the master, he was satisfied to\nsee the disciple attain an insight into the secrets of his being; and\nas regards the disciple he was most grateful for all that was done to\nhim. Evidently, Zen is the most irrational, inconceivable thing in\nthe world. And this is why I said before that Zen was not subject to\nlogical analysis or to intellectual treatment. It must be directly and\npersonally experienced by each of us in his inner spirit. Just as two\nstainless mirrors reflect each other, the fact and our own spirits must\nstand facing each other with no intervening agents. When this is done,\nwe are able to seize upon the living, pulsating fact itself.\n\nFreedom is an empty word until then. The first object was to escape\nthe bondage in which all finite beings find themselves, but if we do\nnot cut asunder the very chain of ignorance with which we are bound\nhands and feet, where shall we look for deliverance? And this chain of\nignorance is wrought of nothing else but the intellect and sensuous\ninfatuation, which cling tightly to every thought we may have, to every\nfeeling we may entertain. They are hard to get rid of, they are like\nwet clothes as is aptly expressed by the Zen masters. \u201cWe are born\nfree and equal.\u201d Whatever this may mean socially or politically, Zen\nmaintains that it is absolutely true in the spiritual domain, and that\nall the fetters and manacles we seem to be carrying about ourselves\nare put on later through ignorance of the true condition of existence.\nAll the treatments, sometimes literary and sometimes physical,\nwhich are most liberally and kindheartedly given by the masters to\ninquiring souls, are intended to get them back to the original state\nof freedom. And this is never really realised until we once personally\nexperience it through our own efforts, independent of any ideational\nrepresentation. The ultimate standpoint of Zen, therefore, is that\nwe have been led astray through ignorance to find a split in our own\nbeing, that there was from the very beginning no need for a struggle\nbetween the finite and the infinite, that the peace we are seeking so\neagerly after has been there all the time. Sotoba (Su Tung-p\u2018o),[1.8]\nthe noted Chinese poet and statesman, expresses the idea in the\nfollowing verse:\n\n  \u201cMisty rain on Mount Lu,\n   And waves surging in Ch\u00ea-chiang;\n   When you have not yet been there,\n   Many a regret surely you have;\n   But once there and homeward you wend,\n   And how matter-of-fact things look!\n   Misty rain on Mount Lu,\n   And waves surging in Ch\u00ea-chiang.\u201d[9]\n\nThis is what is also asserted by Seigen Ishin (Ch\u2018ing-y\u00fcan Wei-hsin),\naccording to whom, \u201cBefore a man studies Zen, to him mountains are\nmountains and waters are waters; after he gets an insight into the\ntruth of Zen through the instruction of a good master, mountains to him\nare not mountains and waters are not waters; but after this when he\nreally attains to the abode of rest, mountains are once more mountains\nand waters are waters.\u201d[1.10]\n\nBokuju (Mu-chou) who lived in the latter half of the ninth century, was\nonce asked, \u201cWe have to dress and eat every day, and how can we escape\nfrom all that?\u201d The master replied, \u201cWe dress, we eat.\u201d \u201cI do not\nunderstand you,\u201d said the questioner. \u201cIf you don\u2019t understand put your\ndress on and eat your food.\u201d[1.11]\n\nZen always deals in concrete facts and does not indulge in\ngeneralisation. And I do not wish to add unnecessary legs to the\npainted snake, but if I try to waste my philosophical comments on\nBokuju, I may say this. We are all finite, we cannot live out of time\nand space; inasmuch as we are earth-created, there is no way to grasp\nthe infinite, how can we deliver ourselves from the limitations of\nexistence? This is perhaps the idea put in the first question of the\nmonk, to which the master replies: Salvation must be sought in the\nfinite itself, there is nothing infinite apart from finite things; if\nyou seek something transcendental, that will cut you off from this\nworld of relativity, which is the same thing as the annihilation of\nyourself. You do not want salvation at the cost of your own existence.\nIf so, drink and eat, and find your way of freedom in this drinking\nand eating. This was too much for the questioner, who, therefore,\nconfessed himself as not understanding the meaning of the master.\nTherefore, the latter continued: Whether you understand or not, just\nthe same go on living in the finite, with the finite; for you die if\nyou stop eating and keeping yourself warm on account of your aspiration\nfor the infinite. No matter how you struggle, Nirvana is to be sought\nin the midst of Samsara (birth-and-death). Whether an enlightened Zen\nmaster or an ignoramus of the first degree, neither can escape the\nso-called laws of nature. When the stomach is empty, both are hungry;\nwhen it snows, both have to put on an extra flannel. I do not however\nmean that they are both material existences, but they are what they\nare, regardless of their conditions of spiritual development. As the\nBuddhist scriptures have it, the darkness of the cave itself turns into\nenlightenment when a torch of spiritual insight burns. It is not that\na thing called darkness is first taken out and another thing known by\nthe name of enlightenment is carried in later, but that enlightenment\nand darkness are substantially one and the same thing from the very\nbeginning, the change from the one to the other has taken place only\ninwardly or subjectively. Therefore, the finite is the infinite,\nand _vice versa_. These are not two separate things, though we are\ncompelled to conceive them so, intellectually. This is the idea,\nlogically interpreted, perhaps contained in Bokuju\u2019s answer given\nto the monk. The mistake consists in our splitting into two what is\nreally and absolutely one. Is not life one as we live it, which we cut\nto pieces by recklessly applying the murderous knife of intellectual\nsurgery?\n\nOn being requested by the monks to deliver a sermon, Hyakujo Nehan\n(Pai-chang Nieh-p\u2018an)[1.12] told them to work on the farm, after which\nhe would give them a talk on the great subject of Buddhism. They did as\nthey were told, and came to the master for a sermon, when the latter,\nwithout saying a word, merely extended his open arms towards the monks.\nPerhaps there is after all nothing mysterious in Zen. Everything is\nopen to your full view. If you eat your food and keep yourself cleanly\ndressed and work on the farm to raise your rice or vegetables, you are\ndoing all that is required of you on this earth, and the infinite\nis realised in you. How realised? When Bokuju was asked what Zen was,\nhe recited a Sanskrit phrase from a Sutra, \u201cMah\u0101praj\u00f1\u0101p\u0101ramit\u0101!\u201d\n(in Japanese, _Makahannyaharamii_!). The inquirer acknowledged his\ninability to understand the purport of the strange phrase, and the\nmaster put a comment on it, saying,\n\n  \u201cMy robe is all worn out after so many years\u2019 usage.\n   And parts of it in shreds loosely hanging have been blown away to\n     the clouds.\u201d[1.13]\n\nIs the infinite after all such a poverty-stricken mendicant?\n\nWhatever this is, there is one thing in this connection which we can\nnever afford to lose sight of, that is, the peace or poverty (for\npeace is only possible in poverty) is obtained after a fierce battle\nfought with the entire strength of your personality. A contentment\ngleaned from idleness or from a _laissez-faire_ attitude of mind is a\nthing most to be abhorred. There is no Zen in this, but sloth and mere\nvegetation. The battle must rage in its full vigour and masculinity.\nWithout it, whatever peace that obtains is a simulacrum, and it has no\ndeep foundation, the first storm it may encounter will crush it to the\nground. Zen is quite emphatic in this. Certainly, the moral virility to\nbe found in Zen, apart from its mystic flight, comes from the fighting\nof the battle of life courageously and undauntedly.\n\nFrom the ethical point of view, therefore, Zen may be considered a\ndiscipline aiming at the reconstruction of character. Our ordinary life\nonly touches the fringe of personality, it does not cause a commotion\nin the deepest parts of the soul. Even when the religious consciousness\nis awakened, most of us lightly pass over it so as to leave no marks\nof a bitter fighting on the soul. We are thus made to live on the\nsuperficiality of things. We may be clever, bright, and all that, but\nwhat we produce lacks depth, sincerity, and does not appeal to the\ninmost feelings. Some are utterly unable to create anything except\nmakeshifts or imitations betraying their shallowness of character and\nwant of spiritual experience. While Zen is primarily religious, it\nalso moulds our moral character. It may be better to say that a deep\nspiritual experience is bound to effect a change in the moral structure\nof one\u2019s personality.\n\nHow is this so?\n\nThe truth of Zen is such that when we want to comprehend it\npenetratingly we have to go through with a great struggle, sometimes\nvery long and exacting constant vigilance. To be disciplined in Zen\nis no easy task. A Zen master once remarked that the life of a monk\ncan be attained only by a man of great moral strength, and that even\na minister of the state cannot expect to become a successful monk.\n(Let us remark here that in China to be a minister of the state was\nconsidered to be the greatest achievement a man could ever hope for\nin this world.) Not that a monkish life requires the austere practice\nof asceticism, but that it implies the elevation of one\u2019s spiritual\npowers to their highest notch. All the utterances or activities of the\ngreat Zen masters have come from this elevation. They are not intended\nto be enigmatic or driving us to confusion. They are the overflowing\nof a soul filled with deep experiences. Therefore, unless we are\nourselves elevated to the same height as the masters, we cannot gain\nthe same commanding views of life. Says Ruskin: \u201cAnd be sure also, if\nthe author is worth anything, that you will not get at his meaning all\nat once,\u2014nay, that at his whole meaning you will not for a long time\narrive in any wise. Not that he does not say what he means, and in\nstrong words too; but he cannot say it all and what is more strange,\nwill not, but in a hidden way and in parable, in order that he may be\nsure you want it. I cannot see quite the reason of this, nor analyse\nthat cruel reticence in the breasts of wise men which makes them always\nhide their deeper thought. They do not give it you by way of help, but\nof reward, and will make themselves sure that you deserve it before\nthey allow you to reach it.\u201d And this key to the royal treasury of\nwisdom is given us only after patient and painful moral struggle.\n\nThe mind is ordinarily chock-full with all kinds of intellectual\nnonsense and passional rubbish. They are of course useful in their\nown ways in our daily life. There is no denying that. But it is\nchiefly because of these accumulations that we are made miserable\nand groan under the feeling of bondage. Each time we want to make a\nmovement, they fetter us, they choke us, and cast a heavy veil\nover our spiritual horizon. We feel as if we are constantly living\nunder restraint. We long for naturalness and freedom, yet we do not\nseem to attain them. The Zen masters know this, for they have gone\nthrough with the same experiences once. They want to have us get rid\nof all these wearisome burdens which we really do not have to carry\nin order to live a life of truth and enlightenment. Thus they utter a\nfew words and demonstrate with action that, when rightly comprehended,\nwill deliver us from the oppression and tyranny of these intellectual\naccumulations. But the comprehension does not come to us so easily.\nBeing so long accustomed to the oppression, the mental inertia becomes\nhard to remove. In fact it has gone down deep into the roots of our\nown being, and the whole structure of personality is to be overturned.\nThe process of reconstruction is stained with tears and blood. But the\nheight the great masters have climbed cannot otherwise be reached; the\ntruth of Zen can never be attained unless it is attacked with the full\nforce of personality. The passage is strewn with thistles and brambles,\nand the climb is slippery in the extreme. It is no pastime but the most\nserious task in life, no idlers will ever dare attempt it. It is indeed\na moral anvil on which your character is hammered and hammered. To the\nquestion, \u201cWhat is Zen?\u201d a master gave this answer, \u201cBoiling oil over\na blazing fire.\u201d[1.14] This scorching experience we have to go through\nwith before Zen smiles on us and says, \u201cHere is your home.\u201d\n\nOne of these utterances by the Zen masters that will stir a revolution\nin our minds is this: H\u014dkoji (P\u2018ang-y\u00fcn), formerly a Confucian, asked\nBaso (Ma-tsu, \u2013788), \u201cWhat kind of man is he who does not keep company\nwith any thing?\u201d Replied the master, \u201cI will tell you when you have\nswallowed up in one draught all the waters in the West River.\u201d[1.15]\nWhat an irrelevant reply to the most serious question one can ever\nraise in the history of thought! It sounds almost sacrilegious when\nwe know how many souls there are who go down under the weight of this\nquestion. But Baso\u2019s earnestness leaves no room for doubt as is quite\nwell known to all the students of Zen. In fact, the rise of Zen\nafter the sixth patriarch, Hui-n\u00eang, was due to the brilliant career of\nBaso under whom there arose more than eighty fully-qualified masters,\nand H\u014dkoji who was one of the foremost lay disciples of Zen, earned\na well-deserved reputation as the Vimalak\u012brti of Chinese Buddhism. A\ntalk between two such veteran Zen masters could not be an idle sport.\nHowever easy and even careless it may appear, there is hidden in it a\nmost precious gem in the literature of Zen. We do not know how many\nstudents of Zen were made to sweat and cry in tears because of the\ninscrutability of this statement of Baso\u2019s.\n\nTo give another instance: a monk asked the master Shin of Ch\u014dsa\n(Chang-sha Ching-ch\u2018\u00ean), \u201cWhere has Nansen (Nan-ch\u2018\u00fcan) gone after\nhis death?\u201d Replied the master, \u201cWhen Sekito (Shih-tou) was still in\nthe order of young novitiates, he saw the sixth patriarch.\u201d \u201cI am not\nasking about the young novitiate. What I wish to know is, where is\nNansen gone after his death?\u201d \u201cAs to that,\u201d said the master, \u201cit makes\none think.\u201d[1.16]\n\nThe immortality of the soul is another big question. The history of\nreligion is built upon this one question, one may almost say. Everybody\nwants to know about life after death. Where do we go when we pass away\nfrom this earth? Is there really another life? or is the end of this\nthe end of all? While there may be many who do not worry themselves\nas to the ultimate significance of the solitary, \u201ccompanionless\u201d One,\nthere are none perhaps who have not once at least in their lives\nasked themselves concerning their destiny after death. Whether Sekito\nwhen young saw the sixth patriarch or not, does not seem to have any\ninherent connection with the departure of Nansen. The latter was\nthe teacher of Ch\u014dsa, and naturally the monk asked him whither the\nteacher finally passed. Ch\u014dsa\u2019s answer is no answer, judged by the\nordinary rules of logic. Hence the second question, but still a sort\nof equivocation from the lips of the master. What does this \u201cmaking\none think\u201d explain? From this it is apparent that Zen is one thing\nand logic another. When we fail to make this distinction and expect\nof Zen to give us something logically consistent and intellectually\nilluminating, we altogether misinterpret the signification of Zen.\nDid I not state in the beginning that Zen deals with facts and not with\ngeneralisations? And this is the very point where Zen goes straight\ndown to the foundations of personality. The intellect ordinarily does\nnot lead us there, for we do not live in the intellect, but in the\nwill. Brother Lawrence speaks the truth when he says (\u201cThe Practice\nof the Presence of God\u201d), \u201cThat we ought to make a great difference\nbetween the acts of the understanding and those of the will: that the\nfirst were comparatively of little value, and the others, all.\u201d\n\nZen literature is all brimful of such statements, which seem to have\nbeen uttered so casually, so innocently, but those who actually know\nwhat Zen is will testify to the fact that all these utterances dropped\nso naturally from the lips of the masters are like deadly poisons,\nthat when they are once taken in they cause such a violent pain as\nto make one\u2019s intestines wriggle nine times and more, as the Chinese\nwould express it. But it is only after such pain and turbulence that\nall the internal impurities are purged and one is born with quite a\nnew outlook on life. It is strange that Zen grows intelligible when\nthese mental struggles are gone through. But the fact is that Zen is\nan experience actual and personal, and not a knowledge to be gained\nby analysis or comparison. \u201cDo not talk poetry except to a poet; only\nthe sick know how to sympathise with the sick.\u201d This explains the\nwhole situation. Our minds are to be so matured as to be in tune with\nthose of the masters. Let this be accomplished, and when one string\nis struck, the other will inevitably respond. Harmonious notes always\nresult from the sympathetic resonance of two or more chords. And what\nZen does for us is to prepare our minds to be yielding and appreciative\nrecipients of old masters. In other words, psychologically Zen releases\nwhatever energies we may have in store, of which we are not conscious\nin ordinary circumstances.\n\nSome say that Zen is self-suggestion. But this does not explain\nanything. When the word \u201cYamato-damashi\u201d is mentioned, it seems to\nawaken in most Japanese a fervent patriotic passion. The children are\ntaught to respect the flag of the rising sun, and when the soldiers\ncome in front of the regimental colours they involuntarily salute. When\na boy is reproached for not acting like a little samurai and disgracing\nthe name of his ancestor, he at once musters his courage and will\nresist temptations. All these ideas are energy-releasing ideas for\nthe Japanese, and this release, according to some psychologists, is\nself-suggestion. Social conventions and imitative instincts may also\nbe regarded as self-suggestions. So is moral discipline. An example is\ngiven to the students to follow or imitate it. The idea gradually takes\nroot in them through suggestion, and they finally come to act as if it\nwere their own. Self-suggestion is a barren theory, it does not explain\nanything. When they say that Zen is self-suggestion, do we get any\nclearer idea of Zen? Some think it scientific to call certain phenomena\nby a term newly come into fashion, and rest satisfied with it as if\nthey disposed of them in an illuminating way. The study of Zen must be\ntaken up by the profounder psychologists.\n\nSome think that there is still an unknown region in our consciousness\nwhich has not yet been thoroughly and systematically explored. It\nis sometimes called the Unconscious or the Subconscious. This is a\nterritory filled with dark images, and naturally most scientists are\nafraid of treading upon it. But this must not be taken as denying the\nfact of its existence. Just as our ordinary field of consciousness\nis filled with all possible kinds of images, beneficial and harmful,\nsystematic and confusing, clear and obscure, forcefully assertive and\nweakly fading; so is the Subconscious a storehouse of every form of\noccultism or mysticism, understanding by the term all that is known as\nlatent or abnormal or psychic or spiritualistic. The power to see into\nthe nature of one\u2019s own being may lie also hidden there, and what Zen\nawakens in our consciousness may be that. At any rate the masters speak\nfiguratively of the opening of a third eye. \u201cSatori\u201d is the popular\nname given to this opening or awakening.\n\nHow is this to be effected?\n\nBy meditating on those utterances or actions that are directly poured\nout from the inner region undimmed by the intellect or the\nimagination, and that are calculated successfully to exterminate all\nthe turmoils arising from ignorance and confusion.[f7]\n\nIt may be interesting to readers in this connection to get acquainted\nwith some of the methods[f8] used by the masters in order to open the\nspiritual eye of the disciple. It is natural that they frequently make\nuse of the various religious insignia which they carry when going\nout to the Hall of the Dharma. Such are generally the \u201chossu,\u201d[f9]\n\u201cshippe,\u201d[f10] \u201cnyoi,\u201d[f11] or \u201cshujyo\u201d (or a staff).[1.17] The\nlast-mentioned seems to have been the most favourite instrument used in\nthe demonstration of the truth of Zen. Let me cite some examples of its\nuse.\n\nAccording to Y\u00ea-ryo (Hui-l\u00eang), of Ch\u014dkei (Chang-ch\u2018ing),[1.18] \u201cwhen\none knows what that staff is, one\u2019s life study of Zen comes to an end.\u201d\nThis reminds us of Tennyson\u2019s flower in the crannied wall. For when we\nunderstand the reason of the staff, we know \u201cwhat God and man is,\u201d that\nis to say, we get an insight into the nature of our own being, and this\ninsight finally puts a stop to all the doubts and hankerings that have\nupset our mental tranquillity. The significance of the staff in Zen can\nthus readily be comprehended.\n\nY\u00ea-sei (Hui-ch\u2018ing), of Basho (Pa-chiao), probably of the tenth\ncentury, once made the following declaration: \u201cWhen you have a staff,\nI will give you one; when you have none, I will take it away from\nyou.\u201d[1.19] This is one of the most characteristic statements of\nZen, but later Bokitsu (Mu-chi), of Daiyi (Ta-wei), was bold enough\nto challenge this by saying what directly contradicts it, viz., \u201cAs\nto myself, I differ from him. When you have a staff, I will take it\naway from you; and when you have none, I will give you one. This\nis my statement. Can you make use of the staff? or can you not? If\nyou can, Tokusan (T\u00ea-shan) will be your vanguard and Rinzai (Lin-chi)\nyour rearguard. But if you cannot, let it be restored to its original\nmaster.\u201d[1.20]\n\nA monk approached Bokuju and said, \u201cWhat is the statement surpassing\n[the wisdom of] all Buddhas and Patriarchs?\u201d The master instantly\nheld forth his staff before the congregation, and said, \u201cI call this\na staff, and what do you call it?\u201d The monk who asked the question\nuttered not a word. The master holding it out again, said, \u201cA statement\nsurpassing [the wisdom of] all Buddhas and Patriarchs,\u2014was that not\nyour question, O monk?\u201d[1.21]\n\nTo those who carelessly go over such remarks as Bokuju\u2019s may regard\nthem as quite nonsensical. Whether the stick is called a staff or\nnot, it does not seem to matter very much as far as the divine wisdom\nsurpassing the limits of our knowledge is concerned. But the one made\nby Ummon, another great master of Zen, is perhaps more accessible. He\nalso once lifted his staff before a congregation and remarked: \u201cIn the\nscriptures we read that the ignorant take this for a real thing, the\nHinayanists resolve it into a nonentity, the Pratyekabuddhas regard it\nas a hallucination, while the Bodhisattvas admit its apparent reality,\nwhich is, however, essentially empty.\u201d \u201cBut,\u201d continued the master,\n\u201cmonks, you simply call it a staff when you see one. Walk or sit as you\nwill, but do not stand irresolute.\u201d[1.22]\n\nThe same old insignificant staff and yet more mystical statements\nfrom Ummon. One day his announcement was: \u201cMy staff has turned into\na dragon, and it has swallowed up the whole universe; where would\nthe great earth with its mountains and rivers be?\u201d[1.23] On another\noccasion, Ummon, quoting an ancient Buddhist philosopher who said\nthat \u201cKnock at the emptiness of space and you hear a voice; strike a\npiece of wood and there is no sound,\u201d Ummon took out his staff, and\nstriking space, he cried, \u201cOh, how it hurts!\u201d Then tapping at the\nboard, he asked, \u201cAny noise?\u201d A monk responded, \u201cYes, there is a\nnoise.\u201d[f12][1.24] Thereupon exclaimed the master, \u201cO you ignoramus!\u201d\n\nIf I go on like this, there will be no end. So I stop, but expect\nsome of you asking me the following questions: \u201cHave these utterances\nanything to do with one\u2019s seeing into the nature of one\u2019s being? Is\nthere any relationship possible between those apparently nonsensical\ntalks about the staff and the all-important problem of the reality of\nlife?\u201d\n\nIn answer I append these two passages, one from Jimyo (Tz\u2018u-ming)[1.26]\nand the other from Yengo (Y\u00fcan-wu): In one of his sermons, Jimyo said:\n\u201cAs soon as one particle of dust is raised, the great earth manifests\nitself there in its entirety. In one lion are revealed millions of\nlions, and in millions of lions is revealed one lion. Thousands and\nthousands of them there are indeed, but know ye just one, one only.\u201d So\nsaying he lifted up his staff, and continued, \u201cHere is my own staff,\nand where is that one lion?\u201d Bursting out into a \u201cKwats\u201d (_h\u00ea_), he set\nthe staff down, and left the pulpit.\n\nIn the _Hekigan_ (Pi-yen-lu),[f13] Yengo expresses the same idea in his\nintroductory remark to the \u201cone finger Zen\u201d of Gutei (_Ch\u016bh-chih i chih\nt\u2018ou ch\u2018an_)[f14]:[1.27]\n\n\u201cOne particle of dust is raised and the great earth lies therein;\none flower blooms and the universe rises with it. But where should\nour eye be fixed when the dust is not yet stirred and the flower has\nnot yet bloomed? Therefore, it is said that, like cutting a bundle\nof thread, one cut cuts all asunder; again, like dyeing a bundle of\nthread, one dyeing dyes all in the same colour. Now yourself get out of\nall the entangling relations and rip them up to pieces, but do not lose\ntrack of your inner treasure; for it is through this that the high and\nthe low universally responding and the advanced and the backward making\nno distinction, each manifests itself in full perfection.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe foregoing sketch of Zen I hope will give the reader a general,\nthough necessarily vague, idea of Zen as it is and has been taught in\nthe Far East for more than one thousand years. In what follows I will\ntry first to seek the origin of Zen in the spiritual enlightenment\nitself of the Buddha; for Zen has been frequently criticised for\ndeviating too far from what is popularly understood to be the teaching\nof the Buddha as it is recorded especially in the \u0100gamas or Nik\u0101yas.\nWhile Zen, as it is, is no doubt the native product of the Chinese\nmind, the line of its development must be traced back to the personal\nexperience of the Indian founder himself. Unless this is understood in\nconnection with the psychological characteristics of the people, the\ngrowth of Zen among the Chinese Buddhists would be unintelligible. Zen\nis after all one of the Mahayana schools of Buddhism shorn of its\nIndian garb. Next I have tried to write a history of Zen in China after\nBodhi-Dharma, who is the real author of the school. Zen was quietly\nmatured and transmitted by the five successive patriarchs so-called\nafter the passing of the first propagator from India. When Hui-n\u00eang,\nthe sixth patriarch, began to teach the gospel of Zen Buddhism, it\nwas no more Indian but thoroughly Chinese, and what we call Zen now\nin the form as we have it, dates from him. The course thus definitely\ngiven shape by the sixth patriarch to the development of Zen in China\ngained its strength not only in volume but in content by the masterful\nhandling of it by the spiritual descendants of Hui-n\u00eang. The first\nsection of the Chinese history of Zen therefore naturally closes with\nhim. As the central fact of Zen lies in the attainment of \u201csatori\u201d or\nthe opening of a spiritual eye, I have next dwelt upon the subject.\nThe treatment is somewhat popular, for the main idea is to present\nthe fact that there is such a thing as an intuitional understanding\nof the truth of Zen, which is \u201csatori,\u201d and also to illustrate the\nuniqueness of \u201csatori\u201d as experienced by Zen devotees. When we\nunderstand the significance of \u201csatori\u201d in Zen, we may logically wish\nto know something about the methods whereby the masters contrive to\nbring about such a revolutionary experience, more or less noetic, in\nthe minds of the students. Some of the practical Zen methods resorted\nto by the masters are classified under a certain number of headings,\nbut in this classification I have not attempted to be thoroughly\nexhaustive here. The Meditation Hall is an institution quite peculiar\nto Zen Buddhism, and those who want to know something about Zen and\nits educational system cannot afford to ignore the subject. This\nunique organ of Zen Buddhism however has never been described before.\nThe reader I hope will find here a subject interesting enough for his\nthorough investigation. While Zen claims to be the \u201cultra-abrupt\u201d wing\nof Buddhism, it has a well-marked gradation in its progress towards the\nultimate goal. Hence the concluding chapter on \u201cThe Ten Cow-herding\nPictures.\u201d\n\nThere are many more topics with which one ought to be acquainted in\nthe study of Zen Buddhism, and some of them, considered by the author\nthe more important, will be treated in the second series of the Essays.\n\n\n\n\n    ZEN AS CHINESE INTERPRETATION OF THE DOCTRINE OF ENLIGHTENMENT\n\n\n    ZEN AS CHINESE INTERPRETATION OF THE DOCTRINE OF ENLIGHTENMENT\n\n                              _Foreword_\n\nBefore I proceed to the discussion of the main idea of this essay,\nwhich is to consider Zen the Chinese way of applying the doctrine of\nEnlightenment in our practical life, I wish to make some preliminary\nremarks concerning the attitude of some Zen critics and thereby to\ndefine the position of Zen in the general body of Buddhism. According\nto them, Zen Buddhism is not Buddhism, it is something foreign to the\nspirit of Buddhism, and that it is one of those aberrations which we\noften see growing up in the history of any religion. Zen is thus,\nthey think, an abnormality prevailing among the people whose thought\nand feeling flow along a channel different from the main current of\nBuddhist thought. Whether this allegation is true or not, will be\ndecided, on the one hand, when we understand what is really the essence\nor genuine spirit of Buddhism, and, on the other, when we know the\nexact status of Zen doctrine in regard to the ruling ideas of Buddhism\nas they are accepted in the Far East. It may also be desirable to know\nsomething about the development of religious experience in general.\nWhen we are not prepared thoroughly to understand these questions\nin the light of the history and philosophy of religion, we may come\ndogmatically to assert that Zen is not Buddhism just because it looks\nso different on its surface from what some people with a certain set\nof preconceived notions consider Buddhism to be. The statement of my\nposition as regards these points will therefore pave the way to the\ndevelopment of the principal thesis.\n\nSuperficially, indeed, there is something in Zen so bizarre and\neven irrational, as to frighten the pious literary followers of the\nso-called primitive Buddhism and to make them declare that Zen is\nnot Buddhism but a Chinese anomaly of it. What, for instance, would\nthey really make out of such statements as follows: In the _Sayings of\nNan-ch\u2018\u00fcan_[2.l] we read that, when Ts\u2018ui, governor of Ch\u2018i District,\nasked the fifth patriarch of the Zen sect, that is, Hung-j\u00ean, how it\nwas that while he had five hundred followers, Hui-n\u00eang, in preference\nto all others, was singled out to be given the orthodox robe of\ntransmission as the sixth patriarch, replied the fifth patriarch:\n\u201cFour hundred and ninety-nine out of my disciples understand well what\nBuddhism is, except one Hui-n\u00eang. He is a man not to be measured by an\nordinary standard. Hence the robe of faith was handed over to him.\u201d\nOn this comments Nan-ch\u2018\u00fcan: \u201cIn the age of Void there are no words\nwhatever; as soon as the Buddha appears on earth, words come into\nexistence, hence our clinging to signs.... And thus as we now so firmly\ntake hold of words, we limit ourselves in various ways, while in the\nGreat Way there are absolutely no such things as ignorance or holiness.\nEverything that has a name thereby limits itself. Therefore, the old\nmaster of Chiang-hsi declared that \u2018it is neither mind, nor Buddha, nor\na thing.\u2019 It was in this way that he wished to guide his followers,\nwhile these days they vainly endeavour to experience the Great Way by\nhypostatising such an entity as mind. If the Way could be mastered in\nthis manner, it would be well for them to wait until the appearance\nof Maitreya Buddha [which is said to be at the end of the world] and\nthen to awaken the enlightenment-thought. How could such ones ever\nhope for spiritual freedom? Under the fifth patriarch, all of his five\nhundred disciples, except one Hui-n\u00eang, understood Buddhism well. The\nlay-disciple, N\u00eang, was quite unique in this respect, for _he did not\nat all understand Buddhism_.[f15] He understood the Way only and no\nother thing.\u201d\n\nThese are not very extraordinary statements in Zen, but to most of\nthe Zen critics they must spell abomination. Buddhism is flatly denied,\nand its knowledge is regarded not to be indispensable to the mastery of\nZen, the Great Way, which on the contrary is more or less identified\nwith the negation of Buddhism. How is this? In the following pages an\nattempt is made to answer this question.\n\n\n                   _The Life and Spirit of Buddhism_\n\nTo make this point clear and to justify the claim for Zen that it\ntransmits the essence of Buddhism and not its formulated articles of\nfaith as are recorded in letters, it is necessary to strip the spirit\nof Buddhism off all its outer casings and appendages, which, hindering\nthe working of its original life-force, are apt to make us take the\nunessential for the essential. We know that the acorn is so different\nfrom the oak, but as long as there is a continuation of growth, their\nidentity is a logical conclusion. To see really into the nature of the\nacorn is to trace an uninterrupted development through its various\nhistorical stages. When the seed remains a seed and means nothing more,\nthere is no life in it, it is a finished piece of work and except\nas an object of historical curiosity, it has no value whatever in\nour religious experience. In like manner, to determine the nature of\nBuddhism we must go along its whole line of development and see what\nare the healthiest and most vital germs in it which have brought it to\nthe present state of maturity. When this is done, we shall see in what\nmanner Zen is to be recognised as one of the various phases of Buddhism\nand in fact as the most essential factor in it.\n\nTo comprehend fully, therefore, the constitution of any existent\nreligion that has a long history, it is advisable to separate its\nfounder from his teaching, as a most powerful determinant in the\ndevelopment of the latter. By this I mean, in the first place, that\nthe founder so called had in the beginning no idea of being the\nfounder of any religious system which would later grow up in his name;\nin the second that to his disciples, while he was yet alive, his\npersonality was not regarded as independent of his teaching, at least\nas far as they were conscious of the fact; in the third that what was\nunconsciously working in their minds as regards the nature of their\nmaster\u2019s personality came out in the foreground after his passing with\nall the possible intensity that had been latently gaining strength\nwithin them, and lastly that the personality of the founder grew up in\nhis disciples\u2019 minds so powerful as to make itself the very nucleus\nof his teaching, that is to say, the latter was made to serve as\nexplanation of the meaning of the former.\n\nIt is a great mistake to think that any existent religious system was\nhanded down to posterity by its founder as the fully matured product of\nhis mind, and, therefore, that what the followers had to do with their\nreligious founder and his teaching was to embrace both the founder and\nhis teaching as sacred heritage\u2014a treasure not to be profaned by the\ncontent of their individual spiritual experience. For this view fails\nto take into consideration what our spiritual life is and petrifies\nreligion to its very core. This static conservatism, however, is always\nopposed by a progressive party which looks at a religious system from a\ndynamic point of view. And these two forces which are seen conflicting\nagainst each other in every field of human activity, weave out the\nhistory of religion as in other cases. In fact, history is the record\nof these struggles everywhere. But the very fact that there are such\nstruggles in religion shows that they are here to some purpose and\nthat religion is a living force; for they gradually bring to light the\nhidden implications of the original faith and enrich it in a manner\nundreamed of in the beginning. This takes place not only with regard to\nthe personality of the founder but with regard to his teaching, and the\nresult is an astounding complexity or rather confusion which sometimes\nprevents us from properly seeing into the constitution of a living\nreligious system.\n\nWhile the founder was still walking among his followers and\ndisciples, the latter did not distinguish between the person of their\nleader and his teaching; for the teaching was realised in the person\nand the person was livingly explained in the teaching. To embrace the\nteaching was to follow his steps, that is, to believe in him. His\npresence among them was enough to inspire them and convince them of the\ntruth of his teaching. They might not have comprehended it thoroughly,\nbut his authoritative way of presenting it left in their hearts no\nshadow of doubt as to its truth and eternal value. So long as he lived\namong them and spoke to them, his teaching and his person appealed to\nthem as an individual unity. Even when they retired into a solitary\nplace and meditated on the truth of his teaching, which they did as a\nform of spiritual discipline, the image of his person was always before\ntheir mental eyes.\n\nBut things went differently when his stately and inspiring personality\nwas no more seen in the flesh. His teaching was still there, his\nfollowers could recite it perfectly from memory, but its personal\nconnection with the author was lost, the living chain which solidly\nunited him and his doctrine as one was for ever broken. When they\nreflected on the truth of the doctrine, they could not help thinking\nof their teacher as a soul far deeper and nobler than themselves.\nThe similarities that were, either consciously or unconsciously,\nrecognised as existing in various forms between leader and disciple\ngradually vanished, and as they vanished, the other side, that is,\nthat which made him so distinctly different from his followers came\nto assert itself all the more emphatically and irresistibly. The\nresult was the conviction that he must have come from quite a unique\nspiritual source. The process of deification thus constantly went\non until, some centuries after the death of the Master, he became a\ndirect manifestation of the Supreme Being himself, in fact, he was\nthe Highest One in the flesh, in him there was a divine humanity in\nperfect realisation. He was Son of God or the Buddha and the Redeemer\nof the world. He will then be considered by himself independently of\nhis teaching; he will occupy the centre of interest in the eyes of\nhis followers. The teaching is of course important, but mainly\nas having come from the mouth of such an exalted spirit, and not\nnecessarily as containing the truth of love or Enlightenment. Indeed,\nthe teaching is to be interpreted in the light of the teacher\u2019s divine\npersonality. The latter now predominates over the whole system, he is\nthe centre whence radiate the rays of Enlightenment, salvation is only\npossible in believing in him as saviour.[f16]\n\nAround this personality or this divine nature there will now grow\nvarious systems of philosophy essentially based on his own teaching,\nbut more or less modified according to the spiritual experiences of the\ndisciples. This would perhaps never have taken place if the personality\nof the founder were not such as to stir up the deep religious feelings\nin the hearts of his followers; which is to say, what most attracted\nthe latter to the teaching was not primarily the teaching itself but\nthat which gave life to it, and without which it would never have been\nwhat it was. We are not always convinced of the truth of a statement\nbecause it is so logically advanced, but mainly because there is an\ninspiring life-impulse running through it. We are first struck with it\nand later try to verify its truth. The understanding is needed, but\nthis alone will never move us to risk the fate of our souls.\n\nOne of the greatest religious souls in Japan once confessed,[f17] \u201cI\ndo not care whether I go to hell or elsewhere, but because my old\nmaster taught me to invoke the name of the Buddha, I practise the\nteaching.\u201d This was not a blind acceptance of the master, in whom there\nwas something deeply appealing to one\u2019s soul, and the disciple embraced\nthis something with his whole being. Mere logic never moves us; there\nmust be something transcending the intellect. When Paul insisted that\n\u201cif Christ be not raised, your faith is vain; ye are yet in your\nsins,\u201d he was not appealing to our logical idea of things, but to our\nspiritual yearnings. It did not matter whether things existed as facts\nof chronological history or not, the vital concern of ours was the\nfulfilment of our inmost inspirations; even so-called objective facts\ncould be so moulded as to yield the best result to the requirements of\nour spiritual life. The personality of the founder of any religious\nsystem that has survived through centuries of growth must have had all\nthe qualities that fully meet such spiritual requirements. As soon as\nthe person and his teaching are separated after his own passing in the\nreligious consciousness of his followers, if he was sufficiently great,\nhe will at once occupy the centre of their spiritual interest and all\nhis teachings will be made to explain this fact in various ways.\n\nTo state it more concretely, how much Christianity, for instance,\nas we have it to-day is the teaching of Christ himself? and how\nmuch of it is the contribution of Paul, John, Peter, Augustine, and\neven Aristotle? The magnificent structure of Christian dogmatics is\nthe work of Christian faith as has been experienced successively by\nits leaders, it is not the work of one person, even of Christ. For\ndogmatics is not necessarily always concerned with historical facts\nwhich are rather secondary in importance compared with the religious\ntruth of Christianity: the latter is what ought to be rather than what\nis or what was. It aims at the establishment of what is universally\nvalid, which is not to be jeopardised by the fact or non-fact of\nhistorical elements, as is maintained by some of the modern exponents\nof Christian dogmatics. Whether Christ really claimed to be the Messiah\nor not is a great historical discussion still unsettled among Christian\ntheologians. Some say that it does not make any difference as far\nas Christian faith is concerned whether or not Christ claimed to be\nthe Messiah. In spite of all such theological difficulties, Christ\nis the centre of Christianity. The Christian edifice is built around\nthe person of Jesus. Buddhists may accept some of his teachings and\nsympathise with the content of his religious experience, but so long as\nthey do not cherish any faith in Jesus as \u201cChrist\u201d or Lord, they are\nnot Christians.\n\nChristianity is therefore constituted not only with the teaching\nof Jesus himself but with all the dogmatical and speculative\ninterpretations concerning the personality of Jesus and his doctrine\nthat have accumulated ever since the death of the founder. In other\nwords, Christ did not found the religious system known by his name,\nbut he was made its founder by his followers. If he were still among\nthem, it is highly improbable that he would sanction all the theories,\nbeliefs, and practices, which are now imposed upon self-styled\nChristians. If he were asked whether their learned dogmatics were his\nreligion, he might not know how to answer. He would in all likelihood\nprofess complete ignorance of all the philosophical subtleties of\nChristian theology of the present day. But from the modern Christians\u2019\npoint of view they will most definitely assure us that their religion\nis to be referred to \u201ca unitary starting point and to an original\nbasic character,\u201d which is Jesus as Christ and that whatever manifold\nconstructions and transformations that were experienced in the body\nof their religion did not interfere with their specific Christ-faith.\nThey are Christians just as much as the brethren of their primitive\ncommunity were; for there is an historical continuation of the\nsame faith all along its growth and development which is its inner\nnecessity. To regard the form of culture of a particular time as\nsomething sacred and to be transmitted for ever as such is to suppress\nour spiritual yearnings after eternal validity. This I believe is the\nposition taken up by progressive modern Christians.\n\nHow about progressive modern Buddhists then in regard to their attitude\ntowards Buddhist faith constituting the essence of Buddhism? How is\nthe Buddha conceived by his disciples? What is the nature and value of\nBuddhahood? When Buddhism is defined merely as the teaching of the\nBuddha, does it explain the life of Buddhism as it moves on through the\ncourse of history? Is not the life of Buddhism the unfolding of the\ninner spiritual life of the Buddha himself rather than his exposition\nof it, which is recorded as the Dharma in Buddhist literature? Is there\nnot something in the wordy teaching of the Buddha, which gives life\nto it and which lieth underneath all the arguments and controversies\ncharacterising the history of Buddhism throughout Asia? This life is\nwhat progressive Buddhists endeavour to lay hands on.\n\nIt is therefore not quite in accordance with the life and teaching of\nthe Buddha to regard Buddhism merely as a system of religious doctrines\nand practices established by the Buddha himself; for it is more than\nthat, and comprises as its most important constituent elements, all\nthe experiences and speculations of the Buddha\u2019s followers especially\nconcerning the personality of their master and his relations to his\nown doctrine. Buddhism did not come out of the Buddha\u2019s mind fully\narmed, as did Minerva from Jupiter. The theory of a perfect Buddhism\nfrom the beginning is the static view of it, and cuts it short from\nits continuous and never-ceasing growth. Our religious experience\ntranscends the limitations of time, and its ever-expanding content\nrequires a more vital form which will grow without doing violence to\nitself. Inasmuch as Buddhism is a living religion and not an historical\nmummy stuffed with dead and functionless materials, it must be able to\nabsorb and assimilate all that is helpful to its growth. This is the\nmost natural thing for any organism endowed with life. And this life\nmay be traceable under divergent forms and constructions.\n\nAccording to scholars of Pali Buddhism and of the \u0100gama literature, all\nthat the Buddha taught, as far as his systematic teaching went, seems\nto be summed up by the Fourfold Noble Truth, the Twelvefold Chain of\nCausation, the Eightfold Path of Righteous Living, and the doctrine of\nNon-ego (_An\u0101tman_) and Nirvana. If this was the case, what we call\nprimitive Buddhism was quite a simple affair when its doctrinal aspect\nalone is considered. There was nothing very promising in these\ndoctrines that would eventually build up a magnificent structure to be\nknown as Buddhism comprising both the Hinayana and the Mahayana. When\nwe wish to understand Buddhism thoroughly, we must dive deep into its\nbottom where lies its living spirit. Those that are satisfied with\na superficial view of its dogmatical aspect are apt to let go the\nspirit which will truly explain the inner life of Buddhism. To some of\nthe Buddha\u2019s immediate disciples the deeper things in his teachings\nfailed to appeal, or they were not conscious of the real spiritual\nforces which moved them towards their Master. We must look underneath\nif we want to come in contact with the ever-growing life-impetus of\nBuddhism. However great the Buddha was, he could not convert a jackal\ninto a lion, nor could a jackal comprehend the Buddha above his beastly\nnature. As the later Buddhists state, a Buddha alone understands\nanother Buddha; when our subjective life is not raised to the same\nlevel as the Buddha\u2019s, many things that go to make up his inner life\nescape us; we cannot live in any other world than our own.[f18]\nTherefore, if the primitive Buddhists read so much in the life of their\nMaster as is recorded in their writings, and no more, this does\nnot prove that everything belonging to the Buddha has thereby been\nexhausted. There were probably other Buddhists who penetrated deeper\ninto his life, as their own inner consciousness had a richer content.\nThe history of religion thus becomes the history of our own spiritual\nunfolding. Buddhism must be conceived biologically, so to speak, and\nnot mechanically. When we take this attitude, even the doctrine of the\nFourfold Noble Truth becomes pregnant with yet deeper truths.\n\nThe Buddha was not a metaphysician and naturally avoided discussing\nsuch subjects as were strictly theoretical and had no practical bearing\non the attainment of Nirvana. He might have had his own views on those\nphilosophical problems that at the time engaged Indian minds. But like\nother religious leaders his chief interest was in the practical result\nof speculation and not in speculation as such. He was too busy in\ntrying to get rid of the poisonous arrow that had pierced the flesh,\nhe had no desire to inquire into the history, object, and constitution\nof the arrow; for life was too short for that. He thus took the world\nas it was, that is, he interpreted it as it appeared to his religious\ninsight and according to his own valuation. He did not intend to go any\nfurther. He called his way of looking at the world and life \u201cDharma,\u201d\na very comprehensive and flexible term, though it was not a term first\nused by the Buddha; for it had been in vogue some time prior to him\nmainly in the sense of ritual and law, but the Buddha gave it a\ndeeper spiritual signification.\n\nThat the Buddha was practical and not metaphysical, may be seen from\nthe criticism which was hurled at him by his opponents: \u201cAs Gautama is\nalways found alone sitting in an empty room, he has lost his wisdom....\nEven Sariputra who is the wisest and best disciple of his is like a\nbabe, so stupid and without eloquence.\u201d[f19] Here however lies the seed\nof a future development. If the Buddha had been given up to theorising\nhis teaching never could be expected to grow. Speculation may be deep\nand subtle, but if it has no spiritual life in it, its possibilities\nare soon exhausted. The Dharma was ever maturing, because it was\nmysteriously creative.\n\nThe Buddha evidently had quite a pragmatic conception of the intellect\nand left many philosophical problems unsolved as unnecessary for the\nattainment of the final goal of life. This was quite natural with\nhim. Whilst he was still alive among his disciples, he was the living\nillustration of all that was implied in his doctrine. The Dharma was\nmanifest in him in all its vital aspects, and there was no need to\nindulge in idle speculation as to the ultimate meaning of such concepts\nas Dharma, Nirvana, Atman (ego), Karma, Bodhi (enlightenment), etc.\nThe Buddha\u2019s personality was the key to the solution of all these. The\ndisciples were not fully aware of the significance of this fact. When\nthey thought they understood the Dharma, they did not know that this\nunderstanding was really taking refuge in the Buddha. His presence\nsomehow had a pacifying and satisfying effect on whatever spiritual\nanguish they had; they felt as if they were securely embraced in the\narms of a loving, consoling mother; to them the Buddha was really\nsuch.[f20] Therefore, they had no need to press the Buddha very\nhard to enlighten them on many of the philosophical problems that they\nmight have grown conscious of. They were easily reconciled in this\nrespect to the Buddha\u2019s unwillingness to take them into the heart of\nmetaphysics. But at the same time this left much room for the later\nBuddhists to develop their own theories not only as to the teaching of\nthe Buddha but mainly as to its relation to his personality.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe Buddha\u2019s entrance into Nirvana meant to his disciples the loss\nof the World-Light,[f21] through which they had such an illuminating\nview of things. The Dharma was there and in it they tried to see the\nBuddha as they were instructed by him, but it had no enlivening effect\non them as before; the moral precepts consisting of many rules were\nregularly observed in the Brotherhood, but the authoritativeness of\nthese regulations was missed somehow. They retired into a quietude and\nmeditated on the teaching of the Master, but the meditation was not\nquite so life-giving and satisfying because they were ever assailed by\ndoubts, and, as a natural consequence, their intellectual activities\nwere resumed. Everything was now to be explained to the full extent\nof the reasoning faculty. The metaphysician began to assert himself\nagainst the simple-hearted devotion of the disciple. What has been\naccepted as an authoritative injunction from the mouth of the Buddha,\nwas now to be examined as a subject of philosophical discussion. Two\nfactions were ready to divide the field with each other, and radicalism\nwas opposed to conservatism, and between the two wings there were\narranged schools of various tendencies. The Sthaviras were pitted\nagainst the Mah\u0101sa\u1e41ghikas, with twenty or more different schools\nrepresenting various grades of diversity.[f22]\n\nWe cannot, however, exclude from the body of Buddhism all the divergent\nviews on the Buddha and his teaching as something foreign and not\nbelonging to the constituent elements of Buddhism. For these views are\nexactly what support the frame of Buddhism, and without them the frame\nitself will be a non-entity altogether. The error with most critics of\nany existent religion with a long history of development is to conceive\nit as a completed system which is to be accepted as such, while the\nfact is that anything organic and spiritual\u2014and we consider religion\nsuch\u2014has no geometrical outline which can be traced on paper by ruler\nand compass. It refuses to be objectively defined, for this will be\nsetting a limit to the growth of its spirit. Thus to know what Buddhism\nis will be to get into the life of Buddhism and to understand it from\nthe inside as it unfolds itself objectively in history. Therefore, the\ndefinition of Buddhism must be that of the life-force which carries\nforward a spiritual movement called Buddhism. All these doctrines,\ncontroversies, constructions, and interpretations that were offered\nafter the Buddha\u2019s death as regards his person, life, and teaching were\nwhat essentially constituted the life of Indian Buddhism, and without\nthese there could be no spiritual activity to be known as Buddhism.\n\nIn a word what constituted the life and spirit of Buddhism is nothing\nelse than the inner life and spirit of the Buddha himself; Buddhism is\nthe structure erected around the inmost consciousness of its founder.\nThe style and material of the outer structure may vary as history\nmoves forward, but the inner meaning of Buddhahood which supports the\nwhole edifice remains the same and ever living. While on earth, the\nBuddha tried to make it intelligible in accordance with the capacities\nof his immediate followers, that is to say, the latter did their best\nto comprehend the deeper significance of the various discourses\nof their master, in which he pointed the way to final deliverance. As\nwe are told, the Buddha discoursed \u201cwith one voice,\u201d[f23] but this\nwas interpreted and understood by his devotees in as manifold manners\nas possible. This was inevitable, for we have each his own inner\nexperience which is to be explained in terms of his own creation,\nnaturally varying in depth and breadth. In most cases these so-called\nindividual inner experiences, however, may not be so deep and forceful\nas to demand absolutely original phraseology, but may remain satisfied\nwith new interpretations of the old terms\u2014once brought into use by an\nancient original spiritual leader. And this is the way every great\nhistorical religion grows enriched in its contents or ideas. In some\ncases this enrichment may mean the overgrowth of superstructures ending\nin a complete burial of the original spirit. This is where critical\njudgment is needed, but otherwise we must not forget to recognise the\nliving principle still in activity. In the case of Buddhism we must not\nneglect to read the inner life of the Buddha himself asserting itself\nin the history of a religious system designated after his name. The\nclaim of the Zen followers that they are transmitting the essence of\nBuddhism is based on their belief that Zen takes hold of the enlivening\nspirit of the Buddha, stripped of all its historical and doctrinal\ngarments.\n\n\n                   _Some vital problems of Buddhism_\n\nTo the earlier Buddhists the problem did not present itself in this\nlight; that is to say, they did not realise that the centre of all\ntheir dogmatics and controversies was to ascertain the real inner life\nof the Buddha, which constituted their active faith in the Buddha and\nhis teaching. Without exactly knowing why, they first entertained,\nafter the passing of the Buddha, a strong desire to speculate on\nthe nature of his personality. They had no power to check the\nconstant and insistent cry of this desire brimming over in their\ninmost hearts. What constituted Buddhahood? What was the essence of\nBuddhahood? Questions like these assailed them one after another, and\namong those there were the following which stood out more prominently\nas they were more vitally interesting. They were those concerned with\nthe Enlightenment of the Buddha, his entrance into Nirvana, his former\nlife as a Bodhisattva (that is, as one capable of Enlightenment), and\nhis teaching as viewed from their way of understanding the Buddha.\nThus his teaching ceased to be considered independently of its author,\nthe truth of the teaching was so organically connected with the\nBuddha\u2019s personality, the Dharma was to be believed because it was the\nvery embodiment of Buddhahood, and not necessarily because it was so\nlogically consistent or philosophically tenable. The Buddha was the key\nto the truth of Buddhism.\n\nWhen attention thus centres in the person of the Buddha as the\nauthor of the Dharma, the question of his inner experience known as\nEnlightenment becomes the most vital one. Without this experience\nthe Buddha could not be called a Buddha; in fact, the term \u201cBuddha,\u201d\nthe Enlightened One, was his own making. If a man understands what\nenlightenment is or really experiences it in himself, he knows the\nwhole secret of the Buddha\u2019s superhuman nature and with it the riddle\nof life and the world. The essence of Buddhism must then lie in the\nDoctrine of Perfect Enlightenment. In the enlightened mind of the\nBuddha there were many things which he did not and could not divulge\nto his disciples. When he refused to answer metaphysical questions, it\nwas not because the minds of the questioners were not developed enough\nto comprehend the full implications of them. If however the Buddhists\nreally desired to know their master, and his teaching, they had to\nstudy the secrets of Enlightenment. As they had no living master now\nthey had to solve the problems by themselves if they could, and they\nwere never tired of exhausting their intellectual ingenuity on them.\nVarious theories were then advanced, and Buddhism grew richer in\ncontent, it came to reflect something eternally valid besides mere\npersonal teaching of an individual. It ceased to be a thing merely\nhistorical, but a system ever living, growing, and energy-imparting.\nVarious Mahayana Sutras and Shastras were produced to develop various\naspects of the content of Enlightenment as realised by the Buddha. Some\nof them were speculative, others mystical, and still others ethical and\npractical. In the idea of Enlightenment was thus focussed all Buddhist\nthought.\n\nNirvana as the ideal of Buddhist life next engaged the serious\nattention of Buddhist philosophers. Was it an annihilation of\nexistence, or that of passions or desires, or the dispelling of\nignorance, or a state of egolessness? Did the Buddha really enter\ninto a state of utter extinction leaving all sentient beings to their\nown fate? Did the love he showed to his followers vanish with his\npassing? Would he not come back among them in order to guide them, to\nenlighten them, to listen to their spiritual anguish? The value of such\na grand personality as the Buddha could not perish with his physical\nexistence, it ought to remain with us for ever as a thing of eternal\nvalidity. How could this notion be reconciled with the annihilation\ntheory of Nirvana so prevalent among the personal disciples of the\nBuddha? When history conflicts with our idea of value, can it not be\ninterpreted to the satisfaction of our religious yearnings? What is\nthe objective authority of \u201cfacts\u201d if not supported by an inwardly\ngrounded authority? Varieties of interpretation are then set forth in\nthe Mahayana texts as to the implications of Nirvana and other cognate\nconceptions to be found in the \u201coriginal\u201d teaching of the Buddha.[f24]\n\nWhat is the relationship between Enlightenment and Nirvana? How did\nBuddhists come to realise Arhatship? What convinced them of their\nattainment? Is the Enlightenment of an Arhat the same as that of\nthe Buddha? To answer these questions and many others in close\nconnection with them was the task imposed upon various schools of\nHinayana and Mahayana Buddhism. While they quarrelled much, they never\nforgot that they were all Buddhists and whatever interpretations they\ngave to these problems they were faithful to their Buddhist experience.\nThey were firmly attached to the founder of their religion and only\nwished to get thoroughly intimate with the faith and teaching as were\nfirst promulgated by the Buddha. Some of them were naturally more\nconservative and wished to submit to the orthodox and traditional way\nof understanding the Dharma; but there were others as in every field of\nhuman life, whose inner experience meant more to them, and to harmonise\nthis with the traditional authority they resorted to metaphysics to\nits fullest extent. Their efforts, there is no doubt, were honest\nand sincere, and when they thought they solved the difficulties or\ncontradictions they were satisfied inwardly as well as intellectually.\nIn fact they had no other means of egress from the spiritual impasse in\nwhich they found themselves through the natural and inevitable growth\nof their inmost life. This was the way Buddhism had to develop if it\never had in it any life to grow.\n\nWhile Enlightenment and Nirvana were closely related to the conception\nof Buddhahood itself, there was another idea of great importance to\nthe development of Buddhism, which however had no direct connection\napparently, though not in its ultimate signification, with the\npersonality of the Buddha. This idea naturally proved to be most\nfruitful in the history of Buddhist dogmatics along with the\ndoctrines of Enlightenment and Nirvana. I mean by this the doctrine\nof non-Atman which denies the existence of an ego-substance in our\npsychic life. When the notion of Atman was ruling Indian minds, it\nwas a bold announcement on the part of the Buddha to regard it as the\nsource of ignorance and transmigration. The theory of Origination\n(_prat\u012btya-samutp\u0101da_) which seems to make up the foundation of the\nBuddha\u2019s teaching is thus finally resolved into the finding of a\nmischievous \u201cdesigner\u201d who works behind all our spiritual restlessness.\nWhatever interpretation was given to the doctrine of non-Atman in\nthe early days of Buddhism, the idea came to be extended over to things\ninanimate as well. Not only there was no ego-substance behind our\nmental life, but there was no ego in the physical world, which meant\nthat we could not separate in reality acting from actor, force from\nmass, or life from its manifestations. As far as thinking goes, we can\nestablish these two pairs of conception as limiting each other, but\nin the actuality of things they must all be one, as we cannot impose\nour logical way of thinking upon reality in its concreteness. When we\ntransfer this separation from thought into reality, we encounter many\ndifficulties not only intellectual but moral and spiritual, from which\nwe suffer unspeakable anguish later. This was felt by the Buddha, and\nhe called this mixing up Ignorance (_avidy\u0101_). The Mahayana doctrine of\n\u015a\u016bnyat\u0101 was a natural conclusion. But I need not make any remark here\nto the effect that the \u015a\u016bnyat\u0101 theory is not nihilism or acosmism, but\nthat it has its positive background which sustains it and gives life to\nit.\n\nIt was in the natural order of thought now for Buddhists to endeavour\nto find a philosophical explanation of Enlightenment and Nirvana in\nthe theory of non-Atman or \u015a\u016bnyat\u0101, and this to the best of their\nintellectual power and in the light of their spiritual experience.\nThey finally found out that Enlightenment was not a thing exclusively\nbelonging to the Buddha, but that each one of us could attain it if he\ngot rid of ignorance by abandoning the dualistic conception of life and\nof the world; they further concluded that Nirvana was not vanishing\ninto a state of absolute non-existence which was an impossibility\nas long as we had to reckon with the actual facts of life, and that\nNirvana in its ultimate signification was an affirmation\u2014an affirmation\nbeyond opposites of all kinds. This metaphysical understanding of the\nfundamental problem of Buddhism marks the features of the Mahayana\nphilosophy. As to its practical side where the theory of \u015a\u016bnyat\u0101 and\nthe doctrine of Enlightenment are harmoniously united and realised in\nlife, or where the Buddhists aim to enter into the inner consciousness\nof the Buddha as was revealed to him under the Bodhi tree, we will\nrefer to it in the following section.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nAlmost all Buddhist scholars in Japan agree that all these\ncharacteristic ideas of the Mahayana are systematically traceable\nin Hinayana literature; and that all the reconstructions and\ntransformations which the Mahayanists are supposed to have put on\nthe original form of Buddhism are really nothing but an unbroken\ncontinuation of one original Buddhist spirit and life, and further\nthat even the so-called primitive Buddhism as is expounded in the\nPali canons and in the Agama texts of the Chinese Tripitaka, is also\nthe result of an elaboration on the part of the earlier followers of\nthe Buddha. If the Mahayana is not Buddhism proper, neither is the\nHinayana, for the historical reason that neither of them represents\nthe teaching of the Buddha as it was preached by the Master himself.\nUnless one limits the use of the term Buddhism very narrowly and only\nto a certain form of it, no one can very well refuse to include both\nMahayana and Hinayana in the same denomination. And, in my opinion,\nit is proper, considering the organic relation between system and\nexperience and the fact that the spirit of the Buddha himself is\npresent in all these constructions, it is proper that the term Buddhism\nshould be used in a broad, comprehensive, and inward sense.\n\nThis is not the place to enter into the details of organic relationship\nexisting between the Hinayana and the Mahayana; for the object of this\nessay is to delineate the course of development as traversed by Zen\nBuddhism before it has reached the present form. Having outlined my\nposition with regard to the definition of Buddhism and the Mahayana in\ngeneral as a manifestation of Buddhist life and thought, or rather of\nthe inner experience of the Buddha himself, the next step will be to\nsee where lies the source of Zen and how it is one of the legitimate\nsuccessors and transmitters of the Buddha\u2019s spirit.\n\n\n                        _Zen and Enlightenment_\n\nThe origin of Zen, as is the case with all other forms of\nBuddhism, is to be sought in Supreme Perfect Enlightenment\n(_anuttara-samyak-sa\u1e41bodhi_) attained by the Buddha while he was sitting\nunder the Bodhi-tree, near the city of Gaya. If this Enlightenment\nis of no value and signification to the development of Buddhism, Zen\nthen has nothing to do with Buddhism, it was altogether another thing\ncreated by the genius of Bodhi-Dharma who visited China early in the\nsixth century. But if Enlightenment is the _raison d\u2019\u00eatre_ of Buddhism,\nthat is to say, if Buddhism is an edifice erected on the solid basis\nof Enlightenment, realised by the Buddha and making up his being, Zen\nis the central pillar which supports the entire structure, it composes\nthe direct line of continuation drawn out from the content of the\nBuddha\u2019s illumined mind. Traditionally Zen is considered to have been\ntransmitted by the Buddha to his foremost disciple, Mah\u0101k\u0101\u015byapa, when\nthe Buddha held out a bunch of flowers to his congregation, the meaning\nof which was at once grasped by Mah\u0101k\u0101\u015byapa who quietly smiled at him.\nThe historicity of this incident is justly criticised, but knowing the\nvalue of Enlightenment we cannot ascribe the authority of Zen just\nto such an episode as this. Zen was in fact handed over not only to\nMah\u0101k\u0101\u015byapa but to all beings who will follow the steps of the Buddha,\nthe Enlightened One.\n\nLike a true Indian the Buddha\u2019s idea of ascetic meditation was to\nattain Vimoksha (or simply Moksha, deliverance) from the bondage of\nbirth and death. There were several ways open to him to reach the\ngoal. According to the Brahman philosophers of those days, the great\nfruit of deliverance could be matured by embracing religious truth, or\nby practising asceticism or chastity, or by learning, or by freeing\noneself from passions. Each in its way was an excellent means, and if\nthey were practised severally or all together, they might result in\nemancipation of some kind. But the philosophers talked about methods\nand did not give one any trustworthy information concerning their\nactual spiritual experience, and what the Buddha wished was this\nself-realisation, a personal experience, an actual insight into truth,\nand not mere discoursing about methods, or playing with concepts.[f25]\nHe detested all philosophical reasonings which he called _d\u1e5bishti_ or\n_dar\u015bana_, for they would lead him nowhere, bring him no practical\nresult in his spiritual life. He was never satisfied until he\ninwardly realised the Bodhi as the truth immediately presented to his\ntranscendental consciousness and whose absolute nature was so inner,\nso self-convincing that he had no doubt whatever in regard to its\nuniversal validity. The content of this Enlightenment was explained\nby the Buddha as the Dharma which was to be directly perceived\n(_sandi\u1e6d\u1e6dhika_), beyond limits of time (_akalika_), to be personally\nexperienced (_ehipassika_), altogether persuasive (_opanayika_), and\nto be understood each for himself by the wise (_paccatta\u1e41 veditabbo\nvi\u00f1\u00f1uhi_). This meant that the Dharma was to be intuited and not to\nbe analytically reached by concepts. The reason why the Buddha so\nfrequently refused to answer metaphysical problems was partly due to\nhis conviction that the ultimate truth was to be realised in oneself\nthrough one\u2019s own efforts;[f26] for all that could be gained through\ndiscursive understanding was the surface of things and not things\nthemselves, conceptual knowledge never gave full satisfaction to one\u2019s\nreligious yearning. The attainment of the Bodhi could not be the\naccumulation of dialectical subtleties. And this is the position taken\nup by Zen Buddhism as regards what it considers a final reality. Zen in\nthis respect faithfully follows the injunction of the Master.\n\n\nThat the Buddha had an insight of higher order into the nature of\nthings than that which could be obtained through ordinary logical\nreasoning is evidenced everywhere even in the so-called Hinayana\nliterature. To cite just one instance from the _Brahmaj\u0101la Sutta_ in\nwhich the Buddha deals with all the heretical schools that were in\nexistence in his days, he invariably makes reference after refuting\nthem to the Tathagata\u2019s deeper understanding which goes beyond their\nspeculations \u201cwriggling like an eel.\u201d What they discuss just for the\nsake of discussion and to show the keenness of their analytical faculty\nabout the soul, future life, eternity, and other important spiritual\nsubjects, is not productive of any actual benefits for our inner\nwelfare. The Buddha knew well where these reasonings would finally lead\nto and how trivial and unwholesome they were after all. So we read in\nthe _Brahmaj\u0101la Sutta_: \u201cOf these, Brethren, the Tathagata knows that\nthese speculations thus arrived at, thus insisted on, will have such\nand such a result, such and such an effect on the future condition of\nthose who trust in them. That does he know, and he knows also other\nthings far beyond (far better than those speculations): and having that\nknowledge he is not puffed up, and thus untarnished he has in his own\nheart realised the way of escape from them, has understood, as they\nreally are, the rising up and passing away of sensations, their sweet\ntaste, their danger, how they cannot be relied on; and not grasping\nafter any [of those things men are eager for], he, the Tathagata, is\nquite set free.\u201d[f27]\n\nWhile the ideal of Arhatship was no doubt the entering into Nirvana\nthat leaves nothing behind (_anup\u0101dhi\u015besha_), whatever this may mean,\nit did not ignore the significance of Enlightenment, no, it could not\ndo so very well without endangering its own reason of existence. For\nNirvana was nothing else in its essence than Enlightenment, the content\nwas identical in either case. Enlightenment was Nirvana reached while\nyet in the flesh, and no Nirvana was ever possible without obtaining\nEnlightenment. The latter may have a more intellectual note in it\nthan the former, which is a psychological state realised through\nEnlightenment. Bodhi is spoken of in the so-called primitive\nBuddhism just as much as Nirvana. So long as passions (_kle\u015ba_) were\nnot subdued, and the mind still remained enshrouded in ignorance, no\nBuddhists could ever dream of obtaining a Moksha (deliverance) which\nis Nirvana, and this deliverance from Ignorance and passions was the\nwork of Enlightenment. Generally Nirvana is understood in its negative\naspect as the total extinction of everything, body and soul, but in the\nactuality of life no such negativist conception could ever prevail,\nand the Buddha never meant Nirvana to be so interpreted. If there\nwere nothing affirmative in Nirvana, the Mahayanists could never have\nevolved the positive conception of it later. Though the immediate\ndisciples of the Buddha were not conscious of this, there was always\nthe thought of Enlightenment implied in it. Enlightenment attained by\nthe Buddha after a week\u2019s meditation under the Bodhi-tree could not be\nof no consequence to his Arhat-disciples, however negatively the latter\ntended to apply this principle to the attainment of their life-object.\n\nThe true significance of Enlightenment was effectively brought out\nby the Mahayanists not only in its intellectual implications but in\nits moral and religious bearings. The result was the conception of\nBodhisattvaship in contradistinction to Arhatship, the ideal of their\nrival school. The Arhat and the Bodhisattva are essentially the same.\nBut the Mahayanists, perceiving a deeper sense in Enlightenment as\nthe most important constituent element in the attainment of the final\ngoal of Buddhism, which is spiritual freedom (_ceto-vimutti_), as\nthe Nik\u0101yas have it, did not wish to have it operated in themselves\nonly, but wanted to see it realised in every being sentient and even\nnon-sentient. Not only this was their subjective yearning, but there\nwas an objective basis on which the yearning could be justified\nand realised. It was the presence in every individual of a faculty\ndesignated by the Mahayanists as Praj\u00f1\u0101.[f28] This was the\nprinciple that made Enlightenment possible in us as well as in the\nBuddha. Without Praj\u00f1\u0101 there could be no Enlightenment, which was\nthe highest spiritual power in our possession. The intellect or what\nis ordinarily known by Buddhist scholars as Vij\u00f1\u0101na, was relative in\nits activity, and could not comprehend the ultimate truth which was\nEnlightenment. And it was due to this ultimate truth that we could\nlift ourselves above the dualism of matter and spirit, of ignorance\nand wisdom, of passion and non-attachment. Enlightenment consisted in\npersonally realising the truth, ultimate and absolute and capable of\naffirmation. Thus we are all Bodhisattvas now, beings of Enlightenment,\nif not in actuality, then potentially. Bodhi-sattvas are also\nPraj\u00f1\u0101-sattvas, as we are universally endowed with Praj\u00f1\u0101, which,\nwhen fully and truly operating, will realise in us Enlightenment, and\nintellectually (in its highest sense) lift us above appearances, which\nis a state designated by Nikaya Buddhists as \u201cemancipation of mind or\nreason\u201d (_pa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101-vimutti_ or _sammad-a\u00f1\u00f1\u0101 vimutti_).\n\nIf by virtue of Enlightenment Gautama was transformed into the\nBuddha, and then if all beings are endowed with Praj\u00f1\u0101 and capable of\nEnlightenment, that is, if they are thus Bodhisattvas, the logical\nconclusion will be that Bodhisattvas are all Buddhas, or destined to\nbe Buddhas as soon as sufficient conditions obtain. Hence the Mahayana\ndoctrine that all beings, sentient or non-sentient, are endowed with\nthe Buddha-nature, and that our minds are the Buddha-mind and our\nbodies are the Buddha-body. The Buddha before his Enlightenment was an\nordinary mortal, and we, ordinary mortals, will be Buddhas the moment\nour mental eyes[f29] open in Enlightenment. In this do we not see\nplainly the most natural and most logical course of things leading up\nto the main teaching of Zen as it later developed in China and Japan?\n\nHow extensively and intensively the concept of Enlightenment\ninfluenced the development of Mahayana Buddhism may be seen in the\ncomposition of the _Saddharmapu\u1e47\u1e0dar\u012bka_, which is really one of the\nprofoundest Mahayana protests against the Hinayana conception of the\nBuddha\u2019s Enlightenment. According to the latter, the Buddha attained it\nat Gay\u0101 while meditating under the Bodhi-tree, for they regarded the\nBuddha as a mortal being like themselves, subject to historical and\npsychological conditions. But the Mahayanists could not be satisfied\nwith such a realistic common-sense interpretation of the personality of\nthe Buddha, they saw something in it which went deep into their hearts\nand wanted to come in immediate touch with it. What they sought was\nfinally given, and they found that the idea of the Buddha\u2019s being a\ncommon soul was a delusion, that the Tathagata arrived in his Supreme\nPerfect Enlightenment \u201cmany hundred thousand myriads of kotis of \u00e6ons\nago,\u201d and that all those historical \u201cfacts\u201d in his life which are\nrecorded in the Agama or Nikaya literature are his \u201cskilful devices\u201d\n(_up\u0101ya-kau\u015balya_) to lead creatures to full ripeness and go in the\nBuddha Way.[f30] In other words, this means that Enlightenment is the\nabsolute reason of the universe and the essence of Buddhahood, and\ntherefore that to obtain Enlightenment is to realise in one\u2019s inner\nconsciousness the ultimate truth of the world which for ever is. While\nthe _Pu\u1e47\u1e0dar\u012bka_ emphasises the Buddha-aspect of Enlightenment, Zen\ndirects its attention mainly to the Enlightenment-aspect of Buddhahood.\nWhen this latter aspect is considered intellectually, we have the\nphilosophy of Buddhist dogmatics, which is studied by scholars of the\nTendai (_t\u2018ien-tai_), Kegon (_avata\u1e41saka_), Hosso, (_dharmalaksha_),\nand other schools. Zen approaches it from the practical side of life,\nthat is, to work out Enlightenment in life itself.\n\nSeeing that the idea of Enlightenment played such an important r\u00f4le in\nthe development of Mahayana Buddhism, what is the content of it? Can we\ndescribe it in an intelligible manner so that our analytical intellect\ncould grasp it and make it an object of thought? The Fourfold Noble\nTruth was not the content of Enlightenment, nor was the Twelvefold\nChain of Causation, nor the Eightfold Righteous Path. The truth flashed\nthrough the Buddha\u2019s consciousness was not such a thought capable of\ndiscursive unfolding. When he exclaimed:\n\n  \u201cThrough birth and rebirth\u2019s endless round,\n   Seeking in vain, I hastened on,\n   To find who framed this edifice,\n     What misery!\u2014birth incessantly!\n\n  \u201cO builder! I\u2019ve discovered thee!\n   This fabric thou shall ne\u2019er rebuild!\n   The rafters all are broken now,\n   And pointed roof demolished lies!\n   This mind has demolition reached,\n   And seen the last of all desire!\u201d[f31]\n\nhe must have grasped something much deeper than mere dialectics.\nThere must have been something most fundamental and ultimate which\nat once set all his doubts at rest, not only intellectual doubts but\nspiritual anguish. Indeed, forty-nine years of his active life after\nEnlightenment were commentaries on it, and yet they did not exhaust its\ncontent; nor did all the later speculations of N\u0101g\u0101rjuna, A\u015bvaghosha,\nand Vasubandhu, and Asanga explain it away. In the _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_\ntherefore the author makes the Buddha confess that since his\nEnlightenment, till his passing into Nirvana he uttered not a word.[f32]\n\nTherefore, again with all his memory and learning, \u0100nanda could not\nsound the bottom of the Buddha\u2019s wisdom, while the latter was still\nalive. According to tradition, \u0100nanda\u2019s attainment to Arhatship\ntook place at the time of the First Convocation in which he was not\nallowed to take part in spite of his twenty-five years\u2019 attendance\nupon the Buddha. Grieving over the fact, he spent the whole night\nperambulating in an open square, and when he was about to lay himself\ndown on a couch all exhausted, he all of a sudden came to realise the\ntruth of Buddhism, which with all his knowledge and understanding had\nescaped him all those years.\n\nWhat does this mean? Arhatship is evidently not a matter of\nscholarship; it is something realised in the twinkling of an eye after\na long arduous application to the matter. The preparatory course may\noccupy a long stretch of time, but the crisis breaks out at a point\ninstantaneously, and one is an Arhat, or a Bodhisattva, or even a\nBuddha. The content of Enlightenment must be quite simple in nature\nand yet tremendous in effect. That is to say, intellectually, it\nmust transcend all the complications involved in an epistemological\nexposition of it; and psychologically, it must be the reconstruction\nof one\u2019s entire personality. Such a fundamental fact naturally evades\ndescription, and can be grasped only by an act of intuition and through\npersonal experience. It is really the Dharma in its highest sense.\nIf by \u201cthe stirring of one thought\u201d Ignorance came into our life,\nthe awakening of another thought must put a stop to Ignorance and\nbring about Enlightenment.[f33] And in this there is no thought to\nbe an object of logical consciousness or empirical reasoning; for in\nEnlightenment thinker and thinking and thought are merged in the one\nact of seeing into the very being of Self. No further explanation of\nthe Dharma is possible, hence an appeal to _via negativa_. And this has\nreached its climax in the \u015a\u016bnyat\u0101 philosophy of N\u0101g\u0101rjuna, which is\nbased upon the teaching of the Praj\u00f1\u0101p\u0101ramit\u0101 literature of Buddhism.\n\nSo we see that Enlightenment is not the outcome of an intellectual\nprocess in which one idea follows another in sequence finally to\nterminate in conclusion or judgment. There is neither process nor\njudgment in Enlightenment, it is something more fundamental, something\nwhich makes a judgment possible, and without which no form of\njudgment can take place. In judgment there are a subject and a\npredicate; in Enlightenment subject is predicate, and predicate is\nsubject; they are here merged as one, but not as one of which something\ncan be stated, but as one from which arises judgment. We cannot go\nbeyond this absolute oneness; all the intellectual operations stop\nhere; when they endeavour to go further, they draw a circle in which\nthey for ever repeat themselves. This is the wall against which all\nphilosophies have beaten in vain. This is an intellectual _terra\nincognita_, in which prevails the principle, \u201cCredo quia absurdum est.\u201d\nThis region of darkness, however, gives up its secrets when attacked by\nthe will, by the force of one\u2019s entire personality. Enlightenment is\nthe illuminating of this dark region, when the whole thing is seen at\none glance, and all intellectual inquiries find here their rationale.\nHitherto one may have been intellectually convinced of the truth of a\ncertain proposition, but somehow it has not yet entered into his life,\nthe truth still lacks ultimate confirmation, and he cannot help feeling\na vague sense of indeterminateness and uneasiness. Enlightenment now\ncomes upon him in a mysterious way without any previous announcement,\nand all is settled with him, he is an Arhat or even a Buddha. The\ndragon has got its eyes dotted, and it is no more a lifeless image\npainted on a canvas, but winds and rains are its willing servants now.\n\nIt is quite evident that Enlightenment is not the consciousness of\nlogical perspicuity or analytical completeness, it is something more\nthan an intellectual sense of conclusiveness, there is something in it\nwhich engages the entire field of consciousness not only by throwing\nlight on the whole series of links welded for the purpose of solving\nthe problems of life, but by giving a feeling of finality to all the\nspiritual anguish that has ever been so disquieting to one\u2019s soul.\nThe logical links however accurately adjusted and perfectly wrought\ntogether, fail by themselves to be pacifying to the soul in the most\nthoroughgoing manner. We require something more fundamental or more\nimmediate for the purpose, and I maintain that the mere reviewing of\nthe Fourfold Noble Truth or the Twelvefold Chain of Origination does\nnot result in the attainment of the Anuttara-samyak-sambodhi. The\nBuddha must have experienced something that went far deeper into his\ninmost consciousness than the mere intellectual grasping of empirical\ntruths. He must have gone beyond the sphere of analytical reasoning.\nHe must have come in touch with that which makes our intellectual\noperations possible, in fact that which conditions the very existence\nof our conscious life.\n\nWhen \u015a\u0101riputra saw A\u015bvajit, he noticed how composed the latter was,\nwith all his organs of sense well controlled and how clear and bright\nthe colour of his skin was. \u015a\u0101riputra could not help asking him who was\nhis teacher and what doctrine he taught. To this A\u015bvajit replied: \u201cThe\ngreat \u015a\u0101kyamuni, the Blessed One, is my teacher and his doctrine in\nsubstance is this:\n\n  \u201cThe Buddha hath the cause told\n    Of all things springing from a cause;\n    And also how things cease to be\u2014\n    \u2019Tis this the Mighty Monk proclaims.\u201d\n\nIt is said that on hearing this exposition of the Dharma, there arose\nin the mind of \u015a\u0101riputra a clear and distinct perception of the Dharma\nthat whatever is subject to origination is subject also to cessation.\n\u015a\u0101riputra then attained to the deathless, sorrowless state, lost sight\nof and neglected for many myriads of kalpas.\n\nThe point to which I wish to call attention here is this: Is there\nanything intellectually remarkable and extraordinary and altogether\noriginal in this stanza that has so miraculously awakened \u015a\u0101riputra\nfrom his habitually cherished way of thinking? As far as the Buddha\u2019s\nDharma (Doctrine) was concerned, there was not much of anything in\nthese four lines. It is said that they are the substance of the Dharma;\nif so, the Dharma may be said to be rather devoid of substance, and how\ncould \u015a\u0101riputra ever find here a truth concrete and efficient enough to\nturn him away from the old rut? The stanza which is noted for having\nachieved the conversion of not only \u015a\u0101riputra but Maudgaly\u0101yana, has\nreally nothing characteristic of Buddhistic thought, strong enough to\nproduce such a great result. The reason for this, therefore, must\nbe sought somewhere else, that is, not in the formal truth contained\nin the stanza, but in the subjective condition of the one to whose\nears it chanced to fall and in whom it awakened a vision of another\nworld. It was in the mind of \u015a\u0101riputra itself that opened up to a clear\nand distinct understanding of the Dharma; in other words, the Dharma\nwas revealed in him as something growing out of himself and not as an\nexternal truth poured into him. In a sense the Dharma had been in his\nmind all the time but he was not aware of its presence there until\nA\u015bvajit\u2019s stanza was uttered. He was not a mere passive recipient into\nwhich something not native to his Self was poured. The hearing of the\nstanza gave him an opportunity to experience the supreme moment. If\n\u015a\u0101riputra\u2019s understanding was intellectual and discursive, his dialogue\nwith \u0100nanda later on could not take place in the way it did. In the\nSa\u1e41yutta-Nik\u0101ya, iii., 235f, we read:\n\n\u0100nanda saw \u015a\u0101riputra coming afar off, and he said to him; \u201cSerene and\npure and radiant is your face. Brother \u015a\u0101riputra! In what mood has\n\u015a\u0101riputra been to-day?\u201d\n\n\u201cI have been alone in Dhyana, and to me came never the thought: _I_ am\nattaining it! _I_ have got it! _I_ have emerged from it!\u201d\n\nHere we notice the distinction between an intellectual and a spiritual\nunderstanding which is Enlightenment. When \u015a\u0101riputra referred to the\ncause of his being so serene, pure and radiant, he did not explain\nit logically but just stated the fact as he subjectively interpreted\nit himself. Whether this interpretation of his own was correct or\nnot takes the psychologist to decide. What I wish to see here is\nthat \u015a\u0101riputra\u2019s understanding of the doctrine of \u201corigination and\ncessation\u201d was not the outcome of his intellectual analysis but an\nintuitive comprehension of his own inner life-process. Between the\nBuddha\u2019s Enlightenment which is sung in the Hymn of Victory and\n\u015a\u0101riputra\u2019s insight into the Dharma as the doctrine of causation,\nthere is a close connection in the way their minds worked. In the\none Enlightenment came first and then its expression; in the other\na definite statement was addressed first and then came an insight;\nthe process is reversed here. But the inadequacy of relation\nbetween antecedent and consequence remains the same. The one does not\nsufficiently explain the other, when the logical and intellectual\nunderstanding alone is taken into consideration. The explanation must\nbe sought not in the objective truth contained in the doctrine of\ncausation, but in the state of consciousness itself of the enlightened\nsubject. Otherwise, how do we account for the establishment of\nsuch a firm faith in self-realisation or self-deliverance as this?\n\u201cHe has destroyed all evil passions (_\u0101sava_); he has attained to\nheart-emancipation (_ceto-vimutti_) and intellect-emancipation\n(_pann\u0101-vimutti_), here in this visible world he has by himself\nunderstood, realised, and mastered the Dharma, he has dived deep into\nit, has passed beyond doubt, has put away perplexity, has gained full\nconfidence, he has lived the life, has done what was to be done, has\ndestroyed the fetter of rebirth, he has comprehended the Dharma as it\nis truly in itself.\u201d[f34]\n\nThis is why the _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra-S\u016btra_ tries so hard to tell us that\nlanguage is altogether inadequate as the means of expressing and\ncommunicating the inner state of Enlightenment. While without language\nwe may fare worse at least in our practical life, we must guard\nourselves most deliberately against our trusting it too much beyond its\nlegitimate office. The Sutra gives the main reason for this, which is\nthat language is the product of causal dependence, subject to change,\nunsteady, mutually conditioned, and based on false judgment as to the\ntrue nature of consciousness. For this reason language cannot reveal\nto us the ultimate signification of things (_param\u0101rtha_). The noted\nanalogy of finger and moon is most appropriate to illustrate the\nrelation between language and sense, symbol and reality.\n\nIf the Buddha\u2019s Enlightenment really contained so much in it that he\nhimself could not sufficiently demonstrate or illustrate it with his\n\u201clong thin tongue\u201d (_prabh\u016btatanujihva_) through his long peaceful life\ngiven to meditation and discoursing, how could those less than he ever\nhope to grasp it and attain spiritual emancipation? This is the\nposition taken up by Zen: To comprehend the truth of Enlightenment,\ntherefore, we must exercise some other mental power than intellection,\nif we are at all in possession of such. Discoursing fails to reach the\ngoal and yet we have an unsatiated aspiration after the unattainable.\nAre we then meant to live and die thus tormented for ever? If so,\nthis is the most lamentable situation in which we find ourselves\non earth. Buddhists have applied themselves most earnestly to the\nsolution of the problem and have finally come to see that we have after\nall within ourselves what we need. This is the power of intuition\npossessed by spirit and able to comprehend spiritual truth which will\nshow us all the secrets of life making up the content of the Buddha\u2019s\nEnlightenment. It is not an ordinary intellectual process of reasoning,\nbut a power that will grasp something most fundamental in an instant\nand in the directest way. Praj\u00f1\u0101 is the name given to this power by the\nBuddhists, as I said, and what Zen Buddhism aims at in its relation to\nthe doctrine of Enlightenment is to awaken Praj\u00f1\u0101 by the exercise of\nmeditation.\n\nWe read in the _Saddharma-pu\u1e47\u1e0dar\u012bka_: \u201cO \u015a\u0101riputra, the true Law\nunderstood by the Tathagata cannot be reasoned, is beyond the pale of\nreasoning. Why? For the Tathagata appears in the world to carry out one\ngreat object, which is to make all beings accept, see, enter into, and\ncomprehend the knowledge and insight gained by the Tathagata, and also\nto make them enter upon the path of knowledge and insight attained by\nthe Tathagata.... Those who learn it from the Tathagata also reach his\nSupreme Perfect Enlightenment.\u201d[f35] If such was the one great object\nof the Buddha\u2019s appearance on earth, how do we get into the path of\ninsight and realise Supreme Perfect Enlightenment? And if this Dharma\nof Enlightenment is beyond the limits of the understanding, no amount\nof philosophising will ever bring us nearer the goal. How do we then\nlearn it from the Tathagata? Decidedly not from his mouth, nor from the\nrecords of his sermons, nor from the ascetic practise, but from our own\ninner consciousness through the exercise of dhyana. And this is the\ndoctrine of Zen.\n\n\n                 _Enlightenment and Spiritual Freedom_\n\nWhen the doctrine of Enlightenment makes its appeal to the inner\nexperience of the Buddhist and its content is to be grasped immediately\nwithout any conceptual medium, the sole authority in his spiritual\nlife will have to be found within himself; traditionalism or\ninstitutionalism will naturally lose all its binding force. According\nto him, then, propositions will be true, that is, living, because\nthey are in accordance with his spiritual insight; and his actions\nwill permit no external standard of judgment; as long as they are\nthe inevitable overflow of his inner life, they are good, even holy.\nThe direct issue of this interpretation of Enlightenment will be the\nupholding of absolute spiritual freedom in every way, which will\nfurther lead to the unlimited expansion of his mental outlook going\nbeyond the narrow bounds of monastic and scholastic Buddhism. This was\nnot however, from the Mahayanistic point of view, against the spirit of\nthe Buddha.\n\nThe constitution of the Brotherhood will now have to change. In the\nbeginning of Buddhism, it was a congregation of homeless monks who\nsubjected themselves to a certain set of ascetic rules of life. In this\nBuddhism was an exclusive possession of the _\u00e9lite_, and the general\npublic or Up\u0101saka group who accepted the Threefold Refuge Formula\nwas a sort of appendage to the regular or professional Brotherhood.\nWhen Buddhism was still in its first stage of development, even\nnuns (_bhikshu\u1e47\u012b_) were not allowed to come into the community; the\nBuddha received them only after great reluctance, prophesying that\nBuddhism would now live only half of its normal life. We can readily\nsee from this fact that the teaching of the Buddha and the doctrine\nof Enlightenment were meant to be practised and realised only among\nlimited classes of people. While the Buddha regarded the various\nelements of his congregation with perfect impartiality, cherishing no\nprejudices as to their social, racial, and other distinctions, the\nfull benefit of his teaching could not extend beyond the monastic\nboundaries. If there was nothing in it that could benefit mankind in\ngeneral, this exclusiveness was naturally to be expected. But the\ndoctrine of Enlightenment was something that could not be kept thus\nimprisoned, it had many things in it that would overflow all the\nlimitations set to it. When the conception of Bodhisattvahood came to\nbe emphatically asserted, a monastic and self-excluding community could\nno longer hold its ground, a religion of monks and nuns had to become\na religion of laymen and laywomen. An ascetic discipline leading to\nthe An\u016bp\u0101dhi\u015besha-Nirv\u0101\u1e47a had to give way to a system of teaching that\nwould make any one attain Enlightenment and demonstrate Nirvana in his\ndaily life. In all the Mahayana Sutras, this general tendency in the\nunfoldment of Buddhism is vehemently asserted, showing how intense was\nthe struggle between conservatism and progressivism.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThis spirit of freedom which is the power impelling Buddhism to\nbreak through its monastic shell and bringing forward the idea of\nEnlightenment ever vigorously before the masses, is the life-impulse of\nthe universe,\u2014this unhampered activity of spirit, and everything that\ninterferes with it is destined to be defeated. The history of Buddhism\nis thus also a history of freedom in one\u2019s spiritual, intellectual,\nand moral life. The moral aristocracy and disciplinary formalism of\nprimitive Buddhism could not bind our spirit for a very long period\nof time. As the doctrine of Enlightenment grew to be more and more\ninwardly interpreted, the spirit rose above the formalism of Buddhist\ndiscipline. It was of no absolute necessity for one to leave his home\nlife and follow the footsteps of the wandering monks in order to reach\nthe supreme fruit of Enlightenment. Inward purity, and not external\npiety, was the thing needed for the Buddhist life. The Up\u0101sakas were\nin this respect as good as the Bhikshus. The fact is most eloquently\nillustrated in the _Vimalak\u012brti-S\u016btra_. The chief character here is\nVimalak\u012brti, a lay philosopher, outside the pale of the Brotherhood.\nNone of the Buddha\u2019s disciples were his matches in the depth, breadth,\nand subtleties of thought, and when the Buddha told them to visit\nhis sickroom, they all excused themselves for some reason or other,\nexcept Ma\u00f1ju\u015br\u012b, who is Praj\u00f1\u0101 incarnate in Mahayana Buddhism.\n\nThat the lay-devotees thus asserted themselves even at the expense\nof the Arhats, may also be gleaned from other sources than the\n_Vimalak\u012brti_, but especially from such Sutras as the _\u015ar\u012bm\u0101l\u0101_,\n_Ga\u1e47\u1e0dhavy\u016bha_, _Vajrasam\u0101dhi_, _Candrottara-d\u0101rik\u0101_, etc. What is the\nmost noteworthy in this connection is that woman plays an important\nr\u00f4le on various occasions. Not only is she endowed with philosophising\ntalents, but she stands on equal footing with man. Among the\nfifty-three philosophers or leaders of thought visited by Sudhana in\nhis religious pilgrimage, he interviewed many women in various walks of\nlife, and some of whom were even courtesans. They all wisely discoursed\nwith the insatiable seeker of truth. What a different state of affairs\nthis was when compared with the reluctant admission of women into the\nSangha in the early days of Buddhism! Later Buddhism may have lost\nsomething in austerity, aloofness, and even saintliness, which appeal\nstrongly to our religious imagination, but it has gained in democracy,\npicturesqueness, and largely in humanity.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe free spirit which wanders out beyond the monastic walls of the\nBrotherhood now follows its natural consequence and endeavours to\ntranscend the disciplinary rules and the ascetic formalism of the\nHinayanists. The moral rules that were given by the Buddha to his\nfollowers as they were called for by the contingencies of life, were\nconcerned more or less with externalism. When the Buddha remained\nwith them as the living spirit of the Brotherhood, these rules were\nthe direct expressions of the subjective life; but with the Buddha\u2019s\ndeparture, they grew rigid and failed to reach the inner spirit of\ntheir author, and the followers of Enlightenment revolted against\nthem, upholding \u201cthe spirit that giveth life.\u201d They advocated perfect\nfreedom of spirit, even after the fashion of antinomians. If the spirit\nwere pure, no acts of the body could spoil it; it could wander about\nanywhere it liked with absolute immunity. It would even go down to\nhell, if it were necessary or expedient for them to do so, for the\nsake of the salvation of the depraved. It would indefinitely postpone\nthe entering into Nirvana if there were still souls to save and minds\nto enlighten. According to \u201cthe letter that killeth\u201d no Buddhists were\nallowed to enter a liquor shop, or to be familiar with inmates of the\nhouses barred from respectability, in short, even for a moment to be\nthinking of violating any of the moral precepts. But to the Mahayanists\nall kinds of \u201cexpediency\u201d or \u201cdevices\u201d were granted if they were fully\nenlightened and had their spirits thoroughly purified. They were living\nin a realm beyond good and evil, and as long as they were there, no\nacts of theirs could be classified and judged according to the ordinary\nmeasure of ethics; they were neither moral nor immoral. These relative\nterms had no application in a kingdom governed by free spirits which\nsoared above the relative world of differences and oppositions. This\nwas most slippery ground for the Mahayanists. When they were really\nenlightened and fathomed the depths of spirituality, every deed of\ntheirs was a creative act of God, but in this extreme form of idealism,\nobjectivity had no room, and consequently who could ever distinguish\nlibertinism from spiritualism? In spite of this pitfall the Mahayanists\nwere in the right in consistently following up all the implications\nof the doctrine of Enlightenment. Their parting company with the\nHinayanists was inevitable.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe doctrine of Enlightenment leads to the inwardness of one\u2019s\nspiritual experience, which cannot be analysed intellectually without\nsomehow involving logical contradictions. It thus seeks to break\nthrough every intelligent barrier that may be set against it, it longs\nfor emancipation in every form, not only in the understanding but in\nlife itself. The unscrupulous followers of Enlightenment are thus\nliable to degenerate into votaries of libertinism. If the Mahayanists\nremained here and did not see further into the real nature of Praj\u00f1\u0101,\nthey would have certainly followed the fates of the Friends of Free\nSpirit, but they knew how Enlightenment realises its true signification\nin love for all beings and how freedom of spirit has its own principle\nto follow though nothing external is imposed upon it. For freedom\ndoes not mean lawlessness, which is the destruction and annihilation\nof itself, but creating out of its inner life-force all that is good\nand beautiful. This creating is called by the Mahayanists \u201cskilful\ndevice\u201d (_up\u0101ya-kau\u015balya_), in which Enlightenment is harmoniously\nwedded to love. Enlightenment when intellectually conceived is not\ndynamical and stops at illumining the path which love will tread. But\nPraj\u00f1\u0101 is more than merely intellectual, it produces Karu\u1e47\u0101 (love or\npity), and with her co-operation it achieves the great end of life,\nthe salvation of all beings from Ignorance and passions and misery.\nIt now knows no end in devising all kinds of means to carry out its\nown teleological functions. The _Saddharma-Pu\u1e47\u1e0dar\u012bka_ regards the\nBuddha\u2019s appearance on earth and his life in history as the \u201cskilful\ndevices\u201d of world-salvation on the part of the Supreme Being of Eternal\nEnlightenment. This creation, however, ceases to be a creation in its\nperfect sense when the creator grows conscious of its teleological\nimplications[f36]; for here then is a split in his consciousness which\nwill check the spontaneous flowing-out of spirit, and then freedom will\nbe lost at its source. Such devices as have grown conscious of their\npurposes are no more \u201cskilful devices,\u201d and according to the Buddhists\nthey do not reflect the perfect state of Enlightenment.\n\nThus the doctrine of Enlightenment is to be supplemented by the\ndoctrine of Device (_up\u0101ya_), or the latter may be said to evolve by\nitself from the first when it is conceived dynamically and not as\nmerely a contemplative state of consciousness. The earlier Buddhists\nshowed the tendency to consider Enlightenment essentially reflective or\na state of tranquillity. They made it something lifeless and altogether\nuncreative. This however did not bring out all that was contained in\nEnlightenment. The affective or will element which moved the Buddha\nto come out of his S\u0101garamudr\u0101-Sam\u0101dhi,\u2014a samadhi in which the whole\nuniverse was reflected in his consciousness as the moon stamps her\nimage upon the ocean,\u2014has now developed into the doctrine of Device.\nFor the will is more fundamental than the intellect and makes up the\nultimate principle of life. Without the \u201cdevising\u201d and self-regulating\nwill, life will be the mad display of a mere blind force. The\nwantonness of \u201ca free spirit\u201d is thus now regulated to operate in the\ngreat work of universal salvation. Its creative activity will devise\nall possible means for the sake of love for all beings animate as well\nas inanimate. Dhyana is one of those devices which will keep our minds\nin balance and well under the control of the will. Zen is the outcome\nof the dhyana discipline applied to the attainment of Enlightenment.\n\n\n                           _Zen and Dhyana_\n\nThe term \u201cZen\u201d (_ch\u2018an_ in Chinese), is an abbreviated form of _Zenna_\nor _Ch\u2018anna_,[2.2] which is the Chinese rendering of \u201cdhy\u0101na,\u201d or\n\u201cjh\u0101na,\u201d and from this fact alone it is evident that Zen has a great\ndeal to do with this practice which has been carried on from the early\ndays of the Buddha, indeed from the beginning of Indian culture. Dhyana\nis usually rendered in English meditation, and, generally speaking,\nthe idea is to meditate on a truth, religious or philosophical, so\nthat it may be thoroughly comprehended and deeply engraved into the\ninner consciousness. This is practised in a quiet place away from\nthe noise and confusion of the world. Allusion to this abounds in\nIndian literature; and \u201cto sit alone in a quiet place and to devote\noneself to meditation exclusively\u201d is the phrase one meets\neverywhere in the \u0100gamas.\n\nThe following conversation between Sandhana, a Buddhist, and\nNigrodha, an ascetic, which is recorded in the _Udumbarika S\u012bhan\u0101da\nSuttanta_,[f37] will throw much light on the habit of the Buddha. Says\nSandhana, \u201cBut the Exalted One haunts the lonely and remote recesses of\nthe forest, where noise, where sound there hardly is, where the breezes\nfrom the pastures blow, yet which are hidden from the eyes of men,\nsuitable for self-communing.\u201d To this, the ascetic wanderer answers:\n\u201cLook you now, householder, know you with whom the Samana Gotama talks?\nwith whom he holds conversation? By intercourse with whom does he\nattain the lucidity in wisdom? The Samana Gotama\u2019s insight is ruined by\nhis habit of seclusion. He is not at home in conducting an assembly. He\nis not ready in conversation. So he keeps apart from others in solitary\nplaces. Even as a one-eyed cow that, walking in a circle, follows only\nthe outskirts, so is the Samana Gotama.\u201d\n\nAgain we read in the _S\u0101ma\u00f1\u00f1a-phala Sutta_[f38]: \u201cThen, the master of\nthis so excellent body of moral precepts, gifted with this so excellent\nself-restraint as to the senses, endowed with this so excellent\nmindfulness and self-possession, filled with this so excellent content,\nhe chooses some lonely spot to rest at on his way\u2014in the woods, at the\nfoot of a tree, on a hill side, in a mountain glen, in a rocky cave, in\na charnel place, or on a heap of straw in the open field. And returning\nthither after his round for alms he seats himself, when his meal is\ndone, cross-legged, keeping his body erect, and his intelligence alert,\nintent.\u201d\n\nFurther, in the days of the Buddha, miracle-working and sophistical\ndiscussions seem to have been the chief business of the ascetics,\nwanderers, and Brahman metaphysicians. The Buddha was thus frequently\nurged to join in the debates on philosophical questions and also\nto perform wonders in order to make people embrace his teaching.\nNigrodha\u2019s comment on the Buddha conclusively shows that the Buddha was\na great disapprover of empty reasoning, devoting himself to things\npractical and productive of results, as well as that he was always\nearnestly engaged in meditation away from the world. When Chien-ku,\nson of a wealthy merchant in Nalanda, asked the Buddha to give his\ncommand to his disciples and make them perform for the benefit of his\ntownspeople, the Buddha flatly refused, saying, \u201cMy disciples are\ninstructed to sit in solitude quietly and to be earnestly meditating on\nthe Path. If they had something meritorious, let them conceal it, but\nif they had faults, let them confess.\u201d[f39]\n\nAn appeal to the analytical understanding is never sufficient to\nthoroughly comprehend the inwardness of a truth, especially when it is\na religious one, nor is mere compulsion by an external force adequate\nfor bringing about a spiritual transformation in us. We must experience\nin our innermost consciousness all that is implied in a doctrine, when\nwe are able not only to understand it but to put it in practice. There\nwill then be no discrepancy between knowledge and life. The Buddha\nknew this very well, and he endeavoured to produce knowledge out of\nmeditation, this is, to make wisdom grow from personal, spiritual\nexperience. The Buddhist way to deliverance, therefore, consisted\nin threefold discipline: moral rules (_\u015b\u012bla_), tranquillisation\n(_sam\u0101dhi_), and wisdom (_praj\u00f1\u0101_). By \u015a\u012bla one\u2019s conduct is regulated\nexternally, by Sam\u0101dhi quietude is attained, and by Praj\u00f1\u0101 real\nunderstanding takes place. Hence the importance of meditation in\nBuddhism.\n\nThat this threefold discipline was one of the most characteristic\nfeatures of Buddhism since its earliest days is well attested by\nthe fact that the following formula, which is culled from the\n_Mah\u0101parinibb\u0101na-Sutta_, is repeatedly referred to in the Sutra as\nif it were a subject most frequently discussed by the Buddha for\nthe edification of his followers: \u201cSuch and such is upright conduct\n(_\u015b\u012bla_); such and such is earnest contemplation (_sam\u0101dhi_); such\nand such is intelligence (_praj\u00f1\u0101_). Great becomes the fruit, great the\nadvantage of intellect when it is set round with earnest contemplation.\nThe mind set round with intelligence is set quite free from the\nintoxications (_\u0101\u015brava_), that is to say, from the intoxication of\nsensuality (_k\u0101ma_), from the intoxication of becoming (_bh\u0101va_), from\nthe intoxication of delusion (_d\u1e5bishti_), from the intoxication of\nignorance (_avidy\u0101_)[f40].\u201d\n\nSamadhi and dhyana are to a great extent synonymous and\ninterchangeable, but strictly samadhi is a psychological state\nrealised by the exercise of dhyana. The latter is the process and\nthe former is the goal. The Buddhist scriptures make reference to so\nmany samadhis, and before delivering a sermon the Buddha generally\nenters into a samadhi,[f41] but never I think into a dhyana. The\nlatter is practised or exercised. But frequently in China dhyana and\nsamadhi are combined to make one word, _ch\u2018an-ting_;[2.3] meaning a\nstate of quietude attained by the exercise of meditation or dhyana.\nThere are some other terms analogous to these two which are met with\nin Buddhist literature as well as in other Indian religious systems.\nThey are _Sa\u1e41patti_ (coming together), Sam\u0101hita (collecting the\nthoughts), \u015aamatha (tranquillisation), _Cittaik\u0101grat\u0101_ (concentration),\n_D\u1e5bishta-dharma-sukha-vih\u0101ra_ (abiding in the bliss of the Law\nperceived), _Dh\u0101ra\u1e47i_ or _Dh\u0101ra\u1e47a_ (abstraction), etc. They are all\nconnected with the central idea of dhyana, which is to tranquillise\nthe turbulence of self-assertive passions and to bring about a state\nof absolute identity in which the truth is realised in its inwardness,\nthat is, a state of Enlightenment. The analytical tendency of\nphilosophers is also evident in this when they distinguish four or\neight kinds of dhyana.[f42]\n\nThe first dhyana is an exercise in which the mind is made to\nconcentrate on one single subject until all the coarse affective\nelements are vanished from consciousness except the serene feelings\nof joy and peace. But the intellect is still active, judgment and\nreflection operate upon the object of contemplation. When these\nintellectual operations too are quieted and the mind is simply\nconcentrated on one point, it is said that we have attained the second\ndhyana, but the feelings of joy and peace are still here. In the third\nstage of dhyana, perfect serenity obtains as the concentration grows\ndeeper, but the subtlest mental activities are not vanished and at the\nsame time a joyous feeling remains. When the fourth and last stage\nis reached, even this feeling of self-enjoyment disappears, and what\nprevails in consciousness now is perfect serenity of contemplation. All\nthe intellectual and the emotional factors liable to disturb spiritual\ntranquillity are successively controlled, and mind in absolute\ncomposure remains absorbed in contemplation. In this there takes\nplace a fully-adjusted equilibrium between Samatha and Vipasayana,\nthat is, between tranquillisation or cessation and contemplation. In\nall Buddhist discipline this harmony is always sought after. For when\nthe mind tips either way, it grows either too heavy (_sty\u0101nam_) or\ntoo light (_auddhatyam_), either too torpid in mental activity or too\ngiven up to contemplation. The spiritual exercise ought to steer ahead\nwithout being hampered by either tendency, they ought to strike the\nmiddle path.\n\nThere are further four stages of dhyana called \u201cAr\u016bpa-vimoksha\u201d\nwhich are practised by those who have passed beyond the last stage\nof dhyana. The first is to contemplate the infinity of space, not\ndisturbed by the manifoldness of matter; the second is on the infinity\nof consciousness as against the first; the third is meant to go still\nfurther beyond the distinction of space and thought; and the fourth is\nto eliminate even this consciousness of non-distinction, to be thus\naltogether free from any trace of analytical intellection. Besides\nthese eight Sam\u0101patti (\u201ccoming together\u201d) exercises, technically so\ncalled, the Buddha sometimes refers to still another form of meditation\nwhich is considered to be distinctly Buddhist. This is more or less\ndefinitely contrasted to the foregoing by not being so exclusively\nintellectual but partly affective, as it aims at putting a full stop\nto the operation of Samj\u00f1\u0101 (thought) and Vedita (sensation), that\nis, of the essential elements of consciousness. It is almost a state\nof death, total extinction, except that one in this dhyana has life,\nwarmth, and the sense-organs in perfect condition. But in point of fact\nit is difficult to distinguish this Nirodha-vimoksha (deliverance by\ncessation) from the last stage of the Aruppa (or Ar\u016bpa) meditation, in\nboth of which consciousness ceases to function even in its simplest and\nmost fundamental acts.\n\nWhatever this was, it is evident that the Buddha like the other\nIndian leaders of thought endeavoured to make his disciples realise\nin themselves the content of Enlightenment by means of dhyana, or\nconcentration. They were thus made to gradually progress from a\ncomparatively simple exercise up to the highest stage of concentration\nin which the dualism of the One and the Many vanished even to the\nextent of a total cessation of mentation. Apart from these general\nspiritual exercises, the Buddha at various times told his followers\nto meditate on such objects[f43] as would make them masters of their\ndisturbing passions and intellectual entanglements.\n\nWe can now see how Zen developed out of this system of spiritual\nexercises. Zen adopted the external form of dhyana as the most\npractical method to realise the end it had in view, but as to its\ncontent Zen had its own way of interpreting the spirit of the Buddha.\nThe dhyana practised by primitive Buddhists was not in full accord\nwith the object of Buddhism, which is no other than the attaining of\nEnlightenment and demonstrating it in one\u2019s everyday life. To do away\nwith consciousness so that nothing will disturb spiritual serenity was\ntoo negative a state of mind to be sought after by those who at all\naspired to develop the positive content of the Buddha\u2019s own enlightened\nmind. Tranquillisation was not the real end of dhyana, nor was the\nbeing absorbed in a samadhi the object of Buddhist life. Enlightenment\nwas to be found in life itself, in its fuller and freer expressions,\nand not in its cessation. What was it that made the Buddha pass all\nhis life in religious peregrination? What was it that moved him to\nsacrifice his own well-being, in fact his whole life, for the sake\nof his fellow-creatures? If dhyana had no positive object except in\npacifying passions and enjoying absorption in the unconscious, why\ndid the Buddha leave his seat under the Bodhi-tree and come out into\nthe world? If Enlightenment was merely a negative state of cessation,\nthe Buddha could not find any impulse in him that would urge him to\nexertion in behalf of others. Critics sometimes forget this fact\nwhen they try to understand Buddhism simply as a system of teaching\nas recorded in the Agamas and in Pali Buddhist literature. As I said\nbefore, Buddhism is also a system built by his disciples upon the\npersonality of the Buddha himself, in which the spirit of the Master\nis more definitely affirmed. And this is what Zen has in its own\nway been attempting to do\u2014to develop the idea of Enlightenment more\ndeeply, positively, and comprehensively by the practice of dhyana and\nin conformity with the spirit of general Buddhism, in which life,\npurged of its blind impulses and sanctified by an insight into its real\nvalues, will be asserted.\n\n\n                      _Zen and, the La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_\n\nOf the many Sutras that were introduced into China since the first\ncentury A.D., the one in which the principles of Zen are more expressly\nand directly expounded than any others, at least those that were in\nexistence at the time of Bodhi-Dharma, is the _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra S\u016btra_.\nZen, as its followers justly claim, does not base its authority on\nany written documents, but directly appeals to the enlightened mind\nof the Buddha. It refuses to do anything with externalism in all\nits variegated modes; even the Sutras or all those literary remains\nordinarily regarded as sacred and coming directly from the mouth of the\nBuddha are looked down upon, as we have already seen, as not touching\nthe inward facts of Zen. Hence its reference to the mystic dialogue\nbetween the Enlightened One and Mah\u0101k\u0101\u015byapa on a bouquet of flowers.\nBut Bodhi-Dharma, the founder of Zen in China, handed the _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_\nover to his first Chinese disciple Hui-k\u2018\u00ea as the only literature in\nexistence at the time in China, in which the principles of Zen are\ntaught. When Zen unconditionally emphasises one\u2019s immediate experience\nas the final fact on which it is established it may well ignore all\nthe scriptural sources as altogether unessential to its truth; and on\nthis principle its followers have quite neglected the study of the\n_La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_. But to justify the position of Zen for those who have\nnot yet grasped it and yet who are desirous of learning something\nabout it, an external authority may be quoted and conceptual arguments\nresorted to in perfect harmony with its truth. This was why Dharma\nselected this Sutra out of the many that had been in existence in China\nin his day. We must approach the _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_ with this frame of mind.\n\nThere are three Chinese translations of the Sutra still in existence.\nThere was a fourth one, but it was lost. The first in four volumes\nwas produced during the Lu-Sung dynasty (A.D. 443) by Gu\u1e47abhadra, the\nsecond in ten volumes comes from the pen of Bodhiruci, of the Y\u00fcan-Wei\ndynasty (A.D. 513), and the third in seven volumes is by \u015aiksh\u0101nanda,\nof the T\u2018ang dynasty (A.D. 700).[2.4] The last-mentioned is the easiest\nto understand and the first the most difficult, and it was this,\nthe most difficult one, that was delivered by Dharma to his disciple\nHui-K\u2018\u00ea as containing the \u201cessence of mind\u201d. In form and in content\nthis translation reflects the earliest text of the Sutra, and on it are\nwritten all the commentaries we have at present in Japan.\n\nThe special features of this Sutra, which distinguish it from the other\nMahayana writings, are, to give the most noteworthy ones: first, that\nthe subject-matter is not systematically developed as in most other\nSutras, but the whole book is a series of notes of various lengths;\nsecondly, that the Sutra is devoid of all supernatural phenomena,\nbut filled with deep philosophical and religious ideas concerning\nthe central teaching of the Sutra, which are very difficult to\ncomprehend, due to tersity of expression and to the abstruse nature\nof the subject-matter; thirdly, that it is in the form of dialogues\nexclusively between the Buddha and the Bodhisattva Mah\u0101mati while in\nthe other Mahayana Sutras the principal figures are generally more than\none besides the Buddha himself who addresses them in turn; and lastly,\nthat it contains no Dharanis or Mantrams\u2014those mystical signs and\nformulas supposed to have a miraculous power. These singularities are\nenough to make the _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_ occupy a unique position in the whole\nlore of the Mahayana school.\n\nIn this characterisation of the _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra S\u016btra_, I am referring to\nthe first Chinese text of Gu\u1e47abhadra. The two later ones have three\nnew chapters in addition: one of which forming the first chapter is\na sort of introduction to the whole Sutra, giving the main idea of\nwhat is discussed in the body of the text itself; the remaining two\nare attached to the end. Of these, the one is a short collection of\nDharanis, and the other which is the conclusion is known as the G\u0101th\u0101\nchapter written throughout in verse and summarises the contents of\nthe whole Sutra. It has, however, no paragraph making up the \u201cregular\nending\u201d in which the whole congregation unites in the praise of the\nBuddha and in its assurance of observing his instructions. There is no\ndoubt that these three new chapters are of later growth.\n\nThe main thesis of the _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra S\u016btra_ is the content\nof Enlightenment, that is, the Buddha\u2019s own inner experience\n(_praty\u0101tmagati_) concerning the great religious truth of Mahayana\nBuddhism. Most of the readers of the Sutra have singularly failed to\nsee this, and contend that it principally explains the Five Dharmas,\nthe Three Characteristics of Reality (svabh\u0101va), the Eight Kinds of\nConsciousness (_vij\u00f1\u0101na_), and the Two Forms of Non-Ego (_nair\u0101tmya_).\nIt is true that the Sutra reflects the psychological school of Buddhism\nadvocated by Asa\u1e45ga and Vasubandhu, when for instance it refers to the\n\u0100layavij\u00f1\u0101na as the storage of all karmic seeds; but such and other\nreferences in fact do not constitute the central thought of the Sutra,\nthey are merely made use of in explaining the \u201cnoble understanding\nof the Buddha\u2019s inner experience\u201d (_praty\u0101tm\u0101ryaj\u00f1\u0101na_). Therefore\nwhen Mah\u0101mati finishes praising the Buddha\u2019s virtues before the whole\nassembly at the summit of Mount La\u1e45k\u0101, the Buddha is quite definite in\nhis declaration of the main theme of his discourse in this Sutra. Let\nus however first quote the song of the Bodhisattva Mah\u0101mati since it\nsums up in a concise and definite manner all the essentials of Mahayana\nBuddhism and since at the same time it illustrates my statement\nconcerning the union of Enlightenment and Love.\n\nThe hymn runs as follows:\n\n\u201cWhen thou reviewest the world with thy wisdom and compassion, it is to\nthee like the ethereal flower, and of which we cannot say whether it\nis created or vanishing, as the categories of being and non-being are\ninapplicable to it.\n\n\u201cWhen thou reviewest all things with thy wisdom and compassion, they\nare like visions, they are beyond the reach of mind and consciousness,\nas the categories of being and non-being are inapplicable to them.\n\n\u201cWhen thou reviewest the world with thy wisdom and compassion, it is\neternally like a dream, of which we cannot say whether it is permanent\nor it is subject to destruction, as the categories of being and\nnon-being are inapplicable to it.\n\n\u201cThe Dharmak\u0101ya whose self-nature is a vision and a dream, what is\nthere to praise? Real existence is where rises no thought of nature and\nno-nature.\n\n\u201cHe whose appearance is beyond the senses and sense-objects and is not\nto be seen by them or in them\u2014how could praise or blame be predicated\nof him, O Muni?\n\n\u201cWith thy wisdom and compassion, which really defy all qualifications,\nthou comprehendest the ego-less nature of things and persons and art\neternally clean of the evil passions and of the hindrance of knowledge.\n\n\u201cThou dost not vanish in Nirvana, nor does Nirvana abide in thee; for\nit transcends the dualism of the enlightened and enlightenment as well\nas the alternatives of being and non-being.\n\n\u201cThose who see the Muni so serene and beyond birth, are detached from\ncravings and remain stainless in this life and after.\u201d\n\nAfter this says the Buddha: \u201cO you, sons of the Jina, question me\nanything you feel like asking. I am going to tell you about the\nstate of my inner attainment (_praty\u0101tmagatigocaram_).\u201d This is\nconclusive, nothing is left to discussion concerning the theme of the\n_La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_. The five Dharmas, the three Characteristics, etc.,\nare referred to only in the course of the Buddha\u2019s exposition of the\nprincipal matter.\n\nThe two later translations, which, as aforementioned, contain some\nextra chapters, are divided regularly in the one into ten and in the\nother into eighteen chapters, while the earliest one of Gunabhadra\nhas just one chapter title for the whole book, \u201cThe Gist of all\nthe Buddhawords.\u201d The first extra chapter which is not found in\nGunabhadra\u2019s text is remarkable in this that it gives the outlines\nof the whole Sutra in the form of a dialogue between the Buddha and\nR\u0101vana, Lord of the Yakshas, in the Isle of La\u1e45k\u0101. When the Buddha,\ncoming out of the N\u0101ga\u2019s palace, views the castle of La\u1e45k\u0101, he smiles\nand remarks that this was the place where all the Buddhas of the\npast preached regarding the excellent understanding of Enlightenment\nrealised in their inner consciousness, which is beyond the analysis of\nlogic and is not the state of mind attainable by the T\u012brthya, \u015ar\u0101vaka,\nor Pratyekabuddha. The Buddha then adds that for this reason the\nsame Dharma will be propounded for R\u0101vana, Lord of the Yakshas. In\nresponse to this, the latter, making all kinds of costly offerings\nto the Buddha, sings in the praise of his insight and virtues: \u201cO\nLord, instruct me in thy system of doctrine which is based on the\nself-nature of mind, instruct me in the doctrine of non-ego, free from\nprejudices and defilements, the doctrine that is revealed in thy inmost\nconsciousness.\u201d\n\nIn the conclusion of this chapter, the Buddha reaffirms his doctrine\nof inner realisation which is Enlightenment: \u201cIt is like seeing one\u2019s\nown image in a mirror or in water, it is like seeing one\u2019s own shadow\nin moonlight or lamplight, again it is like hearing one\u2019s voice echoed\nin the valley: as a man clings to his own false assumptions, he\nerroneously discriminates between truth and falsehood, and on account\nof this false discrimination he fails to go beyond the dualism of\nopposites, indeed he cherishes falsity and cannot attain tranquillity.\nBy tranquillity is meant singleness of purpose (or oneness of things),\nand by singleness of purpose is meant the entrance into the most\nexcellent samadhi, whereby is produced the state of noble understanding\nof self-realisation, which is the receptacle of Tathagatahood\n(_tath\u0101gatagarbha_).\u201d\n\nFrom these quotations we can easily see why Bodhi-Dharma recommended\nthis Sutra for the special perusal of his Zen disciples. But in\norder to impress the reader further with the great importance of\nthe _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra S\u016btra_ in the historical study of Zen in India\nand China, I quote a few more passages showing how the teaching of\nself-realisation is developed in the Sutra.\n\nAccording to the author, the anuttara-samyak-sambodhi attained by the\nMuni of the \u015a\u0101kyas, whereby he became the Buddha, is realisable by\ntranscending the ideas of being and non-being (_n\u0101sy-asti-vikalpa_).\nThis being the fundamental error\u2014this cherishing of dualism\u2014must\nbe got rid of as the first necessary step to reach the state of\nself-realisation. The error comes from not perceiving the truth\nthat all things are empty (_\u015b\u016bnya_), uncreated (_anutp\u0101da_),\nnon-dualistic (_advaya_), and have no immutably individualistic\ncharacters (_ni\u1e25svabh\u0101valaksha\u1e47a_). By the emptiness of things\nis meant principally that their existence being so thoroughly\nmutually conditioning, nowhere obtains the false notion of\ndistinctive individuality, and that when analysis is carried to\nits logical consequence there exists nothing that will separate\none object from another in a final way; therefore says the Sutra,\n\u201cSva-para-ubhaya-abh\u0101v\u0101t\u201d (there exists neither one nor another\nnor both). Secondly, things are uncreated, because they are not\nself-created, nor are they created by an outside agency. Thirdly, as\ntheir existence is reciprocally conditioning, a dualistic conception\nof the world is not the ultimate one, and thus it is a mistake, due\nto this wrong discrimination (_vikalpa_), to seek Nirvana outside of\nSamsara (birth-and-death) and Samsara outside of Nirvana. Fourthly,\nthis principle of mutuality means the denial of individuality as\nabsolute reality, for there is nothing in existence that will\nabsolutely maintain its individuality standing above all conditions of\nrelativity or mutual becoming\u2014in fact, being is becoming. For these\nreasons, we can realise the truth of Enlightenment only by transcending\nthe first condition of intellection, which is, according to the\n_La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_, Parikalpa, or Vikalpa (discrimination). The warning\nagainst this Vikalpa which is the analysing tendency of mind, or, we\nmay say, the fundamentally dualistic disposition of consciousness is\nthe constant refrain of the Sutra, while on the other hand it never\nforgets to emphasise the importance of self-realisation which is\nattained by overcoming this fundamental tendency.\n\nBy thus transcending the intellectual condition, Param\u0101rthasatya\nis realised, which is the ultimate truth, and which subjectively\nconstitutes Praty\u0101tmaj\u00f1\u0101na; it is also the eternally abiding law of\nthe universe (_paur\u0101\u1e47asthitidharmat\u0101_). This inwardly realised truth\nhas many names as it is viewed in various relations in which it stands\nto human activities, moral, spiritual, intellectual, practical, and\npsychological. \u201cBodhi\u201d is enlightenment and used most generally, in\nMahayana as well as in Hinayana literature, to designate the mind in\nwhich Ignorance is completely wiped out; Tathat\u0101 (thatness) or Bh\u016btat\u0101\n(reality) is metaphysical. Nirvana is conceived as a spiritual state\nin which all passional turmoil is quieted; Tath\u0101gatagarbha is more\npsychological than ontological; Citta is used as belonging to the\nseries of mental terms such as Manas, Manovij\u00f1\u0101na, and other Vij\u00f1\u0101nas,\nand is not always synonymous with Bodhi or Praty\u0101tmaj\u00f1\u0101na unless it\nis qualified with adjectives of purity; \u015a\u016bnyat\u0101 is a negative term\nand distinctively epistemological, and Buddhist scholars, especially\nof the Praj\u00f1\u0101p\u0101ramit\u0101 school, have been quite fond of this term, and\nwe see that the _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_ too has indulged in the use of it. It\ngoes without saying however that these synonyms are helpful only as\nsign-posts indicating the way to the content of self-realisation.\n\nBesides these, we have two or three most frequently repeated phrases\nto characterise the central idea of the Mahayana text. In fact, when\nthe meaning of these phrases is grasped together with psychological\ndiscourse on the Citta and Vij\u00f1\u0101na, the whole philosophy of Zen\nas it is expounded in the Sutra grows transparent, and also with\nit the general tendency of Mahayana thought. The phrases are:\n\u201c_V\u0101g-vikalpa-ahita_\u201d or \u201c_v\u0101g-akshara-prativikalpana\u1e41 vinihata_\u201d or\n\u201c_\u015b\u0101\u015bvata-uccheda-sad-asad-d\u1e5bish\u1e6di-vivarjita_.\u201d With these the reader\nis most frequently greeted in the Sutra. The first and the second\nphrases mean that the inner content of the noble understanding is\nbeyond the reach of words and analytical reasoning, and the third\nphrase says that the ultimate truth is not to be found in eternalism,\nor nihilism, or realism, or non-realism. The Sutra sometimes goes so\nfar as this: \u201cO Mah\u0101mati, it is because the Sutras are preached to all\nbeings in accordance with their modes of thinking, and do not hit the\nmark as far as the true sense is concerned; words cannot re-instate\nthe truth as it is. It is like mirage, deceived by which the animals\nmake an erroneous judgment as to presence of water where there is\nreally none; even so, all the doctrines in the Sutras are intended to\nsatisfy the imagination of the masses, they do not reveal the truth\nwhich is the object of the noble understanding. Therefore O Mah\u0101mati,\nconform yourself to the sense, and do not be engrossed in words and\ndoctrines.\u201d[f44]\n\nThe purport of these adjectives and phrases is that no conceptual\ninterpretation is possible of Enlightenment or self-realisation and\nthat the realisation must issue from one\u2019s own inner consciousness,\nindependent of scriptural teaching or of another\u2019s help. For all\nthat is needed to lead one to the attainment of Praty\u0101tm\u0101ryaj\u00f1\u0101na is\nwithin oneself, only that it is in a state of confusion owing to wrong\njudgments (_vikalpa_) cherished and infused (_v\u0101san\u0101_) in the mind\nsince beginningless time. It requires a direct, personal confirmation\nor transmission from the Buddhas, but even these latter are unable to\nawaken us to the exalted state of Enlightenment unless we ourselves\nconcentrate our spiritual efforts in the work of self-emancipation.\nTherefore, meditation (_dhy\u0101na_) is recommended in the Sutra as the\nmeans of attaining to the truth of the inmost consciousness.\n\nThe idea of dhyana as explained in the _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_, however, is\ndifferent from what we generally know in Hinayana literature,[f45]\nthat is, from those kinds of dhyana mentioned in the previous part\nof this essay. The Sutra distinguishes four dhyanas: the first is\npractised by the unlearned (_b\u0101lopac\u0101rika_), such as the \u015ar\u0101vakas,\nPratyeka-buddhas, and devotees of the Yoga. They have been instructed\nin the doctrine of non\u0101tman, and regarding the world as impermanent,\nimpure, and pain-producing, they persistently follow these thoughts\nuntil they realise the samadhi of thought-extinction. The second\ndhyana is designated \u201cstatement-reviewing\u201d (_artha-pravicaya_) by\nwhich is meant an intellectual examination of statements or\npropositions, Buddhist or non-Buddhist, such as \u201cEach object has its\nindividual marks,\u201d \u201cThere is no personal Atman,\u201d \u201cThings are created\nby an external agency,\u201d or \u201cthings are mutually determined\u201d; and after\nthe examination of these themes the practiser of this dhyana turns\nhis thought on the non-atman-ness of things (_dharma-nair\u0101tmya_) and\non the characteristic features of the various stages (_bh\u016bmi_) of\nBodhisattvaship, and finally in accordance with the sense involved\ntherein he goes on with his contemplative examination. The third dhyana\nis called \u201cAttaching oneself to Thatness\u201d (_tathat\u0101lambana_) whereby\none realises that to discriminate the two forms of non-atman-ness\nis still due to an analytical speculation and that when things are\ntruthfully (_yath\u0101bh\u016btam_) perceived, no such analysis is possible,\nfor then there obtains absolute oneness only. The fourth and last is\n\u201cTath\u0101gata-dhy\u0101na.\u201d In this one enters into the stage of Buddhahood\nwhere he enjoys a threefold beatitude belonging to the noble\nunderstanding of self-realisation and performs wonderful deeds for the\nsake of all sentient beings. In these dhyanas we observe a gradual\nperfection of Buddhist life culminating in the utmost spiritual freedom\nof Buddhahood, which is above all intellectual conditions and beyond\nthe reach of relative consciousness. Those wonderful, unthinkable\n(_acintya_) deeds issuing from spiritual freedom are technically called\n\u201cdeeds performed with no sense of utility\u201d (_an\u0101bhogacary\u0101_), or the\n\u201cdeeds of no purpose\u201d as referred to elsewhere, and mean the perfection\nof Buddhist life.\n\nThe _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_ was thus handed over by Bodhi-Dharma to his first\ndisciple Hui-k\u2018\u00ea as the most illuminating document on the doctrine of\nZen. But the development of Zen in China naturally did not follow the\nline as was indicated in the Sutra, that is, after the Indian fashion;\nthe soil where the dhyana of the _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_ was transplanted did\nnot favour its growth in the same manner as it did in the original\nclimate. Zen was inspired with the life and spirit of the dhyana of the\nTathagata, but it created its own mode of manifestation. Indeed this\nwas where it showed its wonderful power of vitality and adaptation.\n\n\n            _The Doctrine of Enlightenment as Zen in China_\n\nTo understand how the doctrine of Enlightenment or self-realisation\ncame to be translated in China as Zen Buddhism, we must first see where\nthe Chinese mind varies from the Indian generally. When this is done,\nZen will appear as a most natural product of the Chinese soil where\nBuddhism has been successfully transplanted in spite of many adverse\nconditions. Roughly, then, the Chinese are above all a most practical\npeople while the Indians are visionary and highly speculative. We\ncannot perhaps judge the Chinese as unimaginative and lacking in the\ndramatic sense, but when they are compared with the inhabitants of the\nBuddha\u2019s native land, they look so grey, so sombre. The geographical\nfeatures of each country are singularly reflected in the people. The\ntropical luxuriance of imagination so strikingly contrasts with the\nwintery dreariness of common practicalness. The Indians are subtle\nin analysis and dazzling in poetic flight; the Chinese are children\nof earthly life, they plod, they never soar away in the air. Their\ndaily life consists in tilling the soil, gathering dry leaves, drawing\nwater, buying and selling, being filial, and observing social duties,\nand developing the most elaborate system of etiquette. Being practical\nmeans in a sense being historical, observing the progress of time\nand recording its traces as they are left behind. The Chinese can\nvery well boast of their being great recorders,\u2014such a contrast to\nthe Indian lack of sense of time. Not satisfied with books printed\non paper and with ink, the Chinese would engrave their deeds deep in\nstone, and have developed a special art of stone-cutting. This habit\nof recording events has developed their literature, and they are\nquite literary and not at all warlike, they love a peaceful life of\nculture. Their weakness is that they are willing to sacrifice facts for\nliterary effects, for they are not very exact and scientific. Love of\nfine rhetoric and beautiful expressions has frequently drowned their\npractical sense, but here is also their art. Well restrained even in\nthis, their soberness never reaches that form of fantasy which we\nencounter in most of the Mahayana texts.\n\nThe Chinese are in many ways great, their architecture is great\nindeed, their literary achievements deserve the world\u2019s thanks; but\nlogic is not one of their strong points; nor are their philosophy and\nimagination. When Buddhism with all its characteristically Indian\ndialectics and imageries was first introduced into China, it must\nhave staggered the Chinese mind. Look at its gods with many heads and\narms\u2014something that has never entered into their heads, in fact into\nno other nation\u2019s than the Indian\u2019s. Think of the wealth of symbolism\nwith which every being in Buddhist literature seems to be endowed.\nThe mathematical conception of infinities, the Bodhisattva\u2019s plan\nof world-salvation, the wonderful stage-setting before the Buddha\nbegins his sermons, not only in their general outlines but in their\ndetails\u2014bold, yet accurate, soaring in flight, yet sure of every\nstep\u2014these and many other features must have been things of wonderment\nto the practical and earth-plodding people of China.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nOne quotation from a Mahayana Sutra will convince readers of the\ndifference between Indian and Chinese minds, in regard to their\nimaginative powers. In the _Saddharma-pu\u1e47\u1e0dar\u012bka_ the Buddha wishes\nto impress his disciples as to the length of time passed since his\nattainment of Supreme Enlightenment; he does not merely state that it\nis a mistake to think that his Enlightenment took place some countable\nnumber of years ago under the Bodhi-tree near the town of Gay\u0101; nor\ndoes he say in a general way that it happened ages ago, which is very\nlikely the way with the Chinese, but he describes in a most analytical\nway in how remote an age it was that he came to Enlightenment.\n\n\u201cBut, young men of good family, the truth is that many hundred thousand\nmyriads of kotis of \u00e6ons ago I have arrived at Supreme, Perfect\nEnlightenment. By way of example, young men of good family, let there\nbe the atoms of earth of fifty hundred thousand myriads of kotis of\nworlds; let there exist some man who takes one of these atoms of dust\nand then goes in an eastern direction fifty hundred thousand myriads\nof kotis of worlds further on, there to deposit that atom of dust;\nlet the man in this manner carry away from all those worlds the\nwhole mass of earth, and in the same manner, and by the same act as\nsupposed, deposit all those atoms in an eastern direction. Now would\nyou think, young men of good family, that any one should be able to\nweigh, imagine, count, or determine the number of these worlds? The\nLord having thus spoken, the Bodhisattva Mah\u0101sattva Maitreya and the\nentire host of Bodhisattvas replied: They are incalculable, O Lord,\nthose worlds, countless, beyond the range of thought. Not even all the\n\u015ar\u0101vakas and Pratyeka-buddhas, O Lord, with their \u0100rya-knowledge, will\nbe able to imagine, count, or determine them. For us also, O Lord, who\nare Bodhisattvas standing on the place from whence there is no turning\nback, this point lies beyond the sphere of our comprehension; so\ninnumerable, O Lord, are those worlds.\n\n\u201cThis said, the Buddha spoke to those Bodhisattvas Mah\u0101sattvas as\nfollows: I announce to you, young men of good family, I declare to you:\nHowever numerous be those worlds where that man deposits those atoms of\ndust and where he does not, there are not, young men of good family, in\nall those hundred thousands of myriads of kotis of worlds so many dust\natoms as there are hundred thousands of myriads of kotis of \u00e6ons since\nI have arrived at Supreme, Perfect Enlightenment.\u201d[f46]\n\nSuch a conception of number and such a method of description would\nnever have entered the Chinese mind. They are, of course, capable of\nconceiving long duration, and great achievements, in which they are not\nbehind any nation; but to express their idea of vastness in the manner\nof the Indian philosophers would be beyond their understanding.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nWhen things are not within the reach of conceptual description and\nyet when they are to be communicated to others, the ways open to most\npeople will be either to remain silent, or to declare them simply\nto be beyond words, or to resort to negation saying, \u201cnot this,\u201d\n\u201cnot that,\u201d or if one were a philosopher, to write a book explaining\nhow logically impossible it was to discourse on such subjects;\nbut the Indians found quite a novel way of illustrating philosophical\ntruths that cannot be appealed to analytical reasoning. They resorted\nto miracles or supernatural phenomena for their illustration. Thus\nthey made the Buddha a great magician; not only the Buddha but almost\nall the chief characters appearing in the Mahayana scriptures became\nmagicians. And in my view this is one of the most charming features\nof the Mahayana texts\u2014this description of supernatural phenomena in\nconnection with the teaching of abstruse doctrine. Some may think it\naltogether childish and injuring the dignity of the Buddha as teacher\nof solemn religious truths. But this is a superficial interpretation\nof the matter. The Indian idealists knew far better; they had a more\npenetrating imagination which was always effectively employed by them\nwhenever the intellect was put to a task beyond its power. We must\nunderstand that the motive of the Mahayanists who made the Buddha\nperform all these magical feats was to illustrate through imageries\nwhat in the very nature of things could not be done in an ordinary\nmethod open to human intellect. When the intellect failed to analyse\nthe essence of Buddhahood, their rich imagination came in to help them\nout by visualising it. When we try to explain Enlightenment logically,\nwe always find ourselves involved in contradictions. But when an appeal\nis made to our symbolical imagination\u2014especially if one is liberally\nendowed with this faculty\u2014the matter is more readily comprehended.\nAt least this seems to have been the Indian way of conceiving the\nsignification of supernaturalism.\n\nWhen Vimalak\u012brti was asked by \u015a\u0101riputra how such a small room as his\nwith just one seat for himself could accommodate all the hosts of\nBodhisattvas and Arhats and Devas numbering many thousands, who were\ncoming there with Ma\u00f1ju\u015br\u012b to visit the sick philosopher, replied\nVimalak\u012brti, \u201cAre you here to seek chairs or the Dharma?... One who\nseeks the Dharma finds it in seeking it in nothing.\u201d Then learning from\nMa\u00f1ju\u015br\u012b where to obtain seats, he asks a Buddha called Sumerud\u012bpar\u0101ja\nto supply him with 32,000 lion-seats, majestically decorated and as\nhigh as 84,000 yojanas. When they were brought in, his room,\nformerly large enough for one seat, now miraculously accommodated all\nthe retinue of Ma\u00f1ju\u015br\u012b, each one of whom was comfortably seated in a\ncelestial chair, and yet the whole town of Vai\u015b\u0101li and the rest of the\nworld did not appear on this account crammed to overflowing. \u015a\u0101riputra\nwas surprised beyond measure to witness this supernatural event, but\nVimalak\u012brti explained that for those who understand the doctrine of\nspiritual emancipation, even the Mount of Sumeru could be sealed up in\na seed of mustard, and the waves of the four great oceans could be made\nto flow into one pore of the skin (_romak\u016bpa_), without even giving any\nsense of inconvenience to any of the fishes, crocodiles, tortoises, and\nother living beings in them; the spiritual kingdom was not bound in\nspace and time.\n\nTo quote another instance from the first chapter of the\n_La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ras\u016btra_, which does not appear in the oldest Chinese\ntranslation. When King R\u0101va\u1e47a was requesting the Buddha through the\nBodhisattva Mah\u0101mati to disclose the content of his inner experience,\nthe king unexpectedly noticed his mountain-residence turned into\nnumberless mountains of precious stones and most ornately decorated\nwith celestial grandeur, and on each of these mountains he saw the\nBuddha manifested. And before each Buddha there stood King R\u0101va\u1e47a\nhimself with all his assemblage as well as all the countries in the ten\nquarters of the world, and in each of those countries there appeared\nthe Tathagata, before whom again there were King R\u0101va\u1e47a, his families,\nhis palaces, his gardens, all decorated exactly in the same style as\nhis own. There was also the Bodhisattva Mah\u0101mati in each of these\ninnumerable assemblies asking the Buddha to declare the content of his\ninner spiritual experience; and when the Buddha finished his discourse\non the subject with hundreds of thousands of exquisite voices, the\nwhole scene suddenly vanished, and the Buddha with all his Bodhisattvas\nand his followers were no more; then King R\u0101va\u1e47a found himself all\nalone in his old palace. He now reflected: \u201cWho was he that asked\nthe question? Who was he that listened? What were those objects that\nappeared before me? Was it a dream? or a magical phenomenon?\u201d He\nagain reflected: \u201cThings are all like this, they are all creations\nof one\u2019s own mind. When mind discriminates, there is manifoldness of\nthings; but when it does not, it looks into the true state of things.\u201d\nWhen he thus reflected, he heard voices in the air and in his own\npalace, saying: \u201cWell you have reflected, O King! You should conduct\nyourself according to this view.\u201d\n\nThe Mahayana literature is not the only recorder of the miraculous\npower of the Buddha, which transcends all the relative conditions of\nspace and time as well as of human activities mental and physical. The\nPali scriptures are by no means behind the Mahayana in this respect.\nNot to speak of the Buddha\u2019s threefold knowledge which consists in the\nknowledge of the past, the future, and of his own emancipation, he can\nalso practise what is known as the three wonders which are the mystic\nwonder, the wonder of education, and the wonder of manifestation. But\nwhen we carefully examine the miracles described in the Nikayas, we\nsee that they have no other objects in view than the magnification and\ndeification of the personality of the Buddha. The recorders of these\nmiracles must have thought that they could thus make their master\ngreater and far above ordinary mortals in the estimate of their rivals.\nFrom our modern point of view it was quite childish for them to imagine\nthat any unusual deeds performed by their master would attract, as\nwe read in the _Kevaddha Sutta_, people\u2019s attention to Buddhism and\nrecognise its superior value on that very account; but in those ancient\ndays in India, the masses, nay even learned scholars, thought a great\ndeal of supernaturalism, and naturally the Buddhists made the best\npossible use of this belief. But when we come to the Mahayana Sutras\nwe at once perceive that the miracles described here on a much grander\nscale have nothing to do with supernaturalism as such or with any\nulterior motives such as propagandism or self-aggrandisement, but that\nthey are essentially and intimately connected with the doctrine itself\nwhich is expounded in the texts. For instance, in the _Praj\u00f1\u0101-p\u0101ramit\u0101\nS\u016btra_ every part of the body of the Buddha simultaneously emits\ninnumerable rays illuminating at once the furthest ends of the\nworlds, whereas in the _Avata\u1e41saka S\u016btra_ the different parts of\nhis body shoot out beams of light on different occasions. In the\n_Saddharma-pu\u1e47\u1e0dar\u012bka S\u016btra_, a ray of light issues from within the\ncircle of hair between the eyebrows of the Buddha which illuminates\nover eighteen hundred thousand Buddha-countries in the eastern quarter,\nrevealing every being in them, even the inhabitants of the deepest\nhell called Avici. It is evident that the Mahayana writers of these\nSutras had in their minds something much different from the Hinayana\ncompilers of the Nikayas in their narratives of the miraculous power\nof the Buddha. What that something was I have here pointed out in\na most general way. A systematic study in detail of the Mahayana\nsupernaturalism will no doubt be an interesting one.\n\nAt all events, the above references will suffice I believe to establish\nmy thesis that the reason for the introduction of supernaturalism into\nthe Mahayana literature of Buddhism was to demonstrate the intellectual\nimpossibility of comprehending spiritual facts. While philosophy\nexhausted its resources logically to explain them, Vimalak\u012brti like\nB\u0101hva, a Vedic mystic, remained silent; not satisfied with this, the\nIndian Mahayana writers further introduced supernaturalistic symbolism,\nbut it remained with the Chinese Zen Buddhists to invent their own\nmethods to cope, according to their own needs and insight, with the\ndifficulties of communicating one\u2019s highest and deepest spiritual\nexperience known as Enlightenment in Buddhism.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe Chinese have no aptitude like the Indians to hide themselves in the\nclouds of mystery and supernaturalism. Chwang-tz\u016d and Lieh-tz\u016d were\nthe nearest to the Indian type of mind in ancient China, but their\nmysticism does not begin to approach that of the Indian Mahayanists in\ngrandeur, in elaborateness, and in the height of soaring imagination.\nChwang-tz\u016d did his best when he rode up in the air on the back of the\nTai-p\u2018\u00eang whose wings soared like overhanging clouds; and Lieh-tz\u016d\nwhen he could command winds and clouds as his charioteers. The later\n Taoists dreamed of ascending to the heavens after so many years\nof ascetic discipline and by taking an elixir of life concocted from\nvarious rare herbs. Thus in China we have so many Taoist hermits\nliving in the mountains far away from human habitations. No Chinese\nsaints or philosophers are however recorded in history who have been\ncapable of equalling Vimalak\u012brti or Ma\u00f1ju\u015br\u012b or even any of the Arhats.\nThe Confucian verdict that superior man never talks about miracles,\nwonders, and supernaturalism, is the true expression of Chinese\npsychology. The Chinese are thoroughly practical. They must have their\nown way of interpreting the doctrine of Enlightenment as applied to\ntheir daily life, and they could not help creating Zen as an expression\nof their inmost spiritual experience.\n\nIf the imagery of supernaturalism did not appeal to sober Chinese\ncharacter, how did the Chinese followers of Enlightenment contrive\nto express themselves? Did they adopt the intellectual method of the\n\u015a\u016bnyat\u0101 philosophy? No, this too was not after their taste, nor was it\nquite within the reach of their mental calibre. The _Praj\u00f1\u0101-P\u0101ramit\u0101_\nwas an Indian creation and not the Chinese. They could have produced\na Chwang-tz\u016d or those Taoist dreamers of the Six Dynasties, but not a\nN\u0101g\u0101rjuna or a \u015aank\u0101ra. The Chinese genius was to demonstrate itself\nin some other way. When they began inwardly to assimilate Buddhism as\nthe doctrine of Enlightenment, the only course that opened to their\nconcrete practical minds was to produce Zen. When we come to Zen after\nseeing all the wonderful miracles displayed by the Indian Mahayana\nwriters, and after the highly abstracted speculations of the M\u0101dhyamika\nthinkers, what a change of scenery do we have here? No rays are\nissuing from the Buddha\u2019s forehead, no retinues of Bodhisattvas reveal\nthemselves before you, there is indeed nothing that would particularly\nstrike your senses as odd or extraordinary, or as beyond intelligence,\nbeyond the ken of logical reasoning. The people you associate with are\nall ordinary mortals like yourselves, no abstract ideas, no dialectical\nsubtleties confront you. Mountains tower high towards the sky, rivers\nall pour into the ocean. Plants sprout in the spring and flowers bloom\nin red. When the moon shines serenely, poets grow mildly drunk and\nsing a song of eternal peace. How prosaic, how ordinary, we may say!\nbut here was the Chinese soul, and Buddhism came to grow in it.\n\nWhen a monk asks who is the Buddha, the master points at his image in\nthe Buddha Hall; no explanations are given, no arguments are suggested.\nWhen the mind is the subject of discourse, asks a monk, \u201cWhat is mind,\nanyway?\u201d \u201cMind,\u201d says the master.[2.5] \u201cI do not understand, Sir.\u201d\n\u201cNeither do I,\u201d quickly comes from the master. On another occasion, a\nmonk is worried over the question of immortality. \u201cHow can I escape\nthe bondage of birth and death?\u201d[2.5] Answers the master, \u201cWhere\nare you?\u201d The Zen adepts as a rule never waste time in responding\nto questions, nor are they at all argumentative. Their answers are\nalways curt and final, which follow the questions with the rapidity\nof lightning. Some one asked,[2.6] \u201cWhat is the fundamental teaching\nof the Buddha?\u201d Said the master, \u201cThere is enough breeze in this\nfan to keep me cool.\u201d What a most matter-of-fact answer this! That\ninevitable formula of Buddhism, the Fourfold Noble Truth, apparently\nhas no place in the scheme of Zen teaching, nor has that persistently\nenigmatic statement in the _Praj\u00f1\u0101-P\u0101ramit\u0101_, \u201ctaccittam yaccittam\nacittam,\u201d threatens us here. Ummon (Y\u00fcn-m\u00ean)[2.7] once appeared in\nthe pulpit and said, \u201cIn this school of Zen no words are needed; what\nthen is the ultimate essence of Zen teaching?\u201d Thus himself proposing\nthe question, he extended both his arms, and without further remarks\ncame down from the pulpit. This was the way the Chinese Buddhists\ninterpreted the doctrine of Enlightenment, this was the way they\nexpounded the _Praty\u0101tmaj\u00f1anagocara_ of the _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_. And for the\nChinese Buddhists this was the only way, if the inner experience of the\nBuddha were to be demonstrated, not intellectually or analytically,\nnor in supernatural manners, but directly in our practical life. For\nlife, as far as it is lived _in concreto_, is above concepts as well as\nimages. To understand it we have to dive into it and to come in touch\nwith it personally; to pick up or cut out a piece of it for inspection\nmurders it; when you think you have got into the essence of it,\nit is no more, for it has ceased to live but lies immobile and all\ndried up. For this reason, Chinese minds, ever since the coming of\nBodhi-Dharma, worked on the problem how best to present the doctrine\nof Enlightenment in their native garment cut to suit their modes of\nfeeling and thinking, and it was not until after Hui-n\u00eang (Yeno) that\nthey satisfactorily solved the problem and the great task of building\nup a school to be known thenceforward as Zen was accomplished.\n\nThat Zen was the thing Chinese minds wanted to have when they\nthoroughly comprehended the teaching of Buddhism is proved by the two\nincontestable historical facts: first, after the establishment of Zen,\nit was this teaching that ruled China while all the other schools of\nBuddhism, except the Pure Land sect, failed to survive; and secondly,\nbefore Buddhism was translated into Zen it never came into an intimate\nrelation with the native thought of China, by which I mean Confucianism.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nLet us see first how Zen came to rule the spiritual life of China.\nThe inner sense of Enlightenment was not understood in China, except\nintellectually, in the earlier days of Buddhism. This was natural,\nseeing that it was in this respect that the Chinese mind was excelled\nby the Indian. As I said before, the boldness and subtlety of Mahayana\nphilosophy must have fairly stunned the Chinese, who had, before the\nintroduction of Buddhism, practically no system of thought worthy of\nthe name, except moral science. In this latter they were conscious of\ntheir own strength; even such devout Buddhists as I-ching (Gij\u014d) and\nHs\u2018\u00fcan-chuang (Genj\u014d) acknowledged it, with all their ardour for the\nYog\u0101c\u0101ra psychology and the Avatamsaka metaphysics; they thought that\ntheir country, as far as moral culture was concerned, was ahead of the\nland of their faith or at least had nothing to learn from the latter.\nAs the Mahayana Sutras and Shastras were translated in rapid succession\nby able, learned, devout scholars, both native and Indian, the Chinese\nmind was led to explore a region where they had not ventured very far\nbefore. In the early Chinese biographical histories of Buddhism, we\nnotice commentators, expounders, and philosophers far outnumbering\ntranslators and adepts in dhyana so called. The Buddhist scholars\nwere at first quite busily engaged in assimilating intellectually the\nvarious doctrines propounded in Mahayana literature. Not only were\nthese doctrines deep and complicated but they were also contradicting\none another, at least on the surface. If the scholars were to enter\ninto the depths of Buddhist thought, they had to dispose of these\nentanglements somehow. But if they were sufficiently critical, they\ncould do that with comparative ease, which was however something we\ncould never expect of those earlier Buddhists; for even in these modern\ndays critical Buddhist scholars will in some quarters be regarded as\nnot quite devout and orthodox. They all had not a shadow of doubt as\nto the genuineness of the Mahayanist texts as faithfully and literally\nrecording the very words of the Buddha, and therefore they had to plan\nout some systems of reconciliation between diverse doctrines taught in\nthe Scriptures. This meant to find out what was the primary object of\nthe Buddha\u2019s appearance in the world ignorant, corrupted, and given up\nto the karma of eternal transmigration. Such efforts on the part of\nBuddhist philosophers developed what is to be distinctly designated as\nChinese Buddhism.\n\nWhile this intellectual assimilation was going on on the one hand,\nthe practical side of Buddhism was also assiduously studied. Some\nwere followers of the Vinaya texts, and others devoted themselves\nto the mastery of dhyana. But what was here known as dhyana was not\nthe dhyana of Zen Buddhism, it was a meditation, concentrating one\u2019s\nthought on some ideas such as impermanence, egolessness of things,\nchain of causation, or the attributes of the Buddha, Even Bodhi-Dharma,\nthe founder of Zen Buddhism, was regarded by historians as belonging\nto this class of dhyana-adepts, his peculiar merits as teacher of an\nentirely novel school of Buddhism were not fully appreciated. This was\ninevitable, the people of China were not yet quite ready to accept\nthe new form; for they had only inadequately grasped the doctrine of\nEnlightenment in all its bearings.\n\nThe importance of Enlightenment in its practical aspects, however,\nwas not altogether overlooked in the maze of doctrinal intricacies.\nChi-i (Chigi, 522\u2013597), one of the founders of the T\u2018ien Tai school\nand the greatest Buddhist philosopher in China, was fully awake to the\nsignificance of dhyana as the means of attaining Enlightenment. With\nall his analytical powers, his speculation had room enough for the\npractice of dhyana. His work on \u201cTranquillisation and Contemplation\u201d\nis explicit on this point. His idea was to carry out intellectual and\nspiritual exercises in perfect harmony, and not partially to emphasise\neither one of the two, Sam\u0101dhi or Praj\u00f1\u0101, at the expense of the other.\nUnfortunately, his followers grew more and more one-sided until they\nneglected the dhyana practice for the sake of intellection. Hence their\nantagonistic attitude later towards advocates of Zen Buddhism, for\nwhich however the latter were to a certain extent to be responsible,\ntoo.\n\nIt was due to Bodhi-Dharma (died 528)[f47] that Zen came to be the\nBuddhism of China. It was he that started this movement which proved\nso fruitful among a people given up to the practical affairs of life.\nWhen he declared his message, it was still tinged with Indian colours,\nhe could not be entirely independent of the traditional Buddhist\nmetaphysics of the times. His allusion to the _Vajrasam\u0101dhi_ and the\n_La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_ was natural, but the seeds of Zen were sown by his hands.\nIt now remained with his native disciples to see to it that these seeds\ngrew up in harmony with the soil and climate. It took about two hundred\nyears for the Zen seeds to bear fruit, rich and vigorous in life, and\nfully naturalised while retaining intact the essence of what makes up\nBuddhism.\n\nHui-n\u00eang (637\u2013713) who was the sixth patriarch after Bodhi-Dharma, was\nthe real Chinese founder of Zen; for it was through him and his direct\nfollowers that Zen could cast off the garment borrowed from India and\nbegan to put on one cut and sewn by the native hands. The spirit of\nZen was of course the same as the one that came to China transmitted\nwithout interruption from the Buddha, but the form of expression was\nthoroughly Chinese, for it was their own creation. The rise of Zen\nafter this, was phenomenal. The latent energy that had been stored up\nduring the time of naturalisation suddenly broke out in active work,\nand Zen had almost a triumphal march through the whole land of Cathay.\nDuring the T\u2018ang dynasty (618\u2013906) when Chinese culture reached its\nconsummation, great Zen masters succeeded one after another in building\nup monasteries and educating monks as well as lay-disciples who were\nlearned not only in the Confucian classics but in the Mahayana lore of\nBuddhism. The emperors too were not behind them in paying respects to\nthese Zen seers, who were invited to come to the court in order to give\nsermons to these august personages. When for political reasons Buddhism\nwas persecuted, which caused the loss of many valuable documents, works\nof art, and the decline of some schools, Zen was always the first to\nrecover itself and to renew its activities with redoubled energy and\nenthusiasm. Throughout the Five Dynasties, in the first half of the\ntenth century, when China was torn up into minor kingdoms again, and\ngeneral political situations seemed to be unfavourable to the thriving\nof religious sentiments, Zen prospered as before and the masters kept\nup their monastic centers undisturbed.\n\nWith the rise of the Sung dynasty (960\u20131279) Zen reached the height\nof its development and influence, while the other sects of Buddhism\nshowed signs of rapid decline. When history opens on the pages of the\nY\u00fcan (1280\u20131367) and the Ming (1368\u20131661) dynasty, Buddhism is found\nidentified with Zen. The Kegon (Avata\u1e41saka), Tendai (T\u2018ien-tai), Sanron\n(San-lun), Kusha (Abhidharma-ko\u015ba), Hosso (Yog\u0101c\u0101ra) and Shingon\n(Mantra), if they were not completely wiped out through persecution,\nsuffered tremendously from the lack of fresh blood. Perhaps they were\nto die out anyway on account of their not having been completely\nassimilated by Chinese thought and feeling; there was too much of an\nIndian element which prevented them from being fully acclimatised. In\nany event Zen as the essence of the Buddha\u2019s mind continued to flourish\nso that any Chinese minds at all inclined towards Buddhism came to\nstudy Zen and neglected the rest of the Buddhist schools still in\nexistence though at the last stage of their productive activity. The\nonly form of Buddhism that retains its vitality to a certain extent\neven to this day, is Zen, more or less modified to accommodate the Pure\nLand tendency, that had been growing soon after the introduction of\nBuddhism into China.\n\nThere was reason for this state of things in the religious history\nof China, and it was this that Zen dispensed with the images and\nconcepts and modes of thinking that were imported from India along\nwith Buddhist thought; and out of its own consciousness Zen created\nan original literature best adapted to the exposition of the truth of\nEnlightenment. This literature was unique in many senses, but it was\nin perfect accordance with the Chinese mental _modus operandi_ and\nnaturally powerfully moved them to the core. Bodhi-Dharma taught his\ndisciples to look directly into the essence of the teaching of the\nBuddha discarding the outward manners of presentation, he told them not\nto follow the conceptual and analytical interpretation of the doctrine\nof Enlightenment. Literary adherents of the Sutras objected to this and\ndid all they could to prevent the growth of the teaching of Dharma.\nBut it grew on in spite of oppositions. The disciples mastered the art\nof grasping the central fact of Buddhism. When this was accomplished,\nthey proceeded to demonstrate it according to their own methods, using\ntheir own terminology, regardless of the traditional or rather imported\nway of expression. They did not entirely abandon the old manner of\nspeaking; for they refer to Buddha, Tathagata, Nirvana, Bodhi, Trik\u0101ya,\nKarma, transmigration, emancipation, and many other ideas making up\nthe body of Buddhism; but they make no mention of the Twelvefold Chain\nof Origination, the Fourfold Noble Truth, or the Eightfold Righteous\nPath. When we read Zen literature without being told of its relation\nto Buddhism, we may almost fail to recognise in it such things as are\ngenerally regarded as specifically Buddhist. When Yakusan (Y\u00fceh-shan,\n751\u2013834) saw a monk, he asked,[2.8] \u201cWhere do you come from?\u201d \u201cI come\nfrom south of the Lake.\u201d \u201cIs the Lake over-flowing with water?\u201d \u201cNo,\nsir, it is not yet overflowing.\u201d \u201cStrange,\u201d said the master,\n\u201cafter so much rain why does it not overflow?\u201d To this last query, the\nmonk failed to give a satisfactory answer, whereupon Ungan (Y\u00fcn-yen),\none of Yakusan\u2019s disciples, said, \u201cOverflowing, indeed!\u201d while Dosan\n(Tung-shan), another of his disciples, exclaimed, \u201cIn what kalpa did\nit ever fail to overflow?\u201d In these dialogues do we detect any trace\nof Buddhism? Do they not look as if they were talking about an affair\nof most ordinary occurrence? But, according to the masters, their\ntalks are brimful of Zen, and Zen literature is indeed abound in such\napparent trivialities. In fact, as far as its phraseology and manner of\ndemonstration are concerned, Zen looks as if it had nothing to do with\nBuddhism, and some critics are almost justified in designating Zen as a\nChinese anomaly of Buddhism as was referred to at the beginning of this\nEssay.\n\nIn the history of Chinese literature, Zen writings known as _Y\u00fc-lu_\n(Goroku) form a class by themselves, and it is due to them that the\nChinese colloquialism of the T\u2018ang and the early Sung dynasty has\nbeen preserved. Men of letters in China despised to write except\nin classical style, deliberately choosing such words, phrases,\nand expressions as enhanced the grace of the composition. All the\nliterature we have of those early days of Chinese culture therefore\nis the model of such a cultivated style. The Zen masters were not\nnecessarily despisers of classicism, they took to fine literature as\nmuch as their contemporaries, they were well-educated and learned too;\nbut they found colloquialism a better and more powerful medium for the\nutterance of their inner experiences. This is generally the case with\nspiritual reformers, who want to express themselves through the medium\nmost intimate to their feelings and best suited for their original\nways of viewing things. They avoid wherever possible such nomenclature\nas has been in use and filled with old associations which are apt to\nlack in living purposes and therefore in vivifying effects. Living\nexperiences ought to be told in a living language and not in worn-out\nimages and concepts. The Zen masters therefore did what they could\nnot help doing and made free use of the living words and phrases of\nthe day. Does this not prove that in China Buddhism through Zen\nceased to be a foreign importation and was transformed into an original\ncreation of the native mind? And just because Zen could turn itself\ninto a native product, it survived all the other schools of Buddhism.\nIn other words, Zen was the only form in which the Chinese mind could\naccommodate, appreciate, and assimilate the Buddhist doctrine of\nEnlightenment.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nI hope I have shown how Buddhism, that is, the doctrine of\nEnlightenment had to be transformed into Zen in China, and through\nthis transformation Zen survived the other schools of Buddhism. Let\nus now take up the second point, as referred to before, in which we\nwill see how Zen came to create the Sung philosophy. When I say that\nBuddhism did not really affect Chinese thought until it was converted\ninto Zen through which the creative genius of China began to formulate\nits philosophy along a much deeper and more idealistic line of thought\nthan that of the Ante-Ch\u2018in period, there will be many who will object\nto this view. It is true that Buddhism began to make its influence felt\namong Chinese thinkers even during the Latter Han dynasty as we see,\nfor instance, in Mou-tz\u016d\u2019s \u201cEssay on Reason and Error\u201d written between\n190\u2013220 A.D. After this there were many writers who discussed the\nBuddhist doctrines of Karma and Causation and Immortality; for these\nwere some of the ideas introduced from India through Buddhism. It was\nwith the Taoists, however, the Buddhists had much heated controversy\nfrom the sixth century on. The way Buddhism exerted its influence\nover Taoism was not only in the form of controversy but in actually\nmoulding their thought and literature. There were so many points of\ncontact between Taoism and Buddhism: and naturally the first object\nagainst which Buddhism worked, as it grew in importance and power not\nonly as a religious system but as philosophy and the possessor of an\ninexhaustible wealth of knowledge, was Taoism; while it was admitted\nthat Buddhism in its turn borrowed many things from Taoism in order to\nmake itself more easily acceptable to the native minds. On the whole,\nTaoism owes more to Buddhism as far as its organisation, rituals,\nliterature and philosophy are concerned. Taoism systematised after the\nBuddhist model all the popular superstitions native to China and built\nup a religious medley in which the Indian elements are found more or\nless incongruously blended with Laotzuanism and the popular desire for\nimmortality, worldly welfare, and what they call \u201cpurity.\u201d\n\nBut Taoism as it is believed popularly is so full of superstitions that\nit is not in vital contact with the main current of orthodox Chinese\nthought which is represented, maintained, and cherished by the literati\nincluding the government officials. To a greater extent Taoism is the\npopular and superstitious Chinese rendering of Buddhism, but there\nwill be many critics, the present writer for one, who rather hesitate\nto consider the essence of Buddhism sufficiently transcribed in terms\nof the Taoists. Unless the Confucians were not moved to assimilate\nBuddhist thought in their system, so naturally that they attempted to\nreconstruct the whole frame of Confucian ideas, not merely for the\nsake of reconciliation, but for the sake of deepening, enriching, and\nresuscitating it, we cannot say that Buddhism entered into the life of\nChinese thought and became the real possession of the Chinese mind. But\nthis was done during the Sung dynasty when the Confucian philosophers\ntook in Buddhist ideas into their teaching and reconstructed the whole\nsystem on a new basis, which, however, was considered by them to be\nthe necessary course of growth for Confucianism. Whatever this was,\nthere is no doubt that the Sung philosophy was enriched and deepened\nby absorbing Buddhist views. In this, all the historians of Chinese\nintellectual development agree.\n\nThere is a question, however, one may ask concerning this general\nreconstruction of Confucianism on the idealistic Buddhist scheme.\nIf Zen did not grow up in China as the native interpretation of the\nDoctrine of Enlightenment and prepared the way for the rise of such\ngreat Confucian writers as Chou Tun-I (1017\u20131073),[2.9] the Ch\u2018eng\nbrothers, Ch\u2018eng Hao (1032\u20131085) and Ch\u2018eng I (1035\u20131107), and Chu\nHsi (1130\u20131200), would there have been a Sung revival of the orthodox\nChinese teaching? To my view, without Zen the Sung dynasty would\nnot have seen the phenomenal uprising of what the Chinese historians\ncall the \u201cScience of Reason.\u201d As we already said, Zen was the only\nform in which Buddhism could enter into the Chinese mind. This being\nthe case, whatever they later produced in the realm of thought, could\nnot but be tinged with Zen. See how the psychological school of\nYog\u0101c\u0101ra was received by the native thinkers. It was first advocated,\npropounded, and commented by Hs\u00fcan-chuang and his great disciples, but\nthis profound study of the human mind was too analytical even for the\nbest minds of China, and did not thrive very long after Hs\u00fcan-chuang.\nThen how did the Praj\u00f1\u0101-P\u0101ramit\u0101 philosophy fare? It was brought into\nChina in the first century soon after the introduction of Buddhism\nitself and later most ably supported and interpreted by Kum\u0101raj\u012bva\nand his Chinese pupils. It had a better prospect than the Yog\u0101c\u0101ra,\nbecause its Chinese counterpart was found in the teaching of Lao-tz\u016d\nand his followers. Those two groups of philosophers, Buddhist and\nLaotz\u016dan, may be classed as belonging to the same type of thought;\nbut even in this case the Chinese did not show any great disposition\nto embrace this \u015a\u016bnyat\u0101 system. Why was this? The reason was obvious,\nseeing that in spite of a certain agreement between the two schools\non a very broad basis, the \u015a\u016bnyat\u0101 mode of thinking was altogether\ntoo metaphysical, too high-flown, or, from the Chinese point of view,\ntoo much _in nubibus_, and the practical tendency of the native minds\nnaturally failed to grow on it; even in the disciples of Lao-tz\u016d and\nChwang-tz\u016d there was the taint or virtue of utilitarianism which is\ndeeply ingrained in all the Chinese modes of feeling.\n\nBesides the M\u0101dhyamika school of N\u0101g\u0101rjuna and the Yog\u0101c\u0101ra school of\nAsanga both of which developed in the country of the Buddha itself,\nthere were Chih-I\u2019s Tendai philosophy and Hsien-shou\u2019s (643\u2013712)\nAvata\u1e41saka system of Buddhism. These latter were in a sense the\ncreations of the native Buddhist thinkers, and if they were at all\nassimilable by their compatriots, they would not have been neglected,\nand their study, instead of being confined within a narrow circle of\nBuddhist specialists, would have overflowed into the Confucian as\nwell as the Taoist boundaries. That they did not do so proves the fact\nthat they were still foreign and a kind of translation, not literary\nindeed, but more or less conceptional. Therefore, there was no other\nway left for Buddhism but to be transformed into Zen before it could\nbe thoroughly acclimatised and grow as a native plant. When this was\nachieved because it was in the inherent nature of Buddhism that this\nachievement was to take place, Zen became the flesh and bones of\nChinese thought and inspired the Confucians of the Sung dynasty to\nreconstruct the foundation of their philosophy on the idealistic plans\nof Buddhism.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nWe may conclude now that Zen, in spite of the uncouthness and\nextraordinariness of its outward features, belongs to the general\nsystem of Buddhism. And by Buddhism we mean not only the teaching of\nthe Buddha himself as recorded in the earliest \u0100gamas, but the later\nspeculations, philosophical and religious, concerning the person and\nlife of the Buddha. His personal greatness was such as occasionally\nmade his disciples advance theories somewhat contrary to the advice\nsupposed to have been given by their Master. This was inevitable.\nThe world with all its contents, individually as well as as a whole,\nis subject to our subjective interpretation, not a capricious\ninterpretation indeed, but growing out of our inner necessity, our\nreligious yearnings. Even the Buddha as an object of one\u2019s religious\nexperience could not escape this, his personality was so constituted\nas to awaken in us every feeling and thought that goes under the name\nof Buddhism now. The most significant and fruitful ideas that were\nprovoked by him were concerned with his Enlightenment and Nirvana.\nThese two facts stood out most prominently in his long peaceful life of\nseventy-nine years, and all the theories and beliefs that are bound up\nwith the Buddha are attempts to understand these facts in terms of our\nown religious experience. Thus Buddhism has grown to have a much wider\nmeaning than is understood by most scholars.\n\nThe Buddha\u2019s Enlightenment and Nirvana were two separate ideas in\nhis life as it unfolded in history so many centuries ago, but from the\nreligious point of view they are to be regarded as one idea. That is to\nsay, to understand the content and the value of Enlightenment is the\nsame as realising the signification of Nirvana. Taking a stand on this,\nthe Mahayanists developed two currents of thought: the one was to rely\non our intellectual efforts to the furthest extent they could reach,\nand the other, pursuing the practical method adopted by the Buddha\nhimself, indeed by all Indian truth-seekers, endeavoured to find in the\npractice of dhyana something directly leading to Enlightenment. It goes\nwithout saying that in both of these efforts the original impulse lies\nin the inmost religious consciousness of pious Buddhists.\n\nThe Mahayana texts compiled during a few centuries after the Buddha\ntestify to the view here presented. Of these, the one expressly\ncomposed to propagate the teaching of the Zen school is the\n_La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_, in which the content of Enlightenment is, as far as\nwords admit, presented from a psychological, philosophical, and a\npractical point of view. When this was introduced into China and\nthoroughly assimilated according to the Chinese methods of thinking\nand feeling, the main thesis of the Sutra came to be demonstrated in\nsuch a way as is now considered characteristically Zen. The truth has\nmany avenues of approach through which it makes itself known to the\nhuman mind. But the choice it makes depends on certain limitations\nunder which it works. The superabundance of Indian imagination issued\nin supernaturalism and wonderful symbolism, and the Chinese sense\nof practicalness and its love for the solid everyday facts of life\nresulted in Zen Buddhism. We may now be able to understand, though only\ntentatively by most readers at present, the following definitions of\nZen offered by its masters:\n\nWhen J\u014dshu was asked what Zen was, he answered, \u201cIt is cloudy to-day\nand I won\u2019t answer.\u201d[2.10]\n\nTo the same question, Ummon\u2019s reply was: \u201cThat\u2019s it.\u201d On another\noccasion the master was not at all affirmative, for he said, \u201cNot a\nword to be predicated.\u201d[2.11]\n\nThese being some of the definitions given to Zen by the masters,\nin what relationship did they conceive of Zen as standing to the\ndoctrine of Enlightenment taught in the Sutras? Did they conceive\nit after the manner of the _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_ or after that of the\n_Praj\u00f1\u0101-p\u0101ramit\u0101_? No, Zen had to have its own way, the Chinese mind\nrefused blindly to follow the Indian models. If this is still to be\ncontested, read the following:\n\nA monk asked Kan (Chien), who lived in Haryo (Pa-ling), \u201cIs there\nany difference between the teaching of the Patriarch and that of the\nSutras, or not?\u201d Said the master, \u201cWhen the cold weather comes, the\nfowl flies up in the trees while the wild duck goes down into water.\u201d\nH\u014d-yen (Fa-yen) of Gosozan (Wu-tsu-shan) commented on this, saying,\n\u201cThe great teacher of Pa-ling has expressed only a half of the truth. I\nwould not have it so. Mine is: When water is scooped in hands, the moon\nis reflected in them; when the flowers are handled, the scent soaks\ninto the robe.\u201d[2.12]\n\n\n\n\n                      ENLIGHTENMENT AND IGNORANCE\n\n\n                      ENLIGHTENMENT AND IGNORANCE\n\n                                   I\n\nStrange though it may seem, the fact is that Buddhist scholars are\nengrossed too much in the study of what they regard as the Buddha\u2019s\nteaching and his disciples\u2019 exposition of the Dharma, so called, while\nthey neglect altogether the study of the Buddha\u2019s spiritual experience\nitself. According to my view, however, the first thing we have to\ndo in the elucidation of Buddhist thought is to inquire into the\nnature of this personal experience of the Buddha, which is recorded\nto have presented itself to his inmost consciousness at the time of\nEnlightenment (_sambodhi_). What the Buddha taught his disciples was\nthe conscious outcome of his intellectual elaboration to make them see\nand realise what he himself had seen and realised. This intellectual\noutcome, however philosophically presented, does not necessarily\nenter into the inner essence of Enlightenment experienced by the\nBuddha. When we want, therefore, to grasp the spirit of Buddhism,\nwhich essentially develops from the content of Enlightenment, we have\nto get acquainted with the signification of the experience of the\nfounder,\u2014experience by virtue of which he is indeed the Buddha and the\nfounder of the religious system which goes under his name. Let us see\nwhat record we have of this experience, and what were its antecedents\nand consequences.[f48]\n\nThere is a Sutra in the D\u012bgha-Nik\u0101ya known as the _Mah\u0101pad\u0101na\nSuttanta_, in which the Buddha is represented as enlightening his\ndisciples concerning the six Buddhas anterior to him. The facts\nrelating to their lives as Bodhisattvas and Buddhas are almost\nidentical in each case except some incidental details; for the Buddhas\nare all supposed to have had one and the same career. When therefore\nGautama, the Buddha of the present Kalpa, talks about his predecessors\nin this wise, including the story of Enlightenment, he is simply\nrecapitulating his own earthly life, and everything he states here as\nhaving occurred to his predecessors, except such matters as parentage,\nsocial rank, birthplace, length of life, etc., must be regarded as also\nhaving happened to himself. This is especially true with his spiritual\nexperience known as Enlightenment.[f49]\n\nWhen the Bodhisattva, as the Buddha is so designated prior to his\nattainment of Buddhahood, was meditating in seclusion, the following\nconsideration came upon him: \u201cVerily this world has fallen upon trouble\n(_kiccha_), one is born, and grows old, and dies, and falls from one\nstate, and springs up in another. And from this suffering, moreover,\nno one knows of any way of escape, even from decay and death. O when\nshall a way of escape from this suffering be made known, from decay\nand death?\u201d Thus thinking, the Bodhisattva reasoned out that decay and\ndeath arose from birth, birth from becoming, becoming from grasping,\ngrasping from craving, until he came to the mutual conditioning of\nname-and-form (_namar\u016bpa_) and cognition (_vi\u00f1\u00f1\u0101na_).[f50] Then he\nreasoned back and forth from the coming-to-be of this entire body\nof evil to its final ceasing-to-be,\u2014and at this thought there arose\nto the Bodhisattva an insight (_cakkhu_)[f51] into things not heard\nof before, and knowledge arose, and reason arose, wisdom arose, light\narose. (_Bodhisattassa pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhu\u1e41 udap\u0101di,\n\u00f1\u0101\u1e47a\u1e41 udap\u0101di, pa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101 udap\u0101di, vijj\u0101 udap\u0101di, \u0101loka udap\u0101di._)\u201d\n\nHe then exclaimed: \u201cI have penetrated this Dharma, deep, hard to\nperceive, hard to understand, calm, sublime, no mere dialectic, subtle,\nintelligible only to the wise. (_Dhammo gambh\u012bro duddaso duranubodho\nsanto panito atakk\u0101vacaro nipu\u1e47o pandito vedan\u012byo._) But this is a race\ndevoting itself to the things to which it clings, devoted thereto,\ndelighting therein. And for a race devoting itself to the things to\nwhich it clings, devoted thereto, delighting therein, this were a\nmatter hard to perceive, to wit, that this is conditioned by that,\nand all that happens is by way of cause. This too were a matter hard\nto discern:\u2014the tranquillisation of all the activities of life, the\nrenunciation of all substrata of rebirth, the destruction of craving,\nthe death of passion, quietude of heart, Nirvana.\u201d\n\nThe Buddha then uttered the following verse in which he expressed his\nreluctance to preach the Dharma to the world at large\u2014the Dharma which\nwas realised in him by \u00f1\u0101\u1e47a,\u2014which he saw visibly, face to face,\nwithout any traditional instruction:\n\n  \u201cThis that through many toils I\u2019ve won\u2014\n   Enough! why should I make it known?\n   By folk with lust and hate consumed\n   Not this the Truth[f52] that can be grasped!\n   Against the stream of common thought.\n   Deep, subtle, difficult, delicate.\n   Unseen \u2019twill be by passion\u2019s slaves\n   Cloaked in the murk of Ignorance.\u201d[f53]\n\nAccording to this report transmitted by the compilers of the Nikayas,\nwhich is also confirmed by the other literature we have of the\nBuddha\u2019s Enlightenment, what flashed through his mind must have been\nan experience most unusual and not taking place in our everyday\nconsciousness, even in the consciousness of a wise, learned, and\nthoughtful man. Thus, he naturally wished to pass away into Nirvana\nwithout attempting to propagate the Dharma, but this idea was abandoned\nwhen Great Brahma spoke to the Buddha in verse thus:\n\n  \u201cAs on a crag, on crest of mountain standing,\n     A man might watch the people far below,\n   E\u2019en so do thou, O Widsom fair, ascending,\n     O Seer of all, the terraced heights of Truth,\n   Look down, from grief released, upon the nations\n     Sunken in grief, oppressed with birth and age.\n   Arise, thou Hero! Conqueror in the battle!\n     Thou freed from debt! Lord of the pilgrim band!\n   Walk the world o\u2019er, and sublime and blessed Teacher!\n     Teach us the Truth; there are who\u2019ll understand.\u201d\n\nThere is no doubt that it was this spiritual experience that converted\nthe Bodhisattva into the Buddha, the Perfectly Wise, the Bhagavat, the\nArhat, the King of the Dharma, the Tathagata, the All-knowing One, and\nthe Conqueror. In this, all the records we have, Hinayana and Mahayana,\nagree.\n\nHere then arises the most significant question in the history of\nBuddhism. What was it in this experience that made the Buddha conquer\nIgnorance (_avijj\u0101_, _avidy\u0101_) and freed him from the Defilements\n(_\u0101sava_, _\u0101\u015brava_)? What was the insight or vision he had into things,\nwhich had never before been presented to his mind? Was it his doctrine\nof universal suffering due to Thirst (_ta\u1e47h\u0101_, _t\u1e5bish\u1e47\u0101_) and Grasping\n(_up\u0101d\u0101na_)? Was it his causation theory by which he traced the source\nof pain and suffering to Ignorance?\n\nIt is quite evident that his intellectual activity was not the\nefficient cause of Enlightenment. \u201cNot to be grasped by mere logic\u201d\n(_atakk\u0101vacara_) is the phrase we constantly encounter in Buddhist\nliterature, Pali and Sanskrit. The satisfaction the Buddha experienced\nin this case was altogether too deep, too penetrating, and too\nfar-reaching in result to be a matter of mere logic. The intellectual\nsolution of a problem is satisfying enough as far as the blockage has\nbeen removed, but it is not sufficiently fundamental to enter into the\ndepths of our soul-life. All scholars are not saints and all saints are\nby no means scholarly. The Buddha\u2019s intellectual survey of the Law of\nOrigination (_pa\u1e6dicca-samupp\u0101da_), however perfect and thoroughgoing,\ncould not make him so completely sure of his conquest over Ignorance,\nPain, Birth, and Defilements. Tracing things to their origin or\nsubjecting them to a scheme of concatenation is one thing, but to\nsubdue them, to bring them to subjection in the actuality of life, is\nquite another thing. In the one, the intellect alone is active, but\nin the other there is the operation of the will,\u2014and the will is the\nman. The Buddha was not the mere discoverer of the Twelvefold Chain of\nCausation, he took hold of the chain itself in his hands and broke it\ninto pieces so that it would never again bind him to slavery.\n\nHis insight reached the bottom of his being and saw it really as it\nwas, and the seeing was like the seeing of your own hand with your\nown eyes\u2014there was no reflection, no inference, no judgment, no\ncomparison, no moving either backward or forward step by step, the\nthing was seen and that was the end of it, there was nothing to talk\nabout, nothing to argue, or to explain. The seeing was something\ncomplete in itself\u2014it did not lead on to anything inside or outside,\nwithin or beyond. And it was this completeness, this finality that was\nso entirely satisfying to the Buddha, who now knew that the chain was\nfound broken and that he was a liberated man. The Buddha\u2019s experience\nof Enlightenment therefore could not be understood by referring it to\nthe intellect which tantalises but fails to fulfill and satisfy.\n\nThe Buddha\u2019s psychological experience of life as pain and suffering\nwas intensely real and moved him to the very depths of his being, and\nin consequence the emotional reaction he experienced at the time of\nEnlightenment was in proportion to this intensity of feeling. All the\nmore evident therefore it is that he could not rest satisfied with\nan intellectual glancing or surveying of the facts of life. In order\nto bring a perfect state of tranquillity over the waves of turmoil\nsurging in his heart, he had to have recourse to something more deeply\nand vitally concerned with his inmost being. For all we can say of it,\nthe intellect is after all a spectator, and when it does some work it\nis as a hireling for better or for worse. Alone it cannot bring about\nthe state of mind designated as enlightenment. The feeling of perfect\nfreedom, the feeling that \u201caha\u1e41 hi arah\u0101 loke, aha\u1e41 satth\u0101 anuttaro,\u201d\ncould not issue from the consciousness of an intellectual superiority\nalone. There must have been in the mind of the Buddha a consciousness\nfar more fundamental which could only accompany one\u2019s deepest spiritual\nexperience.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nTo account for this spiritual experience the Buddhist writers exhaust\ntheir knowledge of words relating to the understanding, logical or\notherwise. \u201cKnowledge\u201d (_vijj\u0101_), \u201cunderstanding\u201d (_paj\u0101nan\u0101_),\n\u201creason\u201d (_\u00f1\u0101\u1e47a_), \u201cwisdom\u201d (_pa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101_), \u201cpenetration\u201d (_abhisameta_),\n\u201crealisation\u201d (_abhisambuddha_), \u201cperception\u201d (_sa\u00f1j\u0101nana\u1e41_), and\n\u201cinsight\u201d (_dassana_),[f54] are some of the terms they use. In truth\nas long as we confine ourselves to intellection, however deep,\nsubtle, sublime, and enlightening, we fail to see into the gist of the\nmatter. This is the reason why even the so-called primitive Buddhists\nwho are by some considered positivists, rationalists, and agnostics,\nwere obliged to assume some faculty dealing with things far above\nrelative knowledge, things that do not appeal to our empirical ego.\n\nThe Mahayana account of Enlightenment as is found in the\n_Lalita-vistara_ (Chapter on \u201cAbhisambodhana\u201d) is more explicit as to\nthe kind of mental activity or wisdom which converted the Bodhisattva\ninto the Buddha. For it was through \u201c_ekacitteksha\u1e47a-samyukta-praj\u00f1\u0101_\u201d\nthat supreme perfect knowledge was realised (_abhisambodha_) by the\nBuddha. What is this Praj\u00f1\u0101? It is the understanding of a higher\norder than that which is habitually exercised in acquiring relative\nknowledge. It is a faculty both intellectual and spiritual, through\nthe operation of which the soul is enabled to break the fetters\nof intellection. The latter is always dualistic inasmuch as it is\ncognisant of subject and object, but in the Praj\u00f1\u0101 which is exercised\n\u201cin unison with one-thought-viewing\u201d there is no separation between\nknower and known, these are all viewed (_iksha\u1e47a_) in one thought\n(_ekacitta_), and enlightenment is the outcome of this. By thus\nspecifying the operation of Praj\u00f1\u0101, the Mahayanists have achieved an\nadvance in making clearer the nature of sambodhi: for when the mind\nreverses its usual course of working and instead of dividing itself\nexternally, goes back to its original inner abode of oneness, it begins\nto realise the state of \u201cone-thought-viewing\u201d where Ignorance ceases to\nscheme and the Defilements do not obtain.\n\nEnlightenment we can thus see is an absolute state of mind in which no\n\u201cdiscrimination\u201d (_parikalpana_ or _vikalpa_), so called, takes place,\nand it requires a great mental effort to realise this state of viewing\nall things \u201cin one thought.\u201d In fact our logical as well as practical\nconsciousness is too given up to analysis and ideation; that is to say,\nwe cut up realities into elements in order to understand them; but when\nthey are put together to make the original whole, its elements stand\nout too conspicuously defined, and we do not view the whole \u201cin\none thought.\u201d And as it is only when \u201cone thought\u201d is reached that we\nhave enlightenment, an effort is to be made to go beyond our relative\nempirical consciousness, which attaches itself to the multitudinosity\nand not to the unity of things. The most important fact that lies\nbehind the experience of Enlightenment therefore is that the Buddha\nmade the most strenuous attempt to solve the problem of Ignorance and\nhis utmost will-power was brought forth to bear upon a successful issue\nof the struggle.\n\nWe read in the _Katha-Upanishad_: \u201cAs rain water that has fallen on\na mountain ridge runs down on all sides, thus does he who sees a\ndifference between qualities run after them on all sides. As pure water\npoured into pure water remains the same, thus, O Gautama, is the self\nof a thinker who knows.\u201d This pouring pure water into pure water is,\nas we have it here, the \u201cviewing all qualities in one thought\u201d which\nfinally cuts off the hopelessly entangling logical mesh by merging all\ndifferences and likenesses into the absolute oneness of the knower\n(_j\u00f1\u0101nin_) and the known (_j\u00f1eya_). This, however, in our practical\ndualistic life, is a reversion, a twisting, and a re-adjustment.\n\nEckhart, the great German mystic, is singularly one with the\n\u201cone-thought-viewing\u201d of things as done by Buddhists when he expresses\nhis view thus: \u201cDas Auge darin ich Gott sehe, ist dasselbe Auge, darin\nGott mich sieht. Mein Auge und Gottes Auge ist ein Auge und ein Gesicht\nund ein Erkennen und eine Liebe.\u201d[f55] The idea of reversion is more\nclearly expressed in Jacob Boehme\u2019s simile of the \u201cumgewandtes Auge\u201d\nwith which God is recognised.\n\nEnlightenment therefore must involve the will as well as the intellect.\nIt is an act of intuition born of the will. The will wants to know\nitself as it is in itself, _yath\u0101bh\u016btam dassana_, free from all its\ncognitive conditions. The Buddha attained this end when a new insight\ncame upon him at the end of his ever-circulatory reasoning from decay\nand death to Ignorance and from Ignorance to decay and death, through\nthe twelve links of the Pa\u1e6dicca-samupp\u0101da. The Buddha had to go over\nthe same ground again and again, because he was in an intellectual\n_impasse_ through which he could not move further on. He did not repeat\nthe process, as is originally imagined, for his own philosophical\nedification. The fact was that he did not know how to escape this\nendless rotation of ideas; at this end there was birth, there was decay\nand death, and at the other end there was Ignorance. The objective\nfacts could not be denied, they boldly and uncomfortably confronted\nhim, while Ignorance balked the progress of his cognitive faculty\nmoving farther onward or rather inward. He was hemmed in on both sides,\nhe did not know how to find his way out, he went first this way and\nthen that way, forever with the same result\u2014the utter inutility of all\nhis mental labour. But he had an indomitable will; he wanted, with the\nutmost efforts of his will, to get into the very truth of the matter;\nhe knocked and knocked until the doors of Ignorance gave way: and they\nburst open to a new vista never before presented to his intellectual\nvision. Thus he was able to exclaim to Upaka, the naked ascetic, whom\nhe happened to meet on his way to Benares after Enlightenment:\n\n  \u201cAll-conqueror I, knower of all.\n   From every soil and stain released,\n   Renouncing all, from craving ceased,\n   Self-taught; whom should I Master call?\n\n   That which I know I learned of none,\n   My fellow is not on the earth.\n   Of human or of heavenly birth\n   To equal me there is not one.\n\n   I truly have attained release,\n   The world\u2019s unequalled teacher I,\n   Alone, enlightened perfectly,\n   I dwell in everlasting peace.\u201d[f56]\n\nWhen we speak of enlightenment or illumination we are apt to\nthink of its epistemological aspect and to forget the presence of\na tremendous will-power behind it\u2014the power in fact making up the\nentire being of an individual. Especially as in Buddhism the intellect\nstands forth prominently, perhaps more than it ought to, in the\nrealisation of the ideal Buddhist life, scholars are tempted to ignore\nthe significance of the will as the essentially determinate factor in\nthe solution of the ultimate problem. Their attention has thus been\ndirected too much towards the doctrine of the Pa\u1e6dicca-samupp\u0101da or the\nAriya-sacca, which they considered constituted the final teaching of\nBuddhism. But in this they have been sadly at fault, nor have they been\nright in taking Buddhism for a sort of ethical culture, declaring that\nit is no more than a system of moral precepts (_\u015b\u012bla_), without a soul,\nwithout a God, and consequently without a promise of immortality. But\nthe true Buddhist ideas of Ignorance, Causation, and Moral Conduct had\na far deeper foundation in the soul-life of man. Ignorance was not a\ncognitive ignorance, but meant the darkness of spiritual outlook. If\nIgnorance were no more than cognitive, the clearing-up of it did not\nand could not result in enlightenment, in freedom from the Fetters\nand Defilements, or Intoxicants as some Pali scholars have them. The\nBuddha\u2019s insight penetrated the depths of his being as the will, and\nhe knew what this was, yath\u0101bh\u016btam, or in its tath\u0101bh\u0101va (thatness or\nsuchness), he rose above himself as a Buddha supreme and peerless. The\nexpression, \u201cAnuttara-samyak-sambodhi,\u201d was thus used to designate this\npre-eminently spiritual knowledge realised by him.\n\nIgnorance which is the antithesis of Enlightenment, therefore, acquires\na much deeper sense here than that which has hitherto been ascribed\nto it. Ignorance is not merely not knowing or not being acquainted\nwith a theory, system or law; it is not directly grasping the ultimate\nfacts of life as expressive of the will. In Ignorance knowing is\nseparated from acting, and the knower from that which is to be known;\nin Ignorance the world is asserted as distinct from the self, that is,\nthere are always two elements standing in opposition. This is, however,\nthe fundamental condition of cognition, which means that as soon\nas cognition takes place there is Ignorance clinging to its every act.\nWhen we think we know something, there is something we do not know.\nThe unknown is always behind the known, and we fail to get at this\nunknown knower, who is indeed the inevitable and necessary companion to\nevery act of cognition. We want however to know this unknown knower,\nwe cannot let this go unknown, ungrasped without actually seeing what\nit is, that is, Ignorance is to be enlightened. This involves a great\ncontradiction, at least epistemologically. But until we transcend this\ncondition, there is no peace of mind, life grows unbearable. In his\nsearch for the \u201cbuilder\u201d (_gah\u0101kara_), the Buddha was always accosted\nby Ignorance, an unknown knower behind knowing. He could not for a long\ntime lay his hands on this one in a black mask until he transcended\nthe dualism of knower and known. This transcending was not an act of\ncognition, it was self-realisation, it was a spiritual awakening and\noutside the ken of logical reasoning, and therefore not accompanied\nby Ignorance. The knowledge the knower has of himself, in himself,\nthat is, as he is to himself, is unattainable by any proceedings of\nthe intellect which is not permitted to transcend its own conditions.\nIgnorance is brought to subjection only by going beyond its own\nprinciple. This is an act of the will. Ignorance in itself is no evil,\nnor is it the source of evil, but when we are ignorant of Ignorance,\nof what it means in our life, then there takes place an unending\nconcatenation of evils. Ta\u1e47h\u0101 (craving) regarded as the root of evil\ncan be overcome only when Ignorance is understood in its deeper and\nproper signification.\n\n\n                                  II\n\nTherefore, it betrays an utter ignorance on the part of Buddhist\nscholars when they relegate Ignorance to the past in trying\nto explain the rationale of the Twelvefold Chain of Causation\n(_pa\u1e6dicca-samupp\u0101da_)[f57] from the temporal point of view.\nAccording to them, the first two factors (_ang\u0101ni_) of the\nPa\u1e6dicca-samupp\u0101da belong to the past while the following eight belong\nto the present and the last two to the future. Ignorance from which\nstarts the series of the Nid\u0101nas has no time-limits, for it is not\nof time, but of the will, as is enlightenment. When time-conception\nenters, enlightenment which is negatively the dispelling of Ignorance\nloses all its character of finality, and we begin to look around\nfor something going beyond it. The Fetters would ever be tightening\naround us, and the Defilements would be our eternal condition. No\ngods would sing of the Awakened One as \u201ca lotus unsoiled by the dust\nof passion, sprung from the lake of knowledge; a sun that destroys\nthe darkness of delusion; a moon that takes away the scorching heat\nof the inherent sins of existence.\u201d[f58] If Enlightenment made the\nwhole universe tremble in six different ways as is recorded in the\nSutras, Ignorance over which it finally prevailed must have as much\npower, though diametrically opposed to it in value and virtue, as\nEnlightenment. To take Ignorance for an intellectual term and then\nto interpret it in terms of time-relation, altogether destroys its\nfundamental character as the first in the series of the Twelve Nid\u0101nas.\nThe extraordinary power wielded by the Buddha over his contemporaries\nas well as posterity was not entirely due to his wonderful analytical\nacumen though we have to admit this in him; it was essentially due\nto his spiritual greatness and profound personality, which came from\nhis will-power penetrating down into the very basis of creation.\nThe vanquishing of Ignorance was an exhibition of this power which\ntherefore was invincible and against which Mara with all his hosts\nwas utterly powerless either to overwhelm or to entice. The failure\nto see into the true meaning of Ignorance in the system of the\nPa\u1e6dicca-samupp\u0101da or in the Ariya-sacca will end unavoidably in\nmisconstruing the essential nature of Enlightenment and consequently of\nBuddhism.\n\nIn the beginning which is really no beginning and which has no\nspiritual meaning except in our finite life, the will wants to know\nitself, and consciousness is awakened, and with the awakening of\nconsciousness the will is split into two. The one will, whole and\ncomplete in itself, is now at once actor and observer. Conflict is\ninevitable; for the actor now wants to be free from the limitations\nunder which he has been obliged to put himself in his desire for\nconsciousness. He has in one sense been enabled to see, but at the same\ntime there is something which he as observer cannot see. In the trail\nof knowledge, Ignorance follows with the inevitability of fate, the\none accompanies the other as shadow accompanies object, no separation\ncan be effected between the two companions. But the will as actor is\nbent on going back to his own original abode where there was yet no\ndualism, and therefore peace prevailed. This longing for the home,\nhowever, cannot be satisfied without a long hard trying experience.\nFor the thing, once divided into two, cannot be restored to its former\nunity until some struggle is gone through with. And the restoration is\nmore than a mere going back, the original content is enriched by the\ndivision, struggle, and re-settlement.\n\nWhen first the division takes place in the will, consciousness is so\nenamoured of its novelty and its apparent efficiency in solving the\npractical problems of life that it forgets its own mission which is to\nenlighten the will. Instead of turning its illuminating rays within\nitself, that is, towards the will from which it has its principle of\nexistence, consciousness is kept busy with the objective world of\nrealities and ideas; and when it tries to look into itself, there is\na world of absolute unity where the object of which it wishes to know\nis the subject itself. The sword cannot cut itself. The darkness of\nIgnorance cannot be dispelled because it is its own self. At this point\nthe will has to make a heroic effort to enlighten itself, to redeem\nitself, without destroying the once-awakened consciousness or rather\nby working out the principle lying at the basis of consciousness. This\nwas accomplished as we see in the case of the Buddha, and he became\nmore than mere Gautama, he was the Awakened One and the Exalted\nand supremely Enlightened. In willing there is really something more\nthan mere willing, there is thinking and seeing. By this seeing, the\nwill sees itself and is thereby made free and its own master. This is\nknowing in the most fundamental sense of the term and herein consists\nthe Buddhist redemption.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nIgnorance prevails as long as the will remains cheated by its own\noffspring or its own image, consciousness, in which the knower always\nstands distinguished from the known. The cheating, however, cannot\nlast, the will wishes to be enlightened, to be free, to be by itself.\nIgnorance always presupposes the existence of something outside and\nunknown. This unknown outsider is generally termed ego or soul, which\nis in reality the will itself in the state of Ignorance. Therefore,\nwhen the Buddha experienced Enlightenment, he at once realised that\nthere was no Atman, no soul-entity as an unknown and unknowable\nquantity. Enlightenment dispelled Ignorance and with it all the bogies\nconjured up from the dark cave of ego disappeared. Ignorance in its\ngeneral use is opposed to knowledge, but from the Buddhist point of\nview in which it stands contrasted to Enlightenment, it means the ego\n(_\u0101tman_), which is so emphatically denied by the Buddha. This is not\nto be wondered at, seeing that the Buddha\u2019s teaching centred in the\ndoctrine of Enlightenment, the dispelling of Ignorance.\n\nThose who only see the doctrine of non-atman in Buddhism and fail\nto inquire into the meaning of Enlightenment are incapable of\nappreciating the full significance of the Buddha\u2019s message to the\nworld. If he simply denied the existence of an ego-entity from the\npsychological point of view after reducing it into its component\nfactors, scientifically he may be called great as his analytical\nfaculties stood far above those of his contemporaries in this respect;\nbut his influence as a spiritual leader would not have reached so far\nand endured so long. His theory of non-atman was not only established\nby a modern scientific method, but essentially was the outcome of his\ninner experience. When Ignorance is understood in the deeper sense, its\ndispelling unavoidably results in the negation of an ego-entity\nas the basis of all our life-activities. Enlightenment is a positive\nconception, and for ordinary minds it is quite hard to comprehend it in\nits true bearings. But when we know what it means in the general system\nof Buddhism, and concentrate our efforts in the realisation of it,\nall the rest will take care of themselves, such as the notion of Ego,\nattachment to it, Ignorance, Fetters, Defilements, etc. Moral Conduct,\nContemplation, and Higher Understanding\u2014all these are meant to bring\nabout the desired end of Buddhism, that is, Enlightenment. The Buddha\u2019s\nconstant reiteration of the theory of causation, telling his disciples\nhow when this is cause that is effect and how when cause disappears,\neffect also disappears, is not primarily to get them acquainted with a\nkind of formal logic, but to let them see how Enlightenment is causally\nrelated to all human happiness and spiritual freedom and tranquillity.\n\nAs long as Ignorance is understood as logical inability to know, its\ndisappearance can never bring out the spiritual freedom to which\neven the earliest known literature of Buddhism makes so frequent\nand so emphatic allusions. See how the Arhat\u2019s declaration of\nspiritual independence reads in the Nikayas: \u201cThere arose in me\ninsight, the emancipation of my heart became unshakeable, this is\nmy last birth, there is now no rebirth for me.\u201d[f59] This is quite\na strong statement showing how intensely and convincingly one has\nseized the central facts of life. The passage is indeed one of the\ncharacterisations of Arhatship, and when a fuller delineation of it\nis made, we have something like the following: \u201cTo him, thus knowing,\nthus seeing,[f60] the heart is set free from the defilement of lust,\nis set free from the defilement of becoming, is set free from\nthe defilement of Ignorance. In him, thus set free, there arises the\nknowledge of his emancipation, and he knows that rebirth has been\ndestroyed, that the Higher Life has been fulfilled, that what had\nto be done has been accomplished, and after this present life there\nwill be no beyond.\u201d[f61] In essence the Arhat is the Buddha and even\nthe Tathagata, and in the beginning of the history of Buddhism the\ndistinction between these terms did not seem quite sharply marked. Thus\nto a great extent they may be qualified in the same terms.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nWhen the Buddha was talking with his disciples concerning various\nspeculations prevalent in his days, he made the following remarks about\nthe knowledge of things in command by the Tathagata:\n\n\u201cThat does he know, and he knows also other things far beyond, far\nbetter than those speculations; and having that knowledge he is not\npuffed up; and thus untarnished he has, in his own heart, realised the\nway of escape from them, has understood, as really they are, the rising\nup and passing away of sensations, their sweet taste, their danger,\nhow they cannot be relied on, and not grasping after any of those\nthings men are eager for, he the Tathagata is quite set free. These\nare those other things, profound, difficult to realise, and hard to\nunderstand, tranquillising, sweet, not to be grasped by logic, subtle,\ncomprehensible only by the wise, which the Tathagata, having himself\nrealised and seen face to face, hath set forth; and it is concerning\nthese that they who would rightly praise the Tathagata in accordance\nwith the truth, should speak.\u201d[f62]\n\nThese virtues for which the Tathagata was to be praised were manifestly\nnot derived from speculation and analytical reasoning. His intellectual\nsight was just as keen and far-reaching as any of his contemporaries,\nbut he was endowed with a higher faculty, will-power, which was\nexercised to its fullest capacity in order to bring about all\nthese virtues which belonged to the entire being of Tathagatahood. And\nnaturally there was no need for him to face these metaphysical problems\nthat agitated the philosophers of his days; they were solved in him,\nwhen he attained his spiritual freedom and serenity, in their entirety,\nin their synthetic aspect, and not partially or fragmentarily\u2014which\nshould be the case if they were presented to the Buddha\u2019s cognition as\nphilosophical problems. In this light is to be read the _Mah\u0101li Sutta_.\nSome scholars wonder why two entirely disconnected ideas are treated\ntogether in one body of the Sutra, which however shows scholarly\nignorance in regard to matters spiritual, as they fail to notice the\ntrue import of Enlightenment in the system of Buddhist faith. To\nunderstand this, we need imaginative intuition directly penetrating\nthe centre of life, and not always do mere literary and philological\ntalents succeed in unravelling its secrets.\n\nThe _Mah\u0101li Sutta_ is a Pali Sutra in the D\u012bgha-Nik\u0101ya, in which Mah\u0101li\nasks the Buddha as to the object of the religious life practised by his\ndisciples, and the following is the gist of his answer: The Buddhists\ndo not practise self-concentration in order to acquire any miraculous\npower such as hearing heavenly sounds or seeing heavenly sights.[f63]\nThere are things higher and sweeter than that, one of which is the\ncomplete destruction of the Three Bonds (delusion of self, doubt, and\ntrust in the efficacy of good works and ceremonies) and the attainment\nof such a state of mind as to lead to the insight of the higher things\nin one\u2019s spiritual life. When this insight is gained the heart grows\nserene, is released from the taint of Ignorance, and there arises\nthe knowledge of emancipation. Such questions as are asked by you, O\nMah\u0101li, regarding the identity of body and soul, are idle ones; for\nwhen you attain to the supreme insight and see things as they really\nare in themselves, that is, emancipated from the Bonds, Taints, and\nDeadly Flows, those questions that are bothering you at the moment will\ncompletely lose their value and no more be asked in the way you do.\nHence no need of my answering your questions.\n\nThis dialogue between the Buddha and Mah\u0101li well illustrates the\nrelation between Enlightenment and the problem of the soul. There\nis no need of wondering why the Buddha did not definitely solve the\never-recurring question instead of ignoring it in the manner as he did\nand talking about something apparently in no connection with the point\nat issue. This is one of the instances by which we must try to see into\nthe meaning of Ignorance.\n\n\n                                  III\n\nOne of the reasons, however, why the Buddha left some metaphysical\nquestions unanswered or indeterminate (_avy\u0101kata_) was due to the\nfact that Buddhism is a practical system of spiritual discipline and\nnot a metaphysical discourse. The Buddha naturally had his theory of\ncognition, but this was secondary inasmuch as the chief aim of Buddhist\nlife was to attain Enlightenment from which spiritual freedom ensues.\nEnlightenment vanquishes Ignorance lying at the root of birth-and-death\nand laying fetters of every description, intellectual as well as\naffective. And this vanquishing of Ignorance cannot be achieved except\nby the exercise of one\u2019s will-power; all the other attempts, especially\nmerely intellectual, are utterly futile. Hence the Buddha\u2019s conclusion:\n\u201cThese questions[f64] are not calculated to profit, they are not\nconcerned with the Dharma, they do not redound to the elements of\nright conduct, nor to detachment, nor to purification from lusts, nor\nto quietude, nor to tranquillisation of heart, nor to real knowledge,\nnor to the insight of the higher stages of the Path, nor to Nirvana.\nTherefore is it that I express no opinion upon them.\u201d What the Buddha\non the other hand expounded was: \u201cWhat pain is, what the origin of pain\nis, what the cessation of pain is, and the method by which one may\nreach the cessation of pain.\u201d For these are all practical matters to be\nnot only fully understood and realised but actively mastered by any one\nwho really desires to accomplish the great deed of emancipation.\n\nThat the Buddha was very much against mere knowledge and most\nemphatically insisted on actually seeing and personally experiencing\nthe Dharma, face to face, is in evidence everywhere in the Nik\u0101yas as\nwell as in the Mahayana texts. This has been indeed the strongest point\nin the teaching of Buddhism. When a Brahman philosopher was referring\nto his knowledge of the Three Vedas and a union with that which he has\nnot seen, the Buddha ridiculed him in one of his strong phrases: \u201cSo\nyou say that the Brahmans are not able to point the way to union with\nthat which they have seen, and you further say that neither any one\nof them, nor of their pupils, nor of their predecessors even to the\nseventh generation, has ever seen Brahma. And you further say that even\nthe Rishis of old, whose words they hold in such deep respect, did not\npretend to know, or to have seen where, or whence, or whither Brahma\nis. Yet these Brahmans versed in the Three Vedas say, forsooth, that\nthey can point out the way to union with that which they know not,\nneither have seen.... They are like a string of blind men clinging\none to the other, neither can the foremost see, nor can the middle\none see, nor can the hindmost see. The talk of those Brahmans versed in\nthe Three Vedas is but blind talk: the first sees not, the middle one\nsees not, nor can the last see.\u201d\n\nEnlightenment or the dispelling of Ignorance which is the ideal of\nthe Buddhist life, we can see now most clearly, is not an act of the\nintellect, but the transforming or re-modelling of one\u2019s whole being\nthrough the exercise of the most fundamental faculty innate in every\none of us. Mere understanding has something foreign in it and does\nnot seem to come so intimately into life. If Enlightenment had really\nsuch a tremendous effect on our spiritual outlook as we read in the\nSutras, it could not be the outcome of just getting acquainted with\nthe doctrine of Causation. Enlightenment is the work of Pa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101 which is\nborn of the will which wants to see itself and to be in itself. Hence\nthe Buddha\u2019s emphasis on the importance of personal experience; hence\nhis insistence on meditation in solitude as the means of leading to the\nexperience. Meditation, through which the will endeavours to transcend\nthe condition it has put on itself in the awakening of consciousness,\nis therefore by no means the simple act of cogitating on the theory of\nOrigination or Causation, which forever moves in a circle starting from\nIgnorance and ending in Ignorance. This is the one thing that is most\nneeded in Buddhism. All the other metaphysical problems involve us in a\ntangled skein, in a matted mass of thread.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nIgnorance is thus not to be got rid of by metaphysical means but by\nthe struggle of the will. When this is done, we are also freed from\nthe notion of an ego-entity which is the product or rather the basis\nof Ignorance, on which it depends and thrives. The ego is the dark\nspot where the rays of the intellect fail to penetrate, it is the last\nhiding lair of Ignorance, where the latter serenely keeps itself from\nthe light. When this lair is laid bare and turned inside out, Ignorance\nvanishes like frost in the sun. In fact, these two are one and the\nsame thing, Ignorance and the idea of ego. We are apt to think that\nwhen Ignorance is driven out and the ego loses its hold on us, we\nhave nothing to lean against and are left to the fate of a dead leaf\nblown away hither and thither as the wind listeth. But this is not so;\nfor Enlightenment is not a negative idea meaning simply the absence\nof Ignorance. Indeed, Ignorance is the negation of Enlightenment and\nnot the reverse. Enlightenment is affirmation in the truest sense of\nthe word, and therefore it was stated by the Buddha that he who sees\nthe Dharma sees the Buddha and he who sees the Buddha sees the Dharma,\nand again that he who wants to see the Buddha ought not to seek him\nin form, nor in voice, etc. When Ignorance ruled supreme, the ego was\nconceived to be a positive idea, and its denial was nihilistic. It\nwas quite natural for Ignorance to uphold the ego where it found its\noriginal home. But with the realisation of Enlightenment, the whole\naffair changes its aspect, and the order instituted by Ignorance is\nreversed from top to bottom. What was negative is now positive, and\nwhat was positive now negative. Buddhist scholars ought not to forget\nthis revaluation of ideas that comes along with Enlightenment. Since\nBuddhism asserts Enlightenment to be the ultimate fact of Buddhist\nlife, there is in it nothing negativistic, nothing pessimistic.\n\n\n                                  IV\n\nAs philosophy tends to emphasise unduly the importance of abstract\nideas and logical inferences and forgets to keep itself constantly\nin touch with the actual world of experience, the Buddha, as I have\nrepeatedly stated, flatly refused to subscribe to theorisation (_takka_\nor _vitakka_) at the expense of practical discipline. Enlightenment was\nthe fruit of such discipline, and the dispelling of Ignorance could not\nbe effected by any other means. If the Buddha could be said to have had\nany system of thought governing the whole trend of his teaching, it\nwas what we may call radical empiricism. By this I mean that he took\nlife and the world as they were and did not try to read them according\nto his own interpretation. Theorists may say this is impossible, for\nwe put our subjectivity into every act of perception and what we\ncall an objective world is really a reconstruction of our innate ideas.\nEpistemologically this may be so, but spiritually a state of perfect\nfreedom is obtained only when all our egoistic thoughts are not read\ninto life and the world is accepted as it is as a mirror reflects a\nflower as flower and the moon as moon. When therefore I say Buddhism\nis radical empiricism, this is not to be understood epistemologically\nbut spiritually. This is really the meaning of \u201cyath\u0101bh\u016btam\u201d or\n\u201cyath\u0101tatham\u201d\u2014the term quite frequently used in the Buddhist canon and\nin fact forming a most important refrain of Buddhist thought.\n\nIn the _S\u0101ma\u00f1\u00f1a-phala Sutta_, in the D\u012bgha-Nik\u0101ya, we are told in an\nascending scale what the ultimate fruits of Buddhist life are, and the\nscale terminates in the \u201cyath\u0101bh\u016btam\u201d acceptance of the world:\n\n\u201cWith his heart thus serene, made pure, translucent, cultured, devoid\nof evil, supple, ready to act, firm, and imperturbable, he directs\nand bends down to the knowledge of the destruction of the Defilements\n(_\u0101sav\u0101_). He knows as it really is: \u2018This is pain.\u2019 He knows as it\nreally is: \u2018This is the origin of pain.\u2019 He knows as it really is:\n\u2018This is the cessation of pain.\u2019 He knows as it really is: \u2018This is\nthe path that leads to the cessation of pain.\u2019 He knows as they really\nare: \u2018These are the Defilements.\u2019 He knows as it really is: \u2018This is\nthe origin of the Defilements.\u2019 He knows as it really is: \u2018This is the\ncessation of the Defilements.\u2019 He knows as it really is: \u2018This is the\npath that leads to the cessation of the Defilements.\u2019 To him, thus\nknowing, thus seeing, the heart is set free from the Defilement of\nLusts (_k\u0101ma_), is set free from the Defilement of Existence (_bh\u0101va_),\nis set free from the Defilement of Ignorance (_avijj\u0101_). In him, thus\nset free, there arises the knowledge of his emancipation, and he knows:\n\u2018Rebirth has been destroyed. The higher life has been fulfilled. What\nhad to be done has been accomplished. After this present life there\nwill be no beyond!\u2019\u201d\n\nHow shall we understand this? As in the case of the Twelve Nidanas,\nthe Fourfold Noble Truth will surely fail to yield up its deepest\nsignification when we approach it intellectually. For it is\nno more than a restatement of the dogma of dependent origination,\nhowever different in form, the same principle is asserted both in the\nPa\u1e6dicca-samupp\u0101da and in the Ariya-sacca. The latter points out the\npractical method of escape from the fetters of karma while the former\ndraws out in view the plans of its _modus operandi_. As concepts, both\nformulas remain just what they are, that is, effectless and inefficient\nto produce a spiritual revolution. The Buddha\u2019s idea of formulating the\nFourfold Truth was to see it practically applied to the realisation of\nan ideal. The elaborate mental discipline which is explained in the\nprevious parts of the _S\u0101ma\u00f1\u00f1a-phala_ is but preparatory to this final\ncatastrophe. Without a serene, pure, and firm heart, the truth can\nnever be grasped as it really is. A keen, penetrating intellect may\nknow of the truth and discourse about it, but as to its realisation in\nlife a disciplined mind is required.\n\nThe passages above quoted are intelligible only when they are seen\nin the light of spiritual life. Buddhism may be logical, but if we\nfail to perceive anything further than that we sorely distort it. The\nlogicality of Buddhist teaching is just one aspect of it and not a very\nimportant one. We may even regard this logicalness as incidental to\nBuddhism, and those who are entranced by it, remain quite ignorant of\nthe true import of Buddhism. \u201cHe knows as it really is,\u201d ti yath\u0101bh\u016bta\u1e41\npaj\u0101n\u0101ti,\u2014we must come to this; for Yath\u0101bh\u016bta-\u00f1\u0101\u1e47a-dassana is the\ninsight that destroys the Defilements (_\u0101sav\u0101na\u1e41 khaya-\u00f1\u0101na_) and\nproduces the consciousness of spiritual emancipation (_cetovimutti_).\nWithout this N\u0304a\u1e47a or N\u0304a\u1e47a-dassana (insight or intuition), no\ndetachment, no freedom would be possible to a Buddhist, nor would\nhe ever be assured of his ultimate deliverance from the bondage\nof existence as well as of the attainment of the higher life\n(_brahmacarya_). The \u201cknowing thus, seeing thus,\u201d does not mean an\nintellectual comprehension of facts or truths which fall outside the\npale of one\u2019s own experience, but it is the perception of events\nthat have actually taken place within oneself. Even an intellectual\ncomprehension will be impossible when there is no experience that\ngoes to support its validity. For those who have no spiritual\ntraining along the line of the Hindu dhyana exercises, the mental\nstate culminating in the yath\u0101bh\u016btam contemplation of the world will\nbe a very difficult subject to be in sympathy with. But in this light\nonly the Buddha\u2019s discourse on the fruits of the S\u0101ma\u00f1\u00f1a life is to be\nunderstood.\n\nThe Defilements (_\u0101sav\u0101_), or Oozings (_lou_)[3.2] as the Chinese\ntranslators have them, are three, sometimes four, in number. They are\nthe Defilements of Desire (_k\u0101ma_), Existence (_bh\u0101va_), Ignorance\n(_avijj\u0101_), and Intellection (_di\u1e6d\u1e6dhi_). What kind of insight is it\nthat destroys all these Defilements? And what is it that will be\nleft in us after such a destruction? The answers may be anticipated\nto be thoroughly nihilistic, because nothing but absolute void will\nbe seemingly the result of such destruction. Especially when we read\na verse like the following (_Sutta-nip\u0101ta_, vv. 949 and 1099), we\nmay reasonably be tempted to regard the teaching of the Buddha as\nabsolutely negativistic:\n\n  \u201cWhat is before thee, lay it aside;\n   Let there be nothing behind thee;\n   If thou wilt not grasp after what is in the middle,\n   Thou wilt wander calm.\u201d[f65]\n\nBut the fact is, from the spiritual point of view, that it is only\nafter the destruction of the Defilements and a release from every form\nof attachment that one\u2019s inmost being gets purified and sees itself\nas it really is, not indeed as an ego standing in contrast to the\nnot-ego, but as something transcending opposites and yet synthesising\nthem in itself. What is destroyed is the dualism of things and not\ntheir oneness. And the release means going back to one\u2019s original\nabode. The insight therefore is to see unity in multiplicity and to\nunderstand the opposition of the two ideas as not conditioning each\nother but as both issuing from a higher principle; and this is where\nperfect freedom abides. When the mind is trained enough, it sees that\nneither negation (_niratta_) nor affirmation (_atta_) applies to\nreality but that the truth lies in knowing things as they are or rather\nas they become. A mind really sincere and thoroughly purified\nis the necessary preliminary to the understanding of reality in its\nsuchness. As the result we have \u201cti yath\u0101bh\u016bta\u1e41 paj\u0101n\u0101ti,\u201d and this\ncame later to be formulated by the Mahayanists into the doctrine of\nThatness or Suchness (_bh\u016btatathat\u0101_). The trained mind that has gone\nthrough the four dhyana exercises as prescribed in the Nik\u0101yas further\ndevelops into what is known among the Mahayanists as the \u0100dar\u015ba-j\u00f1\u0101nam\n(mirror-insight), which corresponds to the Bh\u016bta-\u00f1\u0101\u1e47a in the Anguttara\nNik\u0101ya. The last simile in the Buddha\u2019s discourse on the fruits of the\nS\u0101ma\u00f1\u00f1a life, which sums up the spiritual attainment of the Buddhists,\nbecomes now quite intelligible. It runs thus:\n\n\u201cJust, O king, as if in a mountain fastness there were a pool of water,\nclear, translucent, and serene; and a man, standing on the bank and\nwith eyes to see, should perceive the oysters and the shells, the\ngravel and the pebbles and the shoals of fish, as they move about or\nlie within it: he would know: This pool is clear, transparent, and\nserene, and there within it are the oysters and the shells, and the\nsand and gravel, and the shoals of fish are moving about or lying\nstill.\u201d\n\nThe radical empiricism of the \u201cYath\u0101bh\u016btam\u201d teaching of the Buddha\nis here graphically presented, which reminds us of the Buddha in the\n_Itivuttaka_, v. 109, describing himself as the spectator standing on\nthe shore (_cakkhum\u0101 puriso t\u012bre \u1e6dhito_). To understand this simile\nintellectually will be sheer nonsense. The writer describes his mental\nattitude from a higher plane of thought which has been realised by him\nafter a long training. Sambodhi or Enlightenment is the Buddhist term\ngiven to this realisation. The destruction of the four Defilements is\nthe negative phase of the experience which is the insight to which\nthe Buddha\u2019s serene and translucent mind was directed and bent down.\nWhen the destructive activity alone is considered, Enlightenment is\nannihilating and negativistic, but when the insight opens to the\nsuchness of truth, it is most emphatically affirmative. This is where\nlies that \u201cmatchless island possessing nothing and grasping after\nnothing, called Nirvana, the destruction of decay and death.\u201d\n(_Sutta-nip\u0101ta_, v. 1094). Remember that what is here destroyed is\ndecay and death and not life; for it is through Enlightenment that life\nis for the first time restored to its native freedom and creativeness.\n\nThe simile of mirror (_\u0101dar\u015ba_) may however suggest that the Buddhist\nattitude towards the world is merely passive and lacking in energising\ninspirations. This however betrays the ignorance on the part of the\ncritic of the Buddha\u2019s own life which was so unselfishly devoted for\nforty-nine long and peaceful years to the promotion of the general\nspiritual welfare of his people; not only this, but the critic has\nalso forgotten to notice the extraordinary missionary enterprises\nof the Buddha\u2019s disciples as well as their intellectual activities\nwhich developed into the Mahayanist school of Buddhism. Whatever this\nbe, the charge of passivity against Buddhist _weltanschauung_ is\nwrong even when it is considered apart from the historical facts of\nBuddhism. Passivity we notice in Enlightenment is merely apparent. As\na general statement, a thing absolutely passive is unthinkable, unless\nit is a state of absolute nothingness without any kind of content\nin it. As long as Enlightenment is the outcome of a most strenuous\nspiritual effort, it is a positive state of mind in which lies hidden\nan inexhaustible reservoir of possibilities; it is a unity in which a\nworld of multitudinosity is lodged. \u201cNoisy go the small waters, silent\ngoes the vast ocean.\u201d[f66] In the vast ocean of Enlightenment there is\nthe silence of unity. The Avata\u1e41saka philosophers too compare it to the\nimmense expanse of an ocean, calm and translucent, which reflects all\nthe shining bodies of heaven, but where at the same time possibilities\nof roaring and all-devouring waves lie innocently embosomed.\n\nSo asks the Buddha in the _Mah\u0101li Sutta_: \u201cWhen a monk knows thus\nand sees thus, would that make him ready to take up the question:\nIs the soul the same as the body, or is the soul one thing and the\nbody another?\u201d It is thus evident that the Buddha\u2019s teaching always\ncentered in the practical realisation of Enlightenment as \u201c\u0101savem\nkhata-\u00f1\u0101\u1e47a,\u201d insight that destroys the Defilements and releases one\nfrom every attachment (_up\u0101d\u0101na_). He did not shun the discussion of\nthe metaphysical problems merely because they were metaphysical, but\nbecause they were not conducive to the attainment of the ultimate\nend of Buddhist life which is the purification of spirit and not the\ndisplay of epistemological subtlety. Ignorance was to be dispelled\nin our inner experience, and not by intellectually understanding\nthe principle of dependent origination whether expressed as the\nPa\u1e6dicca-samupp\u0101da or as the Ariya-sacca.\n\nFurther, that Enlightenment consists in seeing into things\n\u201cyath\u0101bh\u016btam\u201d or \u201cyath\u0101tatham,\u201d free from doubt, not disturbed by\nintellection or theorisation, may be gleaned from the last g\u0101th\u0101 in the\n_Itivuttaka_, where the Buddha is praised for his various virtues. I\nquote the first three stanzas:\n\n  \u201cHaving insight into all the world,\n   In all the world as it really is,\n   He is detached from all the world,\n   And without compare in all the world.\n\n   All surpassing in everything, steadfast.\n   Freed from all ties,\n   The highest repose belongs to him,\n   Who has attained Nirvana, with no fear from any side.\n\n   This Enlightened One, with Defilements destroyed,\n   Undisturbed, and free from doubt,\n   Has attained destruction of all karma,\n   And is released in the destruction of the substratum.\u201d\n\n\n                                   V\n\nViewing things \u201cyath\u0101bh\u016btam\u201d is, so to speak, the intellectual or\nnoetic aspect of Enlightenment though not in the sense of discursive\nunderstanding; there is another aspect of Enlightenment which will be\nthe subject of consideration here. I mean its relation to samadhi or\ndhyana. This is preliminary, as I said before, to the realisation, but\nit also shows that the realisation thus attained is something more\nthan merely seeing into truth. If Enlightenment were just this seeing\nor having insight, it would not be so spiritually enlightening as\nto bring about a complete riddance of evil passions and the sense\nof perfect freedom. Intuitions could not go so penetratingly into\nthe source of life and set all doubts at rest and sever all bonds of\nattachment, unless one\u2019s consciousness were thoroughly prepared to take\nin the All in its wholeness as well as its suchness. Our senses and\nordinary consciousness are only too apt to be disturbed and to turn\naway from the realisation of truth. Mental discipline thus becomes\nindispensable.\n\nWe must remember that the Buddha had this discipline under his two\nSamkhya teachers and that even after his Enlightenment he made it a\nrule for his disciples to train themselves in the dhyana exercises. He\nhimself retired into solitude whenever he had opportunities for it.\nThis was not of course merely indulging in contemplation or in making\nthe world reflect in the mirror of consciousness. It was a kind of\nspiritual training even for himself and even after Enlightenment. In\nthis respect the Buddha was simply following the practise of all other\nIndian sages and philosophers. This however was not all with him, he\nsaw some deeper meaning in the discipline which was to awaken the\nhighest spiritual sense for comprehending the Dharma. Indeed, without\nthis ultimate awakening, dhyana however exalting, was of no import to\nthe perfection of Buddhist life. So we have in the _Dhammapada_, v.\n372: \u201cWithout knowledge (_pa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101_, _praj\u00f1\u0101_) there is no meditation\n(_jh\u0101na_, _dhy\u0101na_), without meditation there is no knowledge: he\nwho has knowledge and meditation is near unto Nirvana.\u201d This mutual\ndependence of jh\u0101na and pa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101 is what distinguished Buddhism from\nthe rest of the Indian teachings at the time. Jh\u0101na or dhy\u0101na must\nissue in pa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101, must develop into seeing the world as it really is\n(_yath\u0101bh\u016bta\u1e41_); for there is no Buddhism in meditation merely as\nsuch. And this was the reason why the Buddha got dissatisfied with\nthe teaching of his teachers; it, to use his own words, did \u201cnot lead\nto perfect insight, to supreme awakening, to Nirvana\u201d (_na abhi\u00f1\u00f1\u0101ya\nna sambhod\u0101ya na nibb\u0101n\u0101ya sa\u1e41vattati_). To be abiding in the\nserenity of nothingness was enjoyable enough, but it was falling into\na deep slumber, and the Buddha had no desire to sleep away his earthly\nlife in a daydream. There must be a seeing into the life and soul of\nthings. To him pa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101 or praj\u00f1\u0101 was the most essential part of his\ndoctrine, and it had to grow out of dhyana, and the dhyana that did\nnot terminate in pa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101 was not at all Buddhistic. The boat was to be\nemptied indeed, but staying in an \u201cempty house\u201d (_su\u00f1\u00f1\u0101g\u0101ra\u1e41_) and\ndoing nothing is blankness and annihilation; an eye must open and see\nthe truth fully and clearly, the truth (_parama\u1e41 ariyasacca\u1e41_) that\nliberates life from its many bondages and encumbrances. (Majjhima\nNik\u0101ya, 140.) Sings the _Dhammapada_ again (v. 373):\n\n  \u201cA monk who has entered his empty house, and whose mind is tranquil,\n   Feels a more than human delight when he sees the truth clearly.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nAs thus the aim of the dhyana exercises is to prepare the mind for the\nrealisation of the paramasacca which destroys and liberates, and as the\ntruth is realisable only by the awakening of the parama-pa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101 which is\nthe knowledge (_\u00f1\u0101\u1e47a_) that puts an end to all misery (_sabbadukkha_),\nthe Buddha never fails to duly impress the importance of pa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101 on the\nminds of his disciples, for instance, in his general disciplinary\nscheme given to them under the three headings: \u015b\u012bla (morality), jh\u0101na\n(meditation), and pa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101 (intuitive knowledge). Whatever supersensual\npleasures one may experience in the jh\u0101na exercises, the Buddha\nconsidered them to be far short of the ultimate goal of Buddhist\nlife, every one of such pleasures had to be abandoned as it would\nentangle the mind and interrupt its ascending course to the awakening\nof pa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101. It was through this awakening alone that the consciousness\nof emancipation or going back to one\u2019s original spiritual abode could\nbe attained. And by emancipation the Buddha meant to be free from\nall forms of attachment, both sensual (_r\u016bpa\u1e41_) and intellectual\n(_vi\u00f1\u00f1\u0101na\u1e41_). So says he in the Majjhima Nik\u0101ya, 138: Let not thy\nmind be disturbed by external objects, nor let it go astray among thy\nown ideas. Be free from attachments, and fear not. This is the way to\novercome the sufferings of birth and death.\n\nAs long as there is the slightest trace of attachment anywhere,\noutwardly or inwardly, there remains the substratum of selfhood,\nand this is sure to create a new force of karma and involve us in\nthe eternal cycle of birth-and-death. This attachment is a form of\nobsession or illusion or imagination. Nine of such self-conceited\nillusions are mentioned in the Nik\u0101yas, all of which come out of the\nwrong speculations of selfhood and naturally lead to attachment in one\nway or another. They are the ideas that \u201cI am,\u201d \u201cI am that,\u201d \u201cI shall\nbe,\u201d \u201cI shall not be,\u201d \u201cI shall have form,\u201d \u201cI shall be without form,\u201d\n\u201cI shall have thought,\u201d \u201cI shall be without thought,\u201d \u201cI shall neither\nhave thought nor be without thought.\u201d[f67] We have to get rid of all\nthese _ma\u00f1\u00f1itams_, arrogant, self-asserting conceptions, in order to\nreach the final goal of Buddhist life. For when they are eliminated, we\ncease to worry, to harbour hatred, to be belabouring, and to be seized\nwith fears,\u2014which is tranquillisation (_santi_), and Nirvana, and the\nseeing into the reality and truth of things. When pa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101 is awakened in\nus, morality is abandoned, meditation left behind, and there remains\nonly an enlightened state of consciousness in which spirit moveth as it\nlisteth.\n\nThe well-known simile of the raft (_kull\u016bpama\u1e41_)[f68] which may seem\nsomewhat unintelligible to some of the Buddhist critics who are\nused to an altogether different \u201cintellectual landscape,\u201d is a good\nillustration of the Buddhist teaching of non-attachment. The teaching,\n\u201cKull\u016bpama\u1e41 vo bhikkhave \u0101j\u0101nantehi dhamm\u0101 pi vo pah\u0101tabb\u0101, pageva\nadhamm\u0101,\u201d (Like unto a raft all dharmas indeed must be abandoned, much\nmore un-dharmas!), is really the most fundamental keynote running\nthrough the whole course of the history of Buddhist dogmatics. The\nphilosophy of Praj\u00f1\u0101p\u0101ramit\u0101 which is considered by some quite\ndeviating from the spirit of primitive Buddhism is in no way behind in\nupholding this doctrine of non-attachment, for instance, as we\nsee in the _Vajracchedik\u0101 S\u016btra_. In fact, the theory of \u015a\u016bnyat\u0101 as\nexpounded in all the Praj\u00f1\u0101-s\u016btras is no more than philosophising on\nthe doctrine of non-attachment.[f69] The _Vajracchedik\u0101_ has:\n\n\u201cTasmad iya\u1e41 thath\u0101gatena sandh\u0101ya v\u0101g bh\u0101shi kolopama\u1e41 dharmapary\u0101yam\n\u0101j\u0101nadbhir dharm\u0101 eva t\u0101 prah\u0101tavy\u0101\u1e25 pr\u0101geva adharm\u0101.\u201d\n\n\nThe simile itself runs as follows (Majjhima Nik\u0101ya, 22):\n\n\u201cIn the simile of a raft do I teach my doctrine to you, O monks, which\nis designed for escape, not for retention. Listen attentively and\nremember well what I am going to say. Suppose that a man coming upon\na long journey finds in his way a great broad water, the hither side\nbeset with fears and dangers, but the further side secure and free from\nfears, and no boat wherewith to cross the flood nor any bridge leading\nfrom this to the other shore. And suppose this man to say to himself:\nVerily this is a great and wide water, and the hither side is full of\nfears and dangers, but the further side secure and free from fears; and\nthere is neither boat nor bridge to take me from this to that further\nshore. How if I gather some reeds and twigs and leaves and bind them\ntogether into a raft; and then, supported on that raft, and labouring\nwith hands and feet, cross in safety to that other shore! Accordingly,\nO monks, suppose this man to gather together reeds and twigs and leaves\nand branches and bind them all together into a raft, and launching\nforth upon it and labouring with hands and feet, attain in safety the\nother shore. And now, the flood crossed, the further shore attained,\nsuppose the man should say: Very serviceable indeed has this my raft\nbeen to me. Supported by this raft and working with hands and feet, I\nam safely crossed to this other shore; how now if I lift the raft up\non my head or lay it upon my shoulder, and so proceed whithersoever\nI wish! What think ye, O monks? So doing, would this man be acting\nrightly as regards his raft?\n\n\u201cNay, verily, O Lord!\n\n\u201cAnd what then ought this man to do if he would act rightly as\nregards the raft? Thus, O monks, ought the man to consider: Truly this\nraft has been serviceable to me! Supported by this raft and exerting\nhands and feet, I am crossed in safety to this further shore. How now\nif I lay this raft up on the bank or leave it to sink in the water and\nso proceed upon my journey? So doing, O monks, the man would be acting\nrightly as regards his raft.\n\n\u201cIn like manner also do I teach my doctrine to you in the simile of\na raft, which is meant, O monks, for escape and not for retention.\nUnderstanding the simile of the raft, O monks, you must leave dharmas\nbehind, how much more un-dharmas!\u201d[f70]\n\nThe teaching of the Buddha may now be summed up as follows: Seeing\nthings thus or \u201cyath\u0101bh\u016btam\u201d is the same as the attainment of perfect\nspiritual freedom; or we may say that when we are detached from evil\npassions based upon the wrong idea of selfhood and when the heart\ngrows conscious of its own emancipation, we are then for the first\ntime fully awakened to the truth as it really is. These two events,\nseeing and being freed, are mutually dependent, so intimately that\nthe one without the other is unthinkable, is impossible; in fact\nthey are two aspects of one identical experience, separated only in\nour limited cognition. Pa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101 without jh\u0101na is no pa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101, and jh\u0101na\nwithout pa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101 is no jh\u0101na. Enlightenment is the term designating the\nidentification-experience of pa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101 and jh\u0101na, of seeing \u201cyath\u0101bh\u016btam\u201d\nand abandoning the dharma-raft of every denomination. In this light\nshould the following be understood:\n\n\u201cTherefore, O monks, whatever of matter (or body, _r\u016bpa\u1e41_) there is,\nwhether of the past, of the future, or of the present time, whether\ninternal or external, whether coarse or fine, mean or exalted, far\nor near, all matter (or body) is to be regarded as it really is, in\nthe light of perfect knowledge (_samm\u0101pa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101_), thus: \u2018This is not of\nme,\u2019 \u2018This am I not,\u2019 \u2018This is not my Self.\u2019 So with the rest of the\nfive aggregates (_kha\u1e47\u1e0da_): _vedan\u0101_ (sensations), _sa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101_ (concepts),\n_sankh\u0101ra_ (formative principle), and _vi\u00f1\u00f1\u0101na\u1e41_ (consciousness). One\nwho thus seeing the world turns away from the world is truly freed from\nevil passions and has the consciousness of freedom. Such is called one\nwho has the obstacles removed, trenches filled, one who has destroyed,\nis free, one whose fight is over, who has laid down his burden, and is\ndetached.\u201d[f71]\n\nIn short, he has every quality of the Enlightened, in whom the will and\nthe intellect are harmoniously blended.\n\n\n                                  VI\n\nIgnorance is departure from home and Enlightenment is returning. While\nwandering we lead a life full of pain and suffering and the world\nwherein we find ourselves is not a very desirable habitat. This is\nhowever put a stop to by Enlightenment as thus we are enabled once\nmore to get settled at home where reign freedom and peace. The will\nnegates itself in its attempt to get an insight into its own life, and\ndualism follows. Consciousness cannot transcend its own principle.\nThe will struggles and grows despondent over its work. \u201cWhy?\u201d\u2014the\nintellect asks, but it is the question no human intellect can\never hope to solve; for it is a mystery deeply inherent in the will.\nWhy did the Heavenly Father have to send his only child to redeem the\ncreation which was his own handiwork and yet went further astray from\nits home? Why had Christ to be so dejected over the destiny of the\nerring children of God? This is an eternal mystery, and no relative\nunderstanding is made to grapple with these questions. But the very\nfact that such questions are raised and constantly threaten one\u2019s\nspiritual peace shows that they are not idle metaphysical problems to\nbe solved by professional philosophers, but that they are addressed\ndirectly to one\u2019s inmost soul, which must struggle and make effort to\nsubdue them by a higher and deeper power native to itself\u2014far higher\nand deeper than mere dialectic of cognition.\n\nThe story of the prodigal son[f72] is such a favourite theme both for\nBuddhists and Christians, and in this do we not discover something\neternally true, though tragic and unfathomable, which lies so deep in\nevery human heart? Whatever this may be, the will finally succeeds in\nrecognising itself, in getting back to its original abode. The sense of\npeace one finds in Enlightenment is indeed that of a wanderer getting\nsafely home. The wandering seems to have altogether been unnecessary\nfrom the logical point of view. What is the use of losing oneself if\none has to find oneself again? What boots it after all\u2014this going\nover from one to ten and from ten to one? Mathematically, all this\nis nonsensical. But the spiritual mystery is that returning is not\nmerely counting backwards so many figures that were counted before in\na reverse way. There is an immense difference here between physics and\npsychology. After returning one is no longer the same person as before.\nThe will, back from his excursion through time-consciousness, is God\nhimself.\n\nIn the _Vajrasam\u0101dhi S\u016btra_,[3.4] Bodhisattva Apratisthita[3.5] asks\nthe Buddha why the father was so unkind as not to recall his wandering\nson before fifty years expired, to which the Buddha answers,\n\u201cFifty years is not to be understood as indicating time-relation here;\nit means the awakening of a thought.\u201d As I would interpret, this means\nthe awakening of consciousness\u2014a split in the will, which now, besides\nbeing actor, is knower. The knower, however, gradually grows to be the\nspectator and critic, and even aspires to be the director and ruler.\nWith this arises the tragedy of life, which the Buddha makes the basis\nof the Fourfold Noble Truth. That pain (_du\u1e25kha_) is life itself as it\nis lived by most of us, is the plain, undisguised statement of facts.\nThis all comes from Ignorance, from our consciousness not being fully\nenlightened as to its nature, mission, and function in relation to the\nwill. Consciousness must first be reduced to the will when it begins\nto work out its \u201coriginal vows\u201d (_p\u016brvapra\u1e47idh\u0101na_) in obedience to\nits true master. \u201cThe awakening of a thought\u201d marks the beginning of\nIgnorance and is its condition. When this is vanquished, \u201ca thought\u201d is\nreduced to the will, which is Enlightenment. Enlightenment is therefore\nreturning.\n\nIn this respect Christianity is more symbolic than Buddhism. The\nstory of Creation, the Fall from the Garden of Eden, God\u2019s sending\nChrist to compensate for the ancestral sins, his Crucifixion, and\nResurrection\u2014they are all symbolic. To be more explicit, Creation\nis the awakening of consciousness, or the \u201cawakening of a thought\u201d;\nthe Fall is consciousness going astray from the original path; God\u2019s\nidea of sending his own son among us is the desire of the will to\nsee itself through its own offspring, consciousness; Crucifixion is\ntranscending the dualism of acting and knowing, which comes from the\nawakening of the intellect; and finally Resurrection means the will\u2019s\ntriumph over the intellect, in other words, the will seeing itself\nin and through consciousness. After Resurrection the will is no more\nblind striving, nor is the intellect mere observing the dancer dance.\nIn real Buddhist life these two are not separated, seeing and acting,\nthey are synthesised in one whole spiritual life, and this synthesis\nis called by Buddhists Enlightenment, the dispelling of Ignorance, the\nloosening of the Fetters, the wiping-off of the Defilements, etc.\nBuddhism is thus free from the historical symbolism of Christianity;\ntranscending the category of time. Buddhism attempts to achieve\nsalvation in one act of the will; for returning effaces all the traces\nof time.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe Buddha himself gave utterance to the feeling of return when his\neye first opened to the Dharma unheard of before at the realisation\nof Enlightenment. He said: \u201cI am like a wanderer who, after going\nastray in a desolate wilderness, finally discovers an old highway,\nan old track beaten by his predecessors, and who finds, as he goes\nalong the road, the villages, palaces, gardens, woods, lotus-ponds,\nwalls, and many other things where his predecessors used to have\ntheir dwellings.\u201d[f73] Superficially, this feeling of returning to an\nold familiar abode seems to contradict the statement made concerning\n\u201can insight to things never before presented to one\u2019s mind\u201d; but the\ncontradiction is logical and not spiritual. As long as the Buddha was\ngoing over the Chain of Origination from the epistemological point\nof view, that is, as long as he attempted to get back to his\nnative will through the channel of empirical consciousness, he could\nnot accomplish his end. It was only when he broke through the wall\nof Ignorance by the sheer force of his will that he could tread the\nancient path. The path was altogether unrecognisable by his intelligent\neye which was one of the best of the kind; even the Buddha could not\nignore the law governing its usage; the Chain was not to be cut asunder\nby merely reckoning its links of cause and effect backward and forward.\nKnowledge, that is, Ignorance drove Adam from the Garden of Eden to the\nworld of pain and patience (_sahaloka_), but it was not knowledge that\nwould reconcile him to his Father, it was the Will dispelling Ignorance\nand ushering Enlightenment.\n\nThe sense of return or that of recognising old acquaintances one\nexperiences at the time of Enlightenment is a familiar fact to students\nof Zen Buddhism. To cite one instance, Chih-I (530\u2013597)[3.6] who is\ngenerally known by his honorary title as Chih-ch\u00ea Tai-shih,[3.7]\nwas the founder of the T\u2018ien-tai school of Buddhist philosophy in\nChina. He was also trained in meditation by his teacher Hui-sz\u016d\n(513\u2013577)[3.8] and though not belonging to the orthodox lineage of\nthe Zen masters, he is reckoned as one. When he came to the master,\nhe was set to exercise himself in a Samadhi known as \u201cFa-hua San-mei\u201d\n(_saddharma-pu\u1e47\u1e0dark\u012ba-sam\u0101dhi_).[3.9] While exercising himself in\nit, he came across a certain passage in the Sutra, and his mind was\nopened, and he at once realised the statement referred to by his\nmaster, which was this\u2014that he with the master personally attended the\nBuddha\u2019s congregation at the Vulture Peak where the Buddha discoursed\non the Sutra. Then said the master, \u201cIf not for you no one could see\nthe truth: and if not for me no one could testify it.\u201d It is often\nremarked by Zen masters that the holy congregation at the Vulture\nPeak is still in session. This however ought not to be confounded\nwith the remembering of the past which is one of the miraculous\ngifts of the Buddhist saints. It has nothing to do with such memory,\nfor in Enlightenment there are more things than are implied in mere\ntime-relations. Even when the _Praj\u00f1\u0101p\u0101ramit\u0101-s\u016btras_ expressly refer\nto one\u2019s previous presence at the discourse on the subject,\nthis is not a form of mere recollection; the understanding is not a\npsychological phenomenon, the praj\u00f1\u0101 goes much penetratingly into the\ndepths of one\u2019s personality. The sense of return to something familiar,\nto the one thoroughly acquainted with, really means the will getting\nsettled once more in its old abode, after many a venturesome wandering,\nwith an immense treasure of experience now and full of wisdom that will\nlight up its unending career.\n\n\n                                  VII\n\nIt may not be altogether out of place here to make a few remarks\nconcerning the popular view which identifies the philosophy of\nSchopenhauer with Buddhism. According to this view, the Buddha is\nsupposed to have taught the negation of the will to live, which was\ninsisted upon by the German pessimist, but nothing is further from the\ncorrect understanding of Buddhism than this negativism. The Buddha does\nnot consider the will blind, irrational, and therefore to be denied;\nwhat he really denies is the notion of ego-entity due to Ignorance,\nfrom which notion come craving, attachment to things impermanent,\nand the giving way to the egotistic impulses. The object the Buddha\nalways has in view and never forgets to set forth whenever he thinks\nopportune, is the Enlightenment of the will and not its negation. His\nteaching is based upon affirmative propositions. The reason why he does\nnot countenance life as it is lived by most of us is because it is the\nproduct of Ignorance and egoism, which never fail to throw us into the\nabyss of pain and misery. The Buddha pointed the way to escape this by\nEnlightenment and not by annihilation.\n\nThe will as it is in itself is pure act, and no taint of egotism is\nthere; this is awakened only when the intellect through its own error\ngrows blind as to the true working of the will and falsely recognises\nhere the principle of individuation. The Buddha thus wants an illumined\nwill and not the negation of it. When the will is illumined, and\nthereby when the intellect is properly directed to follow its\noriginal course, we are liberated from the fetters which are put upon\nus by wrong understanding, and purified of all the defilements which\nooze from the will not being correctly interpreted. Enlightenment and\nemancipation are the two central ideas of Buddhism.\n\nThe argument A\u015bvaghosha puts into the mouth of the Buddha against\nArada (or \u0100l\u0101ra K\u0101l\u0101ma), the Samkhya philosopher, is illuminating in\nthis respect. When Arada told the Buddha to liberate the soul from\nthe body as when the bird flies from the cage or the reed\u2019s stalk is\nloosened from its sheath, which will result in the abandonment of\negoism, the Buddha reasons in the following way: \u201cAs long as the soul\ncontinues there is no abandonment of egoism. The soul does not become\nfree from qualities as long as it is not released from number and the\nrest; therefore, as long as there is no freedom from qualities, there\nis no liberation declared for it. There is no real separation of the\nqualities and their subject; for fire cannot be conceived apart from\nits form and heat. Before the body there will be nothing embodied,\nso before the qualities there will be no subject; how, if it was\noriginally free, could the soul ever become bound? The body-knower\n(the soul) which is unembodied, must be either knowing or unknowing;\nif it is knowing, there must be some object to be known, and if there\nis this object, it is not liberated. Or if the soul be declared to be\nunknowing, then what use to you is this imagined soul? Even without\nsuch a soul, the existence of the absence of knowledge is notorious as,\nfor instance, in a log of wood or a wall. And since each successive\nabandonment is held to be still accompanied by qualities, I maintain\nthat the absolute attainment of our end can only be found in the\nabandonment of everything.\u201d[f74]\n\nAs long as the dualistic conception is maintained in regard to the\nliberation of the soul, there will be no real freedom as is truly\ndeclared by the Buddha. \u201cThe abandonment of everything\u201d means the\ntranscending of the dualism of soul and body, of subject and object,\nof that which knows and that which is known, of \u201cit is\u201d and \u201cit is\nnot,\u201d of soul and soul-lessness; and this transcending is not attained\nby merely negating the soul or the will, but by throwing light\nupon its nature, by realising it as it is in itself. This is the act\nof the will. An intellectual contemplation which is advocated by the\nSamkhya philosophers does not lead one to spiritual freedom, but to\nthe realm of passivity which is their \u201crealm of nothingness.\u201d Buddhism\nteaches freedom and not annihilation, it advocates spiritual discipline\nand not mental torpor or emptiness. There must be a certain turning\naway in one\u2019s ordinary course of life, there must be a certain opening\nup of a new vista in one\u2019s spiritual outlook if one wants to be the\ntrue follower of the Buddha. His aversion to asceticism and nihilism as\nwell as to hedonism becomes intelligible when seen in this light.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe Majjhima-Nik\u0101ya\u2019s account of the Buddha\u2019s interview with the\nSamkhya thinkers somewhat differs from the Mahayana poet\u2019s, but in\na way gives a better support to my argument as regards the Buddha\u2019s\nEnlightenment. The reason why he was not satisfied with the teaching\nand discipline of \u0100l\u0101ra K\u0101l\u0101ma and Uddaka is stated to be this: \u201cThis\ndoctrine does not lead to turning away, to dispassion, to cessation,\nto quietude, to perfect penetration, to supreme awakening, to Nirvana,\nbut only to attainment to the Realm of Nothingness.\u201d What did then\nthe Buddha understand by Nirvana which literally means annihilation\nor cessation, but which is grouped here with such terms as awakening,\nturning away (that is, revaluation), and penetration, and contrasted\nto nothingness? There is no doubt, as far as we can judge from these\nqualifications, that Nirvana is a positive conception pointing to\na certain determinable experience. When he came up to the bank of\nthe Naira\u00f1jan\u0101 and took his seat of soft grass on a shady, peaceful\nspot, he made up his mind not to leave the place until he realised in\nhimself what he had been after ever since his wandering away from home.\nAccording to the _Lalita-vistara_, he at that moment made this vow\n(_pra\u1e47idh\u0101na_):\n\n  \u201cLet my body be dried up on this seat,\n   Let my skin and bones and flesh be destroyed:\n   So long as Bodhi is not attained, so hard to attain for many a kalpa,\n   My body and thought will not be removed from this seat.\u201d[f75]\n\nThus resolved, the Buddha finally came to realise Supreme\nEnlightenment for which he had belaboured for ever so many lives. How\ndoes this vary from his former attainments under Uddaka and \u0100l\u0101ra\nK\u0101l\u0101ma? Let him express himself:\n\n\u201cThen, disciples, myself subject to birth, but perceiving the\nwretchedness of things subject to birth and seeking after the\nincomparable security of Nirvana which is birthless, to that\nincomparable security I attained, even to Nirvana which is birthless.\n\n\u201cMyself subject to growth and decay, but perceiving the wretchedness of\nthings subject to growth and decay and seeking after the incomparable\nsecurity of Nirvana which is free from growth and decay, to that\nincomparable security I attained, even to Nirvana which is free from\ngrowth and decay.\n\n\u201cMyself subject to disease, but perceiving the wretchedness of things\nsubject to disease and seeking after the incomparable security of\nNirvana which is free from disease, to that incomparable security I\nattained, even to Nirvana which is free from disease.\n\n\u201cMyself subject to death, but perceiving the wretchedness of things\nsubject to death and seeking after the incomparable security of Nirvana\nwhich is deathless, to that incomparable security I attained, even to\nNirvana which is deathless.\n\n\u201cMyself subject to sorrow, but perceiving the wretchedness of things\nsubject to sorrow and seeking after the incomparable security of\nNirvana which is sorrowless, to that incomparable security I attained,\neven to Nirvana which is sorrowless.\n\n\u201cMyself subject to stain, but perceiving the wretchedness of things\nsubject to stain and seeking the incomparable security of Nirvana which\nis stainless, to that incomparable security I attained, even to Nirvana\nwhich is stainless.\n\n\u201cThen I saw and knew: \u2018Assured am I of deliverance; this is my final\nbirth; never more shall I return to this life!\u2019\u201d[f76]\n\nWhen Nirvana is qualified as birthless, deathless, stainless,\nsorrowless, and free from growth and decay and disease, it looks\nnegativistic enough. But if there were nothing affirmed even in these\nnegations, the Buddha could not rest in \u201cthe incomparable security\u201d\n(_anuttara\u1e41 yogakkhema\u1e41_) of Nirvana and been assured of final\nemancipation. What thus the Buddha denied, we can see, was Ignorance as\nto the true cause of birth and death, and this Ignorance was dispelled\nby the supreme effort of the will and not by mere dialectic reasoning\nand contemplation. The will was asserted and the intellect was awakened\nto its true significance. All the desires, feelings, thoughts, and\nstrivings thus illuminated cease to be egotistic and are no more the\ncause of defilements and fetters and many other hindrances, of which\nso many are referred to in all Buddhist literature, Mahayana and\nHinayana. In this sense the Buddha is the Jina, Conqueror, not an empty\nconqueror over nothingness, but the conqueror of confusion, darkness,\nand Ignorance.\n\n\n\n\n     HISTORY OF ZEN BUDDHISM FROM BODHI-DHARMA TO HUI-NENG (YENO)\n                          (520 A.D.\u2013713 A.D.)\n\n\n     HISTORY OF ZEN BUDDHISM FROM BODHI-DHARMA TO HUI-NENG (YENO)\n                          (520 A.D.\u2013713 A.D.)\n\nMy intention here is not to make a thoroughly critical and scientific\nstudy of the history of Zen Buddhism; for this presupposes some\nknowledge of the development of Buddhism in China, and there are, as\nfar as my knowledge extends, no text-books on the subject, which are\naccessible to readers of this book. The main object of the present\nEssay will therefore be to acquaint them first with the traditional\nhistory of Zen as it is told by its followers both in Japan and China.\nIts critical investigation will follow when readers are in a degree\nprepared for the task.\n\nThe traditional origin of Zen in India before its introduction into\nChina, which is recorded in Zen literature, is so mixed with legends\nthat no reliable facts can be gathered from it. In the days when there\nwas yet no critical study of anything and when things, especially\nrelating to religion, were believed in a wholesale manner, we could\nnot expect anything else. It may now be too late to try to unravel the\nmysteries enveloping the origin of Zen in India except in a general\nand logical way from the historical facts already known concerning the\ndevelopment of Mahayana Buddhism. In fact, Zen Buddhism, as was already\ndiscussed, is the product of the Chinese mind, or rather the Chinese\nelaboration of the Doctrine of Enlightenment. Therefore, when we want\nto narrate the history of Zen, it may be better in some respects not\nto go to India, but to stay in China and study the psychology and\nphilosophy of her people and the surrounding conditions that made it\npossible for Zen to achieve a successful growth in the land of the\ncelestials, always remembering that it is a practical interpretation of\nthe Doctrine of Enlightenment.\n\nSome scholars may however object to this kind of treatment of the\nsubject, on the ground that if Zen is at all a form of Buddhism or\neven the essence of it as is claimed by its followers, it cannot be\nseparated from the general history of Buddhism in India. This is quite\ntrue, but as far as facts are concerned, Zen as such did not exist in\nIndia, that is, in the form as we have it to-day; and therefore when\nwe try to go beyond China to trace its origin and development, the\nonly way open to us will be the one I have followed in my previous\nEssays collected here. That is to say, we must consider Zen the Chinese\ninterpretation of the Doctrine of Enlightenment, which is expounded in\nall Buddhist literature, most intensively in the Mahayana and more or\nless provisionarily in the Hinayana. As time went on, this doctrine\nsteadily grew to occupy the minds of the Buddha\u2019s followers and to\ncontrol the course of development of Buddhist thought generally; for\nwas it not through Enlightenment that Gautama became the Buddha, the\nEnlightened One? and is it not the object of Buddhism to follow the\nfootsteps of its founder in the attainment of final emancipation? But\nthe Chinese adherents of Bodhism[f77] or the upholders of Enlightenment\ndid not wish to swallow Indian Buddhism undigested. The practical\nimagination of the Chinese people came thus to create Zen, and\ndeveloped it to the best of their abilities to suit their own religious\nrequirements.\n\nWhen we compare Zen as a finished product to the Doctrine of\nEnlightenment as the latter began to unfold itself in primitive\nBuddhism, we find a wide and seemingly impassable gap between the\ntwo. This was however naturally to be expected. Let us consider the\nfollowing facts. In the beginning, the Buddha was somewhat timid to\ndisclose the entire secrets of the reason of Buddhahood, thinking that\nhis disciples were not quite capable of following every step he had\ntaken himself. The feeling he first had after Enlightenment governed\nhim almost throughout the entire course of his earthly life. It was\nthis, that the Perfect Supreme Enlightenment attained by him was too\nexalted an object for sentient beings to strive after, and that\neven when it were disclosed to them they would not fully comprehend\nit but might defile it to their own demerit. Did he not even think of\npassing into Nirvana right after Enlightenment? His whole life, in\nspite of the advice of the Brahmadeva, seems to have been controlled\nby this feeling\u2014the reluctance to reveal the entirety of his inmost\nself-realisation (_praty\u0101tmaj\u00f1\u0101na_, according to the terminology of\nthe _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_). In point of fact, the Buddha himself might have\ncommunicated what he realised to all his disciples unreservedly, but\nthe impression we get from the Agama or Nikaya literature is that\nhe was actually reluctant to do so. At least this was the way the\nearlier writers of the canonical books attempted to represent their\nmaster whatever their motives might be. This being the case, the idea\nof Enlightenment was not brought forward so fully and conspicuously\nin Hinayana literature as at once to command our attention. But as I\npointed out, this idea lies only superficially buried among the other\nand less important ideas, and can easily be made manifest by logically\nand psychologically following up the course of events related in the\ncanonical writings concerning the Enlightenment of the Buddha.\n\nThe earlier writers conceived the Fourfold Noble Truth or the\nTwelvefold Chain of Causation, or the Eightfold Path of Righteousness\nto be the central teaching of Buddhism, which also included on the\npsychological side the theory of non-ego (_an\u0101tman_). But when we\nreflect, both philosophically and from the Zen point of view, on the\nlife of the Buddha and on the ultimate principle of Buddhahood, we\ncannot help thinking of his Enlightenment as the most significant and\nmost essential and most fruitful part of Buddhism. Therefore, what\nthe Buddha really wished to impart to his disciples must be said to\nhave been the Doctrine of Enlightenment in spite of the Hinayanistic\ninterpretation or understanding of what is known as primitive Buddhism.\nBut as long as Buddhism flourished in India, this its central idea\nremained what it was, that is, such as is developed in most of the\nMahayana Sutras. It was only after Bodhi-Dharma who brought it to China\nthat the idea took root there and grew up to what we designate\nnow specifically as the Zen school of Buddhism. The history of Zen,\ntherefore, properly speaking or in its narrower sense, may best be\nregarded as beginning in China. The Indian soil was too metaphysical,\ntoo rich in romantic imagination for Zen to grow as such in its pure\nform.\n\nWhile the attainment of Buddhahood or Arhatship was the ultimate goal\nof his teaching, the Buddha was practical and always close to the\nfacts of life and insisted in his ordinary sermons on a life regulated\nby moral rules. Nor had he any desire to disclose intellectually or\nmetaphysically the content of Enlightenment which must be experienced\nbut cannot be explained. He never neglected to emphasise the\nsignificance of self-realisation, for Nirvana or Enlightenment was to\nbe attained personally through one\u2019s own efforts in one\u2019s own inner\nconsciousness. The Fourfold Noble Truth or the Twelvefold Chain of\nCausation or the Theory of Non-ego was an intellectual guide to the\nrealisation of the Buddhist life. Such teaching could not have any\npractical meaning except as finally leading to Enlightenment. The\nBuddha never thought that his followers would come to lay the entire\nstress of his teaching on these intellectual structures which could not\nstand by themselves without being supported by an inner spirit. The\nEightfold Path of Righteousness was an ethical guide to Enlightenment,\nand as such it was regarded by the Buddha. Those who have no higher\ninsight into his teaching than reading a moral signification in it,\ntake it for a kind of ethical culture and no more. They think that\nBuddhism is a positivism as philosophy and its Brotherhood (_sa\u1e41gha_)\na body of moral ascetics. They praise the Buddha as the originator of\na scientific religious system free from spiritualistic superstitions\nwhich so frequently and abundantly grow around religion. But we know\nbetter because these comments are not in full accord with the teaching\nof the Buddha, for they only reflect one side of it and fail to take\nan inner and comprehensive view of the whole field. If these critics\ntook up the practise of dhyana as constituting the essence of Buddhism\nalong with the above considerations, they may be said to have come\nnearer to the goal; but even this dhyana is a form of spiritual\nexercise which will prepare the way to the final realisation of\nNirvana. Dhyana in itself does not distinguish Buddhism from the other\nphilosophico-religious systems which existed in India in the day of\nthe Buddha. Therefore, to understand Zen as expressing the Doctrine of\nEnlightenment which is the reason of Buddhism, we must wait for the\nrise of the Mahayana movements. And when this was introduced into China\nby Bodhi-Dharma, it grew up to what we now know by the name of Zen\nBuddhism.\n\n\n                                   I\n\nThe legendary story of the origin of Zen in India runs as follows:\n\u015a\u0101kyamuni was once engaged at the Mount of the Holy Vulture in\npreaching to a congregation of his disciples. He did not resort to any\nlengthy verbal discourse to explain his point, but simply lifted a\nbouquet of flowers before the assemblage, which was presented to him\nby one of his lay-disciples. Not a word came out of his mouth. Nobody\nunderstood the meaning of this except the old venerable Mah\u0101k\u0101\u015byapa,\nwho quietly smiled at the Master, as if he fully comprehended the\npurport of this silent but eloquent teaching on the part of the\nEnlightened One. The latter perceiving this opened his golden-tongued\nmouth and proclaimed solemnly: \u201cI have the most precious treasure,\nspiritual and transcendental, which this moment I hand over to you, O\nvenerable Mah\u0101k\u0101\u015byapa!\u201d[4.1]\n\nOrthodox Zen followers generally blindly take this incident to be the\norigin of their doctrine, in which, according to them, is disclosed the\ninmost mind of the Buddha as well as the secret of the religion. As Zen\nclaims to be the inmost essence of Buddhism and to have been directly\ntransmitted by the Buddha to his greatest disciple, Mah\u0101k\u0101\u015byapa,\nits followers naturally look for the particular occasion when this\ntransmission took place between the master and the disciple. We know\nin a general way that Mah\u0101k\u0101\u015byapa succeeded the Buddha as the leader\nof the Faith, but as to his special transmission of Zen, we have no\nhistorical records in the Indian Buddhist writings at present\nin our possession. This fact is however specially mentioned for the\nfirst time as far as we know in a Chinese Zen history called _The\nRecords of the Spread of the Lamp_,[4.2] compiled by Li Tsun-hs\u00fc, in\n1029, and also in _The Accounts of the Orthodox Transmission of the\nDharma_ compiled by Ch\u2018i-sung in 1064,[4.3] where this incident is\nonly referred to as not quite an authentic one historically. In _The\nRecords of the Transmission of the Lamp_,[4.4] written in 1004, which\nis the earliest Zen history now extant, the author does not record\nany particular event in the life of the Buddha regarding the Zen\ntransmission. As all the earlier histories of Zen are lost, we have at\npresent no means to ascertain how early the Zen tradition started in\nChina. Probably it began to be talked about among the Zen followers\nwhen their religion had been well established in China late in the\neighth century.\n\nIn those days there must have been some necessity to invent such\na legend for the authorisation of Zen Buddhism; for as Zen grew\nin strength the other schools of Buddhism already in existence\ngrew jealous of its popular influence and attacked it as having no\nauthorised records of its direct transmission from the founder of\nBuddhism, which was claimed by the devotees of Zen. This was the case\nespecially when the latter made so light of the doctrinal teaching\ndiscussed in the Sutras and \u015aastras, as they thought that the ultimate\nauthority of Zen issued out of their own direct personal experience.\nIn this latter they were quite insistent; but they were not, nor\ncould they be, so critical and independent as to ignore altogether\nthe authority of historical Buddhism, and they wanted somehow to find\nthe record that the Buddha handed Zen over to Mah\u0101k\u0101\u015byapa and from\nMah\u0101k\u0101\u015byapa on to the twenty-eighth patriarch, Bodhi-Dharma, who became\nthe first patriarch of Zen in China. A line of twenty-eight Indian\npatriarchs thus came to be established by Zen historians, while,\naccording to other schools, there were only twenty-three or twenty-four\npatriarchs after the founder. When the historians had the need for\nthe special transmission of Zen from the Buddha to Mah\u0101k\u0101\u015byapa, they\nfelt it necessary to fill up the gap between the twenty-third or\ntwenty-fourth patriarch and Bodhi-Dharma himself, who according\nto them was the twenty-eighth. From the modern critical point of view,\nit did not matter very much whether Zen originated with Bodhi-Dharma\nin China or with the Buddha in India, inasmuch as Zen is true and has\nan enduring value. And again from the historian\u2019s point of view which\ntries scientifically to ascertain the source of development resulting\nin Zen Buddhism, it is only important to find a logical connection\nbetween the Mahayana Doctrine of Enlightenment in India and its\npractical application by the Chinese to the actualities of life; and\nas to any special line of transmission in India before Bodhi-Dharma\nas was established by the Zen devotees, it is not a matter of much\nconcern nor of great importance. But as soon as Zen is formulated\ninto an independent system, not only with its characteristic features\nbut with its historically ascertainable facts, it will be necessary\nfor the historians to trace its line of transmission complete and\nnot interrupted; for in Zen, as we shall see later, it is of the\nutmost importance for its followers to be duly certified or approved\n(_abbhanumodana_) by the master as to the genuineness or orthodox\ncharacter of their realisation. Therefore, as long as Zen is the\nproduct of the Chinese soil from the Indian seed of Enlightenment as I\ntake it, no special line of transmission need be established in India\nunless it is in a general logical manner such as was attempted in my\nprevious Essays.\n\nThe twenty-eight patriarchs of Zen regarded by its followers as the\northodox line of transmission are as follows:\n\n  1.  \u015a\u0101kyamuni.      12. A\u015bvaghosha.\n  2.  Mah\u0101k\u0101\u015byapa.    13. Bhikshu Kapimala.\n  3.  \u0100nanda.         14. N\u0101g\u0101rjuna.\n  4.  \u015aa\u1e47av\u0101sa.       15. K\u0101\u1e47adeva.\n  5.  Upagupta.       16. \u0100rya R\u0101hulata.\n  6.  Dh\u1e5bitaka.       17. Sa\u1e41ghanandi.\n  7.  Micchaka.       18. Sa\u1e41ghaya\u015bas.\n  8.  Buddhanandi.    19. Kum\u0101rata.\n  9.  Buddhamitra.    20. Jayata.\n  10. Bhikshu Par\u015bva. 21. Vasubandhu.\n  11. Pu\u1e47yaya\u015bas.     22. Manura.\n  23. Haklenaya\u015bas.   26. Pu\u1e47yamitra.\n  24. Bhikshu Si\u1e41ha.  27. Praj\u00f1\u0101tara.\n  25. V\u0101\u015basita.       28. Bodhi-Dharma.\n\nTo be consistent with the view that Zen was a \u201cspecial transmission\nfrom the Buddha outside of his doctrinal teaching,\u201d Zen historians\nhave extended this transmission even beyond \u015a\u0101kyamuni; for, according\nto tradition prevalent already among primitive Buddhists, there were\nat least six Buddhas prior to the Buddha of the present kalpa who was\nthe Muni of the \u015a\u0101kyas; and these several Buddhas had each to leave\na g\u0101th\u0101 of \u201cDharma transmission\u201d which is systematically preserved\nin Zen history. Now if the six Buddhas of the past had their g\u0101th\u0101s,\nwhy not those patriarchs between \u015a\u0101kyamuni and Bodhi-Dharma, all\ninclusively? Or, if any one of them had at all any kind of g\u0101th\u0101, why\nnot the rest of them too? So, they have all bequeathed their g\u0101th\u0101s of\ntransmission regularly prefaced with the words: \u201cI now hand over to you\nthe eye-treasure of the Great Law, which you will guard and ever be\nmindful of.\u201d No doubt they are fictitious productions of the historical\nimagination which was so highly exercised by the early writers of Zen\nhistory, evidently inspired by an extraordinary zeal for their orthodox\nfaith.\n\nThe translators of these patriarchal verses are, according\nto the author of the _Records of the Right Transmission_,\nChih-chiang-liang-lou,[4.5] of the First Wei dynasty, and\nNa-lien-ya-sh\u00ea,[4.6] of the Eastern Wei; the former came from Middle\nIndia and the latter from Kabul. Their book known as the _Account\nof Succession in the Law_[4.7] disappeared after the repeated\npersecutions carried out by the reigning dynasties, but the stories of\nthese patriarchs were quoted at least in the two books, the _Pao-lin\nCh\u2018uan_[4.8] and the _Sh\u00eang-chou Chi_,[4.9] both compiled prior to the\n_Transmission of the Lamp_, in which they are referred to. But they\ntoo were lost some time after Kaisu (Ch\u2018i-sung) in the Sung dynasty.\nTherefore at present the _Transmission of the Lamp_ is the earliest\nhistory of Zen where the twenty-eight patriarchs and their verses of\nlaw-transmission are recorded in detail.\n\nTo quote as samples two of the six Buddhas\u2019 g\u0101th\u0101s, the first\nBuddha Vipa\u015byi declares:\n\n  \u201cThis body from within the Formless is born,\n   It is like through magic that all forms and images appear:\n   Phantom beings with mentality and consciousness have no reality from\n     the very beginning;\n   Both evil and happiness are void, have no abodes.\u201d[4.10]\n\nThe g\u0101th\u0101 of the sixth Buddha, K\u0101\u015byapa, who just preceded the Muni of\nthe \u015a\u0101kyas, runs thus:\n\n  \u201cPure and immaculate is the nature of all sentient beings;\n   From the very beginning there is no birth, no death;\n   This body, this mind\u2014a phantom creation it is;\n   And in phantom transformation there are neither sins nor\n     merits.[4.11]\n\nWhen the Buddha belonging to the present age ordered Mah\u0101k\u0101\u015byapa to\nbe the orthodox transmitter of the Good Law, he uttered the following\nverse:\n\n  \u201cThe Dharma is ultimately a dharma which is no-dharma;\n   A dharma which is no-dharma is also a dharma:\n   As I now hand this no-dharma over to thee,\n   What we call the Dharma, the Dharma\u2014where after all is the\n     Dharma?\u201d[f78][4.12]\n\nThe sixth patriarch Dh\u1e5btaka has:\n\n  \u201cPenetrate into the ultimate truth of mind,\n   And we have neither things nor no-things;\n   Enlightened and not-enlightened\u2014they are the same;\n   Neither mind nor thing there is.\u201d[4.13]\n\nThe twenty-second patriarch, Manura, gave his view thus:\n\n  \u201cThe mind moveth with the ten thousand things:\n   Even when moving, it is serene.\n   Perceive its essence as it moveth on,\n   And neither joy nor sorrow there is.\u201d[4.14]\n\nIn these g\u0101th\u0101s we notice the teaching generally characteristic of\nMahayana Buddhism as it prevailed in India. As I said before, as far\nas the doctrinal side of Buddhism was concerned, Zen had nothing\nparticularly to offer as its own; for its _raison d\u2019\u00eatre_ consists\nin its being a spiritual experience and not in its being a special\nsystem of philosophy or of certain dogmas conceptually synthesised. We\nhave Zen only when the Mahayana Buddhist speculation is reduced\nto the actual things of life and becomes the direct expression of\none\u2019s inner life. And this did not come to pass until Buddhism was\ntransplanted into China and made there to grow nourished by a people\nwhose practical turn of mentality refused to swallow the Indian\ntradition undigested. The form of thought as adopted in the so-called\npatriarchal verses did not appeal to the Chinese mind. When they got\ninto the thought itself, they wished to express it in their own way,\nthey wished to live the thought as was natural to them, and not to\nhoard it as something imported from abroad and not inherently belonging\nto their psychology.\n\nWhen Bodhi-Dharma gave his full sanction to his disciples, he is\nsupposed to have composed the following g\u0101th\u0101:\n\n  \u201cThe original reason of my coming to this country\n   Was to transmit the Law in order to save the confused:\n   One flower with five petals is unfolded,\n   And the bearing of fruit will by itself come.\u201d[4.15]\n\nBy this \u201cbearing of fruit\u201d did Dharma prophesy the full development of\nZen later in China? The \u201cfive petals\u201d are supposed to mean the five\nZen Fathers in China after Dharma when Zen came to be recognised as a\nbranch of Buddhism with a message of its own. Whether this g\u0101th\u0101 was\nreally a prophetic one by Dharma himself, or whether it was composed\nby some Zen historian after the sixth patriarch Hui-n\u00eang (Yeno), we\nhave no means to decide. The one thing is certain historically that\nDharma\u2019s teaching began to be naturalised in China about two hundred\nyears after him and assimilated by her people in a manner best suited\nto their mental idiosyncracies. Zen in the form we have it to-day could\nnot mature anywhere outside China. India was too metaphysical, or\ntoo given up to mystic imagination. It was the home for the Yuishiki\n(Yog\u0101c\u0101ra), the Shingon (Mantra school), the Kegon (Avata\u1e41saka), or\nthe Sanron (\u015a\u016bnyat\u0101 or M\u0101dhyamika). As for Zen, it needed a mind which\nhad already been deeply steeped in the Laotz\u016dan ideas and feelings and\nyet could not detach itself from the details of daily life. Aloofness,\nromanticism, a certain practical temperament, and yet an even, steady,\nwell-balanced character\u2014these were needed to develop Zen to its\npresent form. That is to say, if Mahayana Buddhism as was expounded by\nN\u0101g\u0101rjuna and A\u015bvaghosha, and in the _Vimalak\u012brti_, _Praj\u00f1\u0101p\u0101ramit\u0101_,\nand other Sutras, especially in the _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_, were not worked\nupon by Chinese genius, Zen as such could not at all have come into\nexistence.\n\nIt may not altogether be out of place here to show by concrete examples\nhow much the Indian method diverges from the typically Chinese one\nin demonstrating the truth of Zen Buddhism. As I have repeatedly\nillustrated, Buddhism, whether primitive or developed, is a religion\nof freedom and emancipation, and the ultimate aim of its discipline\nis to release the spirit from its possible bondage so that it can act\nfreely in accordance with its own principles. This is what is meant by\nnon-attachment (_apratish\u1e6dita-cittam_). The idea is negative inasmuch\nas it is concerned with untying the knots of the intellect and passion,\nbut the feeling implied is positive, and the final object is attained\nonly when the spirit is restored to its original activity. The spirit\nknows its own way, and what we can do is to rid it of all the obstacles\nour ignorance has piled before it. \u201cThrow them down,\u201d is therefore the\nrecurring note in the Buddhist teaching. The Indian Buddhist way of\nimpressing the idea is this: A Brahman named Black-nails came to the\nBuddha and offered him two huge flowering trees which he carried each\nin one of his hands through his magical power. The Buddha called out,\nand when the Brahman responded the Buddha said, \u201cThrow them down!\u201d\nThe Brahman let down the flowering tree in his left hand before the\nBuddha. The latter called out again to let them go, whereupon\nBlack-nails dropped the other flowering tree in the right hand. The\nBuddha still kept up his command. Said the Brahman, \u201cI have nothing now\nto let go. What do you want me to do?\u201d \u201cI never told you to abandon\nyour flowering plants,\u201d said the Buddha, \u201cwhat I want you to do is to\nabandon your six objects of sense, your six organs of sense, and your\nsix consciousnesses. When these are all at once abandoned and there\nremains nothing further to be abandoned, it is then that you are\nreleased from the bondage of birth-and-death.\u201d\n\nIn contrast to this plain though somewhat round-about talk of the\nBuddha, the following case of J\u014dshu (Chao-chou)[f79][4.16] is direct\nand concise and disposes of the matter in a most unequivocal manner.\nA monk came and asked the master,[4.17] \u201cHow is it when a man brings\nnothing with him?\u201d \u201cThrow it away!\u201d was J\u014dshu\u2019s immediate response.\n\u201cWhat shall he throw down when he is not burdened at all?\u201d \u201cIf so,\ncarry it along!\u201d The Zen masters delight in paradoxes, and J\u014dshu\u2019s\nremark here is a typical one.\n\nThe problem of emancipation is important, but the still more important\none is, \u201cWho or what is the Buddha?\u201d When this is mastered, Buddhism\nhas rendered its full service. What did the Indian philosophers think\nof the Buddha? There was an old lady who lived at the time of the\nBuddha. She was born at the same time as the Buddha himself and lived\nin the eastern part of the city. She had a singular aversion against\nthe Buddha and never wished to see him. Whenever he passed by she would\nrun away. But whichever way she turned she would encounter him, east or\nwest. She covered her face with her hands, and lo! she saw the Buddha\nbetween her fingers. This is beautiful and illuminating. What follows\nis the Zen way of treating the subject: A monk came to Ch\u2018i-an who was\none of the disciples of Ma-tsu,[4.18] and asked: \u201cWhat is the original\nbody of Vairochana?\u201d Said the master, \u201cWould you mind passing that\nwater-pitcher over to me?\u201d The monk handed it to the master as asked.\nThen the master requested him to put it back where he got it. The monk\ndid so. But not getting any answer as he thought to his first question,\nhe asked again, \u201cWhat is the original body of Vairochana Buddha?\u201d The\nmaster expressed his regret, saying, \u201cLong it is since the departure of\nthe old Buddha!\u201d These two instances will suffice to illustrate where\nthe Chinese Zen mind deviates from the Indian.\n\n\n                                  II\n\nThe history of Zen dates with the coming of Bodhi-Dharma\n(Bodai-Daruma)[4.19] from the west, 520 A.D. He came to China with a\nspecial message which is summed up in the following lines:\n\n  \u201cA special transmission outside the scriptures;\n   No dependence upon words and letters;\n   Direct pointing at the soul of man;\n   Seeing into one\u2019s nature and the attainment of Buddhahood.\u201d\n\nThese four lines as describing the principles of Zen teaching as\ndistinguished from other schools of Buddhism already in existence\nin China were formulated later and not by Dharma himself. We cannot\nexactly tell who was the real author, as we have no definite\ninformation on this subject. One historian, Tsung-chien,[4.20] who\ncompiled from the T\u2018ien-tai point of view a Buddhist history entitled\n_The Rightful Lineage of the \u015a\u0101kya Doctrine_ in 1237, ascribes it\nto Nansen Fu-gwan[4.21]; probably the formula originated in those\ndays when Baso (Ma-tsu), Hyakjo (Pai-chang), Obaku (Huang-po), Sekito\n(Shih-tou) and Yakusan (Y\u00fceh-shan)[4.22] were flourishing in the \u201cWest\nof the River\u201d and in the \u201cSouth of the Lake.\u201d Since then they have been\nregarded as characteristically Zen, and it was Dharma that breathed\nthis spirit into the minds of the Chinese Buddhists. The latter had\nmore or less been given up, on the one hand, to philosophising, and, on\nthe other hand, to practising contemplation. They were not acquainted\nwith the direct method of Zen which was to see straightway into the\ntruth of Enlightenment and attain Buddhahood without going through so\nmany stages of preparation prescribed by the scholars.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nOur knowledge of the life of Bodhi-Dharma comes from two sources, the\none which the earliest record we have of him is by Tao-hs\u00fcan[4.23]\nin his _Biographies of the High Priests_ which was compiled early in\nthe T\u2018ang dynasty, A.D. 645. The author was the founder of a Vinaya\nsect in China and a learned scholar, who however was living before the\nmovement of the new school to be known as Zen came into maturity\nunder Hui-n\u00eang, the sixth patriarch, who was nine years old when\nTao-hs\u00fcan wrote his _Biographies_. The other source is the _Records of\nthe Transmission of the Lamp_, A.D. 1004, compiled by Tao-y\u00fcan[4.24]\nearly in the Sung dynasty. This was written by a Zen monk after Zen had\nreceived full recognition as a special branch of Buddhism, and contains\nsayings and doings of its masters. The author often refers to some\nearlier Zen histories as his authorities which are however lost now\nbeing known by the titles only.\n\nIt is quite natural that these two accounts of the life of Bodhi-Dharma\nshould vary at several points. The first was written when Zen was\nnot yet fully established as a school, and the second by one of the\nZen masters. In the first, Dharma, the founder of Zen, is treated as\none of the many other Buddhist priests eminent in various fields as\ntranslators, commentators, scholars, Vinaya-followers, masters of\nmeditation, possessors of miraculous virtues, etc., and Dharma could\nnot naturally occupy in such a history any very prominent position\ndistinguishing himself from the other \u201chigh priests.\u201d He is described\nmerely as one of those \u201cmasters of meditation\u201d whose conception of\ndhyana did not differ from the old traditional one as was practised by\nthe Hinayana followers. Tao-hs\u00fcan did not understand the message of\nDharma in its full signification, though he could read in it something\nnot quite of the so-called \u201cpractice of meditation.\u201d And therefore\nit is sometimes argued by scholars that there is not much of Zen in\nTao-hs\u00fcan\u2019s account of Dharma worthy of its first Chinese promulgator\nand that therefore Dharma could not be so regarded as is claimed by the\nfollowers of the Zen school of Buddhism. But this is not doing justice\nto Zen, nor to Tao-hs\u00fcan who never thought of writing a Zen history\nbefore Zen came to be known as such. Tao-hs\u00fcan could not be a prophetic\nhistorian. While the biographical history of Tao-y\u00fcan contains much\nthat is to be discredited as regards the life of Bodhi-Dharma,\nespecially as regards that part of his life before he came to China,\nwe have reason to believe that the greater part of Tao-y\u00fcan\u2019s account\nof Dharma\u2019s doings after his arrival in China is historical. In\nthis latter respect, Tao-hs\u00fcan must be taken as complementing Tao-y\u00fcan.\nIt is not quite in accord with the spirit of fair critical judgment to\nbe partial to one authority at the expense of the other without duly\nweighing all the historically known circumstances that contributed to\nthe making of these histories.\n\nAccording to Tao-hs\u00fcan, Bodhi-Dharma left many writings or sayings\nwhich were apparently still in circulation at the time of the author\nof the _Biographies of the High Priests_, but the only authentic\nwriting of the Zen founder\u2019s at present in our possession is a very\nshort one which is preserved in Tao-hs\u00fcan\u2019s _Biographies_ as well\nas in Tao-y\u00fcan\u2019s Records. There are some other essays ascribed to\nDharma,[f80] but most of which, though deeply imbibing the spirit\nof Zen, are spurious except one which I am inclined to think to be\ngenuinely his. It is entitled \u201cOn the Pacification of the Soul.\u201d[4.26]\nTogether with the first one which is generally known under the title,\n\u201cMeditation on Four Acts,\u201d[4.27] we have just two pieces of writings\nhanded down as Dharma\u2019s. Though I do not think that \u201cThe Meditation\non Four Acts\u201d could be the best possible specimen of writing to be\nbequeathed by the founder of Zen, which will admit us straightway into\nthe very essence of Zen, I will give here an English translation of it\nas the most reliable essay of Bodhi-Dharma, the first patriarch of Zen\nin China.\n\nThere are two versions as I said before of this writing, the one in the\n_Biographies_ and the other in the _Records_, and they do not quite\nagree with each other in some points. The main drift is the same, but\nin detail they vary. The question now is, which is the more original\none? Chronologically, the _Biographies_ were compiled earlier than\nthe _Records_, but the latter presupposes some earlier writings which\nwere utilised for its compilation. We have no means to ascertain the\nreliability of the documents thus made use of, and then the authority\nof the _Biographies_ is not absolute. Therefore, the only profitable\nmethod of judging the respective merit of the two versions is to\ncompare them from the literary point of view and see what light such\ncomparison will shed on the nature of each. The result I have reached\nis that the author of the _Biographies_ used the one preserved in the\n_Records_, which is more faithful to the original if there were any\nsuch besides this very version. The reason for this conclusion is that\nDharma\u2019s writing appears much improved after the editing of Tao-hs\u00fcan,\nthe author of the _Biographies_; for he had to edit it for his own\npurposes. Thus edited,[f81][4.28] Dharma\u2019s writing is now in a better\nstyle, that is, more concise, more to the point, and more refined. For\nthis reason the following translation[4.29] is made from Tao-y\u00fcan\u2019s\n_Records_ in which the author had every reason to reproduce the\noriginal as it stood.\n\n\u201c[Bodhi-Dharma], the Teacher of the Law, was the third son of a great\nBrahman king in South India, of the Western Lands. He was a man\nof wonderful intelligence, bright and far-reaching; he thoroughly\nunderstood everything that he ever learned. As his ambition was to\nmaster the doctrine of the Mahayana, he abandoned the white dress of a\nlayman and put on the black robe of monkhood, wishing to cultivate the\nseeds of holiness. He practised contemplation and tranquillisation, he\nknew well what was the true significance of worldly affairs. Inside and\noutside, he was transpicuous; his virtues were more than a model to\nthe world. He was grieved very much over the decline of the orthodox\nteaching of the Buddha in the remoter parts of the earth. He finally\nmade up his mind to cross over land and sea and come to China and\npreach his doctrine in the kingdom of Wei. Those that were spiritually\ninclined gathered about him full of devotion, while those that could\nnot rise above their own one-sided views talked about him slanderingly.\n\n\u201cAt the time there were only two monks called Tao-yih and Hui-k\u2018\u00ea,\nwho while yet young had a strong will and desire to learn higher\nthings. Thinking it a great opportunity of their lives to have such a\nteacher of the Law in their own land, they put themselves under his\ninstruction for several years. Most reverently they followed\nhim, asked questions to be enlightened, and observed his directions\nwell. The Teacher of the Law was moved by their spirit of sincerity\nand disciplined them in the true path, telling them, \u2018This is the\nway to obtain peace of mind,\u2019 and \u2018This is the way to behave in the\nworld,\u2019 \u2018This is the way to live harmoniously with your surroundings,\u2019\nand \u2018This is the up\u0101ya (means).\u2019 These being the Mahayana ways to\nkeep the mind tranquil, one has to be on guard against their wrongful\napplications. By this mental pacification _Pi-kuan_[f82] is meant;\nby this behaviour, the Four Acts; by this harmony with things, the\nprotection from slander and ill-disposition; and by this Up\u0101ya,\ndetachment.\n\n\u201cThus I[f83] have briefly stated the story of what follows.\n\n\u201cThere are many ways to enter the Path, but briefly speaking they\nare of two sorts only. The one is \u2018Entrance by Reason\u2019 and the other\n\u2018Entrance by Conduct.\u2019 By \u2018Entrance by Reason\u2019 we mean the realisation\nof the spirit of Buddhism by the aid of the scriptural teaching. We\nthen come to have a deep faith in the True Nature which is one and the\nsame in all sentient beings. The reason why it does not manifest itself\nis due to the overwrapping of external objects and false thoughts. When\none, abandoning the false and embracing the true, and in simpleness\nof thought abides in _Pi-kuan_ \u58c1\u89c0, one finds that there is neither\nselfhood nor otherness, that the masses and the worthies are of one\nessence, and firmly holds on to this belief and never moves away\ntherefrom. He will not then be guided by any literary instructions,\nfor he is in silent communion with the principle itself, free from\nconceptual discrimination, for he is serene and not-acting. This\nis called \u2018Entrance by Reason.\u2019\n\n\u201cBy \u2018Entrance by Conduct\u2019 is meant the Four Acts in which all other\nacts are included. What are the four? 1. How to requite hatred; 2. To\nbe obedient to karma; 3. Not to seek after anything; and 4. To be in\naccord with the Dharma.\n\n\u201c1. What is meant by \u2018How to requite hatred\u2019? Those who discipline\nthemselves in the Path should think thus when they have to struggle\nwith adverse conditions: During the innumerable past ages I have\nwandered through multiplicity of existences, all the while giving\nmyself to unimportant details of life at the expense of essentials, and\nthus creating infinite occasions for hate, ill-will, and wrong-doing.\nWhile no violations have been committed in this life, the fruits of\nevil deeds in the past are to be gathered now. Neither gods nor men\ncan foretell what is coming upon me. I will submit myself willingly\nand patiently to all the ills that befall me, and I will never bemoan\nor complain. In the Sutra it is said not to worry over ills that may\nhappen to you. Why? Because through intelligence one can survey [the\nwhole chain of causation]. When this thought arises, one is in concord\nwith the principle because he makes the best use of hatred and turns it\ninto the service in his advance towards the Path. This is called the\n\u2018way to requite hatred.\u2019\n\n\u201c2. By \u2018being obedient to karma\u2019 is meant this: There is no self\n(_\u0101tman_) in whatever beings that are produced by the interplay of\nkarmaic conditions; pain and pleasure we suffer are also the results of\nour previous action. If I am rewarded with fortune, honour, etc., this\nis the outcome of my past deeds which by reason of causation affect\nmy present life. When the force of karma is exhausted, the result I\nam enjoying now will disappear; what is then the use of being joyful\nover it? Gain or loss, let us accept karma as it brings us the one or\nthe other, the spirit itself knows neither increase nor decrease. The\nwind of gladness does not move it as it is silently in harmony with the\nPath. Therefore this is called \u2018being obedient to karma.\u2019\n\n\u201c3. By \u2018not seeking after anything\u2019 is meant this: Men of the\nworld, in eternal confusion, are attached everywhere to one thing or\nanother, which is called seeking. The wise however understand the\ntruth and are not like the vulgar. Their minds abide serenely in the\nuncreated while the body turns about in accordance with the laws of\ncausation. All things are empty and there is nothing desirable and\nto be sought after. Wherever there is the merit of brightness there\nfollows the demerit of darkness. This triple world where one stays\ntoo long is like a house on fire; all that has a body suffers, and\nwho would ever know what is rest? Because the wise are thoroughly\nacquainted with this truth, they get never attached to anything that\nbecomes, their thoughts are quieted, they never seek. Says the Sutra:\nWherever there is seeking, there you have sufferings; when seeking\nceases, you are blessed. Thus we know that not to seek is verily\nthe way to the truth. Therefore I preach to you not \u2018to seek after\nanything.\u2019\n\n\u201c4. By \u2018being in accord with the Dharma\u2019 is meant that the reason in\nits essence is pure which we call the Dharma, and that this reason is\nthe principle of emptiness in all that is manifested, as it is above\ndefilements and attachments, and as there is no Self or Other in it.\nSays the Sutra: In the Dharma there are no sentient beings, because\nit is free from the stains of being; in the Dharma there is no Self\nbecause it is free from the stain of selfhood. When the wise understand\nthis truth and believe in it, their conduct will be \u2018in accordance with\nthe Dharma.\u2019\n\n\u201cAs the Dharma in essence has no desire to possess, the wise are ever\nready to practise charity with their body, life, property, and they\nnever begrudge, they never know what an ill grace means. As they have\na perfect understanding of the threefold nature of emptiness, they are\nabove partiality and attachment. Only because of their will to cleanse\nall beings of their stains, they come among them as of them, but they\nare not attached to the form. This is known as the inner aspect of\ntheir life. They however know also how to benefit others, and again how\nto glorify the path of enlightenment. As with the virtue of charity,\nso with the other five virtues [in the Praj\u00f1\u0101p\u0101ramit\u0101]. That the\nwise practise the six virtues of perfection is to get rid of confused\nthoughts, and yet they are not conscious of their doings. This is\ncalled \u2018being in accord with the Dharma.\u2019\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe doctrine of the Two Entrances is evidently taken from the\n_Vajrasam\u0101dhi-s\u016btra_[f84]; and that of the Four Acts is an\namplification of the second form of Entrance as is expounded in the\nSutra. A comparison with the passage[4.29a] from it will make this\npoint clear at once:\n\n\u201cSaid the Buddha: The two entrances are \u2018Entrance by Reason\u2019 and\n\u2018Entrance by Conduct.\u2019 \u2018Entrance by Reason\u2019 means to have a deep faith\nin that all sentient beings are identical in essence with the true\nnature which is neither unity nor multiplicity; only it is beclouded\nby external objects. The nature in itself neither departs nor comes.\nWhen a man in singleness of thought abides in _ch\u00fceh-kuan_ \u89ba\u89c0, he will\nclearly see into the Buddha-nature, of which we cannot say whether\nit exists or exists not, and in which there is neither selfhood nor\notherness. He will also find that the nature is the same both in\nthe masses and in the worthies. He thus firmly holds the ground of\nthe diamond-heart and never moves away therefrom; he is serene and\nnot-doing, and free from conceptual discrimination. This is called\n\u2018Entrance by Reason.\u2019\n\n\u201c\u2018Entrance by Conduct\u2019 means not to be unsteady and reclining in mind\nand not to be in its shadows changing like a stream. Wherever you\nare, let your thought be serene and not to be seeking after anything.\nLet it be like unto the great earth unmoved even in a raging storm.\nGiving up all thoughts of egoism in your heart, save all beings and\nlet them cross over to the other shore. There are no births, no signs,\nno clinging, no abandoning; in the mind of a Bodhisattva, there is no\ngoing-out, no coming-in. When this mind which neither goes out nor\ncomes in enters into that which is never entered into, it is called\nentering. This is the way the Bodhisattva enters into the Dharma. The\nDharma is not empty in form, and the Dharma of non-emptiness\nis not to be put aside as non-entity. Why? The Dharma that is not\nnon-entity is filled with virtues. It is neither mind nor shadows, it\nis pure in its suchness.\u201d\n\nIn comparing these two texts the reader will be impressed with the\nmost important and most striking change Bodhi-Dharma made in his\nquotation, which is the substituting of _pi-kuan_ for _ch\u00fceh-kuan_.\n_Pi_ ordinarily means \u201cwall\u201d or \u201cprecipice,\u201d and is often found in\ncombination with _li_, \u201cstanding,\u201d in such phrases as _pi li wan j\u00ean_\n\u58c1\u7acb\u842c\u4ede, to describe an unscalable wall, or figuratively to represent\nthe attitude, for instance, of Acala-Vidy\u0101r\u0101ja standing straight up.\nWhat was the reason of Dharma\u2019s changing _ch\u00fceh_, \u201cto awaken,\u201d or \u201cto\nbe enlightened\u201d into a word which apparently has no organic relation\nto the following _kuan_, \u201cto perceive,\u201d or \u201cto contemplate\u201d? The\nnovel combination is a very important one, for it alters the sense of\nthe whole context in which it occurs. Tao-hs\u00fcan, the author of the\n_Biographies_, refers to Dharma\u2019s _tai ch\u2018\u00eang pi kuan_, Mahayanistic\nwall-contemplation, in his commentary notes to Zen, as the most\nmeritorious work Dharma achieved in China.[f85] For this reason he is\noften spoken of as the _pi-kuan_ Brahman, that is, wall-contemplating\nBrahman, and in Japan the monks belonging to the Soto school of Zen\nare supposed to follow the example of the founder of their religion\nwhen they keep up the practice of sitting facing the wall while\nmeditating. But this is evidently a superficial interpretation of the\nphrase _pi-kuan_; for how could mere wall-gazing start a revolutionary\nmovement in the Buddhist world as is implied in Tao-hs\u00fcan\u2019s life of\nDharma?[f86] How could such an innocent practise provoke a terrible\nopposition among scholars of those days? To my view, _pi-kuan_ has\na far deeper meaning, and must be understood in the light of the\nfollowing passage in the _Records_, which is quoted from a work\nknown as the _Pieh Chi_[4.30] meaning some special document of prior\nexistence:\n\n\u201cThe master first stayed in the Sh\u014drinji (Shao-lin-sz\u016d) monastery for\nnine years, and when he taught the second patriarch, it was only in the\nfollowing way: \u2018Externally keep yourself away from all relationships,\nand, internally, have no pantings (or hankerings, \u5598 _ch\u2018uan_) in your\nheart;[f87] when your mind is like unto a straight-standing wall you\nmay enter into the Path.\u2019 Hui-k\u2018\u00ea tried variously to explain [or to\ndiscourse on] the reason of mind, but failed to realise the truth\nitself. The master simply said, \u2018No! No!\u2019 and never proposed to explain\nto his disciple what was the mind-essence in its thought-less state,\n[that is, in its pure being]. [Later] said Hui-k\u2018\u00ea, \u2018I know now how\nto keep myself away from all relationships.\u2019 \u2018You make it a total\nannihilation, do you not?\u2019 queried the master. \u2018No, master,\u2019 replied\nHui-k\u2018\u00ea, \u2018I do not make it a total annihilation.\u2019 \u2018How do you testify\nyour statement?\u2019 \u2018For I know it always in a most intelligible manner,\nbut to express it in words\u2014that is impossible.\u2019 Thereupon, said the\nmaster, \u2018That is the mind-essence itself transmitted by all the\nBuddhas. Harbour no doubts about it.\u2019\u201d\n\nIn fact, this passage sums up the special message contained in\nDharma\u2019s teaching, and in it we may get an adequate answer as to the\nexact meaning of _pi-kuan_. The term must have been a novel one in\nhis day, and the originality of his views really lay in the creative\nsense of the one word \u201c_pi_\u201d It was so concrete, so graphic, and\nthere was nothing abstract and conceptual about it. Hence Tao-hs\u00fcan\u2019s\nspecial reference to Dharma\u2019s teaching as the _Tai-ch\u00eang pi-kuan_.\n(Mahayanistic wall-contemplation). While there was nothing\nspecifically Zen in his doctrine of \u201cTwo Entrances and Four Acts,\u201d the\nteaching of _Pi-kuan_, wall-contemplation, was what made Bodhi-Dharma\nthe first patriarch of Zen Buddhism in China.\n\nThe author of the _Rightful Transmission of the \u015a\u0101kya Doctrine_\ninterprets _pi-kwan_ as meaning the state of mind where \u201cno external\ndusts get in.\u201d[4.31] This may be all right, but we are not told\nwhere he finds the authority for this way of understanding. Had\nhe in mind Dharma\u2019s remark to Hui-k\u2018\u00ea as recorded in the document\nknown as _Pieh-chi_? In any event the underlying meaning of the\n\u201cwall-contemplation\u201d must be found in the subjective condition of a Zen\nmaster, which is highly concentrated and rigidly exclusive of all ideas\nand sensuous images. To understand the phrase, \u201c_pi-kwan_\u201d as simply\nmeaning \u201cwall-gazing\u201d will be sheer absurdity. If the specific message\nof Dharma as the founder of Zen in China is to be sought anywhere in\nthe writings of his, which are still in existence, it must be in this\n\u201cMahayanistic wall-contemplation.\u201d\n\nBesides this writing which is the only one left by Dharma in\nour possession at present, we have the _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra-s\u016btra_,\n_Vajrasam\u0101dhi-s\u016btra_, and _Vajracchedik\u0101-s\u016btra_, through which we can\nalso have a glimpse into the central teaching of Bodhi-Dharma. Zen,\nunlike other schools of Buddhism, has no particular Sutras to be called\nthe \u201cfoundation canon\u201d on which its followers would base the principal\ntenets of their school; but Dharma recommended the _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_ to\nhis first disciple Hui-k\u2018\u00ea (Yeka), as containing the teaching most\nintimately related to Zen, and after him this scriptural writing came\nto be studied chiefly by Zen scholars.[f88] As to the importance of\nthe _Vajrasam\u0101dhi_ as expounding the philosophy of Zen, we can easily\nunderstand it from Dharma\u2019s own reference to the Sutra in his writing\nas was already pointed out. With regard to the _Vajracchedik\u0101-s\u016btra_,\nmost people think of it as having nothing to do with Zen prior to the\nfifth patriarch, Hung-j\u00ean (Gunin); for it was he who for the first\ntime introduced it among his own disciples, while Dharma himself\nmade no allusion whatever to this, one of the most popular\nBuddhist texts in China. But according to Hui-n\u00eang\u2019s Preface to the\n_Vajracchedik\u0101_, which is still preserved, \u201cever since the coming-west\nof Dharma he wanted to propagate the meaning of this Sutra and lead\npeople to understand the Reason and to see into the Nature.\u201d If this\nwere actually the case, Dharma, to say the least, must have had some\nknowledge of this Sutra from the very beginning of his career in China,\nand the connection in a way between this and Zen must have been more\nfundamental than that between the _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_ and Zen. The prevalent\nnotion then that the _Vajracchedik\u0101_ came only in vogue after Hung-j\u00ean\nand Hui-n\u00eang must be revised. Whatever this may be, the _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_\nis too difficult a material for popular consumption, and it was natural\nthat this Sutra came to be gradually superseded by the _Vajracchedik\u0101_\nas Zen gained more and more in power and influence. As one of the\nSutras belonging to the Praj\u00f1\u0101p\u0101ramit\u0101 class of Buddhist literature,\nthe teaching of the _Vajracchedik\u0101_ was comparatively simple and had\nsomething much akin to the Laotz\u016dan ideas of emptiness and non-doing.\nIt was not hard for the average Chinese to follow its philosophy of\n\u015a\u016bnyat\u0101, in fact this agreed well with a certain aspect of Chinese\nthought.[f89]\n\nHowever, with Zen followers all literature was like a finger pointing\nat the moon, and there was not much in itself that will actually lead\none to the seeing of one\u2019s own inner nature; for this seeing was a\nrealisation which must be attained by one\u2019s own personal efforts apart\nfrom the mere understanding of letters. All Buddhist Sutras including\nthe _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_, _Vajrasam\u0101dhi_, and _Vajracchedik\u0101_ could not\nbe of much help to the real earnest seekers of the truth, so long as\nhis idea is to grasp the naked facts with his own ungloved hands. This\nwas possible only when his own inner consciousness opened by itself,\nfrom within, through his whole-souled efforts. Literature is helpful\nonly when it indicates the way, it is not the thing itself.\n\nThe earlier part of Bodhi-Dharma\u2019s life while in India as is narrated\nin the _Records_ may be discredited as containing a large dose of\nfiction, but the latter part of it cannot so easily be disposed of.\nThis is where it supplements the story in Tao-hs\u00fcan\u2019s _Biographies_,\nwhich was written by a good historian but by one who did not know\nanything about the future development of Zen. According to the\n_Records_ then, the first great personage Dharma had an interview with\nwhen he came to China was the king of Liang, the greatest Buddhist\npatron of the time. And the interview took place in the following\nmanner:\n\nThe Emperor Wu of Liang asked Dharma:\n\n\u201cEver since the beginning of my reign I have built so many temples,\ncopied so many sacred books, and supported so many monks; what do you\nthink my merit might be?\u201d\n\n\u201cNo merit whatever, sire!\u201d Dharma bluntly replied.\n\n\u201cWhy?\u201d demanded the Emperor astonished.\n\n\u201cAll these are inferior deeds,\u201d thus began Dharma\u2019s significant reply,\n\u201cwhich would cause their author to be born in the heavens or on this\nearth again. They still show the traces of worldliness, they are like\nshadows following objects. Though they appear actually existing, they\nare no more than mere non-entities. As to a true meritorious deed, it\nis full of pure wisdom and is perfect and mysterious, and its real\nnature is beyond the grasp of human intelligence. Such as this is not\nto be sought after by any worldly achievement.\u201d\n\nThe Emperor Wu thereupon asked Bodhi-Dharma again,[4.32] \u201cWhat is the\nfirst principle of the holy doctrine?\u201d\n\n\u201cVast emptiness, and there is nothing in it to be called holy, sire!\u201d\nanswered Dharma.\n\n\u201cWho is then that is now confronting me?\u201d\n\n\u201cI know not, sire!\u201d\n\nThe answer was simple enough, and clear enough too, but the pious\nand learned Buddhist Emperor failed to grasp the spirit pervading the\nwhole attitude of Dharma.\n\nSeeing that there was no further help to be given to the Emperor,\nDharma left his dominion and retired into a monastery in the state of\nWei, where he sat quietly practising the \u201cwall-contemplation,\u201d it is\nsaid, for nine long years, until he came to be known as the _Pi-kuan_\nBrahman.[f90]\n\nOne day a monk Sh\u00ean-kuang[4.33] visited him and most earnestly\nimplored him to be enlightened in the truth of Zen, but Dharma paid\nno attention. Sh\u00ean-kuang was not to be disappointed, for he knew that\nall the great spiritual leaders of the past had gone through with many\na heart-rending trial in order to attain the final object of their\naspiration. One evening he stood in the midst of the snow waiting for\nDharma to notice him when at last the fast-falling snow buried him\nalmost as deep as his knees.\n\nFinally, the master turned back and said, \u201cWhat do you wish me to\ndo for you?\u201d Said Kuang, \u201cI am come to receive your invaluable\ninstructions; pray open your gate of mercy, and extend your hand of\nsalvation to this poor suffering mortal.\u201d \u201cThe incomparable doctrine of\nBuddhism,\u201d replied Dharma, \u201ccan be comprehended only after a long hard\ndiscipline and by enduring what is most difficult to endure, and by\npractising what is most difficult to practise. Men of inferior virtue\nand wisdom are not allowed to understand anything about it. All the\nlabours of such ones will come to naught.\u201d\n\nKuang at last cut off his left arm with the sword[f91] he was carrying,\nand presented it before the teacher as a token of his sincerity in\nthe desire to be instructed in the doctrine of all the Buddhas. Said\nDharma, \u201cThis is not to be sought through another.\u201d\n\n\u201cMy soul is not yet pacified. Pray, master, pacify it.\u201d\n\n\u201cBring your soul here, and I will have it pacified.\u201d\n\nKuang hesitated for a moment but finally said, \u201cI have sought it\nthese many years and am still unable to get hold of it!\u201d\n\n\u201cThere! it is pacified once for all.\u201d This was Dharma\u2019s sentence.[f92]\n\nDharma then told him to change his name into Hui-k\u2018\u00ea.\n\nNine years passed,[4.34] and Dharma wished to return to his native\ncountry. He called in all his disciples before him, and said, \u201cThe time\nis come for me to depart, and I want to see what your attainments are.\u201d\n\n\u201cAccording to my view,\u201d said Tao-fu, \u201cthe truth is above both\naffirmation and negation, for this is the way it moveth.\u201d\n\nDharma said, \u201cYou have got my skin.\u201d\n\nNext came in the nun, Tsung-ch\u2018ih, and said, \u201cAs I understand it, it is\nlike \u0100nanda\u2019s viewing the Buddha-land of Akshobhya: it is seen once and\nnever again.\u201d\n\nDharma said, \u201cYou have got my flesh.\u201d\n\nTao-y\u00fc was another disciple who presented his view, saying, \u201cEmpty are\nthe four elements and non-existent the five skandhas. According to my\nview, there is not a thing to be grasped as real.\u201d\n\nDharma said, \u201cYou have got my bone.\u201d\n\nFinally, Hui-k\u2018\u00ea, that is, Sh\u00ean-kuang, reverently bowing to the master,\nkept standing in his seat and said nothing.\n\nDharma then announced, \u201cYou have my marrow.\u201d[f93]\n\nMystery envelops the end of Bodhi-Dharma\u2019s life in China, we do not\nknow how, when, and where he passed away from this earth. Some say\nthat he was poisoned by his rivals, others say that he went back to\nIndia crossing the desert, and still others report that he came over\nto Japan. In one thing they all agree which is this: he was quite old,\nbeing, according to Tao-hs\u00fcan, over one hundred and fifty years at his\ndeath.\n\n\n                                  III\n\nAfter Bodhi-Dharma, Hui-k\u2018\u00ea (486\u2013593)[4.35] was the chief exponent\nof Zen Buddhism. He was already a learned scholar before he came to\nhis teacher for instruction, not only in the Chinese classics but in\nBuddhist lore. No amount of learning however satisfied him; indeed he\nseems to have had a sort of enlightenment in his way, which he wanted\nto be testified to by Dharma. After he left the master, he did not\nat once begin his preaching hiding himself among the lower strata of\nsociety. He evidently shunned being looked up to as a high priest of\ngreat wisdom and understanding. However, he did not neglect quietly\npreaching the Law whenever he had an occasion. He was simply quiet\nand unassuming, refusing to show himself off. But one day when he was\ndiscoursing about the Law before a temple gate, there was another\nsermon going on inside the temple by a resident priest, learned and\nhonoured. The audience however left the reverend lecturer inside and\ngathered around the street-monk probably clad in rags and with no\noutward signs of ecclesiastical dignity. The high priest got angry\nover the situation. He accused the beggar-monk to the authorities as\npromulgating a false doctrine, whereupon Hui-k\u2018\u00ea was arrested and put\nto death. He did not specially plead innocent but composedly submitted,\nsaying that he had according to the law of karma an old debt to pay up.\nThis took place in A.D. 593, and he was one hundred and seven years old\nwhen he was killed.\n\nAccording to Tao-hs\u00fcan, Hui-k\u2018\u00ea\u2019s eloquence flew directly from his\nheart, not encrusted with learning or scholarly discourse. While he was\npreaching in an important city on the meaning of Zen, those who\ncould not rise above \u201cthe letter that killeth\u201d took his teaching for\nheresy, as the words of a devil devoid of sense. Especially among them\na master of meditation called Tao-h\u00fcan[4.36] who had about one thousand\nfollowers about him, at once assumed an offensive attitude towards\nHui-k\u2018\u00ea. He sent one of his disciples to the Zen exponent, perhaps\nto find out what kind of man he really was. As soon as the disciple\nlearned what was the teaching of the so-called heretic, he was so\ndeeply impressed by this man that he was converted into a Zen advocate.\nTao-h\u00fcan despatched another of his followers to call the first one\nback, but he followed the example of the predecessor. Several other\nmessengers were sent one after another, but the result was altogether\ndiscouraging. Later when Tao-h\u00fcan happened to meet his first messenger,\nhe asked; \u201cHow was it that I had to send for you so many times? Did I\nnot open your eye after taking pains so much on my part?\u201d The former\ndisciple however mystically answered; \u201cMy eye has been right from the\nfirst, and it was through you that it came to squint.\u201d This stirred the\nmaster\u2019s ire, and it was through his machination, writes Tao-hs\u00fcan,\nthat Hui-k\u2018\u00ea had to suffer official persecution.\n\nThis story taken from Tao-hs\u00fcan\u2019s _Biographies_ varies from that in\nthe Tao-y\u00fcan\u2019s _Records_, but they both agree in making Hui-k\u2018\u00ea a\nmartyr at the hands of his enemy. There is no doubt that in the Zen\nteaching of Bodhi-Dharma and his first Chinese disciple, Hui-k\u2018\u00ea, there\nwas something that was unintelligible to most of the Buddhists of the\ntime who had been trained either in the abstract metaphysics or in the\ntranquillising exercises, or in the mere morality, of Buddhism. The\nexponents of Zen then must have emphasised the truth to be awakened\nin one\u2019s inner consciousness, even at the expense of the canonical\nteaching as is variously elucidated in the Sutras and \u015aastras, many of\nwhich in translations had already been in circulation. This must have\nexcited the conservatists and literalists.\n\nLike Bodhi-Dharma, Hui-k\u2018\u00ea did not leave any literary writing though we\nknow from their biographies that both had their sermons collected\nand in the case of Hui-k\u2018\u00ea \u201cclassified,\u201d[f94][4.37] whatever this may\nmean. The following extracts preserved however may throw light on the\nteaching of Hui-k\u2018\u00ea. A lay-disciple called Hsiang wrote a letter to\nHui-k\u2018\u00ea:[4.38] \u201cShadow follows a body and echo rises from a sound. He\nwho in pursuit of the shadow tires out the body, does not know that\nthe body produces the shadow; and he who attempts to stop an echo by\nraising his voice, does not understand that the voice is the cause of\nthe echo. [In a similar way] he who seeks Nirvana by cutting desires\nand passions is to be likened to one who seeks a shadow apart from\nits original body; and he who aspires to Buddhahood thinking it to\nbe independent of the nature of sentient beings is to be likened to\none who tries to listen to an echo by deadening its original sound.\nTherefore, the ignorant and the enlightened are walking in one\npassageway; the vulgar and the wise are not to be differentiated from\neach other. Where there are no names, we create names, and because of\nthese names judgments are formed. Where there is no theorising, we\ntheorise, and because of this theorising, disputes arise. They are all\nphantom creations and not realities, and who knows who is right and\nwho is wrong? They are all empty, no substantialities have they, and\nwho knows what is and what is not? So we realise that our gain is not\nreal gain and our loss not real loss. This is my view and may I be\nenlightened if I am at fault?\u201d\n\nTo this Hui-k\u2018\u00ea answered: \u201cYou have truly comprehended the Dharma as it\nis; the deepest truth lies in the principle of identity. It is due to\none\u2019s ignorance that the mani-jewel is taken for a piece of brick, but\nlo! when one is suddenly awakened to self-enlightenment, it is realised\nthat one is in possession of the real jewel. The ignorant and the\nenlightened are of one essence, they are not really to be separated.\nWe should know that all things are such as they are. Those who\nentertain a dualistic view of the world are to be pitied, and I write\nthis letter for them. When we know that between this body and the\nBuddha there is nothing to separate one from the other, what is the use\nof seeking after Nirvana [as something external to ourselves]?\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nNext to Hui-k\u2018\u00ea came S\u00eang-ts\u2018an (died 606),[4.39] who succeeded as\nthe third patriarch. The interview between master and disciple took\nplace in this manner: A layman of forty troubled with _f\u00eang-yang_[f95]\naccording to the _Records_, came to Hui-k\u2018\u00ea and asked;\n\n\u201cI am suffering from _f\u00eang-yang_; pray cleanse me of my sins.\u201d\n\n\u201cBring your sins here,\u201d said Hui-k\u2018\u00ea, \u201cand I will cleanse you of them.\u201d\n\nThe lay-disciple was silent for a while but finally said, \u201cAs I seek my\nsins, I find them unattainable.\u201d\n\n\u201cI have then finished cleansing you altogether. You should thenceforth\ntake refuge in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sa\u1e41gha (Brotherhood), and abide\ntherein.\u201d\n\n\u201cAs I stand before you, O master,\u201d asked S\u00eang-ts\u2018an, \u201cI know that you\nbelong to the Brotherhood, but pray tell me what are the Buddha and the\nDharma.\u201d\n\nReplied the master, \u201cMind is the Buddha, Mind is the Dharma; and the\nBuddha and the Dharma are not two. The same is to be said of the\nBrotherhood (_sa\u1e41gha_).\u201d\n\nThis satisfied the disciple who now said, \u201cTo-day for the first time\nI realise that sins are neither within nor without nor in the middle;\njust as Mind is, so is the Buddha, so is the Dharma; they are not\ntwo.\u201d[f96]\n\nHe was then ordained by Hui-k\u2018\u00ea as a Buddhist monk, and after this\nhe fled from the world altogether, and nothing much of his life\nis known. This was partly due to the persecution of Buddhism carried\non by the Emperor of the Chou dynasty. It was in the twelfth year of\nK\u2018ai-huan, of the Sui dynasty (A.D. 592), that he found a disciple\nworthy to be his successor. His name was Tao-hsin.[4.40] He asked the\nmaster,\n\n\u201cPray show me the way to deliverance.\u201d\n\n\u201cWho has ever put you in bondage?\u201d\n\n\u201cNobody.\u201d\n\n\u201cIf so,\u201d said the Master, \u201cwhy should you ask for deliverance?\u201d\n\nThis put the young novice on the way to final enlightenment, which he\nattained after many years\u2019 study under the master. When S\u00eang-ts\u2018an\nthought that the time was ripe to consecrate him as his successor in\nthe faith, he handed him as the token of the rightful transmission\nof the Law the robe which had come down from Bodhi-Dharma, the first\npatriarch of Zen in China. He died in A.D. 606. While much of his life\nis obscure, his thought is gleaned from a metrical composition known as\n_Hsin-hsin-ming_, or \u201cInscribed on the Believing Mind,\u201d which is one of\nthe most valuable contributions by the masters to the interpretation of\nZen teaching. Here follows a somewhat liberal translation of the poem:\n\nInscribed on the Believing Mind.[f97][4.41]\n\n  The Perfect Way knows no difficulties\n  Except that it refuses to make preference:\n  Only when freed from hate and love,\n  It reveals itself fully and without disguise.\n  A tenth of an inch\u2019s difference,\n  And heaven and earth are set apart:\n  If you want to see it manifest,\n  Take no thought either for or against it.\n\n  To set up what you like against what you dislike\u2014\n  This is the disease of the mind:\n  When the deep meaning [of the Way] is not understood\n  Peace of mind is disturbed and nothing is gained.\n\n  [The Way is] perfect like unto vast space,\n  With nothing wanting, nothing superfluous:\n  It is indeed due to making choice\n  That its suchness is lost sight of.\n\n  Pursue not the outer entanglements,\n  Dwell not in the inner void;\n  When the mind rests serene in the oneness of things,\n  The dualism vanishes by itself.\n\n  And when oneness is not thoroughly understood,\n  In two ways loss is sustained\u2014\n  The denial of reality may lead to its absolute negation,\n  While the upholding of the void may result in contradicting itself.\n  Wordiness and intellection\u2014\n  The more with them the further astray we go;\n  Away therefore with wordiness and intellection,\n  And there is no place where we cannot pass freely.[f98]\n\n  When we return to the root, we gain the meaning;\n  When we pursue the external objects, we lose the reason.\n  The moment we are enlightened within,\n  We go beyond the voidness of a world confronting us.\n\n  Transformations going on in an empty world which confronts us,\n  Appear real all because of Ignorance:\n  Try not to seek after the true,\n  Only cease to cherish opinions.\n\n  Tarry not with dualism,\n  Carefully avoid pursuing it;\n  As soon as you have right and wrong,\n  Confusion ensues, the mind is lost.\n\n  The two exist because of the one,\n  But hold not even to this one;\n  When the one mind is not disturbed,\n  The ten thousand things offer no offence.\n\n  When no offence is offered by them, they are as if not existing;\n  When the mind is not disturbed, it is as if there is no mind.\n  The subject is quieted as the object ceases,\n  The object ceases as the subject is quieted.\n\n  The object is an object for the subject,\n  The subject is a subject for an object:\n  Know that the relativity of the two\n  Rests ultimately on the oneness of the void.\n\n  In the oneness of the void the two are one,\n  And each of the two contains in itself all the ten thousand things:\n  When no discrimination is made between this and that.\n  How can a one-sided and prejudiced view arise?\n\n  The Great Way is calm and large-minded,\n  Nothing is easy, nothing is hard:\n  Small views are irresolute,\n  The more in haste the tardier they go.\n\n  Clinging never keeps itself within bounds,\n  It is sure to go in the wrong way:\n  Let go loose, and things are as they may be,\n  While the essence neither departs nor abides.\n\n  Obey the nature of things, and you are in concord with the Way,\n  Calm and easy and free from annoyance;\n  But when your thoughts are tied, you turn away from the truth,\n  They grow heavier and duller and are not at all sound.\n\n  When they are not sound, the soul is troubled;\n  What is the use of being partial and one-sided then?\n  If you want to walk the course of the One Vehicle,\n  Be not prejudiced against the six sense-objects.\n\n  When you are not prejudiced against the six sense-objects,\n  You in turn identify yourself with Enlightenment;\n  The wise are non-active,\n  While the ignorant bind themselves up;\n  While in the Dharma itself there is no individuation,\n  They ignorantly attach themselves to particular objects.\n  It is their own minds that create illusions\u2014\n  Is it not the greatest of self-contradictions?\n\n  Ignorance begets the dualism of rest and unrest,\n  The enlightened have no likes and dislikes:\n  All forms of dualism\n  Are ignorantly contrived by the mind itself.\n  They are like unto visions and flowers in the air:\n  Why should we trouble ourselves to take hold of them?\n  Gain and loss, right and wrong\u2014\n  Away with them once for all!\n\n  If an eye never falls asleep,\n  All dreams will by themselves cease:\n  If the mind retains its oneness,\n  The ten thousand things are of one suchness.\n  When the deep mystery of one suchness is fathomed,\n  All of a sudden we forget the external entanglements:\n  When the ten thousand things are viewed in their oneness,\n  We return to the origin and remain what we are.\n\n  Forget the wherefore of things,\n  And we attain to a state beyond analogy:\n  Movement stopped is no movement,\n  And rest set in motion is no rest.\n  When dualism does no more obtain,\n  Even oneness itself remains not as such.\n\n  The ultimate end of things where they cannot go any further,\n  Is not bound by rules and measures:\n  The mind in harmony [with the Way] is the principle of identity\n  In which we find all doings in a quiescent state;\n  Irresolutions are completely done away with,\n  And the right faith is restored to its native straightness;\n  Nothing is retained now,\n  Nothing is to be memorised,\n  All is void, lucid, and self-illuminating,\n  There is no stain, no exertion, no wasting of energy\u2014\n  This is where thinking never attains,\n  This is where the imagination fails to measure.\n\n  In the higher realm of True Suchness\n  There is neither \u201cother\u201d nor \u201cself\u201d:\n  When a direct identification is asked for,\n  We can only say, \u201cNot two.\u201d[f99]\n\n  In being not two all is the same,\n  All that is is comprehended in it:\n  The wise in the ten quarters,\n  They all enter into this absolute faith.\n\n  This absolute faith is beyond quickening [time] and\n    extension [space].\n  One instant is ten thousand years;\n  No matter how things are conditioned whether with \u201cto be\u201d or\n    \u201cnot to be,\u201d\n  It is manifest everywhere before you.\n\n  The infinitely small is as large as large can be,\n  When external conditions are forgotten;\n  The infinitely large is as small as small can be,\n  When objective limits are put out of sight.\n\n  What is is the same with what is not,\n  What is not is the same with what is:\n  Where this state of things fails to obtain,\n  Be sure not to tarry.\n\n  One in all,\n  All in one\u2014\n  If only this is realised,\n  No more worry about your not being perfect!\n\n  The believing mind is not divided,\n  And undivided is the believing mind\u2014\n  This is where words fail,\n  For it is not of the past, future, or present.\n\nUnder Tao-hsin (580\u2013651), the fourth patriarch, Zen was divided into\ntwo branches. The one known as Godzuzen (Niu-t\u2018ou Chan),[4.42] did not\nlive long after the passing of its founder, Fa-jung,[4.43] who lived at\nMount Niu-t\u2018ou, and is considered not belonging to the orthodox line\nof Zen. The other branch was headed by Hung-j\u00ean[4.44] who is regarded\nby historians as the fifth patriarch, and it is his school that has\nsurvived. He came to the master when he was still a mere boy, and what\npleased his master at their interview was the way he answered. When\nTao-hsin asked[4.45] what was his family name \u59d3 (_hsing_), he said,\n\n\u201cI have a nature \u6027 (_hsing_), and it is not an ordinary one.\u201d\n\n\u201cWhat is that?\u201d\n\n\u201cIt is the Buddha-nature (_fo-hsing_).\u201d\n\n\u201cThen you have no name?\u201d\n\n\u201cNo, master,\u201d said the boy, \u201cfor it is empty in its nature.\u201d Here is\na play of words; the character denoting \u201cfamily name\u201d and that for\n\u201cnature\u201d are both pronounced _hsing_. When Tao-hsin was referring to\nthe \u201cfamily name\u201d the young follower took it for \u201cnature\u201d purposely,\nwhereby to express his view by a figure of speech.\n\nTao-hsin\u2019s interview with Fa-jung, the founder of the Niu-t\u2018ou school\nof Zen, was significant, showing where their views differed and how the\none came to be converted into the orthodox understanding of Zen. It was\nduring the Ch\u00ean-kuan era of the T\u2018ang dynasty that Tao-hsin, learning\nof the presence of an extraordinary saintly man in Niu-t\u2019ou mountains,\ndecided to see who he could be. When Tao-hsin came to a Buddhist temple\nin the mountains, he inquired after the man and was informed of a\nlonely anchorite who would never rise from his seat nor salute people\neven when they were approaching him. When Tao-hsin proceeded further\ninto the mountains, he saw him as he was told sitting quietly and\npaying no attention to the presence of a stranger. He then asked the\nhermit what he was doing here. \u201cI am contemplating on Mind,\u201d was the\nreply. Tao-hsin then demanded, \u201cWhat is he that is contemplating? What\nis Mind that is contemplated?\u201d Fa-jung was not prepared to answer such\nquestions. Thinking that the visitor was a man of deep understanding,\nhe rose from the seat and saluting him asked who he was. When he found\nthat the visitor was no other personage than Tao-hsin himself whose\nreputation he was not ignorant of, he thanked him for the visit. They\nwere now about to enter a little hut near by where they might talk\nabout religion, when Tao-hsin saw some wild animals such as tigers and\nwolves wandering about the place, and he threw up his hands as if he\nwere greatly frightened. Fa-jung remarked, \u201cI see this is still with\nyou.\u201d The fourth patriarch responded at once, \u201cWhat do you see yet?\u201d\nNo answer came from the hermit. After a while the patriarch traced the\ncharacter \u201cBuddha\u201d (_fo_) on the stone on which Fa-jung was in the\nhabit of sitting in meditation. Seeing it, the latter looked as if\nshocked. Said the patriarch \u201cI see this is still with you.\u201d But Fa-jung\nfailed to see the meaning of this remark and earnestly implored to be\ninstructed in the ultimate teaching of Buddhism. This was done, and\nFa-jung became the founder of the Niu-t\u2018ou school of Zen Buddhism.\n\nTao-hsin died at the age of seventy-two, A.D. 651.\n\nHung-j\u00ean, 605\u2013675, the fifth patriarch, came from the same province as\nhis predecessor, Ch\u2018i Chou, now in the district of Fu-pei. His temple\nwas situated in Wang-mei Shan (Yellow Plum Mountain), where he preached\nand gave lessons in Zen to his five hundred pupils. He is claimed by\nsome to have been the first Zen master who attempted to interpret the\nmessage of Zen according to the doctrine of the _Vajracchedik\u0101-s\u016btra_.\nThough I cannot quite agree with this view for the reason already\nreferred to elsewhere, we can consider the fifth patriarch the\nbeginning of a turning in the history of Zen, which opened up to a full\nview under the sixth patriarch, Hui-n\u00eang. Until now, the Zen followers\nhad kept quiet, though working steadily, without arresting public\nattention; the masters had retired either into the mountains or in the\nhurly-burly of the world where nobody could tell anything about their\ndoings. But the time had at last come for a full proclamation of Zen,\nand Hung-j\u00ean was the first who appeared in the field preparing the way\nfor his successor, Hui-n\u00eang.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nBesides this orthodox line of patriarchs, there were some sporadic\nexpositors of Zen throughout the sixth and the seventh century. Several\nof them are mentioned, but there must have been many more such who were\neither altogether forgotten or not at all known to the world. The two\nbest known are Pao-chih (died 514)[4.46] and Fu-hsi (died 569)[4.47];\nand their lives are recorded in the _Records_ as \u201cadepts in Zen but\nnot appearing in the world though well-known at the time.\u201d This is a\nstrange phrasing, and it is hard to know definitely what \u201cnot appearing\nin the world\u201d means. Usually it applies to one who does not occupy\nany recognised position in an officially registered monastery. But of\nthose that are classed under this heading, there is one at least to\nwhom the designation does not properly apply; for Chi-i was a great\nhigh priest occupying an influential ecclesiastical post in the Sui\ndynasty. Whatever this was, those recorded here did not belong to the\northodox Zen school. The Tendai (T\u2018ien-tai) followers object to see two\nof their Fathers Hui-sz\u016d and Chi-i mentioned as \u201cadepts in Zen but not\nappearing in the world though well-known at the time.\u201d They think that\nthese two are great names in the history of their school and ought not\nto be so indifferently referred to in the records of the Zen masters.\nBut from the Zen point of view this classification is justifiable for\nthe reason that the Tendai, except its metaphysics, is another current\nof Zen started independently of the line of Bodhi-Dharma, and if this\nwere allowed to take a more practical course of development, it should\nsurely have resulted in Zen as we have it now. But its metaphysical\nside came to be emphasised at the expense of the practical, and for\nthis reason the Tendai philosophers were ever at war with the Zen,\nespecially with the ultra-left wing which was inflexible in denouncing\nan appeal to ratiocination and literary discoursing and Sutra-learning.\nIn my view the Tendai is a variation of Zen and its first promulgators\nmay justly be classed as Zen masters though not of the pedigree to\nwhich belong Shih-t\u2018ou, Y\u00fceh-shan, Ma-tsu, Lin-chi, etc.\n\nWhile there were thus in the sixth and the seventh century some other\nlines of Zen about to develop, the one started by Bodhi-Dharma was\nuninterruptedly carried on by Hui-k\u2018\u00ea, Sh\u00eang-t\u2018san, Tao-hsin, and\nHung-j\u00ean, who proved to be the most fruitful and successful. The\ndifferentiation of two schools under the fifth patriarch, by Hui-n\u00eang\nand Sh\u00ean-hsiu, helped the further progress of pure Zen by eliminating\nunessential or rather undigested elements. That the school of Hui-n\u00eang\nsurvived the other proves that his Zen was in perfect accord with\nChinese psychology and modes of thinking. The Indian elements that had\nbeen found attached to the Zen of Bodhi-Dharma and his successors down\nto Hui-n\u00eang, were something grafted and not native to Chinese genius.\nAnd therefore when Zen came to be fully established under Hui-n\u00eang and\nhis followers, it had nothing further to obstruct its free development\nuntil it became almost the only ruling power in the Chinese world of\nBuddhism. We must carefully watch how Hui-n\u00eang came to be Hung-j\u00ean\u2019s\nsuccessor and where he differed from his rival school under Sh\u00ean-hsiu.\n\n\n                                IV\n\nHui-n\u00eang (637\u2013713)[4.48] came from Hsin-chou in the southern parts\nof China. His father died when he was yet young. He supported his\nmother by selling wood in town. When one day he came out of a house\nwhere he sold some fuel, he heard a man reciting a Buddhist Sutra. The\nwords deeply touched his heart. Finding what Sutra it was and where\nit was possible to get it, a longing came over him to study it with\nthe master. The Sutra was the _Diamond Sutra_ (_Vajracchedik\u0101-s\u016btra_)\nand the master was the fifth patriarch residing at Yellow Plum in\nChin-chou. Hui-n\u00eang somehow managed to get money enough for the support\nof his aged mother while he was gone.\n\nIt took him about a month to reach Yellow Plum where he at once\nproceeded to see Hung-j\u00ean at the head of five hundred monks (sometimes\nsaid to be seven or even ten hundred). At the first interview asked the\npatriarch,\n\n\u201cWhere do you come from? and what do you want here?\u201d\n\n\u201cI am a farmer from Hsin-chou and wish to become a Buddha.\u201d\n\n\u201cSo you are a southerner,\u201d said the patriarch, \u201cbut the southerners\nhave no Buddha-nature; how could you expect to attain Buddhahood?\u201d\n\nThis however did not discourage the bold seeker after the truth, for he\nat once responded: \u201cThere may be southerners and northerners, but as\nfar as Buddha-nature goes, how could you make such a distinction in it?\u201d\n\nThis pleased the master very much. Hui-n\u00eang was given an office as\nrice-pounder for the Brotherhood. More than eight months, it is said,\nhe was employed in this menial labour, when the fifth patriarch wished\nto select his spiritual successor among his many disciples. One day\nhe made an announcement that any one who could prove his thorough\ncomprehension of the religion would be given the patriarchal mantle and\nproclaimed as his legitimate heir. Sh\u00ean-hsiu (died 706)[4.49] who was\nthe most learned of all the disciples and thoroughly versed in the lore\nof his religion, and who was therefore considered by his brethren in\nthe faith to be in possession of an unqualified right to the honour,\ncomposed a stanza expressing his view, and posted it on the outside\nwall of the meditation hall, which read:\n\n  \u201cThis body is the Bodhi-tree,\n   The soul is like a mirror bright;\n   Take heed to keep it always clean,\n   And let not dust collect on it.\u201d[4.50]\n\nAll those who read these lines were greatly impressed, and secretly\ncherished the idea that the author of this gatha would surely be\nawarded the prize. But when they awoke the next morning, they were\nsurprised to see another written alongside of it, which ran as follows:\n\n  \u201cThe Bodhi is not like the tree,\n   The mirror bright is nowhere shining;\n   As there is nothing from the first,\n   Where can the dust itself collect?\u201d[4.51]\n\nThe writer of these lines was an insignificant layman in the service\nof the monastery, who spent most of his time in pounding rice and\nsplitting wood for the Brotherhood. He had such an unassuming air that\nnobody ever thought much of him, and therefore the entire community was\nnow set astir to see this challenge made upon its recognised authority.\nBut the fifth patriarch saw in this unpretentious monk a future leader\nof mankind, and decided to transfer to him the robe of his office. He\nhad, however, some misgivings concerning the matter; for the majority\nof his disciples were not enlightened enough to see anything of deep\nreligious intuition in the lines by the rice-pounder, Hui-n\u00eang: and\nif he were publicly awarded the honour they might do him harm. So the\nfifth patriarch gave a secret sign to Hui-n\u00eang to come to his room at\nmidnight, when the rest of the Brotherhood was fast asleep. Then he\ngave him the robe as insignia of his authority and in acknowledgment of\nhis unsurpassed spiritual attainment and with the assurance that the\nfuture of their faith would be brighter than ever. The patriarch then\nadvised him that it would be wise for him to hide his own light under\na bushel until the proper time arrived for his public appearance\nand active propaganda, and also that the robe which was handed down\nfrom Bodhi-Dharma as the sign of faith should no more be given up to\nHui-n\u00eang\u2019s successors, because Zen was now fully recognised by the\noutside world in general and there was no more necessity to symbolise\nthe faith by the transference of the robe. That night Hui-n\u00eang left the\nmonastery.\n\nThis narrative is taken from the literature left by the followers\nof the sixth patriarch and is naturally partial in his favour. If\nwe had another record left by Sh\u00ean-hsiu and his school, the account\nhere reproduced may materially differ. In fact, we have at least one\ndocument telling Sh\u00ean-hsiu\u2019s relation to Hung-j\u00ean. It is the memorial\ninscription on his grave-stone written by Chang-shuo,[4.52] one of his\nlay-disciples. In this inscription Sh\u00ean-hsiu is referred to as the one\nto whom the Dharma has been transmitted from his master, Hung-j\u00ean.\nJudging from this, the patriarchal authority of Hui-n\u00eang was not an\nundisputed one at the time, or the orthodox order of succession was\nnot settled until some time later when the school of Hui-n\u00eang had been\nwell established in authority over all the other schools of Zen that\nmight have been existing then. Unfortunately, this memorial inscription\ndoes not give any further information concerning Hui-n\u00eang\u2019s relation to\nHung-j\u00ean, but even from the above narrative we can gather certain facts\nof importance which will shed light on the history of Zen.\n\nFirst, what necessity was there to make Hui-n\u00eang an unlearned rustic\nin contrast with the erudition and wide information ascribed to\nSh\u00ean-hsiu? Or was Hui-n\u00eang really such an ignoramus as could not read\nany thing written? But the _Fa-pao-t\u2018an-ching_,[4.53] a collection\nof his sermons, contains passages quoted from such Sutras as the\n_Nirv\u0101na_, _Vajracchedik\u0101_, _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_, _Saddharma-pu\u1e47\u1e0darika_,\n_Vimalak\u012brti_, _Amit\u0101bha_, and _Bodhisattva-\u015b\u012bla-sutra_. Does this not\nevince the fact that the author was not altogether unacquainted with\nMahayana literature? Probably he was not a learned scholar as compared\nwith Sh\u00ean-hsiu, but in the narratives of his life we can trace some\nsystematic effort to make him more unlettered than he actually was.\nWhat, let me ask, do we read in this attempt at the hand of the\neditors? In my opinion, this emphasising of the contrast between the\ntwo most eminent disciples of the fifth patriarch was at the same time\nthe emphasising of the real character of Zen as independent of learning\nand intellectuality. If Zen is, as its followers claim, a \u201cspecial\ntransmission outside the scriptural teaching,\u201d the understanding of\nit must be possible even for the unlettered and unphilosophising. The\ngreatness of Hui-n\u00eang as Zen master is all the more enhanced. This was\nin all likelihood the reason why the sixth patriarch was unreasonably\nand sometimes even dramatically made unlettered.\n\nSecondly, why was not the patriarchal robe transferred beyond Hui-n\u00eang?\nIf Hung-j\u00ean advised him to keep it with him, what does the advice\nreally imply? That the life of the possessor of the robe would be\nthreatened, points to the fact that there was a dispute among the\ndisciples of Hung-j\u00ean. Did they regard the robe as the symbol of\npatriarchal authority? But what advantages, material or spiritual,\naccrued from the ownership of it? Did the teaching of Bodhi-Dharma\ncome now to be believed as the genuine transmission of the Buddha?\nAnd for that reason did the robe really cease to signify anything\nrelative to the truth of Zen? If so, when Bodhi-Dharma first declared\nhis special mission as teacher of Zen, was he looked upon as a heretic\nand persecuted accordingly? The legend that he was poisoned by his\nrival teachers from India seems to corroborate this. At all events,\nthe question of the robe is deeply connected with the status of Zen\nteaching among the various schools of Buddhism at the time, and also\nwith its firmer hold on the popular minds than ever before.\n\nThirdly, the secrecy observed in all the transactions between Hung-j\u00ean\nand Hui-n\u00eang concerning the transmission of the Dharma naturally\narrests our attention. To raise the rice-pounder who is not even an\nordained monk to the rank of a patriarch, though only in name, to\nsucceed a great master who stands at the head of several hundred\ndisciples, seems to be a real cause for envy and jealousy and even for\nhatred. But if one were really enlightened enough to take charge of the\nimportant position of spiritual leadership, could not a combined\neffort of master and pupil withstand all the opposition? Perhaps, even\nenlightenment could not stand against human passions so irrational and\nelemental. I cannot however help imagining an attempt on the part of\nthe biographers of Hui-n\u00eang at the dramatisation of the whole scene.\nI am very likely mistaken, and there might have been some historical\nconditions of which we are now ignorant due to the lack of documents.\n\nThree days after the flight of Hui-n\u00eang from the Yellow-plum mountains,\nthe news of what had happened in secret became noised abroad throughout\nthe monastery, and a party of indignant monks headed by one named\nMing, pursued the fugitive, Hui-n\u00eang, who, in accordance with his\nmaster\u2019s instructions, was silently leaving the Brotherhood. When he\nwas overtaken by the pursuers while crossing a mountain-pass far from\nthe monastery, he laid down his robe on a rock near by, and said to the\nmonk, Ming: \u201cThis robe symbolises our patriarchal faith and is not to\nbe carried away by force. Take this along with thee, however, if thou\nso desirest.\u201d\n\nMing tried to lift it but it was as heavy as a mountain. He halted,\nhesitated, and trembled with awe. At last, he said, \u201cI come here to\nobtain the faith and not the robe. O my brother monk, pray dispel my\nignorance.\u201d\n\nSaid the sixth patriarch, \u201cIf thou comest for the faith, stop all thy\nhankerings. Think not of good, think not of evil, but see what at this\nmoment thy own original face doth look like, which thou hadst even\nprior to thy own birth.\u201d[4.54]\n\nBeing thus demanded, Ming at once perceived the fundamental truth\nof things, which hitherto he had sought in things without. He now\nunderstood everything, as if he had taken a cupful of cold water\nand tasted it to his own satisfaction. Out of the immensity of his\nfeeling, he was literally bathed in tears and perspirations, and most\nreverently approaching the patriarch he saluted him and asked; \u201cBesides\nthis hidden sense as is embodied in these significant words, is there\nanything which is secret?\u201d\n\nThe patriarch answered, \u201cIn what I have shown to thee there is\nnothing hidden. If thou reflectest within thyself and recognisest thy\nown face, which was before the world, secrecy is in thyself.\u201d\n\nWhatever historical circumstances surrounded Hui-n\u00eang in those remote\ndays, it is certain that in this statement, \u201cto see one\u2019s own face\neven before one was born,\u201d we find the first proclamation of the new\nmessage which was destined to unroll a long history of Zen and to make\nHui-n\u00eang really worthy of the patriarchal robe. We can see here what\na new outlook Hui-n\u00eang has succeeded in opening to the traditional\nIndian Zen. In him we do not recognise anything of Buddhism as far\nas phraseology goes, which means that he opened up his own way of\npresenting the truth of Zen after his original and creative experience.\nPrior to him, the Zen experience had some borrowings, either in wording\nor in method, to express itself. To say, \u201cYou are the Buddha,\u201d or\n\u201cYou and the Buddha are one,\u201d or \u201cThe Buddha is living in you,\u201d is\ntoo stale, too flat, because too abstract and too conceptual. They\ncontain deep truth but are not concrete nor vivifying enough to rouse\nour dormant souls from insensibility. They are filled up too much with\nabstractions and learned phraseology. Hui-n\u00eang\u2019s simple-mindedness not\nspoiled by learning and philosophising could grasp the truth at first\nhand. Hence his unusual freshness in the way he handled the problem. We\nmay come to this again later.\n\n\n                                   V\n\nHung-j\u00ean died, A.D. 675, four years[f100] after the Dharma was\ntransmitted to Hui-n\u00eang. He was seventy-four years old. But Hui-n\u00eang\nnever started his mission work until some years later, for in\naccordance with the advice of his master he lived a secluded life in\nthe mountains. One day he thought that it was time for him to go out\nin the world. He was now thirty-nine years old, and it was in the\nfirst year of I-f\u00eang (A.D. 676) during the T\u2018ang dynasty. He came to\nFa-hsing temple in the province of Kuang, where a learned priest,\nYin-tsung, was discoursing on the _Nirv\u0101na S\u016btra_. He saw some monks\narguing on the flattering pennant; one of them said, \u201cThe pennant is\nan inanimate object and it is the wind that makes it flap.\u201d Against\nthis it was remarked by another monk that \u201cBoth wind and pennant are\ninanimate things, and the flapping is an impossibility.\u201d A third one\nprotested, \u201cThe flapping is due to a certain combination of cause and\ncondition\u201d; while a fourth one proposed a theory, saying, \u201cAfter all\nthere is no flapping pennant, but it is the wind that is moving by\nitself.\u201d The discussion grew quite animated when Hui-n\u00eang interrupted\nwith the remark, \u201cIt is neither wind nor pennant but your own mind\nthat flaps.\u201d This at once put a stop to the heated argument. The\npriest-scholar, Yin-tsung, was greatly struck by the statement of\nHui-n\u00eang, so conclusive and authoritative. Finding out very soon who\nthis Hui-n\u00eang was, Yin-tsung asked him to enlighten him on the teaching\nof the master of Yellow Plum Mountain. The gist of Hui-n\u00eang\u2019s reply was\nas follows:\n\n\u201cMy master had no special instruction to give, he simply insisted upon\nthe need of our seeing into our own Nature through our own efforts, he\nhad nothing to do with meditation, or with deliverance. For whatever\nthat could be named leads to dualism, and Buddhism is not dualistic.\nTo take hold of this non-duality of truth is the aim of Zen. The\nBuddha-Nature of which we are all in possession, and the seeing into\nwhich constitutes Zen, is indivisible into such oppositions as good and\nevil, eternal and temporal, material and spiritual. To see dualism in\nlife is due to confusion of thought; the wise, the enlightened see into\nthe reality of things unhampered by erroneous ideas.\u201d\n\nThis was the beginning of Hui-n\u00eang\u2019s career as Zen master. His\ninfluence seems to have been immediate and far-reaching. He had\nmany disciples numbering thousands. He did not however go around\npreaching and proselyting. His activities were confined in his own\nprovince in the south, and the Pao-lin monastery at Ts\u2018ao-ch\u2018i was\nhis headquarters. When the Emperor Kao-tsung learned that Hui-n\u00eang\nsucceeded Hung-j\u00ean as one of Dharma\u2019s spiritual descendants in the\nfaith of Zen, he sent him one of his court officials with an imperial\nmessage, but Hui-n\u00eang refused to come up to the capital, preferring his\nstay in the mountains. The messenger however wished to be instructed\nin the doctrine of Zen that he might convey it to his august master at\nCourt. Said Hui-n\u00eang in the main as follows:\n\n\u201cIt is a mistake to think that sitting quietly in contemplation is\nessential to deliverance. The truth of Zen opens by itself from within\nand it has nothing to do with the practise of dhyana. For we read in\nthe _Vajracchedik\u0101_ that those who try to see the Tathagata in one\nof his special attitudes, as sitting or lying, do not understand his\nspirit, and that the Tathagata is designated as Tathagata because he\ncomes from nowhere and departs nowhere, and for that reason he is the\nTathagata. His appearance has no whence, and his disappearance no\nwhither, and this is Zen. In Zen therefore there is nothing to gain,\nnothing to understand; what shall we then do with sitting cross-legged\nand practising dhyana? Some may think that understanding is needed to\nenlighten the darkness of ignorance, but the truth of Zen is absolute\nin which there is no dualism, no conditionality. To speak of ignorance\nand enlightenment, or of Bodhi and Kle\u015ba (wisdom and passions), as\nif they were two separate objects which cannot be merged in one, is\nnot Mahayanistic. In the Mahayana every possible form of dualism\nis condemned as not expressing the ultimate truth. Everything is a\nmanifestation of the Buddha-Nature which is not defiled in passions,\nnor purified in enlightenment. It is above all categories. If you want\nto see what is the nature of your being, free your mind from thought of\nrelativity and you will see by yourself how serene it is and yet how\nfull of life it is.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nWhile Hui-n\u00eang was working for the cause of Zen in the south,\nSh\u00ean-hsiu representing another school was active in the north. Before\nhe was converted into Buddhism, he was a learned Confucian and thus\ndestined from the start to cut a different figure, compared with his\nbrother-disciple, Hui-n\u00eang. The Emperor Wu of the T\u2018ang dynasty was\none of the devoted followers of Sh\u00ean-hsiu, and naturally around\nhim were gathered a large number of courtiers and government officers.\nWhen the Emperor Chung-tsung came to the throne, A.D. 685, he was all\nthe more treated with reverence, and it was Chang-shuo, one of the\nstate ministers, who inscribed a biographical sketch and eulogy on the\nmemorial stone erected over his grave when he died. One of his sermons\nrecorded reads:\n\n  \u201cThe teaching of all the Buddhas\n   In one\u2019s own Mind originally exists:\n   To seek the Mind without one\u2019s Self,\n   Is like running away from the father.\u201d\n\nHe died in A.D. 706, seven years prior to Hui-n\u00eang. His school known\nas the Northern in contrast to Hui-n\u00eang\u2019s Southern School prospered\nin the north far better than the latter did in the south. But\nwhen Ma-tsu (died 788) and Shih-t\u2018ou (700\u2013790) began their active\npropaganda in the south and finally established the foundations of\nZen teaching, Sh\u00ean-hsiu\u2019s school failed to find able successors and\nfinally disappeared altogether so that all the records we have of\ntheir movements come from the rival school. It thus came to pass that\nHui-n\u00eang, and not Sh\u00ean-hsiu was recognised as the sixth patriarch of\nZen Buddhism in China.\n\nThe difference between the Southern and the Northern school of Zen\nis one inherent in human mind; if we call the one intellectual or\nintuitional, the other would be regarded as pragmatical. The reason\nwhy the Southern school is known as \u201cabrupt\u201d or \u201cinstant\u201d (_yugapad_)\nagainst the \u201cgradual\u201d (_kramav\u1e5bittya_) school of the North is because\nit upholds that the coming of enlightenment is instantaneous and\ndoes not allow any gradation, as there are no stages of progress in\nit; whereas the Northern school emphasises the process of arriving\nat enlightenment which is naturally gradual, requiring much time and\nconcentration. Hui-n\u00eang was a great advocate of absolute idealism,\nwhile Sh\u00ean-hsiu was a realist and refused to ignore a world of\nparticulars where Time rules over all our doings. An idealist does not\nnecessarily ignore the objective aspect of reality, but his eyes are\nalways fixed at one point which stands by itself, and his surveyings\nare done from this absolute point. The doctrine of abruptness\nis thus the result of looking at the multitudinousness of things in\nabsolute unity. All true mystics are followers of the \u201cabrupt\u201d school.\nThe flight from the alone to the alone is not and cannot be a gradual\nprocess. The teaching of Sh\u00ean-hsiu is to be heeded as the practical\nadvice to those who are actually engaged in the study of Zen, but it\nfails to describe the character of experience known as \u201cthe seeing\ninto one\u2019s own Nature,\u201d which was the special message of Hui-n\u00eang\nas distinguished from those of the other Buddhist schools. That the\nschool of Sh\u00ean-hsiu could not survive as a branch of Zen was natural\nenough, for Zen could not be anything else but an instantaneous act of\nintuition. As it opens up all of a sudden a world hitherto undreamed\nof, it is an abrupt and discrete leaping from one plane of thought to\nanother. Hsiu missed the ultimate object of Zen when he emphasised\nthe process to reach the end. As a practical adviser he was therefore\nexcellent and full of merit.\n\nThe ideas of instantaneity and gradation in the realisation of the\ntruth of Zen originally comes from the _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_ (Nanjo\u2019s edition,\np. 55), where this distinction is made in regard to cleansing one\u2019s\nmind of its stream of ideas and images. According to the Sutra,\nthis cleansing is in one sense gradual but in another abrupt or\ninstantaneous. When it is regarded as like the ripening of a fruit,\nthe modelling of a vessel, the growing of a plant, or the mastering\nof an art, which takes place gradually and in time, it is an act of\ngradual process: but when it is comparable to a mirror reflecting\nobjects, or to the \u0100laya reproducing all mental images, the cleansing\nof mind takes place instantaneously. Thus the Sutra recognises the two\ntypes of minds: with some the cleansing to a state of enlightenment\ncan be obtained gradually after a long practice of meditation, perhaps\nthrough many a successive life; but to others it may come all of a\nsudden, even without previously conscious efforts. The division of\nthe two schools as regards the abrupt realisation of enlightenment is\nbased not only on the statements in the Sutra but ultimately on facts\nof psychology. The point at issue however was not a question of\ntime; whether enlightenment took place as an act of one moment or not,\nceased to concern them; for the difference now developed into that of\ntheir general philosophical attitude and outlook towards the fact of\nenlightenment itself. The question of physical time has thus turned\ninto that of psychology in its more profound aspect.\n\nWhen process is emphasised, the end is forgotten, and process itself\ncomes to be identified with end. When a disciple of Sh\u00ean-hsiu came\nto Hui-n\u00eang to be instructed in Zen, he asked what was the teaching\nof Sh\u00ean-hsiu, and the disciple informed him thus: \u201cMy master usually\nteaches us to stop the working of our minds and to sit quietly in\nmeditation for a long time at a stretch, without lying down.\u201d To this\nHui-n\u00eang responded: \u201cTo stop the working of mind and to sit quietly in\nmeditation is a disease and not Zen, and there is no profit whatever to\nbe gained from a long sitting.\u201d Then he gave him the following g\u0101th\u0101:\n\n  \u201cWhile living, one sits up and lies not,\n   When dead, one lies and sits not;\n   A set of ill-smelling skeleton!\n   What is the use of toiling and moiling?\u201d[4.55]\n\nThis shows exactly where Hui-n\u00eang stands in relation to his rival\nSh\u00ean-hsiu who is so taken up with the practical details of the process\nof Zen. Those two g\u0101th\u0101s inscribed on the monastery wall at Yellow-plum\nMountain while they were yet under the tutorship of Hung-j\u00ean, are\neloquent enough to bring out the characteristic features of the two\nschools.[f101]\n\nWhen Hui-n\u00eang further asked the monk from the north as to the teaching\nof his teacher in regard to morality (_\u015b\u012bla_), meditation (_dhy\u0101na_),\nand wisdom (_praj\u00f1\u0101_), the monk said, \u201cAccording to my master Hsiu,\nmorality consists in not doing anything that is bad; wisdom in\nreverently practising all that is good; and meditation in purifying\nthe heart.\u201d Replied Hui-n\u00eang: \u201cMy view is quite different. All\nmy teaching issues from the conception of Self-Nature, and those who\nassert the existence of anything outside it betray their ignorance of\nits nature. Morality, Meditation, and Wisdom\u2014all these are forms of\nSelf-Nature. When there is nothing wrong in it, we have morality; when\nit is free from ignorance, it is wisdom; and when it is not disturbed,\nit is meditation. Have a thorough understanding once for all as to\nthe being of Self-Nature, and you know that nothing dualistic obtains\nin it; for here you have nothing to be particularly distinguished as\nenlightenment, or ignorance, or deliverance, or knowledge, and yet\nfrom this nothingness there issues a world of particulars as objects\nof thought. For him who has once had an insight into his own Nature,\nno special posture as a form of meditation is to be recommended;\neverything and anything is good to him, sitting, or lying, or standing.\nHe enjoys perfect freedom of spirit, he moves along as he feels, and\nyet he does nothing wrong, he is always acting in accord with his\nSelf-Nature, his work is play. This is what I call \u2018the seeing into\none\u2019s own Nature\u2019; and this seeing is instantaneous as much as the\nworking is, for there is no graduating process from one stage to\nanother.\u201d\n\n\n                                  VI\n\nSome of the sermons of the sixth patriarch are preserved in the\nbook known as the _Platform Sutra on the Treasure of the Law_\n(_Fa-pao-t\u2018an-ching_). The title, \u201csutra\u201d has generally been given to\nwritings ascribed to the Buddha or those somehow personally connected\nwith him, and that a collection of the sermons of Hui-n\u00eang has been\nso honoured shows what a significant position he occupies in the\nhistory of Chinese Buddhism. \u201cThe Platform Sutra\u201d has a reference\nto the famous ordination platform erected by Gunabhadra, the first\ntranslator of the _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_, of the Liu-sung dynasty, A.D. 420\u2013479.\nAt the time of the erection as well as later, it was prophesied by\nChih-y\u00fceh (according to another authority by Param\u0101rtha), during\nthe Liang dynasty that some years later a Bodhisattva in the flesh\nwould be ordained on this platform and deliver sermons on the Buddha\u2019s\n\u201cspiritual seal.\u201d Thus the \u201cPlatform Sutra\u201d means the orthodox teaching\nof the Zen given from this platform.\n\nThe sermons here preserved are mere fragments of those delivered during\nthe thirty-seven years of Hui-n\u00eang\u2019s active missionary life. Even of\nthese fragments how much is to be regarded as genuine and authoritative\nis a question we cannot at present give any definite answer, as the\nbook seems to have suffered the vicissitudes of fates, partly showing\nthe fact that the Zen message of the sixth patriarch was extraordinary\nin many respects so as to arouse antagonism and misunderstanding\namong Buddhists. When this antagonism later reached its climax, it is\nreported that the book was burned up as against the genuine teaching of\nBuddhism. Except a few sentences and passages, however, which can at\nonce be rejected as spurious, we may take the _Platform Sutra_ on the\nwhole as expressing the spirit and teaching of the sixth patriarch of\nZen.\n\nThe principal ideas of Hui-n\u00eang, which make him the real Chinese\nfounder of Zen Buddhism may be summed up as follows:\n\n1. We can say that Zen has come to its own consciousness by Hui-n\u00eang.\nWhile Bodhi-Dharma brought it from India and successfully transplanted\nit in China, it did not fully realise its special message at the time.\nMore than two centuries were needed before it grew aware of itself and\nknew how to express itself in the way native to the Chinese mind; the\nIndian mode in which its original teaching had been expressed as was\nthe case with Bodhi-Dharma and his immediate disciples had to give way\nas it were to become truly Chinese. As soon as this transformation\nor transplantation was accomplished in the hands of Hui-n\u00eang, his\ndisciples proceeded at once to work out all its implications. The\nresult was what we have as the Zen school of Buddhism. How did then\nHui-n\u00eang understand Zen?\n\nAccording to him, Zen was the \u201cseeing into one\u2019s own Nature.\u201d This\nis the most significant phrase ever coined in the development of Zen\nBuddhism. Around this Zen is now crystallised, and we know where\nto direct our efforts and how to represent it in our consciousness.\nAfter this, the progress of Zen Buddhism was rapid. It is true that\nthis phrase occurs in the life of Bodhi-Dharma in the _Records of the\nTransmission of the Lamp_, but it is in the part of his life on which\nwe cannot put much reliance. Even when the phrase was actually used\nby Dharma, it was not necessarily considered by him the essence of\nZen as distinguishing itself from other schools of Buddhism. Hui-n\u00eang\nhowever was fully aware of its signification, and impressed the idea\nunequivocally upon the minds of his audience. When he made his first\ndeclaration of Zen for the benefit of Yin-tsung, the statement was\nquite unmistakable, \u201cWe talk of seeing into our own Nature, and not of\npractising dhyana or obtaining liberation.\u201d[4.56] Here we have the gist\nof Zen, and all his later sermons are amplifications of this idea.\n\nBy \u201cNature\u201d he understood Buddha-Nature, or more particularly from\nthe intellectual point of view, Praj\u00f1\u0101. He says that this Praj\u00f1\u0101 is\npossessed by every one of us, but owing to the confusion of thought\nwe fail to realise it in ourselves. Therefore we must be instructed\nand properly guided by an adept in Zen Buddhism, when we shall open\na spiritual eye and by ourselves see into the Nature. This Nature\nknows no multiplicity, it is absolute oneness, being the same in the\nignorant as well as in the wise. The difference comes from confusion\nand ignorance. People talk so much, think so much, of Praj\u00f1\u0101, but fail\naltogether to realise it in their own minds. It is like talking about\nfood all day, however much we may talk we forever remain hungry. You\nmay explain the philosophy of \u015a\u016bnyat\u0101 for ten thousand years, but so\nlong as you have not yet seen into your Nature, it is absolutely of\nno avail. There are again some people who regard Zen as consisting in\nsitting quietly with an empty mind devoid of thoughts and feelings.\nSuch know not what Praj\u00f1\u0101 is, what Mind is. It fills the universe and\nnever rests from work. It is free, creative, and at the same time it\nknows itself. It knows all in one and one in all. This mysterious\nworking of Praj\u00f1\u0101 issues from your own Nature. Do not depend upon\nletters but let your own Praj\u00f1\u0101 illumine within yourself.\n\n2. The inevitable result of it was the \u201cabrupt\u201d teaching of the\nNorthern school. The seeing is an instant act as far as the mental\neye takes in the whole truth at one glance\u2014the truth which transcends\ndualism in all form; it is abrupt as far as it knows no gradations, no\ncontinuous unfolding. Read the following passage from the _Platform\nSutra_, in which the essentials of the abrupt doctrine are given:\n\n\u201cWhen the abrupt doctrine is understood, there is no need of\ndisciplining oneself in things external. Only let a man always have a\nright view within his own mind, no desires, no external objects will\never defile him. This is the seeing into his Nature. O my friends,\nhave no fixed abode inside or outside,[f102] and your conduct will be\nperfectly free and unfettered. Take away your attachment, and your walk\nwill know no obstructions whatever.... The ignorant will grow wise if\nthey abruptly get an understanding and open their hearts to the truth.\nO my friends, even the Buddhas will be like us common mortals when\nthey have no enlightenment, and even we mortals will be Buddhas when\nwe are enlightened. Therefore we know that all things are in our own\nminds. Why do we not then instantly see into our own minds and find\nthere the truth of Suchness? In the _Sutra on the Moral Conduct of the\nBodhisattva_ we read that we are all pure in our Self-nature, and that\nwhen we know our own minds we see into this Nature and all attain to\nBuddhahood. Says the _Vimalak\u012brti S\u016btra_, \u2018An instant opening leads\nus into the Original Mind.\u2019 O my good friends, while under my master\nJ\u00ean, I realised the truth the moment I heard him speak and had an\ninstant [i.e. abrupt] glimpse into the true essence of Suchness. This\nis the reason why I now endeavour by means of this doctrine to lead\ntruth-seekers to an instant [i.e. abrupt] realisation of Bodhi. When\nyou by yourselves look into your minds, you perceive at once what the\nOriginal Nature is....\n\n\u201cThose who know by themselves do not look for anything external. If\nthey adhere to the view that liberation comes through external aid,\nthrough the office of a good wise friend, they are entirely at fault.\nWhy? There is a knower in your own mind and it is this that makes you\nrealise the truth by yourselves. When confusion reigns in you and false\nviews are entertained, no amount of teaching by others, good wise\nfriends of yours, will be of use for your salvation. When on the other\nhand your genuine Praj\u00f1\u0101 shines forth, all your confused thoughts will\nvanish in an instant. Knowing thus what your Self-Nature is, you reach\nBuddhahood by this single understanding, one knowledge.\u201d\n\n3. When the seeing into Self-Nature is emphasised and intuitive\nunderstanding is upheld against learning and philosophising,\nwe know that as one of its logical conclusions the old view of\nmeditation begins to be looked down as merely a discipline in mental\ntranquillisation. And this was exactly the case with the sixth\npatriarch. Since the beginning of Buddhism there have been two currents\nof thought concerning the meaning of meditation: the one was, like\nAr\u0101da and Udraka who were the two teachers of the Buddha, to take it\nfor suspending all psychic activities or for wiping consciousness\nclean of all its modes; and the other was to regard meditation simply\nas the most efficacious means for coming in touch with the ultimate\nreality. This fundamental difference of views with regard to meditation\nwas a cause of the unpopularity at first of Bodhi-Dharma among the\nChinese Buddhists, scholars and dhyana-masters of the time. It was\nalso a factor of divergence between the Niu-t\u2018ou school of Zen and\nthe orthodox teaching of the fourth patriarch, as well as between\nthe Northern and the Southern school of Zen Buddhism after the fifth\npatriarch. Hui-n\u00eang, the sixth patriarch, came out as a strong\nadvocate of intuitionalism and refused to interpret the meaning of\ndhyana statically, as it were. For the Mind according to him at the\nhighest stage of meditation was not a mere being, mere abstraction\ndevoid of content and work. He wanted to grasp something which lay\nat the foundation of all his activities mental and physical, and\nthis something could not be a mere geometrical point, it must be the\nsource of energy and knowledge. Hui-n\u00eang did not forget that the will\nwas after all the ultimate reality and that enlightenment was to be\nunderstood as more than intellection, more than quietly contemplating\nthe truth. The Mind or Self-Nature was to be apprehended in the midst\nof its working or functioning. The object of dhyana was thus not to\nstop the working of Self-Nature but to make us plunge right into its\nstream and seize it in the very act. His intuitionalism was dynamic. In\nthe following dialogues both Hui-n\u00eang and his disciples are still using\nthe older terminology but the import of this parley is illustrative of\nthe point I want to specify.\n\nHs\u00fcan-chiao first studied T\u2018ien-tai philosophy and later while reading\nthe _Vimalak\u012brti_ he discovered his Self-Nature. Being advised to\nsee the sixth patriarch in order to have his experience certified or\ntestified, he came to Tsao-ch\u2018i. He walked around the master three\ntimes and erecting his staff straight stood before him. Said the\nmaster, \u201cMonks are supposed to observe three hundred rules of conduct\nand eighty thousand minor ones; whence comest thou, so full of pride?\u201d\n\n\u201cBirth-and-death is a matter of grave concern, and time waits for\nnobody!\u201d said the T\u2018ien-tai philosopher.\n\n\u201cWhy dost thou not grasp that which is birthless and see into that\nwhich is timeless?\u201d the master demanded.\n\n\u201cBirthless is that which grasps, and timeless is that which sees into.\u201d\n\n\u201cThat is so, that is so,\u201d agreed the master.\n\nWhen this was over, Hs\u00fcan-chiao came to Hui-n\u00eang again in the full\nattire of the Buddhist monk, and reverently bowing to the master wished\nto take leave of him.\n\nSaid the master, \u201cWhy departest thou so soon?\u201d\n\n\u201cThere is from the very beginning no such thing as movement, and then\nwhy talkest thou of being soon?\u201d\n\n\u201cWho knows that there is no movement?\u201d retorted the master.\n\n\u201cThere,\u201d exclaimed Hs\u00fcan-chiao, \u201cthou makest a judgment thyself!\u201d\n\n\u201cThou truly comprehendest the intent of that which is birthless.\u201d\n\n\u201cHow could the birthless ever have an intent?\u201d Hs\u00fcan-chiao asked.\n\n\u201cIf there were no intent, who could ever judge?\u201d\n\n\u201cJudgments are made with no intent whatever.\u201d This was the conclusion\nof Chiao.\n\nThe master then expressed his deep appreciation of Hs\u00fcan-chiao\u2019s view\non the subject, saying, \u201cWell thou hast said!\u201d[4.57]\n\nChih-huang was an adept in meditation which he studied under the\nfifth patriarch. After twenty years\u2019 discipline he thought he well\nunderstood the purport of meditation or samadhi. Hs\u00fcan-ts\u2018\u00ea, learning\nhis attainment, visited him and said, \u201cWhat are you doing there?\u201d \u201cI\nam entering into a samadhi.\u201d \u201cYou speak of entering, but how do you\nenter into samadhi\u2014with a thought-ful mind or with a thought-less\nmind? If you say with a thought-less mind, all non-sentient beings\nsuch as plants or bricks could attain samadhi. If you say with a\nthought-ful mind, all sentient beings could attain it.\u201d \u201cWhen I enter\ninto samadhi,\u201d said Chih-huang, \u201cI am not conscious of either being\nthoughtful or being thoughtless.\u201d \u201cIf you are conscious of neither,\nyou are right in samadhi all the while; why do you then talk at all\nof entering into it or coming out of it? If however there is really\nentering or coming out, it is not Great Samadhi.\u201d Chih-huang did not\nknow how to answer. After a while he asked who was Hs\u00fcan-ts\u2018\u00ea\u2019s teacher\nand what was his understanding of samadhi. Said Hs\u00fcan-ts\u2018\u00ea,[4.58]\n\u201cHui-n\u00eang is my teacher, and according to him, [the ultimate truth]\nlies mystically serene and perfectly quiet; substance and function\nare not to be separated, they are of one Suchness. The five skandhas\nare empty in their nature, and the six sense-objects have no\nreality. [The truth knows of] neither entering nor going out, neither\nbeing tranquil nor disturbed. Dhyana in essence has no fixed abode.\nWithout attaching yourself to an abode, be serene in dhyana. Dhyana\nin essence is birthless; without attaching yourself to the thought of\nbirth [-and-death] think in dhyana. Have your mind like unto space and\nyet have no thought of space.\u201d Thus learning of the sixth patriarch\u2019s\nview on samadhi or dhyana, Chih-huang came to the master himself and\nasked to be further enlightened. Said the patriarch, \u201cWhat Hs\u00fcan-ts\u2018\u00ea\ntold you is true. Have your mind like unto space and yet entertain in\nit no thought of emptiness. Then the truth will have its full activity\nunimpeded. Every movement of yours will come out of an innocent heart\nand the ignorant and the wise will have an equal treatment in your\nhands. Subject and object will lose their distinction, and essence and\nappearance will be of one suchness. [When a world of absolute oneness\nis thus realised,] you have attained to eternal samadhi.\u201d\n\nTo make the position of the sixth patriarch on the subject of\nmeditation still clearer and more definite, let me quote another\nincident from his _Platform Sutra_. A monk once made reference to a\ng\u0101th\u0101 composed by Wo-luan which read as follows [4.59]:\n\n  \u201cI, Wo-luan, know a device\n   Whereby to blot out all my thoughts:\n   The objective world no more stirs the mind,\n   And daily matures my Enlightenment!\u201d\n\nHearing this, the sixth patriarch remarked: \u201cThat is no enlightenment\nbut leads one into a state of bondage. Listen to my g\u0101th\u0101:\n\n  \u201cI, Hui-n\u00eang, know no device,\n   My thoughts are not suppressed:\n   The objective world ever stirs the mind,\n   And what is the use of maturing Enlightenment?\u201d\n\nThese will be sufficient to show that Hui-n\u00eang, the sixth patriarch,\nwas on the one hand no quietist, nor nihilist advocating the doctrine\nof absolute emptiness, while on the other hand he was no idealist\neither, in the sense of denying an objective world. His dhyana was full\nof action, yet above a world of particulars, so long as it was not\ncarried away by it and in it.\n\n4. Hui-n\u00eang\u2019s method of demonstrating the truth of Zen was purely\nChinese and not Indian. He did not resort to abstract terminology\nnor to romantic mysticism. The method was direct, plain, concrete,\nand highly practical. When the monk Ming came to him and asked for\ninstruction, he said, \u201cShow me your original face before you were\nborn.\u201d Is not the statement quite to the point? No philosophic\ndiscourse, no elaborate reasoning, no mystic imagery, but a direct\nunequivocal dictum. In this the sixth patriarch cut the first turf and\nhis disciples quickly and efficiently followed in his steps. Notice how\nbrilliantly Lin-chi made use of this method in his sermon on a \u201ctrue\nman of no title.\u201d (See the \u201cIntroduction.\u201d)\n\nTo give another instance. When Hui-n\u00eang saw Huai-jang, of Nan-y\u00fceh, he\nsaid, \u201cWhence comest thou?\u201d which was followed by \u201cWhat is it that so\ncometh?\u201d[4.60] It took for Huai-jang eight long years to answer the\nquestion satisfactorily. Afterwards this way of questioning became\nalmost an established form of greeting with Zen masters. Nan-y\u00fcan asked\na newly arrived monk, \u201cWhence comest thou?\u201d \u201cI am from Han-shang.\u201d\nSaid the master, \u201cYou are at fault as much as I am.\u201d[4.61] Hsiang-y\u00ean\nasked San-sh\u00eang, \u201cWhence comest thou?\u201d \u201cFrom Lin-chi.\u201d \u201cBringest thou\nhis sword?\u201d San-sh\u00eang took up his seat-cloth (_tso-chu_) and struck\nHsiang-y\u00ean across his mouth and went away.[4.62] The Venerable Ch\u2018en\nasked a monk, \u201cWhence comest thou?\u201d \u201cFrom Yang-shan.\u201d \u201cThou art a\nliar!\u201d was the verdict of the master.[4.63] Another time he asked\nanother monk, \u201cWhence comest thou?\u201d \u201cFrom West of the River, sir.\u201d \u201cHow\nmany sandals hast thou worn out?\u201d This monk had evidently a gentler\ntreatment.\n\nThis difference of method between the Indian and the Chinese often\nraised the question as to the difference, if there be, between the\n\u201cTathagata Dhyana\u201d and the \u201cPatriarchal Dhyana.\u201d For instance, when\nHsiang-y\u00ean showed his song of poverty to Yang-shan, the latter said,\n\u201cYou understand the Tathagata Dhyana but not yet the Patriarchal\nDhyana.\u201d When asked about the difference, Mu-chou replied, \u201cThe\ngreen mountains are green mountains, and the white clouds are white\nclouds.\u201d[4.64]\n\n\n                                  VII\n\nHui-n\u00eang died at the age of seventy-six in A.D. 712, while the T\u2018ang\ndynasty was enjoying its halcyon days and Chinese culture reached\nthe highest point in its history. A little over one hundred years\nafter the passing of the sixth patriarch, Liu Tsung-y\u00fcan, one of\nthe most brilliant literati in the history of Chinese literature,\nwrote a memorial inscription on his tomb-stone when he was honoured\nby the Emperor Hsien-tsung with the posthumous title, Great Mirror\n(_tai-chien_),and in this we read[4.65]: \u201cIn a sixth transmission after\nDharma there was Tai-chien. He was first engaged in menial labour and\nservile work. Just a few words from the master were enough and he at\nonce understood the deepest meaning conveyed in them. The master was\ngreatly impressed and finally conferred on him an insignia of faith.\nAfter that he hid himself in the southern district, nobody heard of\nhim again for sixteen years when he thought the time was ripe for him\nto come out of the seclusion. He was settled at Ts\u2018ao-ch\u2018i and began\nto teach. The number of disciples is said once to have reached several\nthousands. According to his doctrine, non-doing is reality, emptiness\nis the truth, and the ultimate meaning of things is vast and immovable.\nHe taught that human nature in its beginning as well as in the end is\nthoroughly good and does not require any artificial weeding-out, for\nit has its root in that which is serene. The Emperor Chung-tsung heard\nof him and sent his courtier twice asking him to appear at Court but\nfailed to get him out. So the Emperor had his words instead which he\ntook for his spiritual guidance. The teaching [of the sixth patriarch]\nin detail is generally accessible to-day; all those who talk at all\nabout Zen find their source of information in Ts\u2018ao-ch\u2018i.\u201d[f103]\n\nAfter Hui-n\u00eang Zen was split up into several schools, two of which\nhave survived even down to this day, in China as well as in Japan. The\none represented by Hsing-sz\u016d, of Ch\u2018ing-y\u00fcan, (died 740), continues now\nas the Soto (Ts\u2018ao-tung) school of Zen, and the other coming down the\nline of Huai-jang, of Nan-y\u00fceh (677\u2013744),[4.66] is now represented by\nthe Rinzai (Lin-chi) school. Though much modified in various aspects,\nthe principle and spirit of Zen Buddhism is still alive as it was in\nthe days of the sixth patriarch, and as one of the great spiritual\nheritages of the East it is still wielding its unique influence\nespecially among the cultured people in Japan.\n\n\n\n\n        ON SATORI\u2014THE REVELATION OF A NEW TRUTH IN ZEN BUDDHISM\n\n\n        ON SATORI\u2014THE REVELATION OF A NEW TRUTH IN ZEN BUDDHISM\n\n                                   I\n\nThe essence of Zen Buddhism consists in acquiring a new viewpoint of\nlooking at life and things generally. By this I mean that if we want\nto get into the inmost life of Zen, we must forego all our ordinary\nhabits of thinking which control our everyday life, we must try to see\nif there is any other way of judging things, or rather if our ordinary\nway is always sufficient to give us the ultimate satisfaction of our\nspiritual needs. If we feel dissatisfied somehow with this life, if\nthere is something in our ordinary way of living that deprives us\nof freedom in its most sanctified sense, we must endeavour to find\na way somewhere which gives us a sense of finality and contentment.\nZen proposes to do this for us and assures us of the acquirement of a\nnew point of view in which life assumes a fresher, deeper, and more\nsatisfying aspect. This acquirement, however, is really and naturally\nthe greatest mental cataclysm one can go through with in life. It is\nno easy task, it is a kind of fiery baptism, and one has to go through\nthe storm, the earthquake, the overthrowing of the mountains, and the\nbreaking in pieces of the rocks.\n\nThis acquiring of a new point of view in our dealings with life and\nthe world is popularly called by Japanese Zen students \u201csatori\u201d[5.1]\n(_wu_ in Chinese). It is really another name for Enlightenment\n(_anuttara-samyak-sa\u1e41bodhi_), which is the word used by the Buddha and\nhis Indian followers ever since his realisation under the Bodhi-tree\nby the River Naira\u00f1jan\u0101. There are several other phrases in Chinese\ndesignating this spiritual experience, each of which has a special\nconnotation, showing tentatively how this phenomenon is interpreted. At\nall events, there is no Zen without satori, which is indeed the Alpha\nand Omega of Zen Buddhism. Zen devoid of satori is like a sun\nwithout its light and heat. Zen may lose all its literature, all its\nmonasteries, and all its paraphernalia; but as long as there is satori\nin it, it will survive to eternity. I want to emphasise this most\nfundamental fact concerning the very life of Zen; for there are some\neven among the students of Zen themselves who are blind to this central\nfact and are apt to think when Zen has been explained away logically\nor psychologically or as one of the Buddhist philosophies which can be\nsummed up by using highly technical and conceptual Buddhist phrases,\nZen is exhausted and there remains nothing in it that makes it what it\nis. But my contention is, the life of Zen begins with the opening of\nsatori (_kai wu_ in Chinese).[5.2]\n\nSatori may be defined as an intuitive looking into the nature of\nthings in contradistinction to the analytical or logical understanding\nof it. Practically, it means the unfolding of a new world hitherto\nunperceived in the confusion of a dualistically-trained mind. Or we may\nsay that with satori our entire surroundings are viewed from quite an\nunexpected angle of perception. Whatever this is, the world for those\nwho have gained a satori is no more the old world as it used to be;\neven with all its flowing streams and burning fires, it is never the\nsame one again. Logically stated, all its opposites and contradictions\nare united and harmonised into a consistent organic whole. This is a\nmystery and a miracle, but according to the Zen masters such is being\nperformed every day. Satori can thus be had only through our once\npersonally experiencing it.\n\nIts semblance or analogy in a more or less feeble and fragmentary\nway is gained when a difficult mathematical problem is solved, or\nwhen a great discovery is made, or when a sudden means of escape is\nrealised in the midst of most desperate complications, in short,\nwhen one exclaims, \u201cEureka! eureka!\u201d But this refers only to the\nintellectual aspect of satori, which is therefore necessarily partial\nand incomplete and does not touch the very foundations of life\nconsidered one indivisible whole. Satori as the Zen experience must\nbe concerned with the entirety of life. For what Zen proposes\nto do is the revolution, and the revaluation as well, of oneself as\na spiritual unity. The solving of a mathematical problem ends with\nthe solution, it does not affect one\u2019s whole life. So with all other\nparticular questions, practical or scientific, they do not enter\nthe basic life-tone of the individual concerned. But the opening of\nsatori is the re-making of life itself. When it is genuine\u2014for there\nare many simulacra of it\u2014its effects on one\u2019s moral and spiritual\nlife are revolutionary, and they are so enhancing, purifying, as well\nas exacting. When a master was asked what constituted Buddhahood,\nhe answered, \u201cThe bottom of a pale is broken through.\u201d From this we\ncan see what a complete revolution is produced by this spiritual\nexperience. The birth of a new man is really cataclysmic.\n\nIn the psychology of religion this spiritual enhancement of one\u2019s\nwhole life is called \u201cconversion.\u201d But as the term is generally used\nby Christian converts, it cannot be applied in its strict sense to\nthe Buddhist experience, especially to that of the Zen followers;\nthe term has too affective or emotional a shade to take the place of\nsatori, which is above all noetic. The general tendency of Buddhism\nis as we know more intellectual than emotional, and its doctrine of\nEnlightenment distinguishes it sharply from the Christian view of\nsalvation; Zen as one of the Mahayana schools naturally shares a\nlarge amount of what we may call transcendental intellectualism which\ndoes not issue in logical dualism. When poetically or figuratively\nexpressed, satori is \u201cthe opening of the mind-flower,\u201d[5.3] or\n\u201cthe removing of the bar,\u201d[5.4] or \u201cthe brightening up of the\nmind-works.\u201d[5.5] All these tend to mean the clearing up of a passage\nwhich has been somehow blocked, preventing the free, unobstructed\noperation of a machine or a full display of the inner works. With the\nremoval of the obstruction, a new vista opens before one, boundless in\nexpanse and reaching the end of time. As life thus feels quite free\nin its activity, which was not the case before the awakening, it now\nenjoys itself to the fullest extent of its possibilities, to attain\nwhich is the object of Zen discipline. This is often taken to be\nequivalent to \u201cvacuity of interest and poverty of purpose.\u201d But\naccording to the Zen masters the doctrine of non-achievement concerns\nitself with the subjective attitude of mind which goes beyond the\nlimitations of thought. It does not deny ethical ideals, nor does it\ntranscend them; it is simply an inner state of consciousness without\nreference to its objective consequences.\n\n\n                                  II\n\nThe coming of Bodhi-Dharma (Bodai-daruma in Japanese, P\u2018u-ti Ta-mo in\nChinese) to China early in the sixth century was simply to introduce\nthis satori element into the body of Buddhism whose advocates were\nthen so engrossed in subtleties of philosophical discussion or in the\nmere literary observance of rituals and disciplinary rules. By the\n\u201cabsolute transmission of the spiritual seal\u201d[5.6] which was claimed by\nthe first patriarch, is meant the opening of satori, obtaining an eye\nto see into the spirit of the Buddhist teaching. The sixth patriarch,\nYeno (Hui-n\u00eang), was distinguished because of his upholding the satori\naspect of dhyana against the mere mental tranquillisation of the\nNorthern School of Zen under the leadership of Jinshu (Sh\u00ean-hsiu). Baso\n(Ma-tsu), Obaku (Huan-po), Rinzai (Lin-chi), and all the other stars\nilluminating the early days of Zen in the T\u2018ang dynasty were advocates\nof satori. Their life-activities were unceasingly directed towards the\nadvancement of this; and as one can readily recognise, they so differed\nfrom those merely absorbed in contemplation or the practising of dhyana\nso called. They were strongly against quietism, declaring its adherents\nto be purblind and living in the cave of darkness. Before we go on,\nit is advisable, therefore, to have this point clearly understood so\nthat we leave no doubt as to the ultimate purport of Zen, which is by\nno means wasting one\u2019s life away in a trance-inducing practise, but\nconsists in seeing into the life of one\u2019s being or opening an eye of\nsatori.\n\nThere is in Japan a book going under the title of _Six Essays by\nShoshitsu_ (that is, by Bodhi-Dharma, the first patriarch of Zen); the\nbook contains no doubt some of the sayings of Dharma, but most of the\nessays are not his; they were probably composed during the T\u2018ang\ndynasty when Zen Buddhism began to make its influence more generally\nfelt among the Chinese Buddhists. The spirit however pervading the\nbook is in perfect accord with the principle of Zen. One of the essays\nentitled \u201cKechimyakuron,\u201d or \u201cTreatise on the Lineage of Faith,\u201d[5.7]\ndiscusses the question of _Chien-hsing_[f104] \u898b\u6027 or satori, which,\naccording to the author constitutes the essence of Zen Buddhism. The\nfollowing passages are extracts.\n\n\u201cIf you wish to seek the Buddha, you ought to see into your own Nature\n(_hsing_); for this Nature is the Buddha himself. If you have not\nseen into your own Nature, what is the use of thinking of the Buddha,\nreciting the Sutras, observing a fast, or keeping the precepts? By\nthinking of the Buddha, your cause [i.e., meritorious deed] may bear\nfruit; by reciting the Sutras your intelligence may grow brighter; by\nkeeping the precepts you may be born in the heavens; by practising\ncharity you may be rewarded abundantly; but as to seeking the\nBuddha, you are far away from him. If your Self is not yet clearly\ncomprehended, you ought to see a wise teacher and get a thorough\nunderstanding as to the root of birth-and-death. One who has not seen\ninto one\u2019s own Nature, is not to be called a wise teacher.\n\n\u201cWhen this [seeing into one\u2019s own Nature] is not attained, one cannot\nescape from the transmigration of birth-and-death, however well one may\nbe versed in the study of the sacred scriptures in twelve divisions. No\ntime will ever come to one to get out of the sufferings of the triple\nworld. Anciently there was a Bhikshu Zensho (Shan-hsing[f105]) who\nwas capable of reciting all the twelve divisions of scriptures, yet he\ncould not save himself from transmigration, because he had no insight\ninto his own Nature. If this was the case even with Zensho, how about\nthose moderners who being able to discourse only on a few Sutras and\n\u015aastras regard themselves as exponents of Buddhism? They are truly\nsimple-minded ones. When Mind is not understood, it is absolutely of no\navail to recite and discourse on idle literature. If you want to seek\nthe Buddha, you ought to see into your own Nature, which is the Buddha\nhimself. The Buddha is a free man\u2014a man who neither works nor achieves.\nIf, instead of seeing into your own Nature, you turn away and seek the\nBuddha in external things, you will never get at him.\n\n\u201cThe Buddha is your own Mind, make no mistake to bow [to external\nobjects]. \u2018Buddha\u2019 is a Western word, and in this country it means\n\u2018enlightened nature\u2019; and by \u2018enlightened\u2019 is meant \u2018spiritually\nenlightened.\u2019 It is one\u2019s own spiritual Nature in enlightenment that\nresponds to the external world, comes in contact with objects, raises\nthe eyebrows, winks the eyelids, and moves the hands and legs. This\nNature is the Mind, and the Mind is the Buddha, and the Buddha is\nthe Way, and the Way is Zen. This simple word, Zen, is beyond the\ncomprehension both of the wise and the ignorant. To see directly into\none\u2019s original Nature, this is Zen. Even if you are well learned in\nhundreds of the Sutras and \u015aastras, you still remain an ignoramus in\nBuddhism when you have not yet seen into your original Nature. Buddhism\nis not there [in mere learning]. The highest truth is unfathomably\ndeep, is not an object of talk or discussion, and even the canonical\ntexts have no way to bring it within our reach. Let us once see into\nour own original Nature and we have the truth even when we are quite\nilliterate, not knowing a word....\n\n\u201cThose who have not seen into their own Nature, may read the\nSutras, think of the Buddha, study long, work hard, practise religion\nthroughout the six periods of the day, sit for a long time and never\nlie down for sleep, and may be wide in learning and well-informed in\nall things; and they may believe that all this is Buddhism. All the\nBuddhas in successive ages only talk of seeing into one\u2019s Nature. All\nthings are impermanent; until you get an insight into your Nature, do\nnot say, \u2018I have perfect knowledge.\u2019 Such is really committing a very\ngrave crime. \u0100nanda, one of the ten great disciples of the Buddha,\nwas known for his wide information, but did not have any insight into\nBuddhahood, because he was so bent on gaining information only....\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe sixth patriarch, Hui-n\u00eang (Yeno), insists on this in a most\nunmistakable way when he answers the question: \u201cAs to your commission\nfrom the fifth patriarch of Huang-mei, how do you direct and instruct\nothers in it?\u201d The answer was: \u201cNo direction, no instruction there is;\nwe speak only of seeing into one\u2019s Nature and not of practising dhyana\nand seeking deliverance thereby.\u201d Elsewhere they are designated as the\n\u201cconfused\u201d and \u201cnot worth consulting with,\u201d they that are empty-minded\nand sit quietly having no thoughts whatever; whereas \u201ceven ignorant\nones, if they all of a sudden realise the truth and open their mental\neyes, are after all wise men and may attain even to Buddhahood.\u201d Again\nwhen the patriarch was told of the method of instruction adopted by the\nmasters of the Northern School of Zen, which consisted in stopping all\nmental activities, quietly absorbed in contemplation, and in sitting\ncross-legged for the longest while at a stretch, he declared such\npractises to be abnormal and not at all to the point, being far from\nthe truth of Zen, and added this stanza which was quoted elsewhere:\n\n  \u201cWhile living one sits up and lies not,\n   When dead, one lies and sits not;\n   A set of ill-smelling skeleton!\n   What is the use of toiling and moiling so?\u201d\n\nWhen at Demboin, Baso used to sit cross-legged all day and\nmeditating. His master, Nangaku Yejo (Nan-y\u00fceh Huai-jang, 677\u2013744), saw\nhim and asked,[5.8]\n\n\u201cWhat seekest thou here thus sitting cross-legged?\u201d\n\n\u201cMy desire is to become a Buddha.\u201d\n\nThereupon, the master took up a piece of brick and began to polish it\nhard on the stone nearby.\n\n\u201cWhat workest thou on so, my master?\u201d asked Baso.\n\n\u201cI am trying to turn this into a mirror.\u201d\n\n\u201cNo amount of polishing will make a mirror of the brick, sir.\u201d\n\n\u201cIf so, no amount of sitting cross-legged as thou doest will make of\nthee a Buddha,\u201d said the master\n\n\u201cWhat shall I have to do then?\u201d\n\n\u201cIt is like driving a cart; when it moveth not, wilt thou whip the cart\nor the ox?\u201d\n\nBaso made no answer.\n\nThe master continued: \u201cWilt thou practice this sitting cross-legged in\norder to attain dhyana or to attain Buddhahood? If it is dhyana, dhyana\ndoes not consist in sitting or lying; if it is Buddhahood, the Buddha\nhas no fixed forms. As he has no abiding place anywhere, no one can\ntake hold of him, nor can he be let go. If thou seekest Buddhahood by\nthus sitting cross-legged, thou murderest him. So long as thou freest\nthyself not from sitting so,[f106] thou never comest to the truth.\u201d\n\nThese are all plain statements, and no doubts are left as to the\nultimate end of Zen, which is not sinking oneself into a state of\ntorpidity by sitting quietly after the fashion of a Hindu saint and\ntrying to exclude all the mental ripplings that seem to come up\nfrom nowhere and after a while pass away\u2014where nobody knows. These\npreliminary remarks will help the reader carefully to consider the\nfollowing \u201cQuestions and Answers\u201d[5.9] (known as _Mondo_ in Japanese);\nfor they will illustrate my thesis that Zen aims at the opening\nof satori, or at acquiring a new point of view as regards life and the\nuniverse. The Zen masters, as we see below, are always found trying\nto avail themselves of every apparently trivial incident of life\nin order to make the disciples\u2019 minds flow into a channel hitherto\naltogether unperceived. It is like picking a hidden lock, the flood of\nnew experiences gushes forth from the opening. It is again like the\nclock\u2019s striking the hours; when the appointed time comes it clicks,\nand the whole percussion of sounds is released. The mind seems to\nhave something of this mechanism; when a certain moment is reached, a\nhitherto closed screen is lifted, an entirely new vista opens up, and\nthe tone of one\u2019s whole life thereafter changes. This mental clicking\nor opening is called satori by the Zen masters and is insisted upon as\nthe main object of their discipline.\n\nIn this connection the reader will find the following words of Meister\nEckhart quite illuminative: \u201cUpon this matter a heathen sage hath a\nfine saying in speech with another sage: \u2018I become aware of something\nin me which flashes upon my reason. I perceive of it that it is\nsomething, but what it is I cannot perceive. Only meseems that, could I\nconceive it, I should comprehend all truth.\u2019\u201d[f107]\n\n\n                                  III\n\nThe records quoted below do not always give the whole history of the\nmental development leading up to a satori, that is, from the first\nmoment when the disciple came to the master until the last moment of\nrealisation, with all the intermittent psychological vicissitudes\nwhich he had to go through. The examples are just to show that the\nwhole Zen discipline gains meaning when there takes place this turning\nof the mental hinge to a wider and deeper world. For when this wider\nand deeper world opens, everyday life, even the most trivial thing of\nit, grows loaded with the truths of Zen. On the one hand, therefore,\nsatori is a most prosaic and matter-of-fact thing, but on the other\nhand when it is not understood it is something of a mystery. But\nafter all is not life itself filled with wonders, mysteries, and\nunfathomabilities, far beyond our discursive understanding?\n\nA monk asked J\u014dshu (Chao-chou Tsung-sh\u00ean, 778\u2013897) to be instructed\nin Zen. Said the master, \u201cHave you had your breakfast or not?\u201d \u201cYes,\nmaster, I have,\u201d answered the monk. \u201cIf so, have your dishes washed,\u201d\nwas an immediate response, which, it is said, at once opened the monk\u2019s\nmind to the truth of Zen.\n\nThis is enough to show what a commonplace thing satori is; but to\nsee what an important r\u00f4le this most trivial incident of life plays\nin Zen, it will be necessary to add some remarks which were made by\nthe masters, and through these the reader may have a glimpse into\nthe content of satori. Ummon (Y\u00fcn-m\u00ean, W\u00ean-yen, died 949) who lived\na little later than J\u014dshu commented on him; \u201cWas there any special\ninstruction in the remark of J\u014dshu, or not? If there was, what was it?\nIf there was not, what satori was it that the monk attained?\u201d Later,\nUmpo Monyetsu (Y\u00fcn-f\u00eang Wen-y\u00fceh, 997\u20131062) made a retort, saying, \u201cThe\ngreat master Ummon does not know what is what, hence this comment of\nhis. It was altogether unnecessary, it was like painting legs to the\nsnake and growing a beard to the eunuch. My view differs from his: that\nmonk who seems to have attained a satori goes to hell as straight as an\narrow!\u201d[5.10]\n\nNow, what does this all mean\u2014J\u014dshu\u2019s remark about washing the dishes,\nthe monk\u2019s attainment of satori, Ummon\u2019s alternatives, and Monyetsu\u2019s\nassurance? Are they speaking against each other? Is this much ado about\nnothing? This is where Zen is difficult to grasp and at the same time\ndifficult to explain. Let me add a few more queries. How did J\u014dshu make\nthe monk\u2019s eye open by such a prosaic remark? Did the remark have any\nhidden meaning, however, which happened to coincide with the mental\ntone of the monk? How was the monk so mentally prepared for the final\nstroke of the master whose service was just pressing the button as it\nwere? Nothing of satori is so far gleaned from washing the dishes;\nwe have to look somewhere else for the truth of Zen. At any rate,\nwe could not say that J\u014dshu had nothing to do with the monk\u2019s\nrealisation. Hence Ummon\u2019s remark which is somewhat enigmatic, yet to\nthe point. As to Monyetsu\u2019s comment, it is what is technically known\nas _Nenro_,[5.11] \u201chandling and playing,\u201d or \u201cplayful criticism.\u201d He\nappears to be making a disparaging remark about Ummon, but in truth he\nis joining hands with his predecessors.\n\nTokusan (Teh-shan Hs\u00fcan-chien, 779\u2013865)[5.12] was a great scholar of\nthe _Diamond Sutra_ (_Vajracchedik\u0101_). Learning that there was such a\nthing as Zen ignoring all the written scriptures and directly laying\nhand on one\u2019s soul, he came to Ryutan (Lung-t\u2018an) to be instructed in\nthe doctrine. One day Tokusan was sitting outside trying to see into\nthe mystery of Zen. Ryutan said, \u201cWhy don\u2019t you come in?\u201d Replied\nTokusan, \u201cIt is pitch dark.\u201d A candle was lighted and handed over\nto Tokusan. When the latter was at the point of taking it, Ryutan\nsuddenly blew the light out, whereupon the mind of Tokusan was\nopened.[f108][5.13]\n\nHyakujo (Pai-chang Huai-hai, 724\u2013814)[5.14] one day went out attending\nhis master Baso (Ma-tsu). A flock of wild geese was seen flying and\nBaso asked\n\n\u201cWhat are they?\u201d\n\n\u201cThey are wild geese, sir.\u201d\n\n\u201cWhither are they flying?\u201d\n\n\u201cThey have flown away, sir.\u201d\n\nBaso abruptly taking hold of Hyakujo\u2019s nose gave it a twist. Overcome\nwith pain, Hyakujo cried aloud, \u201cOh! Oh!\u201d\n\n\u201cYou say they have flown away,\u201d Baso said, \u201cbut all the same they have\nbeen here from the very beginning.\u201d\n\nThis made Hyakujo\u2019s back wet with cold perspiration. He had satori.\n\nIs there any connection in any possible way between the washing of\nthe dishes and the blowing out of a candle and the twisting of\nthe nose? We must say with Ummon: If there is none, how could they\nall come to the realisation of the truth of Zen? If there is, what\ninner relationship is there? What is this satori? What a new point\nof viewing things is this? So long as our observation is limited to\nthose conditions which preceded the opening of a disciple\u2019s eye we\ncannot perhaps fully comprehend where lies the ultimate issue. They are\nmatters of everyday occurrence, and if Zen lies objectively among them,\nevery one of us is a master before we are told of it. This is partly\ntrue inasmuch as there is nothing artificially constructed in Zen, but\nif the nose is to be really twisted or the candle blown out in order\nto take the scale off the eye, our attention must be directed inwardly\nto the working of our minds, and it will be there where we are to take\nhold of the hidden relation existing between the flying geese and the\nwashed dishes and the blown out candle and any other happenings that\nweave out infinitely variegated patterns of human life.\n\nUnder Daiye (Tai-hui, 1089\u20131163),[5.15] the great Zen teacher of the\nSung dynasty, there was a monk named D\u014dken (Tao-ch\u2018ien) who had spent\nmany years in the study of Zen, but who had not yet delved into its\nsecrets if there were any. He was discouraged when he was sent on\nan errand to a distant city. A trip requiring half a year to finish\nwould surely be a hindrance rather than a help to his study. Sogen\n(Tsung-y\u00fcan), one of his fellow-monks, took pity on him and said, \u201cI\nwill accompany you on this trip and do all that I can for you. There\nis no reason why you cannot go on with your meditation even while\ntravelling.\u201d They started together. One evening D\u014dken despairingly\nimplored his friend to assist him in the solution of the mystery of\nlife. The friend said, \u201cI am willing to help you in every way, but\nthere are five things in which I cannot be of any help to you. These\nyou must look after yourself.\u201d D\u014dken expressed the desire to know what\nthey were. \u201cFor instance,\u201d said the friend, \u201cwhen you are hungry or\nthirsty, my eating of food or drinking does not fill your stomach. You\nmust drink and eat yourself. When you want to respond to the calls\nof nature, you must take care of them yourself, for I cannot be\nof any use to you. And then it will be nobody else but yourself that\nwill carry this corpse of yours [i.e., the body] along this highway.\u201d\nThis remark at once opened the mind of the truth-seeking monk, who,\nso transported with his discovery, did not know how to express his\njoy. Gen now told him that his work was done and that his further\ncompanionship would have no meaning after this.[5.16] So they parted\ncompany and D\u014dken was left alone to continue the trip. After the\nhalf-year D\u014dken came back to his own monastery. Daiye, his teacher,\nhappened to meet him on his way down the mountain, and made the\nfollowing remark, \u201cThis time he knows it all.\u201d What was it, one may\nremark, that flashed through D\u014dken\u2019s mind when his friend gave him a\nmost matter-of-fact advice?\n\nKy\u014dgen (Hsian-yen) was a disciple of Hyakujo. After the master\u2019s death\nhe went to Yisan (Wei-shan, 771\u2013853) who was a senior disciple of\nHyakujo. Yisan asked him,[5.17] \u201cI am told that you have been under my\nlate master Hyakujo, and also that you have remarkable intelligence;\nbut the understanding of Zen through this medium necessarily ends in\nintellectual and analytical comprehension, which is not of much use.\nYet you may have had an insight into the truth of Zen. Let me have your\nview as to the reason of birth and death, that is, as to your own being\nbefore your parents gave birth to you.\u201d\n\nThus asked, Ky\u014dgen did not know how to reply. He retired into his own\nroom and assiduously made research among his notes which he had taken\nof the sermons given by his late master. He failed to come across a\nsuitable passage he might present as his own view. He returned to\nYisan and implored him to teach in the faith of Zen. But Yisan said,\n\u201cI really have nothing to impart to you, and if I tried to do so, you\nmay have occasion to make me an object of ridicule later on. Besides,\nwhatever I can instruct you is my own and will never be yours.\u201d Ky\u014dgen\nwas disappointed and considered his senior disciple unkind. Finally he\ncame to the decision to burn up all his notes and memorandums which\nwere of no help to his spiritual welfare, and, retiring altogether from\nthe world, to spend the rest of his life in solitude and simplicity\nin accordance with the Buddhist rules. He reasoned, \u201cWhat is the\nuse of studying Buddhism, so difficult to comprehend and too subtle to\nreceive instructions from another? I shall be a plain homeless monk,\ntroubled with no desire to master things too deep for thought.\u201d He left\nYisan and built a hut near the tomb of Chu (Hui-chung), the National\nMaster, at Nan-yang. One day he was weeding and sweeping the ground,\nand when a piece of rock brushed away struck a bamboo, the sound\nproduced by the percussion unexpectedly elevated his mind to a state\nof satori. The question proposed by Yisan became transparent; his joy\nwas boundless, he felt as if meeting again his lost parent. Besides\nhe came to realise the kindness of his abandoned senior brother monk\nwho refused him instruction. For he now knew that this would not have\nhappened to him if Yisan had been unkind enough to explain things for\nhim.\n\nBelow is the verse he composed soon after his achievement from which we\nmay get an idea of his satori.\n\n  \u201cOne stroke has made me forget all my previous knowledge,\n   No artificial discipline is at all needed;\n   In every movement I uphold the ancient way,\n   And never fall into the rut of mere quietism;\n   Wherever I walk no traces are left,\n   And my senses are not fettered by rules of conduct;\n   Everywhere those who have attained to the truth,\n   All declare this to be of the highest order.\u201d\n\n\n                                  IV\n\nThere is something, we must admit, in Zen that defies explanation, and\nto which no master however ingenious can lead his disciples through\nintellectual analysis. Ky\u014dgen or Tokusan had enough knowledge of the\ncanonical teachings or of the master\u2019s expository discourses; but\nwhen the real thing was demanded of them, they significantly failed\nto produce it either to their inner satisfaction or for the master\u2019s\napproval. The satori is not a thing after all to be gained through\nthe understanding. But once the key is within one\u2019s grasp, everything\nseems to be laid bare before him; the entire world assumes then a\ndifferent aspect. By those who know, this inner change is recognised.\nThe D\u014dken before he started on his mission and the D\u014dken after\nthe realisation were apparently the same person; but as soon as Daiye\nsaw him, he knew what had taken place in him even when he uttered not\na word. Baso twisted Hyakujo\u2019s nose, and the latter turned into such\na wild soul as to have the audacity to roll up the matting before his\nmaster\u2019s discourse had hardly begun (see below). The experience they\nhave gone through with within themselves is not a very elaborate,\ncomplicated, and intellectually demonstrable thing; for none of them\never try to expound it by a series of learned discourses, they do\njust this thing or that, or utter a single phrase unintelligible to\noutsiders, and the whole affair proves most satisfactory both to the\nmaster and to the disciple. The satori cannot be a phantasm, empty and\ncontentless, and lacking in real value, while it must be the simplest\npossible experience perhaps because it is the very foundation of all\nexperiences.\n\nAs to the opening of satori, all that Zen can do is to indicate the\nway and leave the rest all to one\u2019s own experience; that is to say,\nfollowing up the indication and arriving at the goal\u2014this is to be\ndone by oneself and without another\u2019s help. With all that the master\ncan do, he is helpless to make the disciple take hold of the thing,\nunless the latter is inwardly fully prepared for it. Just as we cannot\nmake a horse drink against his will, the taking hold of the ultimate\nreality is to be done by oneself, just as the flower blooms out of its\ninner necessity, the looking into one\u2019s own nature must be the outcome\nof one\u2019s own inner overflowing. This is where Zen is so personal and\nsubjective, in the sense of being inner and creative. In the \u0100gama\nor Nik\u0101ya literature we encounter so frequently with such phrases as\n\u201cAtta-d\u012bp\u0101 viharatha att\u0101 sara\u1e47\u0101 ana\u00f1\u00f1a-sara\u1e47\u0101,\u201d or \u201csaya\u1e41 abhi\u00f1\u00f1\u0101,\u201d\nor \u201cDi\u1e6d\u1e6dha-dhammo patta-dhammo vidita-dhammo pariyog\u0101\u1e37ha-dhammo\naparappaccayo satthu s\u0101sane\u201d; they show that Enlightenment is the\nawakening, within oneself and not depending on others, of an inner\nsense in one\u2019s consciousness, enabling one to create a world of eternal\nharmony and beauty\u2014the home of Nirvana.\n\nI said that Zen does not give us any intellectual assistance, nor\ndoes it waste time in arguing the point with us, but it merely\nsuggests or indicates, not because it wants to be indefinite, but\nbecause that is really the only thing it can do for us. If it could,\nit would do anything to help us come to an understanding. In fact\nZen is exhausting every possible means to do that, as we can see in\nall the great masters\u2019 attitudes towards their disciples.[f109] When\nthey are actually knocking them down, their kindheartedness is never\nto be doubted. They are just waiting for the time when their pupils\u2019\nminds get all ripened for the final moment. When this is come, the\nopportunity of opening an eye to the truth of Zen lies everywhere. One\ncan pick it up in the hearing of an inarticulate sound, or listening\nto an unintelligible remark, or in the observation of a flower\nblooming, or in the encountering of any trivial everyday incident such\nas stumbling, rolling up a screen, using a fan, etc. These are all\nsufficient conditions that will awaken one\u2019s inner sense. Evidently a\nmost insignificant happening, and yet its effect on the mind infinitely\nsurpasses all that one could expect of it. A light touch of an ignited\nwire, and an explosion shaking the very foundations of the earth. In\nfact, all the causes of satori are in the mind. That is why when the\nclock clicks, all that has been lying there bursts up like a volcanic\neruption or flashes out like a bolt of lightning,[f110] Zen calls this\n\u201creturning to one\u2019s own home\u201d; for its followers will declare: \u201cYou\nhave now found yourself; from the very beginning nothing has been kept\naway from you. It was yourself that closed the eye to the fact. In Zen\nthere is nothing to explain, nothing to teach, that will add to your\nknowledge. Unless it grows out of yourself, no knowledge is really of\nvalue to you, a borrowed plumage never grows.\u201d\n\nKozankoku (Huang San-ku),[5.18] a Confucian poet and statesman, came to\nKwaido (Hui-t\u2018ang, 1024\u20131100) to be initiated into Zen. Said the Zen\nmaster, \u201cThere is a passage in the text you are so thoroughly familiar\nwith, which fitly describes the teaching of Zen. Did not Confucius\ndeclare, \u2018Do you think I am holding back something from you, O my\ndisciples? Indeed I have held nothing back from you.\u2019\u201d Sankoku tried\nto answer, but Kwaido immediately made him keep silence by saying,\n\u201cNo, no!\u201d The Confucian disciple felt troubled in mind, and did not\nknow how to express himself. Some time later they were having a walk\nin the mountains. The wild laurel was in full bloom and the air was\nredolent. Asked the Zen master, \u201cDo you smell it?\u201d When the Confucian\nanswered affirmatively, Kwaido said, \u201cThere, I have kept nothing\nback from you!\u201d This suggestion from the teacher at once led to the\nopening of Kozankoku\u2019s mind. Is it not evident now that satori is not\na thing to be imposed upon another, but that it is self-growing from\nwithin? Though nothing is kept away from us, it is through a satori\nthat we become cognisant of the fact, being convinced that we are all\nsufficient unto ourselves. All that therefore Zen contrives is to\nassert that there is such a thing as self-revelation, or the opening of\nsatori.\n\n\n                                   V\n\nAs satori strikes at the primary fact of existence, its attainment\nmarks a turning point in one\u2019s life. The attainment, however, must be\nthorough-going and clear-cut in order to produce a satisfactory result.\nTo deserve the name \u201csatori\u201d the mental revolution must be so complete\nas to make one really and sincerely feel that there took place a fiery\nbaptism of the spirit. The intensity of this feeling is proportional to\nthe amount of effort the opener of satori has put into the achievement.\nFor there is a gradation in satori as to its intensity, as in all our\nmental activity. The possessor of a lukewarm satori may suffer no such\nspiritual revolution as Rinzai, or Bukko (Fo-kuang) whose case is\nquoted below. Zen is a matter of character and not of the intellect,\nwhich means that Zen grows out of the will as the first principle of\nlife. A brilliant intellect may fail to unravel all the mysteries of\nZen, but a strong soul will drink deep of the inexhaustible fountain.\nI do not know if the intellect is superficial and touches only\nthe fringe of one\u2019s personality, but the fact is that the will is the\nman himself, and Zen appeals to it. When one becomes penetratingly\nconscious of the working of this agency, there is the opening of satori\nand the understanding of Zen. As they say, the snake has now grown into\nthe dragon; or more graphically, a common cur\u2014a most miserable creature\nwagging its tail for food and sympathy, and kicked about by the street\nboys so mercilessly\u2014has now turned into a golden-haired lion whose roar\nfrightens to death all the feeble-minded.\n\nTherefore, when Rinzai was meekly submitting to the \u201cthirty blows\u201d of\nObaku, he was a pitiable sight; as soon as he attained satori, he was\nquite a different personage and his first exclamation was, \u201cThere is\nnot much after all in the Buddhism of Obaku.\u201d[5.19] And when he saw the\nreproachful Obaku again, he returned his favour by giving him a slap on\nthe face. \u201cWhat an arrogance, what an impudence!\u201d Obaku exclaimed; but\nthere was reason in Rinzai\u2019s rudeness, and the old master could not but\nbe pleased with this treatment from his former tearful Rinzai.\n\nWhen Tokusan gained an insight into the truth of Zen, he immediately\ntook up all his commentaries on the _Diamond Sutra_, once so valued and\nconsidered indispensable that he had to carry them wherever he went; he\nnow set fire to them, reducing all the manuscripts into nothingness.\nHe exclaimed: \u201cHowever deep your knowledge of abstruse philosophy, it\nis like a piece of hair placed in the vastness of space; and however\nimportant your experience in things worldly, it is like a drop of water\nthrown into an unfathomable abyss.\u201d[5.20]\n\nOn the day following the incident of the flying geese,[5.21] to which\nreference was made elsewhere, Baso appeared in the preaching hall and\nwas about to speak before a congregation, when Hyakujo came forward\nand began to roll up the matting.[f111] Baso without protesting came\ndown from his seat and returned to his own room. He then called Hyakujo\nand asked him why he rolled up the matting before he uttered a\nword.\n\n\u201cYesterday you twisted my nose,\u201d replied Hyakujo, \u201cand it was quite\npainful.\u201d\n\n\u201cWhere,\u201d said Baso, \u201cwas your thought wandering then?\u201d\n\n\u201cIt is not painful any more to-day, master.\u201d How differently he\nbehaves now! When his nose was pinched, he was quite an ignoramus in\nthe secrets of Zen. He is now a golden-haired lion, he is master of\nhimself, and acts so freely as if he owned the world, pushing away even\nhis own master far into the background.\n\nThere is no doubt that satori goes deep into the very root of\nindividuality. The change achieved thereby is quite remarkable, as we\nsee in the examples above cited.\n\n\n                                  VI\n\nSome masters have left in the form of verse known as \u201cGe\u201d (_g\u0101th\u0101_)\nwhat they perceived or felt at the time when their mental eye was\nopened. The verse has the special name of \u201cT\u014dki-no-ge\u201d[f112][5.22]\nand from the following translations the reader may draw his own\nconclusions as to the nature and content of a satori so highly prized\nby the Zen followers. But there is one thing to which I like to call\nhis attention, which is that the contents of these g\u0101th\u0101s are so\nvaried and dissimilar as far as their literary and intelligible sense\nis concerned that one may be at a loss how to make a comparison of\nthese divers exclamations. Being sometimes merely descriptive verses\nof the feelings of the author at the moment of satori, analysis is\nimpossible unless the critic himself has once experienced them in his\nown inner life. Nevertheless these verses will be of interest to the\npsychological students of Buddhist mysticism even as merely emotional\nutterances of the supreme moment.\n\nThe following is by Ch\u014dkei (Chang-ching, died 932) whose eye was opened\nwhen he was rolling up the screen:\n\n  \u201cHow deluded I was! How deluded, indeed!\n   Lift up the screen, and come see the world!\n   \u2018What religion believest thou?\u2019 you ask.\n   I raise my hossu[f113] and hit your mouth.\u201d[5.23]\n\nH\u014dyen (Fa-yen) of Gosozan (wu-tso-shan), who died in 1104, succeeded\nShutan (Shou-tuan), of Haku-un (Pai-y\u00fcn), and was the teacher of Yengo\n(Y\u00fcan-wu), composed the following when his mental eye was first opened:\n\n  \u201cA patch of farm land quietly lies by the hill,\n   Crossing my hands over the chest I ask the old farmer kindly:\n   \u2018How often have you sold it and bought it back by yourself?\u2019\n   I like the pines and bamboos that invite a refreshing breeze.\u201d[5.24]\n\nYengo (Y\u00fcan-wu, 1063\u20131135) was one of the greatest teachers in the Sung\ndynasty and the author of a Zen textbook known as the _Hekiganshu_. His\nverse stands in such contrast to that of his teacher, H\u014dyen, and the\nreader will find it hard to unearth anything of Zen from the following\nromanticism:\n\n  \u201cThe golden duck no more issues odorous smoke behind the brocade\n     screens,\n   Amidst flute-playing and singing, he retreats, thoroughly in liquor\n     and supported by others:\n   A happy event in the life of a romantic youth,\n   It is his sweetheart alone that is allowed to know.\u201d[5.25]\n\nYenju, of Y\u014dmeiji (Yung-ming Yen-shou, 904\u2013975), who belonged to\nthe H\u014dgen School of Zen Buddhism, was the author of a book called\n\u201cShuky\u014droku\u201d (_Record of Truth-Mirror_) in one hundred fasciculi, and\nflourished in the early Sung. His realisation took place when he heard\na bundle of fuel dropping on the ground.\n\n  \u201cSomething dropped! It is no other thing;\n   Right and left, there is nothing earthy:\n   Rivers and mountains and the great earth,\u2014\n   In them all revealed is the Body of the Dharmar\u0101ja.\u201d[5.26]\n\nThe first of the following two verses is by Y\u014ddainen (Yang Tai-nien,\n973\u20131020), a statesman of the Sung dynasty,\u201d[5.27] and the second by\nIku, of Tory\u014d (Tu-ling Y\u00fc),[5.28] who was a disciple of Y\u014dgi\n(Yang-ch\u2018i, 1024\u20141072), the founder of the Y\u014dgi Branch of the Rinzai\nSchool.\n\n  \u201cAn octagonal millstone rushes through the air;\n   A golden-coloured lion has turned into a cur:\n   If you want to hide yourself in the North Star,\n   Turn round and fold your hands behind the South Star.\u201d\n\n  \u201cI have one jewel shining bright,\n   Long buried it was underneath worldly worries;\n   This morning the dusty veil is off, and restored is its lustre,\n   Illumining rivers and mountains and ten thousand things.\u201d\n\nA sufficient variety of the verses[f114] has been given here to show\nhow they vary from one another and how it is impossible to suggest any\nintelligible explanation of the content of satori by merely comparing\nthem or by analysing them. Some of them are easily understood, I\nsuppose, as expressive of the feeling of a new revelation; but as to\nwhat that revelation itself is, it will require a certain amount of\npersonal knowledge to be able to describe it more intelligently. In\nany event all these masters testify to the fact that there is such a\nthing in Zen as satori through which one is admitted into a new world\nof value. The old way of viewing things is abandoned and the world\nacquires a new signification. Some of them would declare that they were\n\u201cdeluded\u201d or that their \u201cprevious knowledge\u201d was thrown into oblivion,\nwhile others would confess they were hitherto unaware of a new beauty\nwhich exists in the \u201crefreshing breeze\u201d and in the \u201cshining jewel.\u201d\n\n\n                                  VII\n\nWhen our consideration is limited to the objective side of satori as\nillustrated so far, it does not appear to be a very extraordinary\nthing\u2014this opening an eye to the truth of Zen. The master makes some\nremarks, and if they happen to be opportune enough, the disciple will\ncome at once to a realisation and see into a mystery hitherto undreamed\nof. It seems all to depend upon what kind of mood or what state of\nmental preparedness one is in at the moment. Zen is after all a\nhaphazard affair, one may be tempted to think. But when we know that\nit took Nangaku (Nan-y\u00fceh) eight long years to answer the question,\n\u201cWho is he that thus cometh towards me?\u201d we shall realise the fact that\nthere was in him a great deal of mental anguish and tribulation which\nhe had to go through with before he could come to the final solution\nand declare, \u201cEven when one asserts that it is a somewhat, one misses\nit altogether.\u201d[5.29] We must try to look into the psychological aspect\nof satori, where is revealed the inner mechanism of opening the door\nto the eternal secrets of the human soul. This is done best by quoting\nsome of the masters themselves whose introspective statements are on\nrecord.\n\nK\u014dh\u014d (Kao-f\u00eang, 1238\u20131285)[5.30] was one of the great masters in\nthe latter part of the Sung dynasty. When his master first let him\nattend to the \u201cJ\u014dshu\u2019s Mu,\u201d[f115][5.31] he exerted himself hard on the\nproblem. One day his master, Setsugan (Hs\u00fceh-yen), suddenly asked him,\n\u201cWho is it that carries for you this lifeless corpse of yours?\u201d[5.32]\nThe poor fellow did not know what to make of the question; for the\nmaster was merciless and it was usually followed by a hard knocking\ndown. Later in the midst of his sleep one night he recalled the fact\nthat once when he was under another master he was told to find out\nthe ultimate signification of the statement, \u201cAll things return to\none\u201d[f116][5.33]; and this kept him up the rest of that night and\nthrough the several days and nights that succeeded. While in this state\nof an extreme mental tension, he found himself one day looking at\nGoso Hoyen\u2019s verse on his own portrait, which partly read,[5.34]\n\n  \u201cOne hundred years\u2014thirty-six thousand morns,\n   This same old fellow moveth on for ever!\u201d\n\nThis at once made him dissolve his eternal doubt as to \u201cWho\u2019s carrying\naround this lifeless body of yours?\u201d He was baptised and became an\naltogether new man.\n\nHe leaves us in his \u201cGoroku,\u201d (_Sayings Recorded_) an account of those\ndays of the mental strain in the following narrative: \u201cIn olden days\nwhen I was at S\u014dkei (Shuang-ching), and before one month was over after\nmy return to the Meditation Hall there, one night while deep in sleep I\nsuddenly found myself fixing my attention on the question: \u2018All things\nreturn to the One, but where does this One return?\u2019 My attention was\nso rigidly fixed on this that I neglected sleeping, forgot to eat,\nand did not distinguish east from west, nor morning from night. While\nspreading the napkin, producing the bowls, or attending to my natural\nwants, whether I moved or rested, whether I talked or kept silent, my\nwhole existence was wrapt up with the question, \u2018Where does this one\nreturn?\u2019 No other thoughts ever disturbed my consciousness; no, even\nif I wanted to stir up the least bit of thought irrelevant to the\ncentral one, I could not do so. It was like being screwed up or glued;\nhowever much I tried to shake myself off, it refused to move. Though\nI was in the midst of a crowd or congregation I felt as if I were all\nby myself. From morning till evening, from evening till morning, so\ntransparent, so tranquil, so majestically above all things were my\nfeelings! Absolutely pure and not a particle of dust! My one thought\ncovered eternity; so calm was the outside world, so oblivious of the\nexistence of other people I was. Like an idiot, like an imbecile,\nsix days and nights thus elapsed when I entered the Shrine with the\nrest, reciting the Sutras, and happened to raise my head and looked\nat the verse by Goso. This made me all of a sudden awake from the\nspell, and the meaning of \u2018Who carries this lifeless corpse of yours?\u2019\nburst upon me,\u2014the question once given by my old master. I felt as\nif this boundless space itself were broken up into pieces, and the\ngreat earth were altogether levelled away. I forgot myself, I\nforgot the world, it was like one mirror reflecting another. I tried\nseveral k\u014d-an in my mind and found them so transparently clear! I was\nno more deceived as to the wonderful working of Praj\u00f1\u0101 (transcendental\nwisdom).\u201d When K\u014dho saw his old master later,[5.35] the latter lost no\ntime in asking him, \u201cWho is it that carries this lifeless corpse of\nyours?\u201d K\u014dho burst out a \u201cKwats!\u201d Thereupon the master took up a stick\nready to give him a blow, but the disciple held it back saying, \u201cYou\ncannot give me a blow to-day.\u201d \u201cWhy can\u2019t I?\u201d was the master\u2019s demand.\nInstead of replying to him, however, K\u014dho left the room briskly. The\nfollowing day the master asked him. \u201cAll things return to the One, and\nwhere does the One return to?\u201d \u201cThe dog is lapping the boiling water\nin the cauldron.\u201d \u201cWhere did you get this nonsense?\u201d reprimanded the\nmaster. \u201cYou had better ask yourself,\u201d promptly came the response. The\nmaster rested well satisfied.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nHakuin (1683\u20131768)[f117][5.36] is another of those masters who have\nput down their first Zen experience in writing, and we read in his\nbook entitled _Orategama_[5.37] the following account: \u201cWhen I was\ntwenty-four years old, I stayed at the Yegan Monastery, of Echigo.\n[\u201cJoshu\u2019s Mu\u201d being my theme at the time] I assiduously applied myself\nto it. I did not sleep days and nights, forgot both eating and lying\ndown, when quite abruptly a great mental fixation[f118][5.38] (_tai-i_)\ntook place. I felt as if freezing in an ice-field extending thousands\nof miles, and within myself there was a sense of utmost transparency.\nThere was no going forward, no slipping backward; I was like an idiot,\nlike an imbecile, and there was nothing but \u2018J\u014dshu\u2019s Mu.\u2019 Though I\nattended the lectures by the master, they sounded like a discussion\ngoing on somewhere in a distant hall, many yards away. Sometimes my\nsensation was that of one flying in the air. Several days passed\nin this state, when one evening a temple-bell struck which upset the\nwhole thing. It was like smashing an ice-basin, or pulling down a\nhouse made of jade. When I suddenly awoke again, I found that I myself\nwas Ganto[f119] (Yen-t\u2018ou) the old master, and that all through the\nshifting changes of time not a bit [of my personality] was lost.\nWhatever doubts and indecisions I had before were completely dissolved\nlike a piece of thawing ice. I called out loudly, \u2018How wondrous! how\nwondrous!; There is no birth-and-death from which one has to escape,\nnor is there any supreme knowledge (_Bodhi_) after which one has to\nstrive. All the complications[f120] past and present, numbering one\nthousand seven hundred are not worth the trouble of even describing\nthem.\u2019\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe case of Bukko (Fo-kuang) the National Teacher[f121] was more\nextraordinary than that of Hakuin, and fortunately in this case, too,\nwe have his own recording of it in detail. \u201cWhen I was fourteen,\u201d\nwrites Bukko, \u201cI went up to Kinzan. When seventeen I made up my mind\nto study Buddhism and began to unravel the mysteries of \u2018J\u014dshu\u2019s\nMu.\u2019 I expected to finish the matter within one year, but I did not\ncome to any understanding of it after all. Another year passed without\nmuch avail, and three more years, also finding myself with no progress.\nIn the fifth or sixth year, while no special change came over me, the\n\u2018Mu\u2019 became so inseparably attached to me that I could not get away\nfrom it even while asleep. This whole universe seemed to be nothing\nbut the \u2018Mu\u2019 itself. In the meantime I was told by an old monk to set\nit aside for a while and see how things would go with me. According to\nthis advice, I dropped the matter altogether and sat quietly. But owing\nto the fact that the \u2018Mu\u2019 had been with me so long, I could in no way\nshake it off however much I tried. When I was sitting, I forgot that I\nwas sitting; nor was I conscious of my own body. Nothing but a sense\nof utter blankness prevailed. Half a year thus passed. Like a bird\nescaped from its cage, my mind, my consciousness moved about [without\nrestraint] sometimes eastward, sometimes westward, sometimes northward\nor southward. Sitting[f122] through two days in succession, or through\none day and night I did not feel any fatigue.\n\n\u201cAt the time there were about nine hundred monks residing in the\nmonastery, among whom there were many devoted students of Zen. One day\nwhile sitting, I felt as if my mind and my body were separated from\neach other and lost the chance of getting back together. All the monks\nabout me thought that I was quite dead, but an old monk among them said\nthat I was frozen to a state of immovability while absorbed in deep\nmeditation, and that if I were covered up with warm clothings, I should\nby myself come to my senses. This proved true, for I finally awoke from\nit; and when I asked the monks near my seat how long I had been in that\ncondition, they told me it was one day and night.\n\n\u201cAfter this, I still kept up my practice of sitting. I could now sleep\na little. When I closed my eyes, a broad expanse of emptiness presented\nitself before them, which then assumed the form of a farmyard. Through\nthis piece of land I walked and walked until I got thoroughly\nfamiliar with the ground. But as soon as my eyes were opened, the\nvision altogether disappeared. One night sitting far into the night I\nkept my eyes open and was aware of my sitting up in my seat. All of a\nsudden the sound of striking the board in front of the head-monk\u2019s room\nreached my ear, which at once revealed me the \u2018original man\u2019 in full.\nThere was then no more of that vision which appeared at the closing of\nmy eyes. Hastily I came down from the seat and ran out into the moonlit\nnight and went up to the garden house called Ganki, where looking up\nto the sky I laughed loudly, \u2018Oh, how great is the Dharmak\u0101ya! Oh, how\ngreat and immense for evermore!\u2019\n\n\u201cThence my joy knew no bounds. I could not quietly sit in the\nMeditation Hall; I went about with no special purpose in the mountains\nwalking this way and that. I thought of the sun and the moon traversing\nin a day through a space 4,000,000,000 miles wide. \u2018My present abode\nis in China,\u2019 I reflected then, \u2018And they say the district of Yang is\nthe centre of the earth. If so, this place must be 2,000,000,000 miles\naway from where the sun rises; and how is it that as soon as it comes\nup, its rays lose no time in striking my face?\u2019 I reflected again,\n\u2018The rays of my own eye must travel just as instantaneously as those\nof the sun as it reaches the latter; my eyes, my mind, are they not\nthe Dharmak\u0101ya itself?\u2019 Thinking thus, I felt all the bounds snapped\nand broken to pieces that had been tying me for so many ages. How many\nnumberless years had I been sitting in the hole of ants! To-day even\nin every pore of my skin there lie all the Buddha-lands in the ten\nquarters! I thought within myself, \u2018Even if I have no greater satori, I\nam now all sufficient unto myself.\u2019\u201d\n\nHere is the stanza[5.41] composed by Bukko at the great moment of\nsatori, describing his inner feelings:\n\n  \u201cWith one stroke I have completely smashed the cave of the ghosts;\n   Behold, there rushes out the iron face of the monster Nata!\n   Both my ears are as deaf and my tongue is tied;\n   If thou touchest it idly, the fiery star shoots out!\u201d[f123]\n\n\n                                 VIII\n\nThese cases will be sufficient to show what mental process one has to\ngo through with before the opening of satori takes place. Of course\nthese are prominent examples and highly accentuated, and every satori\nis not preceded by such an extraordinary degree of concentration. But\nan experience more or less like these must be the necessary antecedent\nto all satori, especially to that which is to be gone through with\nat the outset of the study. The mirror of mind or the field of\nconsciousness then seems to be so thoroughly swept clean as not to\nleave a particle of dust on it. When thus all mentation is temporarily\nsuspended, even the consciousness of an effort to keep an idea focussed\nat the centre of attention is gone, that is, when, as the Zen followers\nsay, the mind is so completely possessed or identified with its object\nof thought that even the consciousness of identity is lost as when one\nmirror reflects another, the subject feels as if living in a crystal\npalace, all transparent, refreshing, buoyant, and royal. But the end\nhas not yet been reached, this being merely the preliminary condition\nleading to the consummation called satori. If the mind remains in this\nstate of fixation, there will be no occasion for its being awakened\nto the truth of Zen. The state of \u201cGreat Doubt\u201d (_tai-gi_), as it is\ntechnically known, is the antecedent. It must be broken up and exploded\ninto the next stage, which is looking into one\u2019s nature or the opening\nof satori.\n\nThe explosion, as it is nothing else, generally takes place when this\nfinely balanced equilibrium tilts for one reason or another. A stone is\nthrown into a sheet of water in perfect stillness, and the disturbance\nat once spreads all over the surface. It is somewhat like this.\nA sound knocks at the gate of consciousness so tightly closed, and it\nat once reverberates through the entire being of the individual. He is\nawakened in the most vivid sense of the word. He comes out baptised in\nthe fire of creation. He has seen the work of God in his very workshop.\nThe occasion may not necessarily be the hearing of a temple bell, it\nmay be reading a stanza, or seeing something moving, or the sense of\ntouch irritated, when a most highly accentuated state of concentration\nbursts out into a satori.\n\nThe concentration, however, may not be kept up to such an almost\nabnormal degree as in the case of Bukko. It may last just a second or\ntwo, and if it is the right kind of concentration and rightly handled\nby the master, the inevitable opening of the mind will follow. When\nthe monk J\u014d (Ting) asked Rinzai,[5.42] \u201cWhat is the ultimate principle\nof Buddhism?\u201d the master came right down from his seat, took hold of\nthe monk, slapped him with his hand, and pushed him away from him. The\nmonk stood stupefied. A bystander suggested, \u201cWhy don\u2019t you make a\nbow?\u201d Obeying the order, J\u014d was about to bow when he abruptly awoke to\nthe truth of Zen. In this case Jo\u2019s self-absorption or concentration\ndid not seemingly last very long, the bowing was the turning point,\nit broke up the spell and restored him to sense, not to an ordinary\nsense of awareness, but to the inward consciousness of his own being.\nGenerally we have no records of the inner working prior to a satori,\nand may pass lightly over the event as a merely happy incident or some\nintellectual trick having no deeper background. When we read such\nrecords, we have to supply from our own experience, whatever this is,\nall the necessary antecedent conditions for breaking up into a satori.\n\n\n                                  IX\n\nSo far the phenomenon called satori in Zen Buddhism has been treated\nas constituting the essence of Zen, as the turning point in one\u2019s life\nwhich opens the mind to a wider and deeper world, as something to be\ngleaned even from a most trivial incident of everyday life; and\nthen it was explained how satori is to come out of one\u2019s inner life,\nand not by any outside help except as merely indicating the way to it.\nNext I proceeded to describe what a change satori brings in one\u2019s idea\nof things, that is, how it all upsets the former valuation of things\ngenerally, making one stand now entirely on a different footing. For\nillustrations, some verses were quoted which were composed by the\nmasters at the moment of their attainment of satori. They are mostly\ndescriptive of the feelings they experienced,, such as those by Bukko\nand Y\u014ddainen and Yengo and others are typical of this class, as they\nhave almost no intellectual elements in them. If one tries to pick up\nsomething from these verses by a mere analytical process, one will\nbe greatly disappointed. The psychological side of satori which is\nminutely narrated by Hakuin and others will be of great interest to\nthose who are desirous of making a psychological inquiry into Zen. Of\ncourse these narratives alone will not do, for there are many other\nthings one has to consider in order to study it thoroughly, among\nwhich I may mention the general Buddhist attitude towards life and the\nworld and the historical atmosphere in which the students of Zen find\nthemselves.\n\nI wish to close this Essay by making a few general remarks in the way\nof recapitulation on the Buddhist experience known as satori.\n\n1. People often imagine that the discipline of Zen is to induce a state\nof self-suggestion through meditation. This is not quite right. As we\ncan see from the various instances above cited, satori does not consist\nin producing a certain premeditated condition by intensely thinking\nof it. It is the growing conscious of a new power in the mind, which\nenables it to judge things from a new point of view. Even since the\nunfoldment of consciousness we have been led to respond to the inner\nand outer conditions in a certain conceptual and analytical manner. The\ndiscipline of Zen consists in upsetting this artificially constructed\nframework once for all and in re-modelling it on an entirely new\nbasis. The older frame is called \u201cIgnorance\u201d (_avidy\u0101_) and the new\none \u201cEnlightenment\u201d (_sa\u1e41bodhi_). It is evident therefore that\nmeditating on a metaphysical or symbolical statement which is a product\nof our relative consciousness plays no part in Zen, as I have touched\non this in the Introduction.\n\n2. Without the attainment of satori no one can enter into the mystery\nof Zen. It is the sudden flashing of a new truth hitherto altogether\nundreamed of. It is a sort of mental catastrophe taking place all at\nonce after so much piling of matters intellectual and demonstrative.\nThe piling has reached its limit and the whole edifice has now come\nto the ground when behold a new heaven is opened to your full survey.\nWater freezes suddenly when it reaches a certain point, the liquid\nhas turned into a solidity, and it no more flows. Satori comes upon\nyou unawares when you feel you have exhausted your whole being.\nReligiously this is a new birth, and, morally, the revaluation of one\u2019s\nrelationship to the world. The latter now appears to be dressed in a\ndifferent garment which covers up all the ugliness of dualism, which\nis called in Buddhist phraseology delusion (_m\u0101y\u0101_) born of reasoning\n(_tarka_) and error (_vikalpa_).\n\n3. Satori is the raison d\u2019\u00eatre of Zen, and without which Zen is no\nZen. Therefore every contrivance (_up\u0101ya_) disciplinary or doctrinal\nis directed toward the attainment of satori. Zen masters could\nnot remain patient for satori to come by itself, that is, to come\nsporadically and at its own pleasure. They earnestly seek out some\nway to make people deliberately or systematically realise the truth\nof Zen. Their manifestly enigmatical presentations of it were mostly\nto create a state of mind in their disciples, which would pave the\nway to the enlightenment of Zen. All the intellectual demonstrations\nand exhortatory persuasions so far carried out by most religious\nand philosophical leaders failed to produce the desired effect. The\ndisciples were led further and further astray. Especially when Buddhism\nwas introduced into China with all its Indian equipments, with its\nhighly metaphysical abstractions, and in a most complicated system of\nmoral discipline, the Chinese were at a loss how to grasp the central\npoint of the doctrine of Buddhism. Daruma, Yeno, Baso, and other\nmasters noticed the fact. The natural outcome was the proclamation\nof Zen, satori was placed above Sutra-reading and scholarly discussion\nof the \u015aastras, and it came to be identified with Zen. Zen therefore\nwithout satori is like pepper without its pungency. But at the same\ntime we must not forget that there is such a thing as too much satori,\nwhich is indeed to be detested.\n\n4. This emphasising in Zen of satori above everything else makes the\nfact quite significant that Zen is not a system of dhyana as practised\nin India and by other schools of Buddhism than the Zen. By dhyana\nis understood popularly a kind of meditation or contemplation, that\nis, the fixing of thought, especially in Mahayana Buddhism, on the\ndoctrine of emptiness (_\u015b\u016bnyat\u0101_). When the mind is so trained as to\nbe able to realise the state of perfect void in which there is not\na trace of consciousness left, even the sense of being unconscious\nhaving departed, in other words, when all forms of mental activity are\nswept clean from the field of consciousness which is now like a sky\ndevoid of every speck of cloud, a mere broad expanse of blue, dhyana\nis said to have reached its perfection. This may be called ecstasy or\ntrance, but it is not Zen. In Zen there must be a satori; there must\nbe a general mental upheaval which destroys the old accumulations of\nintellectuality and lays down a foundation for a new faith; there must\nbe the awakening of a new sense which will review the old things from\nan angle of perception entirely and most refreshingly new. In dhyana\nthere are none of these things, for it is merely a quieting exercise of\nthe mind. As such it has doubtless its own merits, but Zen ought not to\nbe identified with such dhyanas. The Buddha therefore got dissatisfied\nwith his two Sankhya teachers, in whose teaching the meditations were\nso many stages of self-abstraction or thought-annihilation.\n\n5. Satori is not seeing God as he is, as may be contended by some\nChristian mystics. Zen has from the very beginning made clear its\nprincipal thesis, which is to see into the work of creation and not\ninterview the creator himself. The latter may be found then busy\nmoulding his universe, but Zen can go along with its own work even when\nhe is not found there. It is not depending on his support. When it\ngrasps the reason of living a life, it is satisfied. H\u014dyen, of Gosozan,\nused to produce his own hand and asked his disciples why it is called\na hand. When one knows the reason, there is satori and one has Zen.\nWhereas, with the God of mysticism there is the grasping of a definite\nobject, and when you have God, what is not God is excluded. This is\nself-limiting. Zen wants absolute freedom, even from God. \u201cNo abiding\nplace\u201d means that; \u201cCleanse your mouth even when you utter the word\n\u2018Buddha\u2019\u201d amounts to the same thing. It is not that Zen wants to be\nmorbidly unholy and godless, but that it knows the incompleteness of a\nname. Therefore, when Yakusan (Y\u00fceh-shan) was asked to give a lecture,\nhe did not say a word, but instead came down from the pulpit and went\noff to his own room. Hyakujo (Pai-chang) merely walked forward a few\nsteps, stood still, and opened his arms\u2014which was his exposition of the\ngreat principle of Buddhism.[5.43]\n\n6. Satori is the most intimate individual experience and therefore\ncannot be expressed in words or described in any manner. All that\none can do in the way of communicating the experience to others is\nto suggest or indicate, and this only tentatively. The one who has\nhad it understands readily enough when such indications are given,\nbut when we try to have a glimpse of it through the indices given we\nutterly fail. We are then like the man who says that he loves the most\nbeautiful woman in the world and yet who knows nothing of her pedigree\nor social position, of her personal name or family name, knows nothing\nof her individuality physical as well as moral. We are again like the\nman who puts up a staircase in a place where four crossroads meet, to\nmount up thereby into the upper story of a mansion, and yet who knows\nnot just where that mansion is, in the East or West, in the North or\nSouth. The Buddha was quite to the point when he thus derided all\nthose philosophers and vain talkers of his day, who merely dealt in\nabstractions, empty hearsays, and fruitless indications. Zen therefore\nwants us to build the staircase right at the front of the very palace\ninto whose upper story we are to mount up. When we can say, \u201cThis\nis the very personality, this is the very house,\u201d we have the satori\ninterviewed face to face and realised by oneself. (_Di\u1e6d\u1e6dhe va dhamme\nsaya\u1e41 abhi\u00f1\u00f1\u0101 sacchikatv\u0101_.)\n\n7. Satori is not a morbid state of mind, a fit subject for abnormal\npsychology. If anything, it is a perfectly normal state of mind. When\nI speak of a mental upheaval, one may be led to consider Zen something\nto be shunned by ordinary people. This is a mistaken view of Zen,\nunfortunately often held by prejudiced critics. As Nansen (Nan-ch\u2018\u00fcan)\ndeclared, it is your \u201ceveryday thought.\u201d When later a monk asked a\nmaster[f124] what was meant by \u201ceveryday thought,\u201d he said,\n\n  \u201cDrinking tea, eating rice,\n   I pass my time as it comes;\n   Looking down at the stream, looking up at the mountains,\n   How serene and relaxed I feel indeed!\u201d\n\nIt all depends upon the adjustment of the hinge whether the door\nopens in or out. Even in the twinkling of an eye, the whole affair is\nchanged, and you have Zen, and you are as perfect and normal as ever.\nMore than that, you have in the meantime acquired something altogether\nnew. All your mental activities are now working to a different key,\nwhich is more satisfying, more peaceful, and fuller of joy than\nanything you ever had. The tone of your life is altered. There is\nsomething rejuvenating in it. The spring flowers look prettier, and\nthe mountain stream runs cooler and more transparent. The subjective\nrevolution that brings out this state of things cannot be called\nabnormal. When life becomes more enjoyable and its expanse is as broad\nas the universe itself, there must be something in satori quite healthy\nand worth one\u2019s striving after its attainment.\n\n8. We are supposedly living in the same world, but who can tell the\nthing we popularly call a stone lying before this window is the same\nthing to all of us? According to the way we look at it, to some\nthe stone ceases to be a stone, while to others it forever remains\na worthless specimen of geological product. And this initial\ndivergence of views calls forth an endless series of divergencies later\nin our moral and spiritual lives. Just a little twisting as it were in\nour modes of thinking and yet what a world of difference will grow up\neventually between one another! So with Zen, satori is this twisting\nor rather screwing, not in the wrong way, but in a deeper and fuller\nsense, and the result is the revelation of a world of entirely new\nvalues.\n\nAgain, you and I sip a cup of tea. The act is apparently alike, but\nwho can tell what a wide gap there is subjectively between you and me?\nIn your drinking there may be no Zen while mine is brimful of it. The\nreason is, the one moves in the logical circle and the other is out of\nit; that is to say, in one case rigid rules of intellection so called\nare asserting themselves, and the actor even when acting is unable to\nunfetter himself from these intellectual bonds; while in the other case\nthe subject has struck a new path and is not at all conscious of the\nduality of his act, in him life is not split into object and subject\nor into acting and acted. The drinking at the moment to him means the\nwhole fact, the whole world. Zen lives and is therefore free, whereas\nour \u201cordinary\u201d life is in bondage; satori is the first step to freedom.\n\n9. Satori is Enlightenment (_sa\u1e41bodhi_). As long as Buddhism is the\ndoctrine of Enlightenment as we all know from its earliest literature\nas well as from its later one, and as long as Zen asserts satori\nto be its culmination, satori must be said to represent the very\nspirit of the Buddhist teaching. When it announces itself to be the\ntransmission of the Buddha-citta (_fo-hsin_) not dependent upon the\nlogical and discursive exposition in the canonical writings, either\nHinayana or Mahayana, it is by no means exaggerating its fundamental\ncharacteristic as distinguished from the other schools of Buddhism\nthat have grown up in Japan and China. Whatever this may be, there is\nno doubt that Zen is one of the most precious and in many respects the\nmost remarkable spiritual possessions bequeathed to Eastern people.\nEven when it is considered the Buddhist form of speculative mysticism\nnot unknown to the West in the philosophy of Plotinus, Eckhart, and\ntheir followers, its complete literature alone since the sixth\npatriarch, Yeno (Hui-n\u00eang, 637\u2013713), so well preserved, is worth the\nserious study of scholars and truth-seekers. And then the whole body\nof the k\u014d-ans systematically grading the progress of the spiritual\nawakening is the wonderful treasure in the hands of the Zen monks in\nJapan at present.\n\n\n\n\n                 PRACTICAL METHODS OF ZEN INSTRUCTION\n\n\n                 PRACTICAL METHODS OF ZEN INSTRUCTION\n\n\u201cWhat is Zen?\u201d This is one of the most difficult questions to answer,\nI mean, to the satisfaction of the inquirer; for Zen refuses even\ntentatively to be defined or described in any manner. The best way to\nunderstand it will be of course to study and practise it at least some\nyears in the Meditation Hall. Therefore, even after the reader has\ncarefully gone over this Essay, he will still be at sea as to the real\nsignification of Zen. It is, in fact, in the very nature of Zen that\nit evades all definition and explanation, that is to say, Zen cannot\nbe converted into ideas, it can never be described in logical terms.\nFor this reason, the Zen masters declare that it is \u201cindependent of\nletter,\u201d being \u201ca special transmission outside the orthodox teachings.\u201d\nBut the purpose of this Essay is not just to demonstrate that Zen\nis an unintelligible thing and that there is no use of attempting\nto discourse about it. My object, on the contrary, will be to make\nit clear to the fullest extent of my ability, however imperfect and\ninadequate that may be. And there are several ways to do this. Zen\nmay be treated psychologically, ontologically, or epistemologically,\nor historically as I did in the first part of this book to a certain\nextent. These are all extremely interesting each in its way, but they\nare a great undertaking requiring years of preparation. What here\nI propose to do, therefore, will be a practical exposition of the\nsubject-matter by giving some aspects of the _modus operandi_ of Zen\ninstruction as carried out by the masters for the enlightenment of the\npupils. The perusal of these accounts will help us to get into the\nspirit of Zen to the limits of its intelligibility.\n\n\n                                   I\n\nAs I conceive it, Zen is the ultimate fact of all philosophy and\nreligion. Every intellectual effort must culminate in it or\nrather must start from it, if it is to bear any practical fruits.\nEvery religious faith must spring from it if it has to prove at all\nefficiently and livingly workable in our active life. Therefore, Zen\nis not necessarily the fountain of Buddhist thought and life alone;\nit is very much alive also in Christianity, Mahommedanism, in Taoism,\nand even in positivistic Confucianism. What makes all these religions\nand philosophies vital and inspiring, keeping up their usefulness and\nefficiency, is due to the presence in them of what I may designate as\nthe Zen element. Mere scholasticism or mere sacerdotalism will never\ncreate a living faith. Religion requires something inwardly propelling,\nenergising, and capable of doing work. The intellect is useful in\nits place, but when it tries to cover the whole field of religion it\ndries up the source of life. Feeling or mere faith is so blind and\nwill grasp anything that may come across and hold to it as the final\nreality. Fanaticism is vital enough as far as its explosiveness is\nconcerned, but this is not a true religion, and its practical sequence\nis the destruction of the whole system, not to speak of the fate of\nits own being. Zen is what makes the religious feeling run through its\nlegitimate channel and what gives life to the intellect.\n\nZen does this by giving one a new point of view of looking at things,\na new way of appreciating the truth and beauty of life and the\nworld, by discovering a new source of energy in the inmost recesses\nof consciousness, and by bestowing on one a feeling of completeness\nand sufficiency. That is to say, Zen works miracles by overhauling\nthe whole system of one\u2019s inner life and opening up a world hitherto\nentirely undreamt of. This may be called a resurrection. And Zen tends\nto emphasise the speculative element, though confessedly it opposes\nthis, more than anything else in the whole process of the spiritual\nrevolution, and in this respect Zen is truly Buddhistic. Or it may be\nbetter to say that Zen makes use of the phraseology belonging to the\nsciences of speculative philosophy. Evidently, the feeling element\nis not so prominently visible in Zen as in the Pure Land sects where\n\u201cbakti\u201d (faith) is all in all; Zen on the other hand emphasises the\nfaculty of seeing (_dar\u015bana_) or knowing (_vidy\u0101_) though not in\nthe sense of reasoning out, but in that of intuitively grasping.\n\nAccording to the philosophy of Zen, we are too much of a slave to the\nconventional way of thinking, which is dualistic through and through.\nNo \u201cinterpenetration\u201d is allowed, there takes place no fusing of\nopposites in our everyday logic. What belongs to God is not of this\nworld, and what is of this world is incompatible with the divine. Black\nis not white, and white is not black. Tiger is tiger, and cat is cat,\nand they will never be one. Water flows, a mountain towers. This is the\nway things or ideas go in this universe of the senses and syllogisms.\nZen, however, upsets this scheme of thought and substitutes a new one\nin which there exists no logic, no dualistic arrangement of ideas.\nWe believe in dualism chiefly because of our traditional training.\nWhether ideas really correspond to facts is another matter requiring a\nspecial investigation. Ordinarily, we do not inquire into the matter,\nwe just accept what is instilled into our minds; for to accept is more\nconvenient and practical, and life is to a certain extent, though\nnot in reality, made thereby easier. We are in nature conservatists,\nnot because we are lazy, but because we like repose and peace, even\nsuperficially. But the time comes when traditional logic holds no more\ntrue, for we begin to feel contradictions and splits and consequently\nspiritual anguish. We lose trustful repose which we experienced when\nwe blindly followed the traditional ways of thinking. Eckhart says\nthat we are all seeking repose whether consciously or not, just as the\nstone cannot cease moving until it touches the earth. Evidently, the\nrepose we seemed to enjoy before we were awakened to the contradictions\ninvolved in our logic, was not the real one, the stone has kept moving\ndown towards the ground. Where then is the ground of non-dualism on\nwhich the soul can be really and truthfully tranquil and blessed? To\nquote Eckhart again, \u201cSimple people conceive that we are to see God\nas if He stood on that side and we on this. It is not so; God and I\nare one in the act of my perceiving Him.\u201d In this absolute oneness of\nthings Zen establishes the foundations of its philosophy.\n\nThe idea of absolute oneness is not the exclusive possession of\nZen, there are other religions and philosophies that preach the same\ndoctrine. If Zen, like other monisms or theisms, merely laid down this\nprinciple and did not have anything specifically to be known as Zen, it\nwould have long ceased to exist as such. But there is in Zen something\nunique which makes up its life and justifies its claim to be the most\nprecious heritage of Eastern culture. The following \u201cmondo\u201d or dialogue\n(literally, questioning and answering)[6.1] will give us a glimpse into\nthe ways of Zen. A monk asked J\u014dshu (Chao-chou), one of the greatest\nmasters in China,[6.2] \u201cWhat is the one ultimate word of truth?\u201d\nInstead of giving him any specific answer, he made a simple response\nsaying, \u201cYes.\u201d The monk who naturally failed to see any sense in this\nkind of response asked for a second time, and to this the master roared\nback, \u201cI am not deaf!\u201d[f125] See how irrelevantly (shall I say?) the\nall-important problem of absolute oneness or of the ultimate reason\nis treated here! But this is characteristic of Zen, this is where Zen\ntranscends logic and overrides the tyranny and misrepresentation of\nideas. As I said before, Zen mistrusts the intellect, does not rely\nupon traditional and dualistic methods of reasoning, and handles\nproblems after its own original manners.\n\nTo cite another instance before going further into the subject proper.\nThe same old J\u014dshu was asked another time, \u201cOne light divides itself\ninto hundreds of thousands of lights; may I ask where this one light\noriginates?\u201d[f126][6.5] This question like the last mentioned is\none of the deepest and most baffling problems of philosophy. But the\nold master did not waste much time in answering the question, nor did\nhe resort to any wordy discussion. He simply threw off one of his shoes\nwithout a remark. What did he mean by it? To understand all this, it is\nnecessary that we should acquire a \u201cthird eye\u201d as they say, and learn\nto look at things from a new point of view.\n\nHow is this new way of looking at things demonstrated by the Zen\nmasters? Their methods are naturally very uncommon, unconventional,\nillogical, and consequently incomprehensible to the uninitiated.\nThe object of the present essay will be to describe those methods\nclassified under the following general headings: I. Verbal Method, and\nII. Direct Method. The first method may be further divided into: 1.\nParadox; 2. Going Beyond Opposites; 3. Contradiction; 4. Affirmation;\n5. Repetition; and 6. Exclamation. The Direct Method, so called, means\na display of physical force, and may be subdivided into several groups\nsuch as gesture, striking, performance of a definite set of acts,\ndirecting others to move about, etc. But as I do not mean to offer here\nany scientific and thoroughgoing classification of the Zen masters\u2019\nways of dealing with their pupils in order to initiate them into the\nmysteries of Zen, I will not attempt to be exhaustive in this article.\nLater I will write fully about the Direct Method. If I make the reader\nacquire here a kind of understanding as to the general tendencies and\npeculiarities of Zen Buddhism, I regard my task as a success.\n\n\n                                  II\n\nIt is well-known that all mystics are fond of paradoxes to expound\ntheir views. For instance, a Christian mystic may say: \u201cGod is real,\nyet he is nothing, infinite emptiness; he is at once all-being and\nno-being. The divine kingdom is real and objective; and at the same\ntime it is within myself\u2014I myself am heaven and hell.\u201d Eckhart\u2019s\n\u201cdivine darkness\u201d or \u201cimmovable mover\u201d is another example. I believe\nwe can casually pick up any such statements in mystic literature, and\ncompile a book of mystic irrationalities. Zen is no exception in this\nrespect, but in its way of thus expressing the truth there is something\nwe may designate characteristically Zen. It principally consists in\nthe concreteness and vividness of expression. It generally refuses to\nlend an ear to abstractions. A few examples will be given. According to\nFudaishi (Fu-ta-shih)[6.8];\n\n  \u201cEmpty-handed I go and yet the spade is in my hands;\n   I walk on foot, and yet on the back of an ox I am riding:\n   When I pass over the bridge,\n   Lo, the water floweth not, but the bridge doth flow.\u201d\n\nThis sounds altogether out of reason, but in fact Zen abounds with such\ngraphic irrationalities. \u201cThe flower is not red, nor is the willow\ngreen\u201d\u2014is one of the best known utterances of Zen, and is regarded\nas the same as its affirmative: \u201cThe flower is red and the willow\nis green.\u201d To put it in logical formula, it will run like this: \u201cA\nis at once A and not-A.\u201d If so, I am I and yet you are I. An Indian\nphilosopher asserts that _Tat twam asi_, Thou art it. If so, heaven is\nhell and God is Devil. To pious orthodox Christians, what a shocking\ndoctrine this Zen is! When Mr Chang drinks Mr Li grows tipsy. The\nsilent thundering Vimalak\u012brti confessed that he was sick because all\nhis fellow-beings were sick. All wise and loving souls must be said\nto be the embodiments of the Great Paradox of the universe. But I am\ndigressing. What I wanted to say was that Zen is more daringly concerte\nin its paradoxes than other mystical teachings. The latter are more\nor less confined to general statements concerning life or God or the\nworld, but Zen carries its paradoxical assertions into every\ndetail of our daily life. It has no hesitation in flatly denying all\nour most familiar facts of experience, \u201cI am writing here and yet I\nhave not written a word. You are perhaps reading this now and yet there\nis not a person in the world who reads. I am utterly blind and deaf,\nbut every colour is recognised and every sound discerned.\u201d The Zen\nmasters will go on like this indefinitely. Basho (Pa-chiao), a Korean\nmonk of the ninth century, once delivered a famous sermon which ran\nthus: \u201cIf you have a staff (_shujo_, or _chu-chang_ in Chinese), I will\ngive you one; if you have not, I will take it away from you.\u201d[6.9]\n\nWhen J\u014dshu, the great Zen master of whom mention was repeatedly made,\nwas asked what he would give when a poverty-stricken fellow should\ncome to him, he replied, \u201cWhat is wanting in him?\u201d[f127][6.10] When he\nwas asked on another occasion, \u201cWhen a man comes to you with nothing,\nwhat would you say to him?\u201d his immediate response was, \u201cCast it\naway!\u201d[6.11] We may ask him, When a man has nothing, what will he cast?\nWhen a man is poor, can he be said to be sufficient unto himself? Is\nhe not in need of everything? Whatever deep meaning there may be in\nthese answers of J\u014dshu, the paradoxes are quite puzzling and baffle our\nlogically trained intellect. \u201cCarry away the farmer\u2019s oxen, and make\noff with the hungry man\u2019s food,\u201d is a favourite phrase with the Zen\nmasters who think we can thus best cultivate our spiritual farm and\nfill up the soul hungry for the substance of things.\n\nIt is related that \u014ckubo Shibun, famous for painting bamboo,\nwas requested to execute a kakemono representing a bamboo forest.\nConsenting, he painted with all his known skill a picture in which the\nentire bamboo grove was in red. The patron upon its receipt marvelled\nat the extraordinary skill with which the painting had been executed,\nand, repairing to the artist\u2019s residence, he said: \u201cMaster, I have come\nto thank you for the picture; but, excuse me, you have painted the\nbamboo red.\u201d \u201cWell,\u201d cried the master, \u201cin what colour would you desire\nit?\u201d \u201cIn black, of course,\u201d replied the patron. \u201cAnd who,\u201d answered\nthe artist, \u201cever saw a black-leaved bamboo?\u201d When one is so used to a\ncertain way of looking at things, one finds it so full of difficulties\nto veer round and start on a new line of procedure. The true colour of\nthe bamboo is perhaps neither red nor black nor green nor any other\ncolour known to us. Perhaps it is red, perhaps it is black just as\nwell. Who knows? The imagined paradoxes may be after all really not\nparadoxes.\n\n\n                                  III\n\nThe next form in which Zen expresses itself is the denial of opposites,\nsomehow corresponding to the mystic \u201cvia negativa.\u201d The point is not to\nbe \u201ccaught\u201d as the masters would say in any of the four propositions\n(_catushkotika_): 1. \u201cIt is A\u201d; 2. \u201cIt is not A\u201d; 3. \u201cIt is both A and\nnot-A\u201d; and 4. \u201cIt is neither A nor not-A.\u201d When we make a negation or\nan assertion, we are sure to get into one of these logical formulas\naccording to the Indian method of reasoning. As long as the intellect\nis to move along the ordinary dualistic groove, this is unavoidable. It\nis in the nature of our logic that any statement we can make is to be\nso expressed. But Zen thinks that the truth can be reached when it is\nneither asserted nor negated. This is indeed the dilemma of life, but\nthe Zen masters are ever insistent on escaping the dilemma. Let us see\nif they escape free.\n\nAccording to Ummon,[6.12] \u201cIn Zen there is absolute freedom; sometimes\nit negates and at other times it affirms; it does either way at\npleasure.\u201d A monk asked, \u201cHow does it negate?\u201d \u201cWith the passing\nof winter there cometh spring.\u201d \u201cWhat happens when spring cometh?\u201d\n\u201cCarrying a staff across the shoulders, let one ramble about in the\nfields, east or west, north or south, and beat the old stumps to one\u2019s\nheart\u2019s content.\u201d This was one way to be free as shown by one of the\ngreatest masters in China. Another way follows.\n\nThe masters generally go about with a kind of short stick known as\nshipp\u00e9 (_chu-pi_), or at least they did so in old China. It does not\nmatter whether it is a shipp\u00e9 or not, anything in fact will answer our\npurpose. Shuzan, a noted Zen master of the tenth century, held out\nhis stick and said to a group of his disciples:[6.13] \u201cCall it not a\nshipp\u00e9; if you do, you assert. Nor do you deny its being a shipp\u00e9;\nif you do, you negate. Apart from affirmation and negation, speak,\nspeak!\u201d The idea is to get our heads free from dualistic tangles and\nphilosophic subtleties. A monk came out of the rank, took the shipp\u00e9\naway from the master\u2019s hand, and threw it down on the floor. Is this\nthe answer? Is this the way to respond to the master\u2019s request \u201cto\nspeak\u201d? Is this the way to transcend the four propositions\u2014the logical\nconditions of thinking? In short, is this the way to be free? Nothing\nis stereotyped in Zen, and somebody else may solve the difficulty in\nquite a different manner. This is where Zen is original and creative.\n\nUmmon expressed the same idea with his staff, which he held up,\nsaying,[6.14] \u201cWhat is this? If you say it is a staff, you go right\nto hell; but if it is not a staff, what is it?\u201d Hima\u2019s (Pi-mo) way\nsomewhat deviated from this. He used to carry a forked stick and\nwhenever a monk came up to him and made a bow, he applied the stick on\nthe neck of the monk, and said,[6.15] \u201cWhat devil taught you to be a\nhomeless monk? What devil taught you to go round? Whether you can say\nsomething, or whether you cannot say anything, all the same you are\nto die under my fork: speak, speak, be quick!\u201d Tokusan (T\u00ea-shan) was\nanother master who flourished a stick to the same effect; for he used\nto say[6.16]: \u201cNo matter what you say, or what you say not, just the\nsame thirty blows for you?\u201d\n\nWhen the ownership of a kitten was disputed between two parties\nof monks, the Master Nansen (Nan-ch\u2018\u00fcan P\u2018u-y\u00fcan, 749\u2013835) came out,\ntook hold of the animal, and said to them,[6.17] \u201cIf you can say a\nword, this will be saved: if not, it will be slain.\u201d By \u201ca word\u201d of\ncourse he meant one that transcended both affirmation and negation, as\nwhen J\u014dshu was asked for \u201cOne word of the ultimate truth.\u201d No one made\na response, whereupon the master slew the poor creature. Nansen looks\nlike a hard-hearted Buddhist, but his point is: To say it is, involves\nus in a dilemma; to say it is not, puts us in the same predicament. To\nattain to the truth, this dualism must be avoided. How do you avoid it?\nIt may not only be the loss of the life of a kitten, but the loss of\nyour own life and soul, if you fail to ride over this _impasse_. Hence\nNansen\u2019s drastic procedure. Later, in the evening J\u014dshu who was one of\nhis disciples came back, when the master told him of the incident of\nthe day. J\u014dshu at once took off one of his straw sandals and putting\nit over his head began to depart. Upon this, said the master, \u201cWhat a\npity you were not to-day with us, for you could have saved the kitten.\u201d\nThis strange behaviour, however, was J\u014dshu\u2019s way of affirming the truth\ntranscending the dualism of \u201cto be\u201d (_sat_) and \u201cnot to be\u201d (_asat_).\n\nWhile Ky\u014dzan (Yang-shan, 804\u2013890) was residing at T\u014dhei (Tung-ping)\nof Shao-chou, his master Isan (Wei-shan, 771\u2013853),\u2014both of whom were\nnoted Zen masters of the T\u2018ang dynasty\u2014sent him a mirror accompanied\nwith a letter.[6.18] Ky\u014dzan held forth the mirror before a congregation\nof monks and said, \u201cO monks, Isan has sent here a mirror. Is this\nIsan\u2019s mirror or mine own? If you say it is Isan\u2019s, how is it that the\nmirror is in my hands? If you say it is mine own, has it not come from\nIsan? If you make a proper statement, it will be retained here. If you\ncannot, it will be smashed in pieces.\u201d He said this for three times but\nnobody even made an attempt to answer. The mirror was then smashed.\nThis was somewhat like the case of Nansen\u2019s kitten. In both cases the\nmonks failed to save the innocent victim or the precious treasure,\nsimply because their minds were not yet free from intellectualism and\nwere unable to break through the entanglements purposely set up\nby Nansen in one case and by Ky\u014dzan in the other. The Zen method of\ntraining its followers thus appears so altogether out of reason and\nunnecessarily inhuman. But the master\u2019s eyes are always upon the truth\nabsolute and yet attainable in this world of particulars. If this can\nbe gained, what does it matter whether a thing known as precious be\nbroken and an animal be sacrificed? Is not the recovering of the soul\nmore important than the loss of a kingdom?\n\nKy\u014dgen (Hsiang-yen),[6.19] a disciple of Isan (Wei-shan), with whom we\ngot acquainted just now, said in one of his sermons: \u201cIt is like a man\nover a precipice one thousand feet high, he is hanging himself there\nwith a branch of a tree between his teeth, the feet are far off the\nground, and his hands are not taking hold of anything. Suppose another\nman coming to him to propose a question, \u2018What is the meaning of the\nfirst patriarch coming over here from the west?\u2019 If this man should\nopen the mouth to answer, he is sure to fall and lose his life; but if\nhe would make no answer, he must be said to ignore the inquirer. At\nthis critical moment what should he do?\u201d This is putting the negation\nof opposites in a most graphically illustrative manner. The man over\nthe precipice is caught in a dilemma of life and death, and there can\nbe no logical quibblings. The cat may be sacrificed at the altar of\nZen, the mirror may be smashed on the ground, but how about one\u2019s own\nlife? The Buddha in one of his former lives is said to have thrown\nhimself down into the maw of a man-devouring monster, in order to get\nthe whole stanza of the truth. Zen being practical wants us to make the\nsame noble determination to give up our dualistic life for the sake of\nenlightenment and eternal peace. For it says that its gate will open\nwhen this determination is reached.\n\nThe logical dualism of \u201cto be\u201d (_asti_) and \u201cnot to be\u201d (_nasti_)\nis frequently expressed by Zen masters by such terms of contrast as\nare used in our daily parlance: \u201ctaking life\u201d and \u201cgiving life,\u201d\n\u201ccapturing\u201d and \u201creleasing,\u201d \u201cgiving\u201d and \u201ctaking away,\u201d \u201ccoming in\ncontact\u201d and \u201cturning away from,\u201d[6.20] etc. Ummon once held up his\nstaff and declared: \u201cThe whole world, heaven and earth, altogether\nowes its life and death to this staff.\u201d A monk came out and asked,\n\u201cHow is it killed?\u201d \u201cWrithing in agony!\u201d \u201cHow is it restored to\nlife?\u201d \u201cYou had better be a ch\u00e9f.\u201d \u201cWhen it is neither put to death\nnor living, what would you say?\u201d Ummon rose from his seat and said,\n\u201cMo-h\u00ea-pan-j\u00ea-po-lo-mi-ta!\u201d (_Mah\u0101-praj\u00f1\u0101-p\u0101ramit\u0101_).[6.21] This was\nUmmon\u2019s synthesis\u2014\u201cthe one word\u201d of the ultimate truth, in which\nthesis and antithesis are concretely unified, and to which the four\npropositions are inapplicable (_rahita_).\n\n\n                                  IV\n\nWe now come to the third class I have styled, \u201cContradiction,\u201d by which\nI mean the Zen master\u2019s negation, implicitly or expressly, of what he\nhimself has stated or what has been stated by another. To one and the\nsame question his answer is sometimes \u201cNo,\u201d sometimes \u201cYes.\u201d Or to a\nwell-known and fully-established fact he gives an unqualified denial.\nFrom an ordinary point of view he is altogether unreliable, yet he\nseems to think that the truth of Zen requires such contradictions and\ndenials; for Zen has a standard of its own, which, to our common-sense\nminds, consists just in negating everything we properly hold true and\nreal. In spite of these apparent confusions, the philosophy of Zen is\nguided by a thorough-going principle which, when once grasped, its\ntopsy-turviness becomes the plainest truth.\n\nA monk asked the sixth patriarch of the Zen sect in China, who\nflourished late in the seventh and early in the eighth century, \u201cWho\nhas attained to the secrets of Wobai (Huang-mei)?\u201d Wobai is the name of\nthe mountain where the fifth patriarch, Hung-j\u00ean used to reside, and,\nit was a well-known fact that Hui-n\u00eang, the sixth patriarch, studied\nZen under him and succeeded in the orthodox line of transmission. The\nquestion was therefore really not a plain regular one, seeking an\ninformation about facts. It had quite an ulterior object. The reply\nof the sixth patriarch was, \u201cOne who understands Buddhism has\nattained to the secrets of Wobai.\u201d\n\n\u201cHave you then attained them?\u201d\n\n\u201cNo, I have not.\u201d\n\n\u201cHow is it,\u201d asked the monk, \u201cthat you have not?\u201d\n\nThe answer was, \u201cI do not understand Buddhism.\u201d[f128][6.22]\n\nDid he not really understand Buddhism? Or is it that not to understand\nis to understand? This is also the philosophy of the _Kena-Upanishad_.\n\nThe self-contradiction of the sixth patriarch is somewhat mild and\nindirect when compared with that of D\u014dgo (Tao-wu). He succeeded to\nYakusan (Y\u00fceh-shan Wei-yen, 751\u2013834), but when he was asked by Goh\u014d\n(Wu-f\u00eang) whether he knew the old master of Yakusan, he flatly denied\nit, saying,[6.23] \u201cNo, I do not.\u201d Goh\u014d was however persistent, \u201cWhy do\nyou not know him?\u201d \u201cI do not, I do not,\u201d was the emphatic statement\nof D\u014dgo. The latter thus singularly enough refused to give any reason\nexcept simply and forcibly denying the fact which was apparent to our\ncommon-sense knowledge.\n\nAnother emphatic and unequivocal contradiction by Tesshikaku\n(T\u2018ieh-tsui Chiao) is better known to students of Zen than the case\njust cited.[6.24] He was a disciple of J\u014dshu (Chao-chou). When he\nvisited H\u014dgen (Fa-yen W\u00ean-i, died 958), another great Zen master, the\nlatter asked him, what was the last place he came from. Tesshikaku\nreplied that he came from J\u014dshu. Said H\u014dgen,\n\n\u201cI understand that a cypress tree once became the subject of his talk;\nwas that really so?\u201d\n\nTesshikaku was positive in his denial, saying, \u201cHe had no such talk.\u201d\n\nH\u014dgen protested, \u201cAll the monks coming from J\u014dshu lately speak of his\nreference to a cypress tree in answer to a monk\u2019s question, \u2018What was\nthe real object of the coming east of Bodhi-dharma?\u2019 How do you say\nthat J\u014dshu made no such reference to a cypress tree?\u201d\n\nWhereupon Tesshikaku roared, \u201cMy late master never made such a\ntalk; no slighting allusion to him, if you please!\u201d\n\nH\u014dgen greatly admired this attitude on the part of the disciple of the\nfamous J\u014dshu, and said, \u201cTruly, you are a lion\u2019s child!\u201d\n\nIn Zen literature, Dharma\u2019s coming from the west, that is, from India,\nis quite frequently made the subject of the discourse. When a question\nis asked as to the real object of his coming over to China, it refers\nto the ultimate principle of Buddhism, and has nothing to do with his\npersonal motive which made him cross the ocean, landing him at some\npoint along the southern coast of China. The historical fact is not\nthe issue here. And to this all-important question numerous answers\nare given, but so varied and so unexpectedly odd, yet according to Zen\nmasters all expressive of the truth of their teaching.\n\nThis contradiction, negation, or paradoxical statement is the\ninevitable result of the Zen way of looking at life. The whole emphasis\nof its discipline is placed on the intuitive grasping of the inner\ntruth deeply hidden in our consciousness. And this truth thus revealed\nor awakened within oneself defies intellectual manipulation, or at\nleast cannot be imparted to others through any of dialectical formulas.\nIt must come out of oneself, grow within oneself, and become one with\none\u2019s own being. What others, that is, ideas or images can do, is\nto indicate the way where lies the truth. This is what Zen masters\ndo. And the indicators given by them are naturally unconventionally\nfree and refreshingly original. As their eyes are always fixed on the\nultimate truth itself, anything and everything they can command is\nutilised to accomplish the end, regardless of its logical conditions\nand consequences. This indifference to logic is sometimes asserted\npurposely, just to let us know that the truth of Zen is independent of\nthe intellect. Hence the statement in the _Pra\u00f1\u0101-p\u0101ramit\u0101 S\u016btra_, that\n\u201cNot to have any Dharma to discourse about\u2014this is discoursing about\nthe Dharma.\u201d (_Dharmade\u015ban\u0101 dharmade\u015baneti subh\u016bte n\u0101sti sa ka\u015bcid\ndharmo yo dharmade\u015ban\u0101 n\u0101motpalabhyate_.)\n\nHaikyu (P\u2018ei Hsiu), a state minister of the T\u2018ang dynasty, was\na devoted follower of Zen under \u014cbaku. One day[6.25] he showed him a\nmanuscript in which his understanding of Zen was stated. The master\ntook it, and setting it down beside him, made no movement to read\nit, but remained silent for some little while. He then said, \u201cDo you\nunderstand?\u201d \u201cNot quite,\u201d answered the minister. \u201cIf you have an\nunderstanding here,\u201d said the master, \u201cthere is something of Zen. But\nif it is committed to paper and ink, nowhere is our religion to be\nfound.\u201d Something analogous to this we have already noticed in Hakuin\u2019s\ninterview with Sh\u014dju R\u014dnin. Being a living fact, Zen is only where\nliving facts are handled. Appeal to the intellect is real and living as\nlong as it issues directly from life. Otherwise, no amount of literary\naccomplishment or of intellectual analysis avails in the study of Zen.\n\n\n                                   V\n\nSo far Zen appears to be nothing but a philosophy of negation and\ncontradiction, whereas in fact it has its affirmative side, and in this\nconsists the uniqueness of Zen. In most forms of mysticism, speculative\nor emotional, their assertions are general and abstract, and there is\nnot much in them that will specifically distinguish them from some of\nthe philosophical dictums. Sings Blake for instance:\n\n  \u201cTo see a world in a grain of sand,\n     And a heaven in a wild flower,\n   Hold infinity in the palm of your hand\n     And eternity in an hour.\u201d\n\nAgain listen to the exquisite feelings expressed in the lines of Wither:\n\n  \u201cBy the murmur of a spring,\n   Or the least bough\u2019s rustling;\n   By a daisy, whose leaves spread\n   Shut when Titan goes to bed;\n   Or a shady bush or tree\u2014\n   She could more infuse in me\n   Than all nature\u2019s beauties can\n   In some other wiser man.\u201d\n\nIt is not very difficult to understand these poetic and mystical\nfeelings as expressed by the highly sensitive souls, though we may\nnot all realise exactly as they felt. Even when Eckhart declares that\n\u201cthe eye with which I see God is the same with which God sees me,\u201d or\nwhen Plotinus refers to \u201cthat which mind, when it turns back, thinks\nbefore it thinks itself,\u201d we do not find it altogether beyond our\nunderstanding to get at their meaning as far as the ideas are concerned\nwhich they try to convey in these mystical utterances. But when we\ncome to statements by the Zen masters, we are entirely at sea how to\ntake them. Their affirmations are as irrelevant, so inappropriate,\nso irrational, and so nonsensical\u2014at least superficially, that those\nwho have not gained the Zen way of looking at things can hardly\nmake, as we say, heads or tails of them. The truth is that even\nwith full-fledged mystics they are unable to be quite free from the\ntaint of intellection, and leave as a rule \u201ctraces\u201d by which their\nholy abode could be reached. Plotinus\u2019 \u201cflight from alone to alone\u201d\nis a great mystical utterance proving how deeply he delved into the\ninner sanctuary of our consciousness. But there is still something\nspeculative or metaphysical about it, and when it is put side by side\nwith the Zen utterances to be cited below, it has, as the masters\nwould say, a mystic flavour on the surface. So long as the masters are\nindulging in negations, denials, contradictions, or paradoxes, the\nstain of speculation is not quite washed off of them. Naturally, Zen is\nnot opposed to speculation as it is also one of the functions of the\nmind. But Zen has travelled along a different path altogether unique,\nI think, in the history of mysticism, whether Eastern or Western,\nChristian or Buddhist. A few examples will suffice to illustrate my\npoint.\n\nA monk asked J\u014dshu,[6.26] \u201cI read in the Sutra that all things return\nto the One, but where does this One return to?\u201d Answered the master,\n\u201cWhen I was in the province of Tsing I had a robe made which weighed\nseven _chin_.\u201d When K\u014drin (Hsiang-lin Y\u00fcan)[6.27] was asked what was\nthe signification of Bodhi-Dharma\u2019s coming from the West, his reply\nwas, \u201cAfter a long sitting one feels fatigued.\u201d What is the\nlogical relation between the question and the answer? Does it refer\nto Dharma\u2019s nine years\u2019 sitting against the wall as the tradition has\nit? If so, was his propaganda much ado for nothing except his feeling\nfatigued? When Kwazan (H\u00ea-shan)[6.28] was asked what the Buddha\nwas, he said, \u201cI know how to play the drum, rub-a-dub, rub-a-dub!\u201d\n(_chieh ta ku_). When Baso D\u014dichi was sick,[6.29] one of his disciples\ncame and inquired about his condition, \u201cHow do you feel to-day?\u201d\n\u201cNichimen-butsu, Gwachimen-butsu!\u201d was the reply which literally means\n\u201csun-faced Buddha, moon-faced Buddha!\u201d A monk asked J\u014dshu,[6.30]\n\u201cWhen the body crumbles all to pieces and returns to the dust, there\neternally abides one thing. Of this I have been told, but where does\nthis one thing abide?\u201d The master replied, \u201cIt is windy again this\nmorning.\u201d When Shuzan (Shou-shan) was asked what was the principal\nteaching of Buddhism, he quoted a verse[6.31]:\n\n  \u201cBy the castle of the king of Ch\u2018u,\n   Eastward flows the stream of Ju.\u201d\n\n\u201cWho is the teacher of all the Buddhas?\u201d[6.32] was the question put\nto Bokuju (Mu-chou), who in reply merely hummed a tune, \u201cTing-ting,\ntung-tung, ku-ti, ku-tung!\u201d To the question what Zen was, the same\nmaster gave the following answer, \u201cNamu-sambo!\u201d (_namoratnatray\u0101ya_).\nThe monk however confessed that he could not understand it,\nwhereupon the master exclaimed, \u201cO you miserable frog, whence is\nthis evil karma of yours?\u201d On another occasion, the same question\ncalled out a different answer, which was, \u201cMakahannyaharamii!\u201d\n(_mah\u0101praj\u00f1\u0101p\u0101ramit\u0101_). When the monk failed to comprehend the ultimate\nmeaning of the phrase, the master went on:\n\n  \u201cMy robe is all worn out after so many years\u2019 usage,\n   And parts of it in shreds loosely hanging, have been blown away to\n     the clouds!\u201d\n\nTo quote another case from Bokuju, he was once asked by a monk, \u201cWhat\nis the doctrine that goes beyond the Buddhas and Fathers?\u201d The master\nimmediately holding up his staff said to the congregation, \u201cI call\nthis a staff, and what would you call it?\u201d No answer was forthcoming,\nwhereupon the master again holding forth the staff asked the monk,\n\u201cDid you not ask me about the doctrine that goes beyond the Buddhas and\nFathers?\u201d\n\nWhen Nan-yin Y\u00ea-gu (Nan-y\u00fcan Hui-yung)[6.33] was once asked what the\nBuddha was, he said, \u201cWhat is not the Buddha?\u201d Another time his answer\nwas, \u201cI never knew him.\u201d There was still another occasion when he said,\n\u201cWait until there is one, for then I will tell you.\u201d So far Nan-yin\ndoes not seem to be so very incomprehensible, but what follows will\nchallenge our keenest intellectual analysis. When the inquiring monk\nreplied to the master\u2019s third statement, saying, \u201cIf so, there is no\nBuddha in you,\u201d the master promptly asserted, \u201cYou are right there.\u201d\nThis evoked a further question, \u201cWhere am I right, sir?\u201d \u201cThis is the\nthirtieth day of the month,\u201d replied the master.\n\nKi-su Chi-jo (Kuei-tsung Chih-ch\u2018ang) was one of the able disciples\nof Baso (Ma-tsu).[6.34] When he was weeding in the garden, a Buddhist\nscholar versed in the philosophy of Buddhism came to see the master.\nA snake happened to pass by them, and the master at once killed it\nwith a spade. The philosopher-monk remarked, \u201cHow long I have heard of\nthe name of Kisu, and how reverently I have thought of it! But what\ndo I see now but a rude-mannered monk?\u201d \u201cO my scholar-monk,\u201d said the\nmaster, \u201cyou had better go back to the Hall and have a cup of tea over\nthere.\u201d Kisu\u2019s retort as it stands here is quite unintelligible as far\nas our common-sense knowledge of worldly affairs goes; but according to\nanother informant Kisu is reported, when he was reproached by the monk,\nto have said this, \u201cWho is the rude-mannered one, you or I?\u201d Then said\nthe monk, \u201cWhat is rude-mannered?\u201d The master held up the spade. \u201cWhat\nis refined? \u201cHe now assumed the attitude as if to kill the snake. \u201cIf\nso,\u201d said the monk, \u201cyou are behaving according to the law.\u201d \u201cEnough\nwith my lawful or unlawful behaviour,\u201d demanded the master, \u201cwhen did\nyou see my killing the snake anyway?\u201d The monk made no answer.[6.34a]\n\nPerhaps this is sufficient to show how freely Zen deals with those\nabstruse philosophical problems which have been taxing all human\ningenuity ever since the dawn of intelligence. Let me conclude\nthis part with a sample sermon delivered by Goso H\u014dyen (Wu-tsu Fa-yen);\nfor a Zen master occasionally, no, quite frequently, comes down to the\ndualistic level of understanding and tries to deliver a speech for the\nedification of his pupils. But being a Zen sermon we naturally expect\nsomething unusual in it. Goso was one of the ablest Zen masters of the\ntwelfth century. He was the teacher of Yengo (Y\u00fcan-wu) famous as the\nauthor of the _Hekiganshu_. One of his sermons runs thus[6.35]:\n\n\u201cYesterday I came across one topic which I thought I might communicate\nto you, my pupils, to-day. But an old man such as I am is apt to\nforget, and the topic has gone off altogether from my mind. I cannot\njust recall it.\u201d So saying, Goso remained quiet for some little time,\nbut at last he exclaimed, \u201cI forget, I forget, I cannot remember!\u201d\nHe resumed however, \u201cI know there is a mantram in one of the Sutras\nknown as _The King of Good Memory_. Those who are forgetful may recite\nit, and the thing forgotten will come again. Well, I must try.\u201d He\nthen recited the mantram, \u201cOm o-lo-lok-kei sv\u0101ha!\u201d Clapping his hands\nand laughing heartily he said, \u201cI remember, I remember; this it was:\nWhen you seek the Buddha, you cannot see him: when you look for the\npatriarch, you cannot see him. The muskmelon is sweet even to the\nstems, the bitter gourd is bitter even to the roots.\u201d\n\nHe then came down from the pulpit without further remark.\n\n\n                                  VI\n\nIn one of his sermons, Eckhart referring to the mutual relationship\nbetween God and man, says: \u201cIt is as if one stood before a high\nmountain and cried, \u2018Art thou there?\u2019 The echo comes back, \u2018Art thou\nthere?\u2019 If one cries, \u2018Come out!\u2019 the echo answers, \u2018Come out!\u2019\u201d\nSomething like this is to be observed in the Zen masters\u2019 answers\nnow classified under \u201cRepetition.\u201d It may be found hard for the\nuninitiated to penetrate into the inner meaning of those parrot-like\nrepetitions which sometimes sound like mimicry on the part of the\nmaster. In this case indeed the words themselves are mere sounds,\nand the inner sense is to be read in the echoing itself if anywhere.\nThe understanding however must come out of one\u2019s own inner life and\nwhat the echoing does is to give this chance of self-awakening to the\nearnest seekers of truth. When the mind is so timed as to be all ready\nto break into a certain note, the master turns the key and it sings out\nits own melody, not learned from anybody else but discovered within\nitself. And this turning the key in the form of repetition in this case\nis what interests us in the following quotations.\n\nCh\u014dsui (Ch\u2018ang-shui Tzu-hs\u00fcan)[6.36] once asked Yekaku (Hui-chiao),\nof Mount R\u014dya (Lang-yeh), who lived in the first half of the eleventh\ncentury, \u201cHow is it that the Originally Pure has all of a sudden come\nto produce mountains and rivers and the great earth?\u201d The question is\ntaken from the _\u015a\u016brangama-s\u016btra_ in which Purna asks of the Buddha how\nthe Absolute came to evolve this phenomenal world. For this is a great\nphilosophical problem that has perplexed the greatest minds of all\nages. So far all the interpretations making up the history of thought\nhave proved unsatisfactory in one way or another. Ch\u014dsui also being\na student of philosophy in a way has now come to his teacher to be\nenlightened on the subject. But the teacher\u2019s answer was no answer as\nwe understand it, for he merely repeated the question, \u201cHow is it that\nthe Originally Pure has all of a sudden come to produce mountains and\nrivers and the great earth?\u201d Translated into English, this dialogue\nloses much of its zest. Let me write it down in Japanese-Chinese:\nCh\u014dsui asked, \u201c_Sh\u014d-j\u014d hon-nen un-ga kos-sho sen-ga dai-ji_,\u201d and the\nmaster echoed, \u201c_Sh\u014d-j\u014d hon-nen un-ga kos-sho sen-ga dai-ji_.\u201d\n\nThis was not, however, enough. Later, in the thirteenth century another\ngreat Zen master, Kido (Hs\u00fc-t\u2018ang), commented on this in a still more\nmystifying manner.[6.37] His sermon one day ran in this wise: \u201cWhen\nCh\u014dsui asked Yekaku, \u2018_Sh\u014d-j\u014d hon-nen un-ga kos-sho sen-ga dai-ji_,\u2019\nthe question was echoed back to the questioner himself, and it is said\nthat the spiritual eye of the disciple was then opened. I now want\nto ask you how this could have happened. Were not the question\nand the answer exactly the same? What reason did Ch\u014dsui find in this?\nLet me comment on it.\u201d Whereupon he struck his chair with the hossu,\nand said, \u201c_Sh\u014d-j\u014d hon-nen un-ga kos-sho sen-ga dai-ji_.\u201d His comment\ncomplicates the matter instead of simplifying it.\n\nThis has ever been a great question of philosophy\u2014this question of\nunity and multiplicity, of mind and matter, of thought and reality.\nZen, being neither idealism nor realism, proposes its own way of\nsolution as is illustrated in the case of the Originally Pure. The\nfollowing one solves the problem also in its own way. A monk asked\nCh\u014dsa Keishin,[6.38] \u201cHow do we, transforming (_chuan_) mountains and\nrivers and the earth, reduce them into the Self?\u201d Replied the master,\n\u201cHow do we, transforming the Self, produce mountains and rivers and the\nearth?\u201d The monk confessed ignorance, whereupon said the master:\n\n  \u201cIn this city south of the Lake, people are thriving well,\u2014\n   Cheap rice and plentiful fuel and prospering neighbourhood.\u201d\n\nT\u014dsu Daido (T\u2018ou-tzu Tai-t\u2018ung),[6.39] of the T\u2018ang dynasty, who died\nin the year 914, answered \u201cThe Buddha,\u201d when he was questioned, \u201cWhat\nis the Buddha?\u201d He said \u201cTao\u201d when the question was, \u201cWhat is Tao?\u201d He\nanswered \u201cthe Dharma\u201d to the question, \u201cWhat is the Dharma?\u201d\n\nWhen J\u014dshu asked Kwanchu (Tai-tz\u2018u Huan-chung)[6.40] of the ninth\ncentury, \u201cWhat is the being [or substance] of Praj\u00f1\u0101?\u201d Kwanchu\nwithout giving any answer simply echoed the question, \u201cWhat is the\nbeing of Praj\u00f1\u0101?\u201d And this brought out a hearty laugh on the part of\nJ\u014dshu. Praj\u00f1\u0101 may be translated supreme intelligence, and Ma\u00f1ju\u015br\u012b is\nregarded by the Mahayanists as the embodiment of Praj\u00f1\u0101. But in this\ncase Ma\u00f1ju\u015br\u012b has nothing to do with it. The question is concerned\nwith the substantial conception of Praj\u00f1\u0101, which, being a form of\nmental activity, requires something to abide in. According to Buddhist\nphilosophy, there are three fundamental conceptions to explain the\nproblem of existence: Substance or Being (_bh\u0101va_), Appearance or\nAspect (_laksha\u1e47a_), and Function or Activity (_k\u1e5bitya_). Or, to\nuse the terms of the _M\u0101dhyamika_, the three conceptions are actor,\nact, and acting. Praj\u00f1\u0101 being an intellectual acting, there must be\nan agent or substance back of it. Hence the question: What is the\nbeing or body of Praj\u00f1\u0101? Now, the answer or echo given out by Kwanchu\ndoes not explain anything, we are at a loss as far as its conceptual\nsignification goes. The Zen masters do not give us any literary clue\nto get around what we see on the surface. When we try to understand\nit intellectually, it slips away from us. It must be approached\ntherefore from another plane of unconsciousness. Unless we move on to\nthe same plane where the masters stand, or unless we abandon so-called\ncommon-sense way of reasoning, there is no possible bridge which will\ncarry us over the chasm dividing our intellection from their apparently\npsittacine repetitions.\n\nIn this case, as in other cases, the idea of the masters is to show the\nway where the truth of Zen is to be experienced, but not in and through\nthe language which they use and which we all use, as the means of\ncommunicating ideas. Language, in case they resort to words, serves as\nan expression of feelings or moods or inner states, but not of ideas,\nand therefore it becomes entirely incomprehensible when we search its\nmeaning in the words of the masters as embodying ideas. Of course,\nwords are not to be altogether disregarded inasmuch as they correspond\nto the feelings or experiences. To know this is more important in the\nunderstanding of Zen. Language is then with the Zen masters a kind\nof exclamation or ejaculation as directly coming out of their inner\nspiritual experience. No meaning is to be sought in the expression\nitself, but within ourselves, in our own minds, which are awakened to\nthe same experience. Therefore, when we understand the language of the\nZen masters, it is the understanding of ourselves and not the sense\nof the language which reflects ideas and not the experienced feelings\nthemselves. Thus it is impossible to make those understand Zen who have\nnot had any Zen experience yet, just as it is impossible for the people\nto realise the sweetness of honey who have never tasted it before. With\nsuch people, \u201csweet\u201d honey will ever remain as an idea altogether\ndevoid of sense, that is, the word has no life with them.\n\nGoso H\u014dyen first studied the Yog\u0101c\u0101ra school of Buddhist philosophy\nand came across the following passage: \u201cWhen the Bodhisattva enters\non the path of knowledge, he finds that the discriminating intellect\nis identified with Reason, and that the objective world is fused with\nIntelligence, and there is no distinction to be made between the\nknowing and the known.\u201d The anti-Yog\u0101c\u0101rians refuted this statement,\nsaying that if the knowing is not distinguished from the known, how\nis knowledge at all possible? The Yog\u0101c\u0101rians could not answer this\ncriticism, when Hs\u00fcan-chang who was at the time in India interposed and\nsaved his brethren in faith from the quandary. His answer was: \u201cIt is\nlike drinking water, one knows by oneself whether it is cold or not.\u201d\nWhen Goso read this, he questioned himself, \u201cWhat is this that makes\none know thus by oneself?\u201d This was the way he started on his Zen tour,\nfor his Yog\u0101c\u0101ra friends being philosophers could not enlighten him,\nand he finally came to a Zen master for instruction.\n\nBefore we proceed to the next subject, let me cite another case of\nechoing. H\u014dgen Mon-yeki (Fa-yen Wen-i), the founder of the H\u014dgen branch\nof Zen Buddhism, flourished early in the tenth century. He asked one\nof his disciples, \u201cWhat do you understand by this: \u2018Let the difference\nbe even a tenth of an inch, and it will grow as wide as heaven and\nearth\u2019?\u201d The disciple said, \u201cLet the difference be even a tenth of an\ninch, and it will grow as wide as heaven and earth.\u201d H\u014dgen however told\nhim that such an answer will never do. Said the disciple, \u201cI cannot do\notherwise; how do you understand?\u201d The master at once replied, \u201cLet\nthe difference be even a tenth of an inch, and it will grow as wide as\nheaven and earth.\u201d[f129][6.41]\n\nH\u014dgen was a great master of repetitions, and there is another\ninteresting instance. After trying to understand the ultimate truth of\nZen under fifty-four masters,[6.42] Tokusho (T\u00ea-shao, 907\u2013971)\nfinally came to H\u014dgen; but tired of making special efforts to master\nZen, he simply fell in with the rest of the monks there. One day when\nthe master ascended the platform, a monk asked, \u201cWhat is one drop of\nwater dripping from the source of So[f130] (Ts\u2018ao)?\u201d Said the master,\n\u201cThat is one drop of water dripping from the source of So.\u201d The monk\nfailed to make anything out of the repetition and stood as if lost;\nwhile Tokusho who happened to be by him had for the first time his\nspiritual eye opened to the inner meaning of Zen, and all the doubts\nhe had been cherishing secretly down in his heart were thoroughly\ndissolved. He was altogether another man after that.\n\nSuch cases as this conclusively show that Zen is not to be sought in\nideas or words, but at the same time they also show that without ideas\nor words Zen cannot convey itself to others. To grasp the exquisite\nmeaning of Zen as expressing itself in words and yet not in them, is\na great art which is to be attained only after so many vain attempts.\nTokusho who after such an experience finally came to realise the\nmystery of Zen, did his best later to give vent to his view which he\nhad gained under H\u014dgen. It was while he was residing at the Monastery\nof Praj\u00f1\u0101 that he had the following \u201cmondo\u201d and sermon.[6.43] When\nTokusho came out into the Hall, a monk asked him, \u201cI understand this\nwas an ancient wise man\u2019s saying: When a man sees Praj\u00f1\u0101 he is tied to\nit; when he sees it not he is also tied to it. Now I wish to know how\nit is that a man seeing Praj\u00f1\u0101 could be tied to it.\u201d Said the master,\n\u201cYou tell me what it is that is seen by Praj\u00f1\u0101.\u201d Asked the monk, \u201cWhen\na man sees not Praj\u00f1\u0101, how could he be tied to it?\u201d \u201cYou tell me,\u201d\nsaid the master, \u201cif there is anything that is not seen by Praj\u00f1\u0101.\u201d\nThe master then went on: \u201cPraj\u00f1\u0101 seen is no Praj\u00f1\u0101, nor is Praj\u00f1\u0101\nunseen Praj\u00f1\u0101: how could one apply the predicate, seen or unseen, to\nPraj\u00f1\u0101? Therefore it is said of old that when one thing is missing\nthe Dharmak\u0101ya is not complete; when one thing is superfluous the\nDharmak\u0101ya is not complete: and again that when there is one thing\nto be asserted the Dharmak\u0101ya is not complete; when there is nothing to\nbe asserted the Dharmak\u0101ya is not complete. This is indeed the essence\nof Praj\u00f1\u0101.\u201d\n\nThe \u201crepetition\u201d seen in this light may grow to be intelligible to a\ncertain degree.\n\n\n                                  VII\n\nAs was explained in the preceding section, the principle underlying the\nvarious methods of instruction used by the Zen masters is to awaken\na certain sense in the pupil\u2019s own consciousness, by means of which\nhe intuitively grasps the truth of Zen. Therefore, the masters always\nappeal to what we may designate \u201cdirect action\u201d and are loathe to waste\nany lengthy discourse on the subject. Their dialogues are always pithy\nand apparently not controlled by rules of logic. The \u201crepetitive\u201d\nmethod as in other cases conclusively demonstrates that the so-called\nanswering is not to explain but to point the way where Zen is to be\nintuited. To conceive the truth as something external which is to be\nperceived by a perceiving subject, is dualistic and appeals to the\nintellect for its understanding, but according to Zen we are living\nright in the truth, by the truth, from which we cannot be separated.\nSays Gensha (Hs\u00fcan-sha),[6.44] \u201cWe are here as if immersed in water\nhead and shoulders underneath the great ocean, and yet how piteously we\nare extending our hands for water!\u201d Therefore, when he was asked by a\nmonk,[6.44] \u201cWhat is my self?\u201d he at once replied, \u201cWhat would you do\nwith a self?\u201d When this is intellectually analysed, he means that when\nwe begin to talk about self we immediately and inevitably establish\nthe dualism of self and not-self, thus falling into the errors of\nintellectualism. We are in the water\u2014this is the fact, and let us\nremain so, Zen would say, for when we begin to beg for water we put\nourselves in an external relation to it and what has hitherto been our\nown will be taken away from us.\n\nThe following case may be interpreted in the same light: A monk came\nto Gensha and said,[6.44] \u201cI understand you to say this that\nthe whole universe is one transpicuous crystal; how do I get at the\nsense of it?\u201d Said the master, \u201cThe whole universe is one transpicuous\ncrystal, and what is the use of understanding it?\u201d The day following\nthe master himself asked the monk, \u201cThe whole universe is one\ntranspicuous crystal, and how do you understand it?\u201d The monk replied,\n\u201cThe whole universe is one transpicuous crystal, and what is the use\nof understanding it?\u201d \u201cI know,\u201d said the master, \u201cthat you are living\nin the cave of demons.\u201d While this looks another case of \u201cRepetition,\u201d\nthere is something different in it, something more of intellection, so\nto speak.\n\nWhatever this is, Zen never appeals to our reasoning faculty, but\npoints directly at the very object one wants to have. While Gensha on\na certain occasion was treating an army officer called Wei to tea, the\nlatter asked, \u201cWhat does it mean when they say that in spite of our\nhaving it everyday we do not know it?\u201d Gensha without answering the\nquestion took up a piece of cake and offered it to him. After eating\nthe cake, the officer asked the master again, who then remarked, \u201cOnly\nwe do not know it even when we are using it everyday.\u201d[6.44] This is\nevidently an object lesson. Another time a monk came to him and wanted\nto know how to enter upon the path of truth. Gensha asked, \u201cDo you hear\nthe murmuring of the stream?\u201d \u201cYes, I do,\u201d said the monk. \u201cThere is a\nway to enter,\u201d was the master\u2019s instruction.[6.44] Gensha\u2019s method was\nthus to make the seeker of the truth directly realise within himself\nwhat it was, and not to make him merely the possessor of a second-hand\nknowledge. \u201cEin begriffener Gott ist kein Gott,\u201d declares Terstegen.\n\nIt is thus no wonder that the Zen masters frequently make an\nexclamatory utterance[f131] in response to questions, instead of giving\nan intelligible answer. When words are used if at all intelligible we\nmay feel that we can somehow find a clue to get at the meaning, but\nwhen an inarticulate utterance is given, we are quite at a loss how\nto deal with it, unless we are fortified with some previous knowledge\nsuch as I have at some length attempted to give to my readers.\n\nOf all the Zen masters who used to give exclamatory utterance, the\nmost noted ones are Ummon and Rinzai, the former for his \u201cKwan!\u201d and\nthe latter for his \u201cKwats!\u201d At the end of one summer sojourn Suigan\n(Ts\u2018ui-yen) made the following remark[6.45]: \u201cSince the beginning of\nthis summer sojourn I have talked much; see if my eyebrows are still\nthere.\u201d This refers to the tradition that when a man makes false\nstatements concerning the Dharma of Buddhism he will lose all his hair\nin the face. As Suigan gave many sermons during the summer for the\nedification of his pupils, while no amount of talk can ever explain\nwhat the truth is, his eye-brows and beard might perhaps by this time\nhave altogether disappeared. This, as far as its literary meaning is\nconcerned, is the idea of his remark whatever Zen may be concealed\nunderneath. Hofuku (Pao-fu), one of the masters, said, \u201cOne who turns\ninto a highwayman has a treacherous heart.\u201d Ch\u014dkei (Ch\u2018ang-ch\u2018ing),\nanother master, remarked, \u201cHow thickly they are growing!\u201d Ummon,\none of the greatest masters towards the end of the T\u2018ang dynasty,\nexclaimed, \u201cKwan!\u201d _Kwan_ \u95dc literally means the gate on a frontier\npass where travellers and their baggage are inspected. In this case,\nhowever, the term does not mean anything of the sort, it is simply\n\u201cKwan!\u201d an exclamatory utterance which does not allow any analytical\nor intellectual interpretation. Seccho, the original compiler of the\n_Hekigan_, comments on this, \u201cHe is like one who, besides losing his\nmoney, is incriminated,\u201d while Hakuin has this to say, \u201cEven an angry\nfist does not strike a smiling face.\u201d Something like this is the only\ncomment we can make on such an utterance as Ummon\u2019s. When we try\nanything approaching a conceptual interpretation on the subject we\nshall be \u201cten thousand miles away beyond the clouds,\u201d as the Chinese\nwould say.\n\nWhile Rinzai is regarded as the author of \u201cKwats!\u201d \u559d (_h\u00ea_), we have\nan earlier record of it; for Baso, successor to Nangaku (Nan-y\u00fceh),\nand an epoch-maker in the history of Zen, uttered \u201cKwats!\u201d to his\ndisciple, Hyakjo (Pai-chang), when the latter came up to the\nmaster for a second time to be instructed in Zen. This \u201cKwats!\u201d is said\nto have deafened Hyakujo\u2019s ear for the following three days. But it was\nprincipally due to Rinzai that this particular cry was most effectively\nand systematically made use of and later came to be one of the special\nfeatures of the Rinzai Zen in distinction to the other schools. In\nfact the cry came to be so abused by his followers that he had to make\nthe following remark[6.46]: \u201cYou are all so given up to learning my cry\n(_h\u00ea_), but I want to ask you this: Suppose one man comes out from the\neastern hall and another from the western hall, and suppose both give\nout the \u2018Kwats!\u2019 simultaneously; and yet I say to you that subject and\npredicate are clearly discernible in this. But how will you discern\nthem? If you are unable to discern them, you are forbidden hereafter to\nimitate my cry.\u201d\n\nRinzai distinguishes four kinds of \u201cKwats!\u201d[6.47] The first according\nto him, is like the sacred sword of Vajrar\u0101ja; the second is like the\ngolden-haired lion squatting on the ground; the third is like the\nsounding rod or the grass used as a decoy; and the fourth is the one\nthat does not at all function as a \u201cKwats!\u201d\n\nRinzai once asked his disciple, Rakuho (L\u00ea-p\u2018u),[6.48] \u201cOne man has\nbeen using a stick and another resorting to the \u201cKwats!\u201d which of them\ndo you think is the more intimate to the truth? Answered the disciple,\n\u201cNeither of them!\u201d \u201cWhat is the most intimate then?\u201d Rakuho cried out,\n\u201cKwats!\u201d Whereupon Rinzai struck him. This swinging of a stick was the\nmost favourite method of Tokusan and stands generally contrasted to the\ncrying utterance of Rinzai; but here the stick is used by Rinzai and\nthe latter\u2019s speciality is taken up in a most telling manner by his\ndisciple, Rakuho.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nBesides these \u201cskilful contrivances\u201d (_up\u0101ya-kau\u015balya_) so far\nenumerated under seven headings, there are a few more \u201ccontrivances\u201d\nthough I am not going to be very exhaustive here on the subject.\n\nOne of them is \u201csilence.\u201d Vimalak\u012brti was silent when Ma\u00f1ju\u015br\u012b asked\nhim as to the doctrine of non-duality, and his silence was later\ncommented upon by a master as \u201cdeafening like thunder.\u201d A monk asked\nBasho Yesei (Pa-chiao Hui-ch\u2018ing)[6.49] to show him the \u201coriginal face\u201d\nwithout the aid of any intermediary conception, and the master keeping\nhis seat remained silent. When Shifuku (Tz\u016d-fu)[6.50] was asked as to\na word befitting the understanding of the inquirer, he did not utter a\nword, he simply kept silent. Bunki (W\u00ean-hsi) of Koshu (Hang-chou)[6.51]\nwas a disciple of Ky\u014dzan (Yang-shan); he was asked by a monk, \u201cWhat\nis the self?\u201d but he remained silent. As the monk did not know what\nto make of it, he asked again, to which the master replied, \u201cWhen\nthe sky is clouded, the moon cannot shine out.\u201d A monk asked Sozan\n(Ts\u2018ao-shan),[6.52] \u201cHow is the silence inexpressible to be revealed?\u201d\n\u201cI do not reveal it here.\u201d \u201cWhere would you reveal it?\u201d \u201cAt midnight\nlast night,\u201d said the master, \u201cI lost three pennies by my bed.\u201d\n\nSometimes the masters sit quiet \u201cfor some little while\u201d \u826f\u4e45 (_liang\nchiu_) either in response to a question or when in the pulpit. This\n_liang-chiu_ does not always merely indicate the passage of time, as we\ncan see in the following cases: A monk came to Shuzan (Shou-shan) and\nasked,[6.53] \u201cPlease play me a tune on a stringless harp.\u201d The master\nwas quiet for some little while, and said, \u201cDo you hear it?\u201d \u201cNo, I\ndo not hear it.\u201d \u201cWhy,\u201d said the master, \u201cdid you not ask louder?\u201d A\nmonk asked Hofuku (Pao-fu),[6.54] \u201cI am told that when one wants to\nknow the path of the uncreate, one should know the source of it. What\nis the source, sir?\u201d Hofuku was silent for a while, and then asked his\nattendant, \u201cWhat did the monk ask me now?\u201d When that monk repeated the\nquestion, the master ejected him out, exclaiming, \u201cI am not deaf!\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nNext, we may mention the method of counter-questioning,\nwherein questions are not answered by plain statements but by\ncounter-questionings. In Zen, generally speaking, a question is not\na question in its ordinary sense, that is, it is not simply asked\nfor information, and therefore it is natural that what ordinarily\ncorresponds to an answer is not an answer at all. Some Zen authority\nenumerates eighteen different kinds of questions, against which\nwe may distinguish eighteen corresponding answers. Thus a\ncounter-question itself is in its way an illuminating answer. A monk\nrequested Jimyo (Tz\u016d-ming) to \u201cset forth the idea of Dharma\u2019s coming\nfrom the west,\u201d and the master said, \u201cWhen did you come?\u201d[6.55] When\nRasan Dokan (Lo-shan Tao-hsien) was asked, \u201cWho is the master of the\ntriple world?\u201d he said, \u201cDo you understand how to eat rice?\u201d[6.56]\nTenryu (T\u2018ien-lung), the teacher of Gutei, was hailed by a monk who\nasked him,[6.57] \u201cHow are we released from the triple world?\u201d He\nretorted, \u201cWhere are you this very moment?\u201d A monk asked J\u014dshu, \u201cWhat\nwould you say when a man is without an inch of cloth on him?\u201d \u201cWhat did\nyou say he has not on him?\u201d \u201cAn inch of cloth on him, sir.\u201d \u201cVery fine\nthis, not to have an inch of cloth!\u201d responded the master.[6.58]\n\nWhen we go on like this, there may be no end to this way of treating\nthe various \u201ccontrivances\u201d devised by the Zen masters for the benefits\nof their truth-thirsty pupils. Let me conclude this section by\nquoting two more cases in which a kind of reasoning in a circle is\nemployed, but from another point of view we may detect here a trace\nof absolute monism in which all differences are effaced. Whether the\nZen masters agree with this view, however, remains to be seen; for\nwhile the absolute identity of _meum et tuum_ is asserted, facts\nof individualisation are not ignored either. A monk asked Daizui\n(Tai-sui),[6.59] \u201cWhat is my [pupil\u2019s] Self?\u201d \u201cThat is my [master\u2019s]\nSelf,\u201d answered the master. \u201cHow is it that my Self is your Self?\u201d\nThe ultimate dictum was, \u201cThat is your Self.\u201d To understand this in\na logical fashion, put \u201cignorant,\u201d or \u201cconfused\u201d or \u201chuman\u201d in place\nof \u201cmy [pupil\u2019s] Self,\u201d and in place of \u201cyour [master\u2019s] Self\u201d put\n\u201cenlightened,\u201d or \u201cBuddha\u2019s,\u2019 or \u201cdivine,\u201d and we may have a glimpse\ninto what was going on in the mind of Daizui. But without his last\nremark, \u201cThat is your Self,\u201d the whole affair may resolve into a form\nof pantheistic philosophy. In the case of Sansho Yenen (San-sh\u00eang\nHui-jan) and Kyozan Yejaku (Yang-shan Hui-chi), the thought of Daizui\nis more concretely presented. Yejaku asked Yenen,[6.60] \u201cWhat is your\nname?\u201d and Yenen replied, \u201cMy name is Yejaku.\u201d Yejaku protested,\n\u201cYejaku is my name.\u201d Thereupon said Yenen, \u201cMy name is Yenen,\u201d which\nbrought out a hearty laugh from Yejaku. These dialogues remind one of\nthe famous Hindu saying, \u201cTat tvam asi!\u201d but the difference between\nthis and \u201cMy name is Yejaku\u201d is that between Vedanta philosophy and\nZen Buddhism, or that between Indian idealism and Chinese realism or\npracticalness. The latter does not generalise, nor does it speculate\non a higher plane which has no hold on life as we live it. According\nto the philosophy of the Kegon (Avatamsaka) school of Buddhism, there\nis a spiritual world where one particular object holds within itself\nall other particular objects merged, instead of all particular objects\nbeing absorbed in the Great All. Thus in this world it so happens\nthat when you lift a bunch of flowers or point at a piece of brick,\nthe whole world in its multitudinosity is seen reflected here. If so,\nthe Zen masters may be said to be moving also in this mystic realm\nwhich reveals its secrets at the moment of supreme enlightenment\n(_anuttara-samyak-sa\u1e41bodhi_).\n\n\n                                 VIII\n\nWe now come to the most characteristic feature of Zen Buddhism, by\nwhich it is distinguished not only from all the other Buddhist schools,\nbut from all forms of mysticism that are ever known to us. So far the\ntruth of Zen has been expressed through words, articulate or otherwise,\nhowever enigmatic they may superficially appear; but now the masters\nappeal to a more direct method instead of verbal medium. In fact, the\ntruth of Zen is the truth of life, and life means to live, to move, to\nact, not merely to reflect. Is it not the most natural thing for Zen,\ntherefore, that its development should be towards acting or rather\nliving its truth instead of demonstrating or illustrating it in words,\nthat is to say, with ideas? In the actual living of life there is no\nlogic, for life is superior to logic. We imagine logic influences life,\nbut in reality man is not a rational creature so much as we make him\nout, of course he reasons, but he does not act according to the result\nof his reasoning pure and simple. There is something stronger\nthan ratiocination. We may call it impulse, or instinct, or, more\ncomprehensively, will. Where this will acts there is Zen, but if I am\nasked whether Zen is a philosophy of will I rather hesitate to give\nan affirmative answer. Zen is to be explained, if at all explained it\nshould be, rather dynamically than statically. When I raise the hand\nthus, there is Zen. But when I assert that I have raised the hand, Zen\nis no more there. Nor is there any Zen when I assume the existence\nof somewhat that may be named will or anything else. Not that the\nassertion or assumption is wrong, but that the thing known as Zen is\nthree thousand miles away as they say. An assertion is Zen only when\nit is in itself an act and does not refer to anything that is asserted\nin it. In the finger pointed at the moon there is no Zen, but when the\npointing finger itself is considered, altogether independent of any\nexternal references, there is Zen.\n\nLife delineates itself on the canvas called time; and time never\nrepeats, once gone, forever gone; and so is an act, once done, it is\nnever undone. Life is a _sumiye_-painting, which must be executed\nonce and for all time and without hesitation, without intellection,\nand no corrections are permissible or possible. Life is not like an\noil-painting which can be rubbed out and done over time and again until\nthe artist is satisfied. With a _sumiye_-painting, any brush stroke\npainted over a second time results in a smudge; the life has left it.\nAll corrections show when the ink dries. So is life. We can never\nretract what we have once committed to deeds, nay, what has once passed\nthrough consciousness can never be rubbed out. Zen therefore ought to\nbe caught while the thing is going on, neither before nor after. It is\nan act of one instant. When Dharma was leaving China, as the legend has\nit, he asked his disciples what was their understanding of Zen, and one\nof them who happened to be a nun, replied, \u201cIt is like \u0100nanda\u2019s looking\ninto the kingdom of Akshobhya Buddha, it is seen once and has never\nbeen repeated.\u201d This fleeting, unrepeatable, and ungraspable character\nof life is delineated graphically by Zen masters who have compared it\nto lightning or spark produced by the percussion of stones: \u9583\u96fb\u5149,\n\u64ca\u77f3\u706b (_shan tien kuang, chi shih huo_) is the phrase.[6.61]\n\nThe idea of direct method appealed to by the masters is to get hold\nof this fleeting life as it flees and not after it has flown. While\nit is fleeing, there is no time to recall memory or to build ideas.\nNo reasoning avails here. Language may be used, but this has been\nassociated too long with ideation, and has lost directness or being by\nitself. As soon as words are used, they express meaning, reasoning;\nthey represent something not belonging to themselves; they have no\ndirect connection with life, except being a faint echo or image of\nsomething that is no longer here. This is the reason why the masters\noften avoid such expressions or statements as are intelligible in any\nlogical way. Their aim is to have the pupil\u2019s attention concentrated\nin the thing itself which he wishes to grasp and not in anything\nthat is in the remotest possible connection liable to disturb him.\nTherefore when we attempt to find meaning in dharanis or exclamations\nor a nonsensical string of sounds taken as such, we are far away from\nthe truth of Zen. We must penetrate into the mind itself as the spring\nof life, from which all these words are produced. The swinging of\na stick, the crying of a \u201cKwats!\u201d or the kicking of a ball must be\nunderstood in this sense, that is, as the directest demonstration of\nlife, no, even as life itself. The direct method is thus not always the\nviolent assertion of life-force, but a gentle movement of the body,\nthe responding to a call, the listening to a murmuring stream, or to a\nsinging bird, or any of our most ordinary everyday assertions of life.\n\nReiun (Ling-y\u00fcn)[6.62] was asked, \u201cHow were things _before_ the\nappearance of the Buddha in the world?\u201d He raised his hossu. \u201cHow were\nthings _after_ the appearance of the Buddha?\u201d He again raised the\nhossu. This raising of the hossu was quite a favourite method with\nmany masters to demonstrate the truth of Zen. As I stated elsewhere,\nthe hossu and the staff were the religious insignias of the master,\nand it was natural that they would be in much display when the monks\napproached with questions. One day \u014cbaku Kiun (Huang-po Hsi-y\u00fcn)[6.63]\nascended the pulpit, and as soon as monks were gathered, the\nmaster took up his staff and drove them all out. When they were about\nall out, he called them, and they turned their heads back. The master\nsaid, \u201cThe moon looks like a bow, less rain and more wind.\u201d The staff\nwas thus wielded effectively by the masters, but who would ever have\nthought of a cane being made an instrument of illustrating the most\nprofound truth of religion?\n\nJ\u014dshu was the readiest master for pithy retorts and his \u201cSayings\u201d\n(_Goroku_) is filled with them, but he was also an adept at the\ndirect method. When he was in his pulpit one day, a monk came out of\nthe rank and made bows to him. Without waiting, however, for further\nmovements on the part of the monk, J\u014dshu folded his hands and a parting\nsalutation was given. Hyakujo Isei\u2019s (Pai-chang Wei-ch\u00eang)[6.64] way\nwas somewhat different. He said to the monks, \u201cYou open the farm for me\nand I will talk to you about the great principle [of Zen].\u201d When the\nmonks finished attending to the farm and came back to the master to\ndiscourse on the great principle, he merely extended his open arms and\nsaid nothing.\n\nA monk came to Yenkwan An,[6.65] the National Teacher, and wanted to\nknow what was the original body of Vairochana Buddha. The Teacher told\nhim to pass the pitcher, which he did. The Teacher then said, \u201cPut it\nback where you got it.\u201d The monk faithfully obeyed, but not being told\nwhat was the original body of the Buddha, he proposed the question once\nmore, \u201cWho is the Buddha?\u201d Answered the master, \u201cLong gone is he!\u201d In\nthis case the direct method was practised more by the monk himself\nunder the direction of the master, but unfortunately the pupil\u2019s\nspiritual condition was not ripe enough to grasp the meaning of his own\n\u201cdirect method,\u201d and alas, let go \u201cthe old Buddha!\u201d Something similar\nto this case may be found in the following one:\n\nSekiso (Shih-shuang)[6.66] asked Yenchi (Y\u00fcan-chih),[6.67] who was a\ndisciple of Yakusan (Y\u00fceh-shan), \u201cIf some one after your death asked\nme about the ultimate fact, what should I say to him?\u201d The master\ngave no answer, but instead called up the boy-attendant who at once\nresponded. He said, \u201cFill up the pitcher,\u201d and remained quiet for\nsome little while. He now asked Sekiso, \u201cWhat did you ask me before?\u201d\nSekiso re-stated the question, whereupon the master rose from his seat\nand left the room.\n\nAs some Zen masters remarked, Zen is our \u201cordinary mindedness,\u201d that\nis to say, there is in Zen nothing supernatural or unusual or highly\nspeculative that transcends our everyday life. When you feel sleepy,\nyou retire; when you are hungry, you eat, just as much as the fowls\nof the air and the lilies of the field, taking \u201cno thought for your\nlife, what ye shall eat, or what ye shall drink; nor yet for your body,\nwhat ye shall put on.\u201d This is the spirit of Zen. Hence no specially\ndidactic or dialectical instruction in the study of Zen except such as\nis given below by D\u014dgo.\n\nRyutan S\u014dshin (Lung-t\u2018an Sui-hsin)[6.68] was a disciple of Tenno D\u014dgo\n(Tao-wu). He served the master as one of his personal attendants. He\nwas with him for some time when one day he said to the master: \u201cSince\nI came to you, I have not at all been instructed in the study of\nmind.\u201d Replied the master, \u201cEver since you came to me, I have always\nbeen pointing to you how to study mind.\u201d \u201cIn what way, sir?\u201d \u201cWhen\nyou brought me a cup of tea, did I not accept it? When you served me\nwith food, did I not partake of it? When you made bows to me, did I\nnot return them? When did I ever neglect in giving you instructions?\u201d\nRyutan kept his head hanging for some time, when the master told him,\n\u201cIf you want to see, see directly into it; but when you try to think\nabout it, it is altogether missed.\u201d\n\nD\u014dgo Yenchi (Tao-wu Y\u00fcan-chih) and Ungan Donjo (Y\u00fcn-yen Tan-sh\u00eang) were\nstanding by the master Yakusan (Y\u00fceh-shan) as attendants, when Yakusan\nremarked,[6.69] \u201cWhere our intellect cannot reach, I verily tell you to\navoid talking about it; when you do, horns will grow on you. O Yenchi,\nwhat will you say to this?\u201d Yenchi thereupon rose from his place and\nleft the room. Ungan asked the master, \u201cHow is it, sir, that Brother\nChi does not answer you?\u201d \u201cMy back aches to-day,\u201d said Yakusan, \u201cYou\nbetter go to Yenchi himself, for he understands.\u201d Ungan came to\nhis brother monk and inquired thus, \u201cO Brother Senior, why did you not\nanswer our master now?\u201d \u201cYou better go back to the master himself and\nask,\u201d was all that poor Ungan could get out of his senior brother.\n\nThere was another favourite movement often practised by Zen masters,\nwhich was to call out to the questioner or somebody else. One case\nof this has already been given somewhere else in another connection.\nThe following are the typical and classical ones. Chu, the National\nTeacher, called out to his attendant monk three times, to which the\nlatter responded regularly. Said the Teacher, \u201cI thought I was not\nfair to you, but it was you that were not fair to me.\u201d[f132][6.70]\nThis calling and responding took place also three times between Mayoku\n(Ma-ku) and Ryosui (Liang-sui), which at last made the latter exclaim:\n\u201cO this stupid fellow!\u201d[6.71]\n\nThis trick of calling out and responding was frequently practised as\nis seen in the following cases: A high government dignitary called\nupon Ungo Doyo (Y\u00fcn-ch\u00fc Tao-ying) and asked[6.72]: \u201cI am told that the\nWorld-honoured One had a secret phrase and Mah\u0101k\u0101\u015byapa did not keep it\nhidden; what was the secret phrase?\u201d The master called out, \u201cO honoured\nofficer!\u201d and the officer responded. \u201cDo you understand?\u201d demanded the\nmaster. \u201cNo, Reverend Sir!\u201d was his natural answer. \u201cIf you do not\nunderstand, there is the secret phrase: if you understand, there is\nMah\u0101k\u0101\u015byapa in full revelation.\u201d\n\nHaikyu (P\u2018ai-hsiu)[6.73] was a local governor in Shinan (Hsin-an)\nbefore he was appointed a state-minister. He once visited a Buddhist\nmonastery in his district. While going around in the premises of\nthe monastery, he came across a fine fresco painting and asked the\naccompanying priests whose portrait this was. \u201cHe was one of the\nhigh priests,\u201d they answered. The governor now turned towards them\nand questioned, \u201cHere is his portrait, but where is the high priest\nhimself?\u201d They all did not know how to answer him. He then further\nasked if there were any Zen monks about here. They replied, \u201cWe have\nrecently a new comer in this monastery, he does some menial work for\nus and looks very much like a Zen monk.\u201d He was then brought in the\npresence of the governor who at once spoke to him, \u201cI have one question\nin which I wish to be enlightened, but the gentlemen here grudge the\nanswer. May I ask you to give me a word for them?\u201d \u201cI humbly wish you\nto ask,\u201d politely requested the monk. The officer repeated the first\nquestion, whereupon the monk loudly and clearly called out, \u201cO Haikyu!\u201d\nHaikyu responded at once, \u201cHere, sir!\u201d \u201cWhere is the high priest now?\u201d\ncross-questioned the monk. This opened the governor\u2019s eye to the sense\nof the monk\u2019s counter-question, in which he could now read the solution\nof his first query.\n\nThe case between Yisan (Wei-shan) and Ky\u014dzan (Yang-shan) was more\nintellectual and to that extent more intelligible than this mere\ncalling and responding. Ky\u014dzan was the chief disciple of Yisan, and\none of the peculiar features of this school was to demonstrate the\ntruth of Zen concordantly both by the master and disciple. They once\nwent out picking tea-leaves. The master said to Ky\u014dzan,[6.74] \u201cPicking\ntea-leaves all day, I hear only your voice and do not see your body;\nmanifest your original body and let me see it.\u201d Ky\u014dzan shook the\ntea-plant. Said Yisan, \u201cYou have only got its function, you have not\ngot the substance.\u201d Ky\u014dzan said, \u201cMaster, how with you then?\u201d The\nmaster was quiet for a while whereupon the disciple said, \u201cO master,\nyou have got only the substance, you have not got the function.\u201d\n\u201cYou will be spared of my twenty blows,\u201d concluded the master. In\nBuddhist ontology three conceptions are distinguished, as was\nreferred to previously; substance or body, appearance, and function or\nactivity. \u201cBody\u201d or _bh\u0101va_ corresponds to the idea of mass or being,\n\u201cappearance\u201d (_laksha\u1e47a_) to that of form, and \u201cfunction\u201d (_k\u1e5bitya_)\nto that of force. Every reality is regarded by Buddhist philosophers\nas analysable into these three notions. Sometimes, however, the second\nconception, \u201cappearance\u201d is absorbed in that of \u201cbeing,\u201d or \u201cbody.\u201d\nWithout functioning no objects exist, but functioning cannot take place\nwithout something functioning. The two ideas, according to Buddhist\nphilosophers, are thus inseparable for our understanding of the\nuniverse. But Yisan and Ky\u014dzan were not metaphysicians and would not\nargue on the subject. The one shook the tree and the other stood still.\nWe cannot say that there is Zen in this standing and shaking as we\nmay interpret them philosophically, but we may glean something of Zen\nin their remarks on \u201cbody\u201d and \u201cfunction\u201d together with their direct\nmethod.\n\nSo far the direct method has not been of any violent character as to\ninvolve a bodily injury or nervous shock, but the masters had no qualms\nif they thought necessary to shake the pupils roughly. Rinzai for one\nwas noted for the directness and incisiveness of his dealings; the\npoint of his sword cut through the heart of the opponent. The monk J\u014d\n(Ting)[6.75] was one of his disciples, and when he asked the master\nwhat the fundamental principle of Buddhism was, Rinzai came down from\nhis straw chair, and taking hold of the monk slapped him with the palm\nof his hand, and let him go. J\u014d stood still without knowing what to\nmake of the whole procedure when a by-standing monk blamed him for not\nbowing to the master. While doing so, J\u014d all of a sudden awoke to the\ntruth of Zen. Later, when he was passing over a bridge, he happened to\nmeet a party of three Buddhist scholars, one of whom asked J\u014d, \u201cThe\nriver of Zen is deep, and its bottom must be sounded. What does this\nmean?\u201d J\u014d, disciple of Rinzai, at once seized the questioner and was\nat the point of throwing him over the bridge, when his two friends\ninterceded and asked J\u014d\u2019s merciful treatment of the offender. J\u014d\nreleased the scholar, saying, \u201cIf not for the intercession of his\nfriends I would at once let him sound the bottom of the river himself.\u201d\nWith these people Zen was no joke, no mere play of ideas, it was on the\ncontrary a most serious thing on which they would stake their lives.\n\nRinzai was a disciple of \u014cbaku (Huang-po), but while under the master\nhe did not get any special instruction on Zen; for whenever he asked\nhim as to the fundamental truth of Buddhism, he was struck by \u014cbaku.\nBut it was these blows that opened Rinzai\u2019s eye to the ultimate truth\nof Zen and made him exclaim, \u201cAfter all there is not much in the\nBuddhism of \u014cbaku!\u201d[6.76] In China and in Korea what little of Zen is\nleft mostly belongs to the school of Rinzai. In Japan alone the Soto\nbranch is flourishing as much as the Rinzai. The rigour and vitality\nof Zen Buddhism that is still present in the Rinzai school of Japan\ncomes from the three blows of \u014cbaku so mercifully dealt out to his poor\ndisciple. There is in fact more truth in a blow or a kick than in the\nverbosity of logical discourse. At any rate the Zen masters were in\ndead earnest whenever the demonstration of Zen was demanded. See the\nfollowing instance.\n\nWhen T\u014d-Impo (T\u00eang Yin-f\u00eang)[6.77] was pushing a cart, he happened to\nsee his master Baso stretching his legs a little too far out in the\nroadway. He said, \u201cWill you please draw your legs in?\u201d Replied the\nmaster, \u201cA thing once stretched out will never be contracted.\u201d \u201cIf\nso,\u201d said T\u014d, \u201ca thing once pushed will never be retracted.\u201d His cart\nwent right over the master\u2019s legs which were thus hurt. Later Baso\nwent up to the Preaching Hall where he carried an axe and said to the\nmonks gathered, \u201cLet the one who wounded the old master\u2019s legs awhile\nago come out of the congregation.\u201d T\u014d came forth and stretched his\nneck ready to receive the axe, but the master instead of chopping the\ndisciple\u2019s head off, quietly set the axe down.\n\nT\u014d-Impo was ready to give up his life to re-assert the truth of\nhis deed, through which the master got hurt. Mimicry or simulation\nwas rampant everywhere, and therefore Baso wanted to ascertain the\ngenuineness of T\u014d\u2019s understanding of Zen. When the thing is at stake,\nthe masters do not hesitate to sacrifice anything. In the case\nof Nansen, a kitten was done away with: Ky\u014dzan broke a mirror into\npieces; a woman follower of Zen burned up a whole house; and another\nwoman threw her baby into a river. This latter was an extreme case,\nand perhaps the only one of the kind ever recorded in the history of\nZen. As to minor cases such as mentioned above, they are plentiful and\nconsidered almost matters of course with Zen masters.\n\n\n                                  IX\n\nWhile I have not attempted to be very exhaustive in describing all\nthe different methods of demonstration or rather realisation of the\ntruth of Zen resorted to by the masters of various schools, the\nstatements so far made in regard to them, may suffice to give us at\nleast a glimpse into some of the peculiar features of Zen Buddhism.\nWhatever explanations may be given by critics or scholars to the\nphilosophy of Zen, we must first of all acquire a new point of view\nof looking at things, which is altogether beyond our ordinary sphere\nof consciousness. Rather, this new viewpoint is gained when we reach\nthe ultimate limits of our understanding, within which we think we are\nalways bound and unable to break through. Most people stop at these\nlimits and are easily persuaded that they cannot go any further. But\nthere are some whose mental vision is able to penetrate this veil of\ncontrasts and contradictions. They gain it abruptly. They beat the wall\nin utter despair, and lo, it unexpectedly gives way and there opens an\nentirely new world. Things hitherto regarded as prosaic and ordinary\nand even binding are now arranged in quite a novel scheme. The old\nworld of the senses has vanished, and something entirely new has come\nto take its place. We seem to be in the same objective surroundings,\nbut subjectively we are rejuvenated, we are born again.\n\nWu Tao-tz\u016d or Godoshi was one of the greatest painters of China, and\nlived in the reign of the Emperor Hs\u00fcan-tsung, of the T\u2018ang dynasty.\nHis last painting, according to legend, was a landscape commissioned\nby the Emperor for one of the walls of his palace. The artist\nconcealed the complete work with a curtain till the Emperor\u2019s arrival,\nthen drawing it aside exposed his vast picture. The Emperor gazed\nwith admiration on a marvellous scene: forests, and great mountains,\nand clouds in immense distances of sky, and men upon the hills, and\nbirds in flight. \u201cLook,\u201d said the painter, \u201cin the cave at the foot of\nthis mountain dwells a spirit.\u201d He clapped his hands; the door at the\ncave\u2019s entrance flew open. \u201cThe interior is beautiful beyond words,\u201d he\ncontinued, \u201cpermit me to show the way.\u201d So saying he passed within; the\ngate closed after him; and before the astonished Emperor could speak or\nmove, all had faded to white wall before his eyes, with not a trace of\nthe artist\u2019s brush remaining. Wu Tao-tz\u016d was seen no more.\n\nThe artist has disappeared, and the whole scene has been wiped out;\nbut from this nothingness there arises a new spiritual world, abiding\nin which the Zen masters perform all kinds of antics, assert all kinds\nof absurdities, and yet they are in perfect accord with the nature\nof things in which a world moves on stripped of all its falsehoods,\nconventions, simulations, and intellectual obliquities. Unless one\ngets into this world of realities, the truth of Zen will be eternally\na sealed book. This is what I mean by acquiring a new point of view\nindependent of logic and discursive understanding.\n\nEmerson expresses the same view in his own characteristic manner:\n\u201cForemost among these activities (that is, mathematical combination,\ngreat power of abstraction, the transmutings of the imagination, even\nversatility, and concentration), are the somersaults, spells, and\nresurrections, wrought by the imagination. When this wakes, a man\nseems to multiply ten times or a thousand times his force. It opens\nthe delicious sense of indeterminate size, and inspires an audacious\nmental habit. We are as elastic as the gas of gunpowder, and a sentence\nin a book, or a word dropped in conversation, sets free our fancy, and\ninstantly our heads are bathed with galaxies, and our feet tread the\nfloor of the pit. And this benefit is real, because we are entitled\nto these enlargements, and, once having passed the bounds, shall\nnever again be quite the miserable pedants we were.\u201d\n\nHere is a good illustration of the difference between a \u201cmiserable\npedant\u201d and one who has \u201cpassed the bounds.\u201d There was a monk called\nGensoku (Hs\u00fcan-ts\u00ea)[6.78] who was one of the chief officials of the\nmonastery under the Zen master H\u014dgen (Fa-yen), of the early tenth\ncentury. He never came to the master to make inquiries about Zen; so\nthe master one day asked him why he did not come. The chief official\nanswered: \u201cWhen I was under Seiho (Ch\u2018ing-f\u00eang) I got an idea as to\nthe truth of Zen.\u201d \u201cWhat is your understanding then?\u201d demanded the\nmaster. \u201cWhen I asked my master, who was the Buddha, he said, Ping-ting\nT\u2018ung-ts\u016d comes for fire.\u201d \u201cIt is a fine answer,\u201d said H\u014dgen, \u201cbut\nprobably you misunderstand it. Let me see how you take the meaning\nof it.\u201d \u201cWell,\u201d explained the official, \u201cPing-ting is the god of\nfire; when he himself comes for fire, it is like myself, who, being\na Buddha from the very beginning, wants to know who the Buddha is.\nNo questioning is then needed as I am already the Buddha himself.\u201d\n\u201cThere!\u201d exclaimed the master, \u201cJust as I thought! You are completely\noff.\u201d Soku, the chief official, got highly offended because his view\nwas not countenanced and left the monastery. H\u014dgen said, \u201cIf he comes\nback he may be saved; if not, he is lost.\u201d Soku after going some\ndistance reflected that a master of five hundred monks as H\u014dgen was\nwould not chide him without cause, and returned to the old master and\nexpressed his desire to be instructed in Zen. H\u014dgen said, \u201cYou ask me\nand I will answer.\u201d \u201cWho is the Buddha?\u201d\u2014the question came from the\nlips of the now penitent monk. \u201cPing-ting T\u2018ung-tz\u016d comes for fire.\u201d\nThis made his eyes open to the truth of Zen quite different from what\nhe formerly understood of it. He was now no more a second-hand \u201cpedant\u201d\nbut a living creative soul. I need not repeat that Zen refuses to be\nexplained but that it is to be lived. Without this, all talk is nothing\nbut an idea, woefully inane and miserably unsatisfactory.\n\nBelow is another story illustrating the peculiarity of Zen\nunderstanding as distinguished from our ordinary intellectual\nunderstandings which are based on ideas and representations. The\nsame phrase is repeated here as in the preceding case, and as far as\nits literal meaning goes, we have no reason to suppose its producing\ndifferent effects on the mind of the recipient. But as I said elsewhere\nZen is the opening of one\u2019s own inner consciousness occasioned by\nsome external incidental happening which may be of purely physical\nnature but may invoke some mental operation. This opening is therefore\nsomething, we as outsiders not belonging to the inner life of the\nindividual concerned, have no means to judge beforehand, we know only\nwhen it is opened; but the masters seem to know when this opening\nis going to take place and how it is to be brought about from their\nown experience. Students of the psychology of Zen will here find an\ninteresting problem to investigate.\n\nSuigan Kashin (Ts\u2018ui-yen K\u2018\u00ea-ch\u00ean)[6.79] was a disciple of Zimyo\n(Tz\u2018u-ming), 986\u20131040, who was one of the greatest Sung masters and\nunder whom the Rinzai school of Zen was divided into two branches,\nWoryu (Huang-lung) and Yogi (Yang-ch\u2018i).[6.80] Kashin was quite proud\nof being one of the disciples of the master, he was not yet really a\nmaster himself, but he thought he was. When he had a talk with another\nof Zimyo\u2019s disciples, he was found out and laughed at. When they were\nhaving a walk together one day, they discussed Zen. His friend picked\nup a piece of a broken tile and putting it on a flat rock, said, \u201cIf\nyou can say a word at this juncture, I will grant your really being\nZimyo\u2019s disciple.\u201d Kashin wavered, looked this way and that, trying to\nmake some answer. His friend was impatient, who broke out, \u201cHesitating\nand wavering, you have not yet penetrated through illusion, you have\nnever yet even dreamt as to what the true insight of Zen is.\u201d Kashin\nwas thoroughly ashamed of himself. He at once returned to the master\nwho severely reproached him, saying that he came before the termination\nof the summer session, which was against the regulations. Full of\ntears, he explained how he was taken to task by his fellow-monk and\nthat it was the reason why he was here even against the monastery\nrules. The master abruptly asked him: \u201cWhat is the fundamental\nprinciple of Buddhism?\u201d Replied Kashin,\n\n  \u201cNo clouds are gathering over the mountain peaks,\n   And how serenely the moon is reflected on the waves!\u201d\n\nThe master\u2019s eyes flashed with indignation, and he thundered, \u201cShame on\nyou! To have such a view for an old seasoned man like you! How can you\nexpect to be delivered from birth-and-death?\u201d Kashin earnestly implored\nto be instructed. Said the master, \u201cYou ask me.\u201d Thereupon he repeated\nthe master\u2019s first question, \u201cWhat is the fundamental principle of\nBuddhism?\u201d The master roared,\n\n  \u201cNo clouds are gathering over the mountain peaks,\n   And how serenely the moon is reflected on the waves!\u201d\n\nThis opened Kashin\u2019s eye, and another man was he after that.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nLet me conclude with a sermon from Goso (Wu-tsu), of whom mention has\nalready been made:\n\nIf people ask me what Zen is like, I will say that it is like learning\nthe art of burglary. The son of a burglar saw his father growing older\nand thought, \u201cIf he is unable to carry out his profession, who will\nbe the bread-winner of this family, except myself? I must learn the\ntrade.\u201d He intimated the idea to his father, who approved of it. One\nnight the father took the son to a big house, broke through the fence,\nentered the house, and opening one of the large chests, told the son\nto go in and pick out the clothings. As soon as he got into it, the\nlid was dropped and the lock securely applied. The father now came out\nto the courtyard, and loudly knocking at the door woke up the whole\nfamily, whereas he himself quietly slipped away from the former hole\nin the fence. The residents got excited and lighted candles, but found\nthat the burglars had already gone. The son who remained all the time\nin the chest securely confined thought of his cruel father. He was\ngreatly mortified, when a fine idea flashed upon him. He made a noise\nwhich sounded like the gnawing of a rat. The family told the maid to\ntake a candle and examine the chest. When the lid was unlocked, out\ncame the prisoner, who blew out the light, pushed away the maid, and\nfled. The people ran after him. Noticing a well by the road, he\npicked up a large stone and threw it into the water. The pursuers all\ngathered around the well trying to find the burglar drowning himself\nin the dark hole. In the meantime he was safely back in his father\u2019s\nhouse. He blamed him very much for his narrow escape. Said the father,\n\u201cBe not offended, my son. Just tell me how you got off.\u201d When the son\ntold him all about his adventures, the father remarked, \u201cThere you are,\nyou have learned the art!\u201d\n\n\n\n\n     THE MEDITATION HALL, AND THE IDEALS OF THE MONKISH DISCIPLINE\n\n\n     THE MEDITATION HALL, AND THE IDEALS OF THE MONKISH DISCIPLINE\n\n                                  I.\n\nTo get a glimpse into the practical and disciplinary side of Zen, we\nhave to study the institution known as the Meditation Hall. It is\nan educational system quite peculiar to the Zen sect. Most of the\nmain monasteries belonging to this sect are provided with Meditation\nHalls, and in the life of the Zen monk more than anywhere else we are\nreminded of that of the Buddhist Brotherhood (_Sa\u1e41gha_) in India. This\nsystem was founded by the Chinese Zen Master, Hyakujo (Pai-chang,\n720\u2013814), more than one thousand years ago. Until his time the monks\nused to live in monasteries belonging to the Vinaya sect, which were\ngoverned by a spirit not quite in accordance with the principles of\nZen. As the latter grew more and more flourishing and its followers\nkept on increasing in number and in influence, there was need for\nits own institution, exclusively devoted to the promotion of its\nobjects. According to Hyakujo, the Zen monasteries were to be neither\nHinayanistic nor Mahayanistic, but they were to unite the disciplinary\nmethods of both schools in a new and original manner, best suited\nto the realisation of the Zen ideals, as they were conceived by the\nmasters of the earlier days.\n\nThe original book compiled by Hyakujo giving detailed regulations of\nthe Zen monastery was lost. The one we have now was compiled during the\nY\u00fcan dynasty from the actual life in the monastery at the time, which\nwas then supposed to be a faithful continuation of the old institution\nthough naturally with some modifications and transformations due to\nhistorical exigencies. This book was compiled under the auspices of the\nreigning Emperor Shuu, and is known as \u201cThe Imperial Edition of the\nRegulations in the Zen Monastery.\u201d[7.1] In Japan the Zen monasteries\nhave never been established on such a grand scale as in China, and\nas the result all the regulations as detailed in the Imperial Edition\nwere not practised. But their spirit and all that was applicable to\nJapanese life and conditions were adopted. The ideals of Zen life were\nnever lost sight of anywhere. And before I proceed further I wish to\nspeak briefly of one of such ideals set before the eyes of all Zen\nstudents, for it is really the most important and noteworthy feature in\nthe monastery life of Zen.\n\nIt is indeed this that distinguishes Zen from the other Buddhist\nschools originated in China, and is to be considered most\ncharacteristically Zen and at the same time animating its long history.\nBy this I mean the notion of work or service. Hyakujo left a famous\nsaying which was the guiding principle of his life and is pre-eminently\nthe spirit of the Meditation Hall. It is this: \u201cNo work, no eating.\u201d\nWhen he was thought by his devoted disciples too old to work in the\ngarden, which was his daily occupation besides lecturing and educating\nthe monks in Zen, they hid all his garden implements, as he would not\nlisten to their repeated oral remonstrances. He then refused to eat,\nsaying, \u201cNo work, no eating.\u201d At all the Meditation Halls work is thus\nconsidered a vital element in the life of a monk. It is altogether a\npractical one and chiefly consists in manual labour, such as sweeping,\ncleaning, cooking, fuel-gathering, tilling the farm, or going about\nbegging in the villages far and near. No work is considered beneath\ntheir dignity, and a perfect feeling of brotherhood and democracy\nprevails among them. How hard, or how mean from the ordinary point of\nview a work may be, they will not shun it. They believe in the sanctity\nof manual labour. They keep themselves busy in every way they can;\nthey are no idlers as some of the so-called monks or mendicants are,\nphysically at least, as in India for instance.\n\nWe can see in this sanctification of work the practical attitude of\nthe Chinese mind well reflected. When I said that Zen was the Chinese\ninterpretation of the doctrine of Enlightenment, the Zen conception of\nwork did not essentially or theoretically enter into my conclusion.\nBut from the practical point of view work is such an integral part of\nthe Zen life now that the one cannot be conceived as independent\nof the other. In India the monks are mendicants; when they meditate\nthey retire into a quiet corner from worldly cares; and inasmuch as\nthey are supported economically by their secular devotees, they do not\npropose to work in any menial employment such as Chinese and Japanese\nZen monks are used to. What saved Zen Buddhism from deteriorating into\nquietism or mere intellectual gymnastics, which was more or less the\nfate befalling other schools of Buddhism, was surely due to the gospel\nof work. Apart from its psychological value, it proved an efficient\nagency in preserving the health and sanity of Zen Buddhism throughout\nits long history of growth.\n\nWhatever may be this historical importance of work, Hyakujo must\nhave had a profound knowledge of human psychology when he made work\nthe ruling spirit of the monastery life. His idea of \u201cNo work, no\neating\u201d[f133][7.2] did not necessarily originate from an economic or\nethical valuation of life. His sole motive was not that nobody deserved\nhis daily bread if he did not earn it with the sweat of his face.\nTrue, there is a virtue in not eating the bread of idleness, and there\nhave been so many Buddhists since the early days of Buddhism, who\nthought it a most disgraceful thing to be living on others\u2019 earnings\nand savings, Hyakujo\u2019s object, while it might have been unconsciously\nconceived, was more psychological in spite of his open declaration, \u201cNo\nwork, no eating.\u201d It was to save his monks from a mental inactivity\nor an unbalanced development of mind which too often results from\nthe meditative habit of the monkish life. When the muscles are not\nexercised for the execution of spiritual truths, or when the mind and\nbody is not put to practical test, the severance generally issues\nin inimical results. As the philosophy of Zen is to transcend the\ndualistic conception of flesh and spirit, its practical application\nwill naturally be, dualistically speaking, to make the nerves and\nmuscles the most ready and absolutely obedient servants of the mind,\nand not to make us say that the spirit is truly ready but the\nflesh is weak. Whatever religious truths of this latter statement,\npsychologically it comes from the lack of a ready channel between mind\nand muscles. Unless the hands are habitually trained to do the work of\nthe brain, the blood ceases to circulate evenly all over the body, it\ngrows congested somewhere, especially in the brain. The result will\nbe not only an unsound condition of the body in general but a state\nof mental torpidity or drowsiness, in which ideas are presented as if\nthey were wafting clouds. One is wide awake and yet the mind is filled\nwith the wildest dreams and visions which are not at all related to\nrealities of life. Fantasies are fatal to Zen, and those who practise\nZen considering it a form of meditation are too apt to be visited upon\nby this insidious enemy. Hyakujo\u2019s insistence upon manual work has\nsaved Zen from falling into the pitfalls of antinomianism as well as a\nhallucinatory mode of mind.\n\nApart from these psychological considerations, there is a moral reason\nwhich ought not to escape attention in our estimate of Hyakujo\u2019s wisdom\nin instituting work as a vital part of Zen life. For the soundness of\nideas must be tested finally by their practical application. When they\nfail in this, that is, when they cannot be carried out in everyday life\nproducing lasting harmony and satisfaction and giving real beneficence\nto all concerned,\u2014to oneself as well as to others, no ideas can be\nsaid to be sound and practical. While physical force is no standard to\njudge the value of ideas, the latter, however logically consistent,\nhave no reality when they are not joined to life. Especially in Zen\nabstract ideas that do not convince one in practical living are of\nno value whatever. Conviction must be gained through experience and\nnot through abstraction, which means that conviction has no really\nsolid basis except when it can be tested in our acting efficient life.\nMoral assertion or \u201cbearing witness\u201d ought to be over and above an\nintellectual judgment, that is to say, the truth must be the product\nof ones\u2019 living experiences. An idle reverie is not their business,\nthe Zen followers will insist. They, of course, sit quiet and practise\n\u201czazen\u201d[f134][7.3]; for they want to reflect on whatever lessons\nthey have gained while working. But as they are against chewing the\ncud all the time, they put in action whatever reflections they have\nmade during hours of quiet-sitting and test their validity in the vital\nfield of practicality. It is my strong conviction that if Zen did not\nput faith in acting its ideas, the institution would have long before\nthis sunk into a mere somniferous and trance-inducing system, so that\nall the treasure thoughtfully hoarded by the masters in China and Japan\nwould have been cast away as heaps of rotten stuff.\n\nPerhaps unwittingly supported by these reasons, the value of work\nor service has been regarded by all Zen followers as one of their\nreligious ideals. No doubt the idea was greatly enforced by the\ncharacteristic industry and practicalness of the Chinese people by\nwhom Zen was mainly elaborated. The fact is that if there is any one\nthing that is most emphatically insisted upon by the Zen masters as\nthe practical expression of their faith, it is serving others, doing\nwork for others, not ostentatiously indeed but secretly, without making\nothers know of it. Says Eckhart, \u201cWhat a man takes in by contemplation\nhe must pour out in love.\u201d Zen would say, \u201cpour it out in work,\u201d\nmeaning by work the active and concrete realisation of love. Tauler\nmade spinning and shoe-making and other homely duties gifts of the Holy\nGhost; Brother Lawrence made cooking sacramental; George Herbert wrote:\n\n  \u201cWho sweeps a room as to thy laws\n   Makes that and the action fine.\u201d\n\nThese are all expressive of the spirit of Zen, as far as its practical\nside is concerned. Mystics are thus all practical men, they are far\nfrom being visionaries whose souls are too absorbed in things unearthly\nor of the other-world to be concerned with their daily life. The common\nnotion that mystics are dreamers and star-gazers ought to be\ncorrected, as it has no foundation in facts. Indeed, psychologically,\nthere is a most intimate and profound relationship between a practical\nturn of mind and a certain type of mysticism; the relationship is not\nmerely conceptual or metaphysical. If mysticism is true, its truth must\nbe a practical one verifying itself in every act of ours, and, most\ndecidedly, not a logical one, to be true only in our dialectics. Sings\na Zen poet known as H\u014d-k\u014dji:[f135][7.4]\n\n  \u201cHow wondrously supernatural,\n   And how miraculous, this!\n   I draw water, and I carry fuel!\u201d[7.5]\n\n\n                                  II\n\nThe Meditation Hall[7.6] (Zendo in Japanese and Ch\u2018an T\u2018ang in\nChinese), as it is built in Japan, is generally a rectangular building\nof various size according to the number of monks to be accommodated.\nOne at Engakuji,[f136] Kamakura, was about 36 feet by 65 feet. The\nfloors about eight feet wide and three feet high are raised along\nthe longer sides of the building, and an empty space is left in the\nmiddle throughout the entire length of the Hall. This space is used for\npractising an exercise known as \u201ckinhin\u201d[7.7] (_ching-hsing_) which\nmeans literally \u201csutra-walking.\u201d The space allotted to each monk on\nthe _tatami_ floor does not exceed one mat, three by six feet, where\nhe sits, meditates, and sleeps at night. The bedding for each is\nnever more than one large wadded quilt, summer or winter. He has no\nregular pillow except that which is temporarily made up by himself out\nof his own private possessions. These latter, however, are next\nto nothing: for they are _kesa_ (_kash\u0101ya_ in Sanskrit) and _koromo_\n(priestly robe), a few books, a razor, and a set of bowls, all of which\nare put up in a box about three by ten by three and a half inches\nlarge. In travelling this box is carried in front supported with a\nsash about the neck. The entire property thus moves with the owner.\n\u201cOne dress and one bowl, under a tree and on a stone,\u201d[7.8] was the\ngraphical description of the monkish life in India. Compared with this,\nthe modern Zen monk must be said to be abundantly supplied. Still his\nwants are reduced to a minimum and no one can fail to lead a simple,\nperhaps the simplest, life if he models his after that of the Zen monk.\n\nThe desire to possess is considered by Buddhism to be one of the worst\npassions mortals are apt to be obsessed with. What in fact causes so\nmuch misery in the world is due to a strong impulse of acquisitiveness.\nAs power is desired, the strong always tyrannise over the weak: as\nwealth is coveted, the rich and poor are always crossing their swords\nof bitter enmity. International wars rage, social unrest ever goes on,\nunless the impulse to have and hold is completely uprooted. Cannot a\nsociety be reorganised upon an entirely different basis from what we\nhave been used to see from the beginning of history? Cannot we ever\nhope to stop the amassing of wealth and the wielding of power merely\nfrom the desire for individual or national aggrandisement? Despairing\nof the utter irrationality of human affairs, the Buddhist monks have\ngone to the other extreme and cut themselves off even from reasonable\nand perfectly innocent enjoyments of life. However, the Zen ideal of\nputting up the monk\u2019s belongings in a tiny box a little larger than a\nfoot square and three inches high, is their mute protest, though so far\nineffective, against the present order of society.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nIn this connection it will be of interest to read the admonition left\nby Daito the National Teacher (1282\u20131337),[7.9] to his disciples.\nHe was the founder of Daitokuji, Kyoto, in 1326, and is said to\nhave spent about one-third of his life which was not a very long\none, among the lowest layers of society under the Gojo bridge,\nbegging his food, doing all kinds of menial work, and despised by the\nso-called respectable people of the world. He did not care for the\nmagnificence of a prosperous and highly-honoured temple life led by\nmost Buddhist priests of those days, nor did he think much of those\npious and sanctimonious deeds that only testify to the superficiality\nof their religious life. He was for the plainest living and the highest\nthinking. The admonition reads:\n\n\u201cO you, monks, who are here in this mountain monastery, remember that\nyou are gathered for the sake of the religion and not for the sake of\nclothes and food. As long as we have shoulders [that is, the body],\nwe have to wear clothes, and as long as we have a mouth, we have to\neat; but be ever mindful, throughout the twelve hours of the day, to\napply yourselves to the study of the Unthinkable. Time passes like\nan arrow, never let your minds be disturbed by worldly cares. Ever,\never be on the look-out. After my wandering away, some of you may have\nfine temples in prosperous conditions, towers and halls and holy books\nall decorated in gold and silver, and devotees may noisily crowd into\nthe grounds; some may pass hours in reading the Sutras and reciting\ndharanis, and sitting long in contemplation, may not give themselves\nup to sleep; they may, eating once a day and observing the fastdays,\nand, throughout the six periods of the day, practise all the religious\ndeeds. Even when they are thus devoted to the cause, if their thoughts\nare not really dwelling on the mysterious and intransmissible Way of\nthe Buddhas and Fathers, they may yet come to ignore the law of moral\ncausation, ending in a complete downfall of the true religion. Such all\nbelong to the family of evil spirits; however long my departure from\nthe world may be, they are not to be called my descendants. Let however\nthere be just one individual, who may be living in the wilderness in a\nhut thatched with one bundle of straw and passing his days by eating\nthe roots of wild vegetables cooked in a pot with broken legs; but if\nhe single-mindedly applies himself to the study of his own [spiritual]\naffairs, he is the very one who has a daily interview with me and knows\nto be grateful for his life. Who should ever despise such a one? O\nmonks, be diligent, be diligent.\u201d[f137]\n\nIn India, the Buddhist monks never eat in the afternoon. They properly\neat only once a day as their breakfast is no breakfast in the sense\nthat an English or American breakfast is. So, the Zen monks too are not\nsupposed to have any meal in the evening. But the climatic necessity\nin China and Japan could not be ignored, and they have an evening meal\nafter a fashion; but to ease their conscience it is called \u201cmedicinal\nfood\u201d (_y\u00fceh-shih_).[7.10] The breakfast which is taken very early in\nthe morning while it is still dark, consists of rice gruel and pickled\nvegetables (_tsukemono_).\n\nThe principal meal at 10 a.m. is rice (or rice mixed with barley),\nvegetable soup, and pickles. In the afternoon, at four, they have only\nwhat is left of the dinner\u2014no special cooking is done. Unless they are\ninvited out or given an extra treatment at the house of some generous\npatrons, their meals are such as above described, year in year out.\nPoverty and simplicity is their motto.\n\nOne ought not, however, to consider asceticism the ideal life of Zen.\nAs far as the ultimate signification of Zen is concerned, it is neither\nasceticism nor any other ethical system. If it appears to advocate\neither the doctrine of suppression or that of detachment, the supposed\nfact is merely on the surface; for Zen as a school of Buddhism more\nor less inherits the odium of a Hindu discipline. The central idea,\nhowever, of the monkish life is not to waste, but to make the best\npossible use of things as they are given us, which is also the spirit\nof Buddhism in general. In truth, the intellect, imagination, and all\nother mental faculties as well as the physical objects surrounding\nus, our own bodies not excepted, are given us for the unfolding and\nenhancing of the highest powers possessed by us as spiritual entities\nand not merely for the gratification of our individual whims or\ndesires, which are sure to conflict with and injure the interests and\nrights asserted by others. These are some of the inner ideas\nunderlying the simplicity and poverty of the monkish life.\n\n\n                                  III\n\nAs there is something to be regarded as peculiarly Zen in the table\nmanners of the monks, some description of them will be given here.\n\nAt meal times a gong is struck, and the monks come out of the\nMeditation Hall in procession carrying their own bowls to the\ndining room. The low tables are laid there all bare. They sit when\nthe leader rings the bell. The bowls are set,\u2014which by the way are\nmade of wood or paper and well lacquered. A set consists of four or\nfive dishes, one inside the other. As they are arranging the dishes\nand the waiting monks go around to serve the soup and rice, the\n_Praj\u00f1\u0101-p\u0101ramit\u0101-h\u1e5bidaya-s\u016btra_[f138] is recited followed by the \u201cFive\nMeditations\u201d on eating, which are: \u201cFirst, of what worth am I? Whence\nis this offering? Secondly, accepting this offering, I must reflect on\nthe deficiency of my virtue. Thirdly, to guard over my own heart, to\nkeep myself away from faults such as covetousness, etc.,\u2014this is the\nessential thing. Fourthly, this food is taken as good medicine in order\nto keep the body in a healthy condition. Fifthly, to ensure spiritual\nattainment this food is accepted.\u201d After these \u201cMeditations,\u201d they\ncontinue to think about the essence of Buddhism: \u201cThe first mouthful is\nto cut off all evils; the second mouthful is to practise every good;\nthe third mouthful is to save all sentient beings so that everybody\nwill finally attain to Buddhahood.\u201d\n\nThey are now ready to take up their chop-sticks, but before they\nactually partake of the sumptuous dinner, the demons or spirits\nliving somewhere in the triple world are remembered; and each monk\ntaking out about seven grains from his own bowl, offers them to those\nunseen, saying, \u201cO you, demons and other spiritual beings, I now offer\nthis to you, and may this food fill up the ten quarters of the world\nand all the demons and other spiritual beings be fed therewith.\u201d\n\nWhile eating quietude prevails. The dishes are handled noiselessly, no\nword is uttered, no conversation goes on. Eating is a serious affair\nwith them. When a second bowl of rice is wanted, the monk folds his\nhands before him. The monk-waiter notices it, comes round with the\nrice-receptacle called _ohachi_, and sits before the hungry one.\nThe latter takes up his bowl and lightly passes his hand around the\nbottom before it is handed to the waiter. He means by this to take off\nwhatever dirt that may have attached itself to the bowl and that is\nlikely to soil the hand of the serving monk. While the bowl is filled,\nthe eater keeps his hands folded. If he does not want so much, he\ngently rubs the hands against each other, which means \u201cEnough, thank\nyou.\u201d\n\nNothing is to be left when the meal is finished. The monks eat up all\nthat is served them, \u201cgathering up of the fragments that remain.\u201d This\nis their religion. After a fourth helping of rice, the meal generally\ncomes to an end. The leader claps the wooden blocks and the serving\nmonks bring hot water. Each diner fills the largest bowl with it,\nand in it all the smaller dishes are neatly washed, and wiped with a\npiece of cloth which each monk carries. Now a wooden pail goes around\nto receive the slops.[f139] Each monk gathers up his dishes and wraps\nthem up once more, saying, \u201cI have now finished eating, and my physical\nbody is well nourished: I feel as if my will-power would shake the ten\nquarters of the world and dominate over the past, present, and future:\nturning both the cause and the effect over to the general welfare of\nall beings, may we all unfailingly gain in powers miraculous!\u201d\nThe tables are now empty as before except those rice grains offered to\nthe spiritual beings at the beginning of the meal. The wooden blocks\nare clapped, thanks are given, and the monks leave the room in orderly\nprocession as they came in.\n\n\n                                  IV\n\nTheir industry is proverbial. When the day is not set for study at\nhome, they are generally seen, soon after breakfast, about half past\nfive in summer and about half past six in winter, out in the monastery\ngrounds, or in the neighbouring villages for begging, or tilling the\nfarm attached to the Zendo. They keep the monastery, inside as well as\noutside, in perfect order. When we sometimes say, \u201cThis is like a Zen\nmonastery,\u201d it means that the place is kept in the neatest possible\norder. When begging they go miles away. Commonly, attached to a Zendo\nthere are some patrons whose houses the monks regularly visit and get a\nsupply of rice or vegetables. We often see them along the country road\npulling a cart loaded with pumpkins or potatoes. They work as hard as\nordinary labourers. They sometimes go to the woods to gather kindlings\nor fuel. They know something of agriculture too. As they have to\nsupport themselves in these ways, they are at once farmers, labourers,\nand skilled workmen. For they often build their own Meditation Hall\nunder the direction of an architect.\n\nThese monks are a self-governing body. They have their own cooks,\nproctors, managers, sextons, masters of ceremony, etc. In the days of\nHyakujo there seem to have been ten such offices, though the details\nare not now known due to the loss of his Regulations. While the master\nor teacher of a Zendo is its soul, he is not directly concerned with\nits government. This is left to the senior members of the community,\nwhose character has been tested through many years of discipline. When\nthe principles of Zen are discussed, one may marvel at their deep\nand subtle metaphysics, if there is any, and imagine what a serious,\npale-faced, head-drooping, and world-forgetting group of thinkers these\nmonks are. But in their actual life they are after all common\nmortals engaged in menial work, but they are cheerful, cracking jokes,\nwilling to help one another, and despising no work which is usually\nconsidered low and not worthy of an educated hand. The spirit of\nHyakujo is ever manifest among them.\n\nIt was not only the monks that worked but the master himself shared\ntheir labour. This was according to Hyakujo to co-operate in and\nequalise the work among all concerned without distinction of\nrank.[7.11] Therefore, the master together with his disciples tilled\nthe farm, planted trees, weeded the garden, picked tea-leaves, and\nwas engaged in all other kinds of manual work. Making use of such\nopportunities he gave them practical lessons in the study of Zen, and\nthe disciples too did not fail to appreciate his instructions.\n\nWhen J\u014dshu was sweeping the courtyard, a monk asked him, \u201cHow does a\nspeck of dust come into this holy ground?\u201d To this J\u014dshu answered,\n\u201cHere comes another!\u201d On another occasion, when the master was found\nagain sweeping the ground, Liu, minister of state, paid a visit to\nthe temple, and said to the master-gardener, \u201cHow is it that a great\nwise man like you has to sweep off the dust?\u201d \u201cIt comes from the\noutside,\u201d[f140][7.12] replied J\u014dshu.\n\nWhen Nansen was working out-doors with his monks,[7.13] J\u014dshu who was\ntold to watch over a fire suddenly cried out, \u201cFire! Fire!\u201d The alarm\nmade all the monks rush back to the dormitory hall. Seeing this, J\u014dshu\nclosed the gate and declared, \u201cIf you could say a word, the doors would\nbe opened.\u201d The monks did not know what to say. Nansen, the master,\nhowever, threw the key into the hall through a window. Thereupon, J\u014dshu\nflung open the gate.\n\nWhile working on the farm a monk happened to cut an earth-worm in\ntwain with his spade whereupon he asked the master Ch\u014dsa (Chang-sha\nCh\u2018\u00ean), \u201cThe earth-worm is[7.14] cut in twain and both parts are\nstill wriggling: in which of them is the Buddha-nature present?\u201d\nThe master said, \u201cHave no illusion!\u201d But the monk insisted, \u201cI\ncannot help this wriggling, sir.\u201d \u201cDon\u2019t you see that fire and\nair elements have not yet been dispersed?\u201d When Shiko (Tz\u016d-hu) and\nSh\u014dk\u014d (Sh\u00eang-kuang)[7.15] were out gardening, a similar thing happened,\nand Sh\u014dk\u014d asked the master concerning the real life of the earthworm.\nWithout answering him, the master took up the rake, first struck the\none end of the worm, then the other, and finally the space between the\ntwo. He then threw down the rake and went away.\n\nOne day \u014cbaku was weeding with a hoe, and seeing Rinzai without one\nasked, \u201cHow is it that you do not carry any hoe?\u201d Answered Rinzai,\n\u201cSomebody has carried it away, sir.\u201d Thereupon, \u014cbaku told him to come\nforward as he wanted to discuss the matter with him. Rinzai stepped\nforward. Said \u014cbaku, lifting his hoe, \u201cOnly this, but all the world\u2019s\nunable to hold it up.\u201d Rinzai took the hoe away from the master, and\nlifted it up, saying, \u201cHow is it that it is now in my own hands?\u201d \u014cbaku\nremarked, \u201cHere is a man doing a great piece of work to-day!\u201d He then\nreturned to his own room.[7.16]\n\nAnother day, observing Rinzai resting on a hoe, \u014cbaku said to him, \u201cAre\nyou tired?\u201d Rinzai replied, \u201cI have not even lifted my hoe, and how\nshould I be tired?\u201d \u014cbaku then struck him, who, however, snatching the\nstick away from the master, pushed him down. \u014cbaku called out to the\nYino (_karmad\u0101na_) to help him up from the ground. The Yino responded\nto the call and helped up the master, saying, \u201cWhy do you permit this\ncrazy fellow\u2019s rudeness?\u201d As soon as the master was again on his feet,\nhe struck the Yino. Rinzai then began to dig the earth and made this\nannouncement, \u201cIn other places they cremate, but here you will all be\nburied alive.\u201d[7.17]\n\nThe story of Isan and Ky\u014dzan while they were out picking tea leaves\nhas already been told in one of the preceding Essays. Zen history\nindeed abounds with such incidents as here referred to, showing how\nthe masters try to discipline their pupils on every possible occasion.\nThe events of daily life manifestly trivial on the surface, thus\nhandled by the masters, grow full of signification. At any rate all\nthese \u201cmondoes\u201d most eloquently illustrate the whole trend of the\nmonastery life in olden days, where the spirit of work and service\nwas so thoroughly and harmoniously blended with the high thinking on\nmatters deeply spiritual.\n\n\n                                   V\n\nThe monks thus develop their faculties all round. They receive no\nliterary, that is, formal education which is gained mostly from books\nand abstract instruction. But their discipline and knowledge are\npractical and efficient; for the basic principle of the Zendo life is\n\u201clearning by doing.\u201d They despise the so-called soft education which\nis like those predigested foods meant for the convalescent. When a\nlioness gives birth to her children, it is proverbially believed that\nafter three days she will push them down over a deep precipice and see\nif they can climb up to her. Those that fail to come out of this trial\nare not taken care of any more. Whether this is true or not, something\nlike that is aimed at by the Zen master who will treat the monks with\nevery manner of seeming unkindness. The monks have not enough clothes\nto put on, not enough food to indulge in, not enough time to sleep,\nand, to cap these, they have plenty of work to do, menial as well as\nspiritual. The outer needs and the inward aspirations, if they work on\nharmoniously and ideally, will finally end in producing fine characters\nwell-trained in Zen as well as in the real things of life. This unique\nsystem of education which is still going on at every Zendo is not so\nwell known among the laity even in this country. And then the merciless\ntides of modern commercialism leave no corner uninvaded, and before\nlong the solitary island of Zen may be found buried, as everything\nelse, under the waves of sordid materialism. The monks themselves\nare beginning not to understand the great spirit of the successive\nmasters. Though there are some things in the monastic education which\nmay be improved, its highly religious and reverential feeling must be\npreserved if Zen is at all to live for many years yet to come.\n\nTheoretically, the philosophy of Zen transcends the whole range of\ndiscursive understanding and is not bound by rules of antithesis. But\nthis is very slippery ground, and there are many who fail to walk\nerect. When they stumble, the result is sometimes disastrous. Like some\nof the Medieval mystics, the Zen students may turn into libertines,\nlosing all control over themselves. History is a witness to this,\nand psychology can readily explain the process of such degeneration.\nTherefore, says a Zen master, \u201cLet one\u2019s ideal rise as high as the\ncrown of Vairochana, (the highest divinity), while his life may be so\nfull of humility as to make him prostrate before a baby\u2019s feet.\u201d[7.18]\nWhich is to say, \u201cif any man desire to be first the same shall be\nlast of all, and servant of all.\u201d Therefore, the monastery life is\nminutely regulated and all the details are enforced in strict obedience\nto the spirit already referred to. Humility, poverty, and inner\nsanctification\u2014these ideals of Zen are what saves Zen from sinking\ninto the level of the Medieval antinomians. Thus we can see how the\nZendo discipline plays a great part in the teachings of Zen and their\npractical application to our daily life.\n\nWhen Tanka[7.19] (Tan-hsia T\u2018ien-jan, 738\u2013824) of the T\u2018ang dynasty\nstopped at Yerinji of the Capital, it was so severely cold that he\nfinally took one of the Buddha-images enshrined there and made a fire\nwith it in order to warm himself. The keeper of the shrine seeing this\nwas greatly exercised.\n\n\u201cHow dare you burn up my wooden Buddha?\u201d\n\nSaid Tanka who looked as if searching for something with his stick in\nthe ashes, \u201cI am gathering the holy \u015ba\u012bras[f141] in the burnt ashes.\u201d\n\n\u201cHow,\u201d said the keeper, \u201ccould you get \u015ba\u012bras by burning a wooden\nBuddha?\u201d\n\n\u201cIf there are no \u015ba\u012bras to be found in it, may I have the remaining two\nBuddhas for my fire?\u201d retorted Tanka.\n\nThe shrine-keeper later lost his eye-brows for remonstrating against\nthe apparent impiety of Tanka, while the Buddha\u2019s wrath never was\nvisited upon the latter.\n\nThough one may doubt its historical occurrence, this is a notable\nstory, and all the Zen masters agree as to the higher spiritual\nattainment of the Buddha-desecrating Tanka. When later a monk\nasked a master[7.20] about Tanka\u2019s idea of burning a Buddha\u2019s statue,\nsaid the master,\n\n\u201cWhen cold, we sit around the hearth with burning fire.\u201d\n\n\u201cWas he then at fault or not?\u201d\n\n\u201cWhen hot, we go to the bamboo grove by the stream,\u201d this was the\nanswer.\n\nI cannot help quoting another comment on the story as this is one of\nthe most significant subjects in the study of Zen. When Suibi Mugaku\n(Ts\u2018uiwei Wu-hsiao)[7.21], a disciple of Tanka, was making offerings\nto the Arhats, probably carved in wood, a monk came up and asked,\n\u201cTanka burned a wooden Buddha and how is it that you make offerings to\nthe Arhats?\u201d The master said, \u201cEven when it was burned, it could not\nbe burned up; and as to my making offerings, just leave me alone as\nI please.\u201d \u201cWhen these offerings are made to the Arhats, would they\ncome to receive them, or not?\u201d \u201cDo you eat everyday, or not?\u201d the\nmaster demanded. As the monk remained silent, the master declared,\n\u201cIntelligent ones are hard to be met with!\u201d\n\nWhatever the merit of Tanka from the purely Zen-point of view, there\nis no doubt that such deeds as his are to be regarded as highly\nsacrilegious and to be avoided by all pious Buddhists. Those who have\nnot yet gained a thorough understanding of Zen may go all lengths to\ncommit every manner of crime and excess, even in the name of Zen. For\nthis reason, the regulations of the monastery are very rigid that pride\nof heart may depart and the cup of humility be drunk to the dregs.\n\nWhen Shuk\u014d (Chu-hung)[7.22] of the Ming dynasty was writing a book\non the ten laudable deeds of a monk, one of those high-spirited,\nself-assertive fellows came to him, saying, \u201cWhat is the use of writing\nsuch a book when in Zen there is not even an atom of thing to be called\nlaudable or not?\u201d The writer answered, \u201cThe five aggregates (_skandha_)\nare entangling, and the four elements (_mah\u0101bh\u016bta_) grow rampant, and\nhow can you say there are no evils?\u201d The monk still insisted, \u201cThe\nfour elements are ultimately all empty and the five aggregates have no\nreality whatever.\u201d Shuk\u014d, giving him a slap on his face, said,\n\u201cSo many are mere learned ones; you are not the real thing yet; give\nme another answer.\u201d But the monk made no answer and went off filled\nwith angry feelings. \u201cThere,\u201d said the master smilingly, \u201cwhy don\u2019t you\nwipe the dirt off your own face?\u201d In the study of Zen, the power of\nan all-illuminating insight must go hand in hand with a deep sense of\nhumility and meekness of heart.\n\nLet me cite, as one instance of teaching humility, the experience\nwhich a new monk-applicant is first made to go through when he\nfirst approaches the Meditation Hall. The applicant may come duly\nequipped with certificates of his qualifications and with his monkish\nparaphernalia consisting of such articles are already mentioned, but\nthe Zendo authorities will not admit him at once into their company.\nGenerally, some formal excuse will be found: they may tell him that\ntheir establishment is not rich enough to take in another monk, or\nthat the Hall is already too full. If the applicant quietly retires\nwith this, there will be no place for him anywhere, not only in that\nparticular Zendo which was his first choice, but in any other Zendo\nthroughout the land. For he will meet a similar refusal everywhere. If\nhe wants to study Zen at all, he ought not to be discouraged by any\nsuch excuse as that.\n\nThe persistent applicant will now seat himself at the entrance porch,\nand, putting his head down on the box which he carries in front of him,\ncalmly, wait there. Sometimes a strong morning or evening sun shines\nright over the recumbent monk on the porch, but he keeps on in this\nattitude without stirring. When the dinner hour comes, he asks to be\nadmitted in and fed. This is granted, for no Buddhist monasteries will\nrefuse food and lodging to a travelling monk. After eating, however,\nthe novice goes out again on the porch and continues his petition\nfor admittance. No attention will be paid to him until the evening\nwhen he asks for lodging. This being granted as before, he takes off\nhis travelling sandals, washes his feet, and is ushered into a room\nreserved for such purposes. But most frequently he finds no bedding\nthere, for a Zen monk is supposed to pass his night in deep meditation.\nHe sits upright all night evidently absorbed in the contemplation\nof a \u201ck\u014d-an.\u201d[f142][7.23] In the following morning he goes out as on\nthe previous day to the entrance hall and resumes the same posture as\nbefore expressive of an urgent desire to be admitted. This may go on\nthree or five or sometimes even seven days. The patience and humility\nof the new applicant are tried thus hard until finally he will be taken\nin by the authorities, who, apparently moved by his earnestness and\nperseverance, will try somehow to accommodate him.\n\nThis procedure is growing somewhat a formal affair, but in olden days\nwhen things were not yet settled into a mere routine, the applicant\nmonk had quite a hard time, for he would actually be driven out of the\nmonastery by force. We read in the biographies of the old masters of\nstill harder treatments which were mercilessly dealt out to them.\n\nThe Meditation Hall is regulated with militaristic severity and\nprecision to cultivate such virtues as humility, obedience, simplicity,\nand earnestness in the monkish hearts that are ever prone to follow\nindiscriminately the extraordinary examples of the old masters, or\nthat are liable to put in practice in a crude and undigested manner\nthe high doctrines of a \u015a\u016bnyat\u0101 philosophy such as is expounded in the\nPraj\u00f1\u0101-p\u0101ramit\u0101 class of Mahayana literature. A partial glimpse of such\nlife we have already gained in the description of the table manners as\nabove.\n\n\n                                  VI\n\nThere is a period in the monastic life, exclusively set apart\nfor mental discipline, and not interrupted by any manual labour\nexcept such as is absolutely needed. It is known as great \u201cSesshin\u201d\n(_Ch\u00ea-hsin_)[f143][7.24] and lasts a week, taking place once a\nmonth during the season called the \u201cSummer Sojourn\u201d and the \u201cWinter\nSojourn.\u201d The summer sojourn begins in April and ends in August, while\nthe winter one begins in October and ends in February. \u201cSesshin\u201d means\n\u201ccollecting or concentrating the mind.\u201d While this period is lasting,\nthe monks are confined at the Zendo, get up earlier than usual, and\nsit further into the night. There is a kind of lecture every day\nduring the period. Text books are used, the most popular of which are\n_The Hekiganshu_ and _Rinzairoku_,[7.25] the two being considered the\nmost fundamental books of the Rinzai School. _The Rinzairoku_ is a\ncollection of sermons and sayings of the founder of the Rinzai Zen\nsect. _The Hekiganshu_, as has been noted elsewhere, is a collection\nof one hundred Zen \u201ccases\u201d or \u201cthemes\u201d with critical annotations\nand poetical comments. It goes without saying that there are many\nother books used for the occasion. To an ordinary reader, such books\ngenerally are a sort of _obscurum per obscurius_. After listening to a\nseries of lectures, he is left in the lurch as ever. Not necessarily\nthat they are too abstruse, but that the reader is still wanting in\ninsight into the truth of Zen.\n\nThe lecture is a solemn affair. Its beginning is announced by a bell,\nwhich stops ringing as soon as the master appears in the hall where\nwhat is known as \u201cTeisho\u201d[f144][7.26] takes place. While the master is\noffering incense to the Buddha and to his departed master, the monks\nrecite a short dharani-s\u016btra called _Daihiju_,[f145] which means \u201cthe\ndharani of great compassion.\u201d Being a Chinese transliteration of the\nSanskrit original, mere recitation of the Sutra does not give any\nintelligent sense. Probably the sense is not essential in this case,\nthe assurance is sufficient that it contains something auspicious and\nconducive to spiritual welfare. What is more significant is the way in\nwhich it is recited. Its monotone punctuated with a wooden time-keeper\nknown as \u201cmokugyo,\u201d (Wooden Fish), prepares the mind of the audience\nfor the coming event. After the Dharani which is recited three times\nthe monks read in chorus generally the exhortatory sermon left by the\nfounder of the monastery. In some places nowadays Hakuin\u2019s \u201cSong of\nZazen\u201d is often chanted. The following are translations of Hakuin and\nof Mus\u014d Kokushi,[f146] whose last exhortatory sermon is one of the most\npopular.\n\n\nMuso Kokushi\u2019s Exhortatory Sermon[7.27]\n\nI have three kinds of disciples: those who, vigorously shaking off\nall entangling circumstances, and with singleness of thought apply\nthemselves to the study of their own [spiritual] affairs are of the\nfirst class. Those who are not so single-minded in the study, but\nscattering their attention are fond of book-learning, are of the\nsecond. Those who, covering their own spiritual brightness, are only\noccupied with the dribblings of the Buddhas and Fathers are called the\nlowest. As to those minds that are intoxicated by secular literature\nand engaged in establishing themselves as men of letters are simply\nlaymen with shaven heads, they do not belong even to the lowest.\nAs regards those who think only of indulging in food and sleep and\ngive themselves up to indolence,\u2014could such be called members of the\nBlack Robe? They are truly, as were designated by an old master,\nclothes-racks and rice-bags. Inasmuch as they are not monks, they ought\nnot to be permitted to call themselves my disciples and enter the\nmonastery and sub-temples as well, even a temporary sojourn is to be\nprohibited, not to speak of their application as student-monks. When\nan old man like myself speaks thus, you may think he is lacking\nin all-embracing love, but the main thing is to let them know of their\nown faults, and, reforming themselves, to become growing plants in the\npatriarchal gardens.\n\n\nHakuin\u2019s Song of Meditation[7.28]\n\n  All sentient beings are from the very beginning the Buddhas:\n  It is like ice and water;\n  Apart from water no ice can exist,\n  Outside sentient beings, where do we seek the Buddhas?\n  Not knowing how near the Truth is,\n  People seek it far away,\u2014what a pity!\n  They are like him who, in the midst of water,\n  Cries in thirst so imploringly;\n  They are like the son of a rich man\n  Who wandered away among the poor.\n  The reason why we transmigrate through the six worlds,\n  Is because we are lost in the darkness of ignorance;\n  Going astray further and further in the darkness,\n  When are we able to get away from birth-and-death?\n\n  As regards the Meditation practised in the Mahayana,\n  We have no words to praise it fully,\n  The Virtues of Perfection such as charity and morality,\n  And the invocation of the Buddha\u2019s name, confession, and ascetic\n    discipline,\n  And many other good deeds of merit,\u2014\n  All these issue from the practise of Meditation.\n  Even those who have attained it even for one sitting,\n  Will see all their evil karma wiped clean;\n  Nowhere they will find the evil paths,\n  But the Pure Land will be near at hand.\n  With a reverential heart, let them to this Truth\n  Listen even for once.\n  And let them praise it, and gladly embrace it,\n  And they will surely be blessed most infinitely.\n\n  For such as, reflecting within themselves,\n  Testify to the Truth of Self-nature,\n  To the Truth that Self-nature is no-nature,\n  They have really gone beyond the ken of sophistry.\n  For them opens the gate of the oneness of cause and effect,\n  And straight runs the path of non-duality and non-trinity.\n  Abiding with the Not-particular in particulars,\n  Whether going or returning, they remain for ever unmoved;\n  Taking hold of the Not-thought in thoughts,\n  In every act of theirs they hear the voice of Truth.\n  How boundless the sky of Samadhi unfettered!\n  How transparent the perfect moon-light of the Fourfold Wisdom!\n  At that moment what do they lack?\n  As the Truth eternally calm reveals itself to them,\n  This very earth is the Lotus Land of Purity,\n  And this body is the body of the Buddha.\n\nThe lecture lasts about an hour. It is quite different from an ordinary\nlecture on a religious subject. Nothing is explained, no arguments are\nset forward, no apologetics, no reasonings. The master is supposed\nsimply to reproduce in words what is treated in the textbook before\nhim. When the lecture ends, the Four Great Vows are repeated three\ntimes, and the monks retire to their quarters. The Vows are:\n\n  \u201cHow innumerable sentient beings are, I vow to save them all;\n   How inexhaustible our evil passions are, I vow to exterminate them;\n   How immeasurable the holy doctrines are, I vow to study them;\n   How inaccessible the path of Buddhas is, I vow to attain it.\u201d\n\n\nVII.\n\nDuring the \u201csesshin,\u201d they have besides lectures what is known as\n\u201csanzen.\u201d[f147][7.29] To do \u201csanzen\u201d is to go to the master\nand present one\u2019s views on a k\u014d-an for his critical examination.\nIn those days when a special \u201csesshin\u201d is not going on, \u201csanzen\u201d\nwill probably take place twice a day, but during the period of\nthought-collection\u2014which is the meaning of \u201csesshin\u201d\u2014the monk has\nto see the master four or five times a day. This seeing the master\ndoes not take place openly,[f148] the monk is required to come up\nindividually to the master\u2019s room, where the interview goes on in a\nmost formal and solemn manner. When the monk is about to cross the\nthreshold of the master\u2019s room, he makes three bows prostrating himself\non the floor. He now enters the room keeping his hands folded, palm\nto palm, before the chest, and when he comes near the master, he sits\ndown and makes another bow. Once in the room, all worldly convention\nis disregarded. If absolutely necessary from the Zen point of view,\nblows may be exchanged. To make manifest the truth of Zen with all\nsincerity of heart is the sole consideration here, and everything else\nreceives only a subordinate attention. Hence this elaborate formalism.\nThe presentation over, the monk retires in the same way as before. One\n\u201csanzen\u201d for over thirty monks will occupy more than one hour and a\nhalf, and this is the time of the utmost tension for the master, too.\nTo have this four or five times a day must be a kind of ordeal for the\nmaster himself, if he is not of robust health.\n\nAn absolute confidence is placed in the master as far as his\nunderstanding of Zen goes. But if the monk has sufficient reason to\ndoubt the master\u2019s ability, he may settle it personally with him at\nthe time of sanzen. This presentation of views, therefore, is no idle\nplay for either of the parties concerned. It is indeed a most serious\naffair, and because it is so the discipline of Zen has a great moral\nvalue outside its philosophy. How serious this is, may be guessed from\nthe famous interview between the venerable Sh\u014dju[7.30] and Hakuin,\nfather of modern Zen in Japan.\n\nOne summer evening when Hakuin presented his view to the old\nmaster who was cooling himself on the veranda, the master said, \u201cStuff\nand nonsense.\u201d Hakuin echoed this loudly and rather satirically, \u201cStuff\nand nonsense!\u201d Thereupon the master seized him, boxed him several\ntimes, and finally pushed him off the veranda. It was soon after the\nrainy weather, and poor Hakuin rolled in the mud and water. Having\nrecovered himself after a while, he came up and reverentially bowed\nto the teacher, who then remarked again, \u201cO you, denizen of the dark\ncavern!\u201d\n\nAnother day Hakuin thought that the master did not know how deep\nhis knowledge of Zen was and decided to have a settlement with him\nanyhow. As soon as the time came, Hakuin entered the master\u2019s room and\nexhausted all his ingenuity in contest with him, making his mind up\nnot to give way an inch of ground this time. The master was furious,\nand finally taking hold of Hakuin gave him several slaps and let him\ngo over the porch again. He fell several feet at the foot of the\nstone-wall, where he remained for a while almost senseless. The master\nlooked down and heartily laughed at the poor fellow. This brought\nHakuin back to consciousness. He came up again all in perspiration. The\nmaster, however, did not release him yet and stigmatised him as ever\nwith \u201cO you, denizen of the dark cavern!\u201d\n\nHakuin grew desperate and thought of leaving the old master altogether.\nWhen one day he was going about begging in the village, a certain\naccident[f149] made him all of a sudden open his mental eye to the\ntruth of Zen, hitherto completely shut off from him. His joy knew no\nbounds and he came back in a most exalted state of mind. Before he\ncrossed the front gate, the master recognised him and beckoned to him,\nsaying, \u201cWhat a good news have you brought home to-day? Come right in,\nquick, quick!\u201d Hakuin then told him all about what he went through\nwith that day. The master tenderly stroked him on the back and said,\n\u201cYou have it now, you have it now.\u201d After this, Hakuin was never called\nnames.\n\nSuch was the training the father of modern Japanese Zen had to go\nthrough. How terrible the old Sh\u014dju was when he pushed Hakuin down\nthe stone-wall! But how motherly when the disciple after so much of\nill-treatment finally came out triumphantly! There is nothing lukewarm\nin Zen. If it is lukewarm, it is not Zen. It expects one to penetrate\ninto the very depths of truth, and the truth can never be grasped until\none comes back to one\u2019s native nakedness shorn of all trumperies,\nintellectual or otherwise. Each slap dealt by Sh\u014dju stripped Hakuin\nof his insincerities. We are all living under so many casings which\nreally have nothing to do with our inmost self. To reach the latter,\ntherefore, and to gain the real knowledge of ourselves, the Zen masters\nresort to methods seemingly inhuman. In this case however there must\nbe absolute faith in the truth of Zen and in the master\u2019s perfect\nunderstanding of it. The lack of this faith will also mean the same in\none\u2019s own spiritual possibilities. So exclaims Rinzai: \u201cO you, men of\nlittle faith! How can you ever expect to fathom the depths of the ocean\nof Zen?\u201d\n\n\n                                 VIII\n\nIn the life of the Zendo there is no fixed period of graduation as in a\nschool education. With some, graduation may not take place even after\nhis twenty years\u2019 boarding there. But with ordinary abilities and a\nlarge amount of perseverance and indefatigability, one is able to probe\ninto every intricacy of the teachings of Zen within a space of ten\nyears.\n\nTo practise the principle of Zen, however, in every moment of life,\nthat is, to grow fully saturated in the spirit of Zen is another\nquestion. One life may be too short for it, for it is said that even\n\u015a\u0101kyamuni and Maitreya themselves are yet in the midst of self-training.\n\nTo be a perfectly qualified master, a mere understanding of the truth\nof Zen is not sufficient. One must go through a period which\nis known as \u201cthe long maturing of the sacred womb.\u201d[7.31] The term\nmust have originally come from Taoism; and in Zen nowadays it means,\nbroadly speaking, living a life harmonious with the understanding.\nUnder the direction of a master, a monk may finally attain to a\nthorough knowledge of all the mysteries of Zen; but this is more or\nless intellectual, though in the highest possible sense. The monk\u2019s\nlife, in and out, must grow in perfect unison with this attainment.\nTo do this a further training is necessary, for what he has gained\nat Zendo is after all the pointing of the direction where his utmost\nefforts have to be put forth. But it is not at all imperative now to\nremain in the Zendo. On the contrary, his intellectual attainments\nmust be further put on trial by coming into actual contact with the\nworld. There are no prescribed rules for this \u201cmaturing.\u201d Each one\nacts on his own discretion in the accidental circumstances in which\nhe may find himself. He may retire into the mountains and live a\nsolitary hermit, or he may come out into the \u201cmarket\u201d and be an active\nparticipant in all the affairs of the world. The sixth patriarch is\nsaid to have been living among the mountaineers for fifteen years\nafter he left the fifth patriarch. He was quite unknown in the world\nuntil he came out to a lecture by Inshu (Yin-tsung).[7.32] Chu, the\nNational Teacher of Nan-yang, spent forty years in Nanyang and did not\nshow himself out in the capital. But his holy life became known far\nand near, and at the urgent request of the Emperor he finally left his\nhut. Isan (Wei-shan) spent several years in the wilderness, living on\nnuts and befriending monkeys and deer. However, he was found out and\nbig monasteries were built about his anchorage, he became master of\n1,500 monks. Kwanzan,[7.33] the founder of My\u014dshinji, Kyoto, retired\nin Mino province, and worked as day-labourer for the villagers. Nobody\nrecognised him until one day an accident brought out his identity and\nthe court insisted on his founding a monastery in the capital.[f150]\nHakuin became the keeper of a deserted temple in Suruga which was his\nsole heritage in the world. We can picture to ourselves the scene of\nits dilapidations when we read this: \u201cThere were no roofs and the\nstars shone through at night. Nor was there any floor. It was necessary\nto have a rain-hat and to put on a pair of high _getas_ when anything\nwas going on while raining in the main part of the temple. All the\nproperty attached to it was in the hands of the creditors, and the\npriestly belongings were mortgaged to the merchants.\u201d\u2014This was the\nbeginning of Hakuin\u2019s career.\n\nThere are many other notable ones, the history of Zen abounds with such\ninstances. The idea however is not to practise asceticism, it is the\n\u201cmaturing,\u201d as they have properly designated, of one\u2019s moral character.\nMany serpents and adders are waiting at the porch, and if one fails to\ntrample them down effectively, they raise the heads again and the whole\nedifice of moral culture built up in vision may collapse even in one\nday. Antinomianism is also the pitfall for Zen followers, against which\na constant vigil is needed. Hence this \u201cmaturing.\u201d\n\n\n                                  IX\n\nIn some respects, no doubt, this kind of education prevailing at\nthe Zendo is behind the times. But its guiding principles such as\nsimplification of life, not wasting a moment idly, self-independence,\nand what they call \u201csecret virtue,\u201d are sound for all ages.\nEspecially, this latter is one of the most characteristic features\nof Zen discipline. \u201cSecret virtue\u201d means practising goodness without\nany thought of recognition, neither by others nor by oneself. The\nChristians may call this the doing of \u201cThy Will.\u201d A child is drowned,\nand I get into the water, and it is saved. What was to be done was\ndone. Nothing more is thought of it. I walk away and never turn back.\nA cloud passes, and the sky is as blue and as broad as ever. Zen calls\nit a \u201cdeed without merit,\u201d and compares it to a man\u2019s work who tries to\nfill up a well with snow.\n\nThis is the psychological aspect of \u201csecret virtue.\u201d When it is\nreligiously considered, it is to regard and use the world reverentially\nand gratefully, feeling as if one were carrying on one\u2019s shoulders all\nthe sins of the world. An old woman asked J\u014dshu,[7.34] \u201cI belong to\nthe sex that is hindered in five ways from attaining Buddhahood;\nand how can I ever be delivered from them?\u201d Answered the master, \u201cO\nlet all other people be born in heaven and let me, this humble self,\nalone continue suffering in this ocean of pain!\u201d This is the spirit\nof the true Zen student. There is another story illustrating the same\nspirit of longsuffering. The district of J\u014dshu where this Zen master\u2019s\nmonastery was situated and where he got his popular title, was noted\nfor a fine stone-bridge. A monk one day came up to the master and\nasked,[7.35] \u201cWe hear so much of the splendid stone-bridge of J\u014dshu,\nbut I see here nothing but a miserable old rustic log-bridge.\u201d J\u014dshu\nretorted, \u201cYou just see the rustic log-bridge, and fail to see the\nstone-bridge of J\u014dshu.\u201d \u201cWhat is the stone-bridge then?\u201d \u201cHorses go\nover it, asses go over it,\u201d was J\u014dshu\u2019s reply. This seems to be but\na trivial talk about a bridge, but considered from the inner way of\nlooking at such cases, there is a great deal of truth touching the\ncentre of one\u2019s spiritual life. We may inquire what kind of bridge is\nrepresented here. Was J\u014dshu speaking only of a stone-bridge in his\nmonastery premises, which was strong enough for all kinds of passengers\nover it? Let each one of us reflect within himself and see if he is in\npossession of one bridge over which pass not only horses and asses,\nmen and women, carts heavy and light, but the whole world with its\ninsanities and morbidities, and which is not only thus passed over\nbut quite frequently trampled down and even cursed,\u2014a bridge which\nsuffers all these treatments, good as well as despised, patiently and\nuncomplainingly. Was J\u014dshu referring to this kind of bridge? In any\nevent we can read something of the sort in the cases above cited.\n\nBut this Zen spirit of self-suffering ought not to be understood in\nthe Christian sense that a man must spend all his time in prayer and\nmortification for the absolution of sin. For a Zen monk has no desire\nto be absolved from sin, this is too selfish an idea, and Zen is free\nfrom egotism. The Zen monk wishes to save the world from the misery\nof sin, and as to his own sin he lets it take care of itself, as he\nknows it is not a thing inherent in his nature. For this reason it is\npossible for him to be one of those who are described as \u201cthey\nthat weep as though they wept not; and they that rejoice as though they\nrejoiced not; and they that buy as though they possessed not; and they\nthat use this world as not abusing it.\u201d\n\nSays Christ, \u201cWhen thou doest alms, let not thy left hand know what thy\nright hand doeth; that thine alms may be in secret.\u201d This is a \u201csecret\nvirtue\u201d of Buddhism. But when he goes on to say that \u201cthy Father who\nseeth in secret shall recompense thee,\u201d there we see a deep cleavage\nbetween Buddhism and Christianity. As long as there is any thought of\nanybody, whether he be God or Devil, knowing of your doings, Zen would\nsay \u201cYou are not yet one of us.\u201d Deeds that are accompanied by such\nthought are not \u201cmeritless deeds,\u201d but full of tracks and shadows. If\na Spirit is tracing you, he will in no time get hold of you and make\nyou account for what you have done. The perfect garment shows no seams,\ninside and outside; it is one complete piece and nobody can tell where\nthe work began and how it was woven. In Zen, therefore, there ought not\nto be left any trace of consciousness after the doing of alms, much\nless the thought of recompensation even by God. The Zen ideal is to be\n\u201cthe wind that bloweth where it listeth, and the sound of which we hear\nbut cannot tell whence it cometh and whither it goeth.\u201d\n\nLieh-tz\u016d, the Chinese philosopher, describes this frame of mind in a\nfigurative manner as follows: \u201cI allowed my mind without restraint\nto think of whatever it pleased and my mouth to talk about whatever\nit pleased; I then forgot whether the \u2018this and not-this\u2019 was mine\nor other\u2019s, whether the gain and loss was mine or other\u2019s; nor did I\nknow whether Lao-shang-shin was my teacher, and whether Pa-kao was my\nfriend. In and out, I was thoroughly transformed; and then it was that\nthe eye became like the ear, and the ear like the nose, and the nose\nlike the mouth; and there was nothing that was not identified. The mind\nwas concentrated, and the form dissolved, and the bones and flesh all\nthawed away: I did not know where my form was supported, where my feet\nwere treading; I just moved along with the wind, east and west, like a\nleaf of a tree detached from the stem, I was not conscious whether\nI was riding on the wind or the wind riding on me.\u201d[f151]\n\n\n                                   X\n\nAs I stated before, Zen followers do not approve of Christians, even\nChristian mystics being too conscious of God who is the creator and\nsupporter of all life and all being. Their attitude towards the\nBuddha and Zen is that of Lieh-tz\u016d riding on the wind; a complete\nidentification of the self with the object of thought is what is\naimed at by the disciples of J\u014dshu, Ummon, and other leaders of Zen.\nThis is the reason why they are all loath to hear the word Buddha\nor Zen mentioned in their discourse, not because indeed they are\nanti-Buddhist, but because they have so thoroughly assimilated Buddhism\nin their being. Listen to the gentle remonstrance given by H\u014dyen, of\nGosozan, to his disciple Yengo:\n\nGoso said,[7.36] \u201cYou are all right, but you have a trivial fault.\u201d\nYengo asked two or three times what that fault was. Said the master\nat last, \u201cYou have altogether too much of Zen.\u201d \u201cWhy,\u201d protested the\ndisciple, \u201cif one is studying Zen at all, don\u2019t you think it the most\nnatural thing for one to be talking of it? Why do you dislike it?\u201d\nReplied Goso, \u201cWhen it is like an ordinary everyday conversation, it\nis somewhat better.\u201d A monk happened to be there with them, who asked,\n\u201cWhy do you specially hate talking about Zen?\u201d \u201cBecause it turns one\u2019s\nstomach,\u201d was the master\u2019s verdict.\n\nRinzai\u2019s way of expressing himself in regard to this point is\nquite violent and revolutionary. And if we were not acquainted with\nthe methods of Zen teachings, such passages as are quoted below would\nsurely make our teeth chatter and our hair stand on end. The reader may\nthink the author simply horrible, but we all know well how earnestly he\nfeels about the falsehoods of the world and how unflinchingly he pushes\nhimself forward through its confusion worse confounded. His hands may\nbe compared to Jehovah\u2019s in trying to destroy the idols and causing\nthe images to cease. Read the following, for instance, in which Rinzai\nendeavours to strip one\u2019s spirit off its last raiment of falsehood.\n\n\u201cO you, followers of Truth, if you wish to obtain an orthodox\nunderstanding [of Zen], do not be deceived by others. Inwardly or\noutwardly, if you encounter any obstacles, lay them low right away. If\nyou encounter the Buddha slay him; if you encounter the Patriarch, slay\nhim; if you encounter the Arhat or the parent or the relative, slay\nthem all without hesitation: for this is the only way to deliverance.\nDo not get yourselves entangled with any object, but stand above, pass\non, and be free. As I see those so-called followers of Truth all over\nthe country, there are none who come to me free and independent of\nobjects. In dealing with them, I strike them down any way they come. If\nthey rely on the strength of their arms, I cut them right off; if they\nrely on their eloquence, I make them shut themselves up; if they rely\non the sharpness of their eyes, I will hit them blind. There are indeed\nso far none who have presented themselves before me all alone, all\nfree, all unique. They are invariably found caught by the idle tricks\nof the old masters. I have really nothing to give to you, all that I\ncan do is to cure you of the diseases and deliver you from bondage.\n\n\u201cO you, followers of Truth, show yourselves here independent of all\nobjects, I want to weigh the matter with you. For the last five or\nten years I have waited in vain for such, and there are no such yet.\nThey are all ghostly existences, ignominious gnomes haunting the woods\nor bamboo-groves, they are elfish spirits of the wilderness. They\nare madly biting into all heaps of filth. O you, mole-eyed, why are\nyou wasting all the pious donations of the devout! Do you think\nyou deserve the name of a monk, when you are still entertaining such a\nmistaken idea [of Zen]? I tell you, no Buddhas, no holy teachings, no\ndiscipling, no testifying! What do you seek in a neighbour\u2019s house? O\nyou, mole-eyed! You are putting another head over your own! What do you\nlack in yourselves? O you, followers of Truth, what you are making use\nof at this very moment, is none other than what makes a Patriarch or a\nBuddha. But you do not believe me, and seek it outwardly. Do not commit\nyourselves to an error. There are no realities outside, nor is there\nanything inside you may lay your hands on. You stick to the literal\nmeaning of what I speak to you, but how far better it is to have all\nyour hankerings stopped and be doing nothing whatever!\u201d etc., etc.\n\nThis was the way Rinzai wanted to wipe out all trace of\nGod-consciousness in the mind of a truth-seeker. How he wields\nThor-like his thunder-bolt of harangue!\n\n\n                                  XI\n\nThe state of mind in which all traces of conceptual consciousness are\nwiped out is called by the Christian mystics poverty, and Tauler\u2019s\ndefinition is: \u201cAbsolute poverty is thine when thou canst not remember\nwhether anybody has ever owed thee or been indebted to thee for\nanything; just as all things will be forgotten by thee in the last\njourney of death.\u201d\n\nThe Zen masters are more poetic and positive in their expression of\nthe feeling of poverty, they do not make a direct reference to things\nworldly. Sings Mumon (Wu-m\u00ean)[7.37]:\n\n  \u201cHundreds of spring flowers; the autumnal moon;\n   A refreshing summer breeze; winter snow:\n   Free thy mind of all idle thoughts,\n   And for thee how enjoyable every season is!\u201d\n\nOr according to Shuan (Shou-an)[7.38]:\n\n  \u201cAt Nantai I sit quietly with an incense burning,\n   One day of rapture, all things are forgotten,\n   Not that mind is stopped and thoughts are put away,\n   But that there is really nothing to disturb my serenity.\u201d\n\nThis is not to convey the idea that he is idly sitting and doing\nnothing particularly; or that he has nothing else to do but to enjoy\nthe cherry-blossoms fragrant in the morning sun, or the lonely moon\nwhite and silvery: he may be in the midst of work, teaching pupils,\nreading the Sutras, sweeping and farming as all the masters have done,\nand yet his own mind is filled with transcendental happiness and\nquietude. He is living in God as Christians may say. All hankerings of\nthe heart have departed, there are no idle thoughts clogging the flow\nof life-activity, and thus he is empty and poverty-stricken. As he is\npoverty-stricken, he knows how to enjoy the \u201cspring flowers\u2019\u2019 and the\n\u201cautumnal moon.\u201d When worldly riches are amassed in his heart, there\nis no room left there for such celestial enjoyments. The Zen masters\nare wont of speaking positively about their contentment and unworldly\nriches. Instead of saying that they are empty-handed, they talk of the\nnatural sufficiency of things about them. Yogi (Yang-ch\u2018i), however,\nrefers to his deserted habitation where he found himself to be residing\nas keeper. One day he ascended the lecturing chair in the Hall and\nbegan to recite his own verse[7.39]:\n\n  \u201cMy dwelling is now here at Yogi; the walls and roof, how\n     weather-beaten!\n   The whole floor is covered white with snow crystal,\n   Shivering down the neck, I am filled with thoughts.\u201d\n\nAfter a pause he added the fourth line:\n\n  \u201cHow I recall the ancient masters whose habitat was no better than the\n     shade of a tree!\u201d\n\nKy\u014dgen (Hsiang-yen)[7.40] is more direct apparently in his allusion to\npoverty:\n\n  \u201cMy last year\u2019s poverty was not poverty enough,\n   My poverty this year is poverty indeed;\n   In my poverty last year there was room for a gimlet\u2019s point,\n   But this year even the gimlet is gone.\u201d\n\nLater, a master called Koboku Gen (K\u2018u-mu Y\u00fcan)[7.41] commented on this\nsong of poverty by Ky\u014dgen in the following verse:\n\n  \u201c\u2018Neither a gimlet\u2019s point nor the room for it,\u2019 some sing; but this\n     is not yet real poverty:\n   As long as one is conscious of having nothing, there still remains\n     the guardian of poverty.\n   I am lately poverty-stricken in all conscience,\n   For from the very beginning I do not see even the one that is poor.\u201d\n\nUmmon was not poverty-stricken, but lean and emaciated; for when a\nmonk asked him what were the special features of his school, the\nmaster answered, \u201cMy skin is dry and my bones are sticking out.\u201d\nCorpulence and opulence have never been associated with spirituality,\nat least in the East. As a matter of fact, they are not inconsistent\nideas; but the amassing of wealth under our economic conditions has\nalways resulted in producing characters that do not go very well with\nour ideals of saintliness. Perhaps our too emphatic protest against\nmaterialism has done this. Thus not to have anything, even wisdom and\nvirtue, has been made the object of Buddhist life, though this does not\nmean that it despises them. In despising there is in a large measure\nsomething impure, not thoroughly purgated; as true Bodhisattvas are\neven above purity and virtuousness, how much more so they would be\nabove such petty weaknesses of human being! When the Buddhists are thus\ncleansed of all these, they will truly be poverty-stricken and thin and\ntransparent.\n\nThe aim of Zen discipline is to attain to the state of \u201cnon-attainment\u201d\n(_citta\u1e41 nopalabhyate_) as is technically expressed. All knowledge\nis an acquisition and accumulation, whereas Zen proposes to deprive\none of all one\u2019s possessions. The spirit is to make one poor and\nhumble\u2014thoroughly cleansed of inner impurities. Learning, on the\ncontrary, makes one rich and arrogant. Because learning is earning,\nthe more learned, the richer, and therefore \u201cin much wisdom is much\ngrief; and he that increaseth knowledge increaseth sorrow.\u201d It is\nafter all \u201cvanity and a striving after wind.\u201d Zen will heartily\nendorse this too. Says Laotz\u016d, \u201cScholars gain everyday while the\nTaoists lose everyday.\u201d[f152] The consummation of this kind of\nloss is \u201cnon-attainment,\u201d which is poverty. Poverty in another word\nis emptiness, \u015b\u016bnyat\u0101. When the spirit is all purged of its filth\naccumulated from time immemorial, it stands naked, with no raiments,\nwith no trappings. It is now empty, free, genuine assuming its native\nauthority. And there is a joy in this, not that kind of joy which is\nliable to be upset by its counterpart, grief, but an absolute joy\nwhich is \u201cthe gift of God,\u201d which makes a man \u201cenjoy good in all his\nlabour,\u201d and from which nothing can be taken, to which nothing can be\nput, but which shall stay for ever. Non-attainment, therefore, in Zen\nis positive conception, and not merely privative. The Buddhist modes of\nthinking are sometimes different from those of the West, and Christian\nreaders are often taken aback at the idea of emptiness and at the too\nunconditioned assertion of idealism. Singularly, however, all the\nmystics, Buddhist or no, agree in their idea of poverty being the end\nof their spiritual development.\n\nIn Christianity, we seem to be too conscious of God, though we say that\nin Him we live and move and have our being. Zen wants to have even this\nlast trace of God-consciousness, if possible, obliterated. That is why\nZen followers advise us not to linger even where the Buddha is and to\npass quickly away where he is not. All the training of the monk in the\nZendo, in theory as well as in practice, is based in the notion of\n\u201cmeritless deed.\u201d Poetically, this idea is expressed as follows:\n\n  \u201cThe bamboo shadows are sweeping the stairs,\n   But no dust is stirred:\n   The moonlight penetrates deep in the bottom of the pool,\n   But no trace is left in the water.\u201d\n\nWhen this is expressed in the more Indian and technical terms of the\n_La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra-s\u016btra_, it is as follows:\n\n\u201cHabit-energy is not separated from mind, nor is it together with mind;\nthough enveloped in habit-energy, mind has no marks of difference.\n\n\u201cHabit-energy which is like a soiled garment produced by manovij\u00f1\u0101na,\nkeeps mind from shining forth, though mind itself is a robe of the\nutmost purity.\n\n\u201cI state that the \u0101laya is like empty space, which is neither\nexistent nor non-existent; for the \u0101laya has nothing to do with being\nor no-being.\n\n\u201cThrough the transformation of manovij\u00f1\u0101na, mind is cleansed of\nfoulness, it is enlightened as it now thoroughly understands all\nthings:\u2014this I preach.\u201d[f153]\n\n\n                                  XII\n\nThe monastery life is not all working and sitting quiet meditating on\nthe \u201c_k\u014d-an_.\u201d There is something of intellectual life, in the form of\nlecturing as has already been referred to. Anciently, however, there\nwas no regular \u201c_sesshin_,\u201d and all the lecturing or giving sermons\nto the congregation was carried on the feast days, memorial days, or\non other auspicious occasions such as receiving visitors, honourably\ndischarging the officials, or completing given pieces of work. Every\navailable opportunity was thus used intellectually to enlighten earnest\nseekers of the truth. These discourses, sermons, exhortations, and\nshort pithy remarks so characteristic of Zen are recorded in its\nliterature, the bulk of which indeed consists of nothing but these.\nWhile claiming to be above letters, Zen is filled with them, almost\noverfilled. Before giving some of such sermons, let me digress and say\na few words about the Chinese language as the vehicle of Zen philosophy.\n\nTo my mind, the Chinese language is pre-eminently adapted for Zen,\nit is probably the best medium of expression for Zen as long as its\nliterary side alone is thought of. Being monosyllabic the language is\nterse and vigorous, and a single word is made to convey so much meaning\nin it. While vagueness of sense is perhaps an unavoidable shortcoming\naccompanying those advantages, Zen knows how to avail itself of it, and\nthe very vagueness of the language becomes a most powerful weapon\nin the hand of the master. He is far from wanting to be obscure and\nmisleading, but a well-chosen monosyllable grows when it falls from his\nlips into a most pregnant word loaded with the whole system of Zen.\nUmmon is regarded as the foremost adept in this direction. To show the\nextreme laconism of his sayings, the following[7.42] are quoted:\n\nWhen he was asked what was the sword of Ummon, he replied, \u201cHung!\u201d\n\n\u201cWhat is the one straight passage to Ummon?\u201d \u201cMost intimate!\u201d\n\n\u201cWhich one of the Trik\u0101ya [Three Bodies of Buddha] is it that will\nsermonise?\u201d \u201cTo the point!\u201d\n\n\u201cI understand this is said by all the old masters, that when you know\n[the truth], all the karma-hindrances are empty from the beginning;\nbut if you do not, you have to pay all the debts back. I wonder if\nthe second patriarch knew this or not.\u201d Replied the master, \u201cMost\ncertainly!\u201d\n\n\u201cWhat is the eye of the true Dharma?\u201d \u201cEverywhere!\u201d\n\n\u201cWhen one commits patricide, or matricide, one goes to the Buddha to\nconfess the sin; when however one murders a Buddha or Patriarch, where\nshould one go for confession?\u201d \u201cExposed!\u201d\n\n\u201cWhat is the Tao [path, way, or truth]?\u201d \u201cWalk on!\u201d\n\n\u201cHow is it that without the parent\u2019s consent one cannot be ordained?\u201d\n\u201cHow shallow!\u201d \u201cI cannot understand.\u201d \u201cHow deep!\u201d\n\n\u201cWhat kind of phrase is it that does not cast any shadow?\u201d \u201cRevealed!\u201d\n\n\u201cHow do you have an eye in a question[f154]?\u201d \u201cBlind.\u201d\n\nJust one monosyllable, and the difficulties are disposed of. The\nZen master has generally nothing to do with circumlocution; if any\none is a direct and plain speaker, he is the directest in hitting\nthe point and the plainest in expressing his thoughts without any\nencumbering appendages. To these purposes, the Chinese language is\neminently suited. Brevity and forcefulness are its specific qualities,\nfor each single syllable is a word and sometimes even makes a complete\nsentence. A string of a few nouns with no verbs or with no connectives\nis often sufficient to express a complex thought. Chinese literature is\nnaturally full of trenchant epigrams and pregnant aphorisms. The words\nare unwieldy and disconnected: when they are put together, they are\nlike so many pieces of rock with nothing cementing them to one another.\nThey do not present themselves as organic. Each link in the chain has\na separate independent existence. But as each syllable is pronounced,\nthe whole effect is irresistible. Chinese is a mystic language par\nexcellence.\n\nAs terseness and directness is the life of Zen, its literature is\nfull of idiomatic and colloquial expressions. The Chinese as you\nall know, being such partisans to classic formalism, scholars and\nphilosophers did not know how to express themselves but in elegant\nand highly polished style. And consequently all that is left to us\nin ancient Chinese literature is this classicism, nothing of popular\nand colloquial lore had come down to posterity. Whatever we have of\nthe latter from the T\u2018ang and the Sung dynasty is to be sought in the\nwritings of the Zen masters. It is an irony of fate that those who so\ndespised the use of letters as conveyor of truth and directly appealed\nto the understanding of an intuitive faculty became the bearers and\ntransmitters of ancient popular idioms and expressions which were\nthrown away by the classical writers as unworthy and vulgar from the\nmain body of literature. The reason however is plain. The Buddha\npreached in the vernacular language of the people; so did Christ. The\nGreek or Sanskrit (or even Pali) texts are all later elaboration when\nthe faith began to grow stale, and scholasticism had the chance to\nassert itself. Then the living religion turned into an intellectual\nsystem and had to be translated into a highly but artificially\npolished and therefore more or less stilted formalism. This has been\nwhat Zen most emphatically opposed from the very beginning, and the\nconsequence was naturally that the language it chose was that which\nmost appealed to the people in general, that is, to their hearts open\nfor a new living light. The Zen masters, whenever they could, avoided\nthe technical nomenclature of Buddhist philosophy, not only did they\ndiscuss such subjects as appealed to a plain man, but they made use of\nhis everyday language which was the vehicle appreciated by the masses\nand at the same time most expressive of the central ideas of Zen. Thus\nZen literature became a unique repository of ancient wisdom. In Japan,\ntoo, when Hakuin modernised Zen, he utilised profusely slangy phrases,\ncolloquialisms, and even popular songs. This neological tendency of\nZen is inevitable, seeing that it is creative and refuses to express\nitself in the worn-out lifeless language of scholars and stylists. As\nthe result even learned students of Chinese literature these days are\nunable to understand the Zen writings, and their spiritual meanings\nas well. Thus has Zen literature come to constitute a unique class of\nliterary work in China, standing all by itself outside the main bulk of\nclassical literature.\n\nAs I said elsewhere, Zen became truly the product of the Chinese mind\nby thus creating a unique influence in the history of Chinese culture.\nAs long as Indian influence predominated, Zen could not be free from\nthe speculative abstraction of Buddhist philosophy, which meant that\nZen was not Zen in its specialised sense. Some scholars think that\nthere is no Zen in the so-called primitive Buddhism and that the\nBuddha was not at all the author of Zen. But we must all remember\nthat such critics are entirely ignoring the fact that religion when\ntransplanted adapts itself to the genius of the people among whom it is\nintroduced, and that unless it does so it gradually dies out, proving\nthat there was no life-giving soul in that religion. Zen has claimed\nfrom the beginning of its history in China that it is transmitting the\nspirit and not the letter of the Buddha, by which we understand that\nZen, independent of traditional Buddhist philosophy including\nits terminology and modes of thinking, wove out its own garment from\nwithin just as the silkworm weaves its own cocoon. Therefore, the outer\ngarment of Zen is original, befitting itself wonderfully well, and\nthere are no patchings on it, nor any seams either: Zen is truly the\ntraditional celestial robe.\n\n\n                                 XIII\n\nBefore closing I must not forget to give some of the sermons by the\nmasters which are recorded chiefly in _The Record of the Transmission\nof the Lamp_, as well as in the \u201cSayings.\u201d\n\nJ\u014dshu says[7.43]: \u201cThis thing is like holding up a transparent crystal\nin your hand. When a stranger comes, it reflects him as such; when a\nnative Chinese comes, it reflects him as such. I pick up a blade of\ngrass and make it work as a golden-bodied one[f155] sixteen feet high.\nI again take hold of a golden-bodied one sixteen feet high and make him\nact as a blade of grass. The Buddha is what constitutes human desires\nand human desires are no other than Buddhahood.\u201d A monk asked,[f167]\n\n\u201cFor whom are the Buddha\u2019s desires roused?\u201d\n\n\u201cHis desires are roused for all sentient beings.\u201d\n\n\u201cHow does he get rid of them then?\u201d\n\n\u201cWhat is the use of getting rid of them?\u201d answered the master.\n\nOn another occasion he said: \u201cK\u0101\u015byapa handed [the Law] over to \u0100nanda,\nand can you tell me to whom Bodhi-Dharma handed it over?\u201d\n\nA monk interposed: \u201cHow is it that we read about the second patriarch\u2019s\ngetting its marrow from Dharma?\u201d[f157]\n\n\u201cDon\u2019t disparage the second patriarch,\u201d J\u014dshu continued: \u201cDharma claims\nthat the one who was outside got the skin and the inside one got the\nbone; but can you tell me what the inmost one gets?\u201d\n\nA monk said, \u201cBut don\u2019t we all know that there was one who got the\nmarrow?\u201d\n\nRetorted the master: \u201cHe has just got the skin. Here in my place I do\nnot allow even to talk of the marrow.\u201d\n\n\u201cWhat is the marrow then?\u201d\n\n\u201cIf you ask me thus, even the skin you have not traced.\u201d\n\n\u201cHow grand then you are!\u201d said the monk. \u201cIs this not your absolute\nposition, sir?\u201d\n\n\u201cDo you know there is one who will not accept you?\u201d\n\n\u201cIf you say so, there must be one who will take another position.\u201d\n\n\u201cWho is such another?\u201d demanded the master.\n\n\u201cWho is not such another?\u201d retorted the monk.\n\n\u201cI will let you talk all you like.\u201d\n\nThe sermons are generally of this nature, short, and to outsiders\nunintelligible or almost nonsensical. But, according to Zen, all these\nremarks are the plainest and most straightforward exposition of the\ntruth. When the formal logical modes of thinking are not resorted to,\nand yet the master is asked to express himself what he understands in\nhis inmost heart, there are no other ways but to speak in a manner so\nenigmatic and so symbolic as to stagger the uninitiated. However, the\nmasters themselves are right in earnest, and if you attach even the\nremotest notion of reproach to their remarks, thirty blows will be\ninstantly on your head.\n\nThe next are from Ummon.[7.44]\n\nUmmon ascended the platform and said: \u201cO you, venerable monks! Don\u2019t\nget confused in thought. Heaven is heaven, earth is earth, mountains\nare mountains, water is water, monks are monks, laymen are laymen.\u201d He\npaused for a while and continued, \u201cBring me out here that hill of Ansan\nand let me see!\u201d\n\nAnother time he said, \u201cBodhisattva Vasudeva turned without any reason\ninto a staff.\u201d So saying he drew a line on the ground with his own\nstaff, and resumed, \u201cAll the Buddhas as numberless as sands are here\ntalking all kinds of nonsense.\u201d He then left the Hall.\n\nOne day when he came out in the Hall as usual to give a sermon, a monk\nwalked out of the congregation, and made bows to him, saying, \u201cI\nbeg you to answer.\u201d Ummon called out aloud, \u201cO monks!\u201d The monks all\nturned towards the master, who then came down from the seat.\n\nAnother day when he was silent in his seat for a while, a monk came out\nand made bows to him; said the master, \u201cWhy so late!\u201d The monk made\na response, whereupon the master remarked, \u201cO you, good-for-nothing\nsimpleton!\u201d\n\nSometimes his sermon would be quite disparaging to the founder of his\nown faith; for he said, \u201cI\u015bvara, great lord of heaven, and the old\n\u015a\u0101kyamuni are in the middle of the courtyard, discoursing on Buddhism;\nare they not noisy?\u201d\n\nAt another time he said:\n\n\u201cAll the talk so far I have had\u2014what is it all about any way? To-day\nagain not being able to help myself I am here to talk to you once more.\nIn this wide universe is there anything that comes up against you, or\nputs you in bondage? If there is ever a thing as small as the point of\na pin lying in your way or obstructing your passage, get it out for\nme! What is it that you call a Buddha or a Patriarch? What are they\nthat are known as mountains, rivers, the earth, sun, moon, or stars?\nWhat are they that you call the four elements and the five aggregates?\nI speak thus, but it is no more than the talk of an old woman from a\nremote village. If I suddenly happen to meet a monk thoroughly trained\nin this matter, he will, on learning what I have been talking to you,\ncarry me off the feet and throw me down the steps. And for this would\nhe be blamed? Whatever this may be, for what reason is it so? Don\u2019t be\ncarried away by my talk and try to make nonsensical remarks. Unless\nyou are the fellow who was really gone through with the whole thing,\nyou will never do. When you are caught unawares by such an old man as\nmyself, you will at once lose your way and break your legs. And for\nthat, am I to be at all blamed? This being so, is there any one among\nyou who wants to know a thing or two about the doctrine of our school?\nCome out and let me answer you. After this you may get a turning and be\nfree to go out in the world, east or west.\u201d\n\nA monk came out and was at the point of asking a question when the\nmaster hit his mouth with the staff, and descended from the seat.\n\nOne day when Ummon was coming up to the Lecture Hall he heard the bell,\nwhereupon he said, \u201cIn such a wide, wide world, why do we put our\nmonkish robes on when the bell goes like this?\u201d\n\nAnother time he simply said, \u201cDon\u2019t you try to add frost over snow;\ntake good care of yourselves, good-bye\u201d; and went out.\n\n\u201cLo, and behold; the Buddha Hall has run into the monk\u2019s quarters.\u201d\nLater his own remark was, \u201cThey are beating the drum at Lafu (Lo-fu),\nand a dance is going on at Sh\u014dj\u016b (Shao-chou).\u201d\n\nUmmon seated himself in a chair before the congregation, there was a\npause for a while, and he remarked: \u201cRaining so long, and not a day has\nthe sun shone.\u201d\n\nAnother time, \u201cLo, and behold! No life\u2019s left!\u201d So saying, he acted as\nif he were falling. Then he asked, \u201cDo you understand? If not, ask this\nstaff to enlighten you.\u201d\n\nAs soon as Y\u014dgi (Yang-ch\u2018ih),[7.45] a great master of the eleventh\ncentury under the Sung dynasty, got seated in his chair, he laughed\nloudly, \u201cHa, Ha, Ha!\u201d and said, \u201cWhat is this? Go back to your\ndormitory hall and each have a cup of tea.\u201d\n\nOne day Y\u014dgi ascended the seat, and the monks were all assembled. The\nmaster, before uttering a word, threw his staff away and came right\ndown jumping from the chair. The monks were about to disperse, when\nhe called out, \u201cO monks!\u201d The latter turned back, whereupon said the\nmaster, \u201cTake my staff in, O monks!\u201d This said, the master went off.\n\nYakusan (Y\u00fceh-shan, 751\u2013834)[7.46] gave no sermons for some little time\nand the chief secretary came up to him asking for one. The master said,\n\u201cBeat the drum then.\u201d As soon as the congregation was ready to listen\nto him, he went back to his own room. The secretary followed him and\nsaid, \u201cYou gave consent to give them a sermon, and how is it that you\nuttered not a word?\u201d Said the master, \u201cThe Sutras are explained by the\nSutra specialists, and the \u015aastras by the \u015aastra specialists; why\nthen do you wonder at me? [Am I not a Zen master?].\u201d\n\nOne day Goso (Fa-yen)[7.47] entered the Hall and seated himself in the\nchair. He looked one way over the shoulder and then the other. Finally\nhe held out his staff high in his hand and said, \u201cOnly one foot long!\u201d\nAnd without a further comment he descended.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe foregoing selections from Ummon and J\u014dshu and others will be\nsufficient to acquaint the reader with what kind of sermons have been\ncarried on in the monastery for the intellectual or super-intellectual\nconsumption of the monks. They are generally short. The masters\ndo not waste much time in explaining Zen, not only because it is\nbeyond the ken of human discursive understanding, but because such\nexplanations are not productive of any practical and lasting benefits\nfor the spiritual edification of the monks. The masters\u2019 remarks are\ntherefore necessarily laconic; sometimes they do not even attempt to\nmake any wordy discussion or statement, but just raising the staff,\nor shaking the hossu, or uttering a cry, or reciting a verse, is all\nthat the congregation gets from the master. Some, however, seem to\nhave their own favourite way of demonstrating the truth of Zen; for\ninstance, Rinzai is famous for his \u201cKwatsu\u201d (_h\u00ea_ in Chinese), Tokusan\nfor his flourishing staff, Gutei for his lifting up a finger, Hima\nfor a bifurcate stick, Kwasan for beating a drum, and so on.[f158] It\nis wonderful to observe what a variety of methods have sprung up, so\nextraordinary, so ingenious, and so original, and all in order to make\nthe monks realise the same truth, whose infinite aspects as manifested\nin the world may be comprehended by various individuals, each according\nto his own capacity and opportunity.\n\nTaking it all in all, Zen is emphatically a matter of personal\nexperience; if anything can be called radically empirical, it is\nZen. No amount of reading, no amount of teaching, and no amount of\ncontemplation will even make one a Zen master. Life itself must be\ngrasped in the midst of its flow, to stop it for examination and\nanalysis is to kill it leaving its cold corpse to be embraced.\nTherefore, everything in the Meditation Hall and every detail of its\ndisciplinary curriculum is so arranged as to bring this idea into the\nmost efficient prominence. The unique position maintained by the Zen\nsect among other Mahayana schools in Japan and China throughout the\nhistory of Buddhism in the Far East is no doubt due to the institution\nknown as the Meditation Hall or Zendo.\n\n\n\n\n                     THE TEN COW-HERDING PICTURES\n\n\n                     THE TEN COW-HERDING PICTURES\n\nThe attainment of Buddhahood or the realisation of Enlightenment is\nwhat is aimed at by all pious Buddhists, though not necessarily during\nthis one earthly life; and Zen, as one of the Mahayana schools, also\nteaches that all our efforts must be directed towards this supreme\nend. While most of the other schools distinguish so many steps of\nspiritual development and insist on one\u2019s going through all the grades\nsuccessively in order to reach the consummation of the Buddhist\ndiscipline; Zen ignores all these, and boldly declares that when one\nsees into the inmost nature of one\u2019s own being, one instantly becomes\na Buddha, and that there is no necessity of climbing up each rung of\nperfection through eternal cycles of transmigration. This has been one\nof the most characteristic tenets of Zen ever since the coming-east of\nBodhi-Dharma in the sixth century. \u201cSee into thy own nature and be a\nBuddha,\u201d has thus grown the watchword of the Sect. And this \u201cseeing\u201d\nwas not the outcome of much learning or speculation, nor was it due to\nthe grace of the supreme Buddha conferred upon his ascetic followers;\nbut it grew out of the special training of the mind prescribed by the\nZen masters. This being so, Zen could not very well recognise any form\nof gradation in the attainment of Buddhahood. The \u201cseeing into one\u2019s\nnature\u201d was an instant act. There could not be any process in it which\nwould permit scales or steps of development.\n\nBut in point of fact where the time-element rules supreme, this was\nnot necessarily the case. As long as our relative minds are made to\ncomprehend one thing after another by degrees and in succession and\nnot all at once and simultaneously, it is impossible not to speak of\nsome kind of progress. Even Zen as something possible of demonstration\nin one way or another must be subjected to the limitations of time.\nThat is to say, there are after all grades of development in its\nstudy; and some must be said to have more deeply, more penetratingly\nrealised the truth of Zen. In itself the truth may transcend all form\nof limitation, but when it is to be realised in the human mind, its\npsychological laws are to be observed. The \u201cseeing into thy nature\u201d\nmust admit degrees of clearness. Transcendentally, we are all Buddhas\njust as we are, ignorant and sinful if you like; but when we come\ndown to this practical life, pure idealism has to give way to a more\nparticular and palpable form of activity. This side of Zen is known as\nits \u201cconstructive\u201d aspect, in contradistinction to its \u201call-sweeping\u201d\naspect. And here Zen fully recognises degrees of spiritual development\namong its followers, as the truth reveals itself gradually in their\nminds until the \u201cseeing into one\u2019s nature\u201d is perfected.\n\nTechnically speaking, Zen belongs to the group of Buddhist doctrines\nknown as \u201cdiscrete\u201d or \u201cdiscontinuous\u201d or \u201cabrupt\u201d (_tun_ in Chinese)\nin opposition to \u201ccontinuous\u201d or \u201cgradual\u201d (_chien_)[f159]; and\nnaturally the opening of the mind, according to Zen, comes upon\none as a matter of discrete or sudden happening and not as the\nresult of a gradual, continuous development whose every step can be\ntraced and analysed. The coming of satori is not like the rising\nof the sun gradually bringing things to light, but it is like the\nfreezing of water which takes place abruptly. There is no middle or\ntwilight condition before the mind is opened to the truth, in which\nthere prevails a sort of neutral zone, or a state of intellectual\nindifference. As we have already observed in several instances of\nsatori, the transition from ignorance to enlightenment is so abrupt,\nthe common cur, as it were, suddenly turns into a golden-haired lion.\nZen is an ultra-discrete wing of Buddhism. But this holds true only\nwhen the truth of Zen itself is considered, apart from its relation\nto the human mind in which it is disclosed. Inasmuch as the truth is\ntrue only when it is considered in the light it gives to the mind and\ncannot be thought of at all independent of the latter, we may speak of\nits gradual and progressive realisation in us. The psychological laws\nexist here as elsewhere. Therefore, when Bodhi-Dharma was ready\nto leave China, he said that D\u014dfuku got the skin, the nun S\u014dji got\nthe flesh, and D\u014diku the bone, while Yeka had the marrow (or essence)\nof Zen.[f160][8.1] Nangaku who succeeded the sixth patriarch had six\naccomplished disciples, but their attainments differed in depth. He\ncompared them with various parts of the body, and said, \u201cYou all have\ntestified to my body, but each has grasped a part of it. The one who\nhas my eye-brows is the master of manners; the second who has my eyes,\nknows how to look around; the third who has my ears, understands how\nto listen to reasoning; the fourth who has my nose is well versed in\nthe act of breathing; the fifth who has my tongue, is a great arguer;\nand finally the one who has my mind knows the past and the present.\u201d\nThis gradation was impossible if \u201cseeing into one\u2019s nature\u201d alone\nwas considered; for the seeing is one indivisible act, allowing no\nstages of transition. It is however no contradiction of the principle\nof satori, as we have repeatedly asserted, to say that in fact there\nis a progressive realisation in the seeing, leading one deeper and\ndeeper into the truth of Zen, finally culminating in one\u2019s complete\nidentification with it.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nLieh-tz\u016d, the Chinese philosopher of Taoism, describes in the following\npassage certain marked stages of development in the practice of Tao:\n\n\u201cThe teacher of Lieh-tz\u016d was Lao-shang-shih, and his friend\nPai-kao-tz\u016d. When Lieh-tz\u016d was well advanced in the teachings of these\ntwo philosophers, he came home riding on the wind. Yin-sh\u00eang heard of\nthis, and came to Lieh-tz\u016d to be instructed. Yin-sh\u00eang neglected his\nown household for several months. He never lost opportunities to ask\nthe master to instruct him in the arts [of riding on the wind]; he\nasked ten times, and was refused each time. Yin-sh\u00eang grew impatient\nand wanted to depart. Lieh-tz\u016d did not urge him to stay. For several\nmonths Yin-sh\u00eang kept himself away from the master, but did not feel\nany easier in his mind. He came over to Lieh-tz\u016d again. Asked the\nmaster, \u2018Why this constant coming back and forth?\u2019 Yin-sh\u00eang\nreplied, \u2018The other day, I, Chang Tai, wished to be instructed by you,\nbut you refused to teach me, which I did not naturally like. I feel,\nhowever, no grudge against you now, hence my presence here again.\u2019\n\n\u201c\u2018I thought the other time,\u2019 said the master, \u2018you understood it all.\nBut seeing now what a commonplace mortal you are, I will tell you what\nI have learned under the master. Sit down and listen! It was three\nyears after I went to my master Lao-shang and my friend Pai-kao that my\nmind began to cease thinking of right and wrong, and my tongue talking\nof gain and loss, whereby he favoured me with just a glance. At the end\nof five years, my mind again began to think of right and wrong, and my\ntongue to talk about gain and loss. Then for the first time the master\nrelaxed his expression and gave me a smile. At the end of seven years\nI just let my mind think of whatever it pleased and there was no more\nquestion of right and wrong, I just let my tongue talk of whatever it\npleased, and there was no more question of gain and loss. Then for the\nfirst time the master beckoned me to sit beside him. At the end of nine\nyears, just letting my mind think of whatever it pleased and letting\nmy tongue talk of whatever it pleased, I was not conscious whether I\nor anybody else was in the right or wrong, whether I or anybody else\ngained or lost; nor was I aware of the old master\u2019s being my teacher\nor the young Pai-kao\u2019s being my friend. Both inwardly and outwardly I\nwas advanced. It was then that the eye was like the ear, and the ear\nlike the nose, and the nose like the mouth; for they were all one and\nthe same. The mind was in rapture, the form dissolved, and the bones\nand flesh all thawed away; and I did not know how the frame supported\nitself and what the feet were treading upon. I gave myself away to the\nwind, eastward or westward, like leaves of a tree or like a dry chaff.\nWas the wind riding on me? or was I riding on the wind? I did not know\neither way.\n\n\u201c\u2018Your stay with the master has not covered much space of time, and you\nare already feeling grudge against him. The air will not hold even a\nfragment of your body, nor will the earth support one member of yours.\nHow then could you ever think of treading on empty space and\nriding the wind?\u2019\n\n\u201cYin-sh\u00eang was much ashamed and kept quiet for some time, not uttering\neven a word.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe Christian and Mahommetan mystics also mark the stages of spiritual\ndevelopment. Some Sufis describe the \u201cseven valleys\u201d[f161] to traverse\nin order to reach the court of Simburgh where the mystic \u201cbirds\u201d find\nthemselves gloriously effaced and yet fully reflected in the Awful\nPresence of themselves. The \u201cseven valleys\u201d are: 1. the Valley of\nSearch; 2. the Valley of Love, which has no limits; 3. the Valley of\nKnowledge; 4. the Valley of Independence; 5. the Valley of Unity,\npure and simple; 6. the Valley of Amazement, and 7. the Valley of\nPoverty and Annihilation, beyond which there is no advance. According\nto St. Teresa, there are four degrees of mystic life: Meditation,\nQuiet, a numberless intermediate degree, and the Orison of Unity;\nwhile Hugo of St. Victor has also his own four degrees: Meditation,\nSoliloquy, Consideration, and Rapture. There are other Christian\nmystics having their own three or four steps of \u201cardent love\u201d or of\n\u201ccontemplation.\u201d[f162]\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nProfessor R. A. Nicholson gives in his _Studies in Islamic Mysticism_\na translation of Ibnu \u2019I-F\u00e1rid\u2019s \u201cThe Poem of the Mystic\u2019s Progress\u201d\n(_T\u00e1\u2019iyya_), parts of which at least are such exact counterparts of\nBuddhist mysticism as to make us think that the Persian poet is simply\nechoing the Zen sentiment. Whenever we come across such a piece of\nmystic literature, we cannot help being struck with the inmost harmony\nof thought and feeling resonant in the depths of human soul, regardless\nof its outward accidental differences. The verses 326 and 327 of the\n_T\u00e1\u2019iyya_ read:\n\n\u201cFrom \u2018I am She\u2019 I mounted to where is no \u2018to\u2019, and I perfumed\n[phenomenal] existence by my returning:\n\n\u201cAnd [I returned] from \u2018I am I\u2019 for the sake of an esoteric wisdom\nand external laws which were instituted that I might call [the people\nto God].\u201d\n\nThe passage as it stands here is not very intelligible, but read the\ntranslator\u2019s comments which throw so much light on the way the Persian\nthought flows:\n\n\u201cThree stages of Oneness (_ittih\u00e1d_) are distinguished here: 1. \u2018I\nam She,\u2019 _i.e._, union (_jam\u2018_) without real separation (_tafriqa_),\nalthough the appearance of separation is maintained. This was the stage\nin which al-Hall\u00e1j said Ana \u2019I-Haqq \u2018I am God.\u2019 2. \u2018I am I,\u2019 _i.e._,\npure union without any trace of separation (individuality). This stage\nis technically known as the \u2018intoxication of union\u2019 (_sukru \u2019I-jam\u2018_).\n3. The \u2018sobriety of union\u2019 (_sa\u1e25wu \u2019I-jam\u2018_), _i.e._, the stage in\nwhich the mystic returns from the pure oneness of the second stage to\nplurality in oneness and to separation in union and to the Law in the\nTruth, so that while continuing to be united with God he serves Him as\na slave serves his lord and manifests the Divine Life in its perfection\nto mankind.\n\n\u201c\u2018Where is no \u201cto\u201d _i.e._, the stage of \u2018I am I,\u2019 beyond which no\nadvance is possible except by means of retrogression. In this stage the\nmystic is entirely absorbed in the undifferentiated oneness of God.\nOnly after he has \u2018returned,\u2019 _i.e._, entered upon the third stage\n(plurality in oneness) can he communicate to his fellows some perfume\n(hint) of the experience through which he has passed. \u2018An esoteric\nwisdom,\u2019 _i.e._, the Divine providence manifested by means of the\nreligious law. By returning to consciousness, the \u2018united\u2019 mystic is\nenabled to fulfil the law and to act as a spiritual director.\u201d\n\nWhen this is compared with the progress of the Zen mystic as is\npictorially illustrated and poetically commented in the following\npages, we feel that the comments were written expressly for Zen\nBuddhism.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nDuring the Sung dynasty a Zen teacher called Seikyo[8.2] illustrated\nstages of spiritual progress by a gradual purification or whitening\nof the cow until she herself disappears. But the pictures, six in\nnumber, are lost now.[f163] Those that are still in existence,\nillustrating the end of Zen discipline in a more thorough and\nconsistent manner, come from the ingenious brush of Kakuan,[8.3] a\nmonk belonging to the Rinzai school. His are in fact a revision and\nperfection of those of his predecessor. The pictures are ten in number,\nand each has a short introduction in prose followed by a commentary\nverse, both of which are translated below. There were some other\nmasters who composed stanzas on the same subjects using the rhymes\nof the first commentator, and some of them are found in the popular\nedition of \u201cThe Ten Cow-herding Pictures.\u201d\n\nThe cow has been worshipped by the Indians from very early periods of\ntheir history. The allusions are found in various connections in the\nBuddhist scriptures. In a Hinayana Sutra entitled \u201cOn the Herding of\nCattle,\u201d[f164] eleven ways of properly attending them are described.\nIn a similar manner a monk ought to observe eleven things properly in\norder to become a good Buddhist; and if he fails to do so, just like\nthe cow-herd who neglects his duties, he will be condemned. The eleven\nways of properly attending cattle are: 1. To know the colours; 2. To\nknow the signs; 3. Brushing; 4. Dressing the wounds; 5. Making smoke;\n6. Walking the right path; 7. Tenderly feeling for them; 8. Fording the\nstreams; 9. Pasturing; 10. Milking; 11. Selecting. Some of the items\ncited here are not quite intelligible.\n\nIn the _Saddharma-pu\u1e47\u1e0dar\u012bka S\u016btra_, Chapter III., \u201cA Parable,\u201d the\nBuddha gives the famous parable of three carts: bullock-carts,\ngoat-carts, and deer-carts, which a man promises to give to his\nchildren if they come out of a house on fire. The finest of the carts\nis the one drawn by bullocks or cows (_goratha_), which represents\nthe vehicle for the Bodhisattvas, the greatest and most magnificent\nof all vehicles, leading them directly to the attainment of supreme\nenlightenment. The cart is described thus in the Sutra: \u201cMade of seven\nprecious substances, provided with benches, hung with a multitude of\nsmall bells, lofty, adorned with rare and wonderful jewels, embellished\nwith jewel wreaths, decorated with garlands of flowers, carpeted with\ncotton mattresses and woollen coverlets, covered with white cloth and\nsilk, having on both sides rosy cushions, yoked with white, very fair\nand fleet bullocks, led by a multitude of men.\u201d\n\nThus reference came to be made quite frequently in Zen literature to\nthe \u201cwhite cow on the open-air square of the village,\u201d or to the cow in\ngeneral. For instance, Tai-an of Fu-chou asked Pai-chang,[8.4] \u201cI wish\nto know about the Buddha, what is he?\u201d Answered Pai-chang, \u201cIt is like\nseeking for an ox while you are yourself on it.\u201d \u201cWhat shall I do after\nI know?\u201d \u201cIt is like going home riding on it.\u201d \u201cHow do I look after\nit all the time in order to be in accordance with [the Dharma]?\u201d The\nmaster then told him, \u201cYou should behave like a cowherd, who, carrying\na staff, sees to it that his cattle won\u2019t wander away into somebody\nelse\u2019s rice-fields.\u201d\n\nThe \u201cTen Cow-herding Pictures\u201d showing the upward steps of spiritual\ntraining, is doubtless another such instance, more elaborate and\nsystematised than the one just cited.\n\n\n             THE TEN STAGES OF SPIRITUAL COW-HERDING[f165]\n\n                                   I\n\n  [Illustration: Drawing of a person on rural path]\n  _face p. 357_\n\n_Looking for the Cow._ She has never gone astray, and what is the use\nof searching for her? We are not on intimate terms with her because\nwe have contrived against our inmost nature. She is lost, for we have\nourselves been led out of the way through the deluding senses. The home\nis growing farther away, and byways and crossways are ever confusing.\nDesire for gain and fear of loss burn like fire; ideas of right and\nwrong shoot up like a phalanx.\n\n  Alone in the wilderness, lost in the jungle, he is searching,\n    searching!\n  The swelling waters, far-away mountains, and unending path;\n  Exhausted and in despair, he knows not where to go,\n  He only hears the evening cicadas singing in the maplewoods.\n\n\n                                  II\n\n  [Illustration: Drawing of a person on rural path searching]\n  _face p. 358_\n\n_Seeing the Traces of the Cow._ By the aid of the Sutras and by\ninquiring into the doctrines, he has come to understand something, he\nhas found the traces. He now knows that things, however multitudinous,\nare of one substance, and that the objective world is a reflection of\nthe self. Yet, he is unable to distinguish what is good from what is\nnot, his mind is still confused as to truth and falsehood. As he has\nnot yet entered the gate, he is provisionally said to have noticed the\ntraces.\n\n  By the water, under the trees, scattered are the traces of the lost:\n  Fragrant woods are growing thick\u2014did he find the way?\n  However remote, over the hills, and far away, the cow may wander,\n  Her nose reaches the heavens and none can conceal it.\n\n\n                                  III\n\n  [Illustration: Drawing of a person on rural path catching a glimpse\n  of a cow]\n  _face p. 359_\n\n_Seeing the Cow._ He finds the way through the sound, he sees into\nthe origin of things, and all his senses are in harmonious order. In\nall his activities, it is manifestly present. It is like the salt\nin water and the glue in colour. [It is there though not separably\ndistinguishable.] When the eye is properly directed, he will find that\nit is no other thing than himself.\n\n  Yonder perching on a branch a nightingale sings cheerfully;\n  The sun is warm, the soothing breeze blows through the willows green\n    on the bank;\n  The cow is there all by herself, nowhere is there room to hide\n    herself;\n  The splendid head decorated with stately horns, what painter can\n    reproduce her?\n\n\n                                  IV\n\n  [Illustration: Drawing of a person roping a cow]\n  _face p. 360_\n\n_Catching the Cow._ After getting lost long in the wilderness, he\nhas at last found the cow and laid hand on her. But owing to the\noverwhelming pressure of the objective world, the cow is found hard to\nkeep under control. She constantly longs for sweet grasses. The wild\nnature is still unruly, and altogether refuses to be broken in. If he\nwishes to have her completely in subjection, he ought to use the whip\nfreely.\n\n  With the energy of his whole soul, he has at last taken hold of the\n    cow:\n  But how wild her will, ungovernable her power!\n  At times she struts up a plateau,\n  When lo! she is lost in a misty unpenetrable mountain-pass.\n\n\n                                   V\n\n  [Illustration: Drawing of a person leading a cow with a rope]\n  _face p. 361_\n\n_Herding the Cow._ When a thought moves, another follows, and then\nanother\u2014there is thus awakened an endless train of thoughts. Through\nenlightenment all this turns into truth; but falsehood asserts itself\nwhen confusion prevails. Things oppress us not because of an objective\nworld, but because of a self-deceiving mind. Do not get the nose-string\nloose, hold it tight, and allow yourself no indulgence.\n\n  Never let yourself be separated from the whip and the tether,\n  Lest she should wander away into a world of defilement:\n  When she is properly tended, she will grow pure and docile,\n  Even without chain, nothing binding, she will by herself follow you.\n\n\n                                  VI\n\n  [Illustration: Drawing of a person riding a cow]\n  _face p. 362_\n\n_Coming Home on the Cow\u2019s Back._ The struggle is over; gain and loss,\nhe is no more concerned with. He hums a rustic tune of the woodman, he\nsings simple songs of the village-boy. Saddling himself on the cow\u2019s\nback, his eyes are fixed at things not of the earth, earthy. Even if\nhe is called to, he will not turn his head; however enticed he will no\nmore be kept back.\n\n  Riding the cow he leisurely wends his way home:\n  Enveloped in the evening mist, how tunefully the flute vanishes away!\n  Singing a ditty, beating time, his heart is filled with a joy\n    indescribable!\n  That he is now one of those who know, need it be told?\n\n\n                                  VII\n\n  [Illustration: Drawing of a person sitting outside a thatched-roofed\n  house]\n  _face p. 363_\n\n_The Cow Forgotten, Leaving the Man Alone._ Things are one and the\ncow is symbolic. When you know that what you need is not the snare or\nset-net but the hare or fish, it is like gold separated from the dross,\nit is like the moon rising out of the clouds. The one ray of light\nserene and penetrating shines even before days of creation.\n\n  Riding on the cow he is at last back in his home,\n  Where lo! there is no more the cow, and how serenely he sits all\n    alone!\n  Though the red sun is high up in the sky, he seems to be still quietly\n    asleep,\n  Under a straw-thatched roof are his whip and rope idly lying beside\n    him.\n\n\n                                 VIII\n\n  [Illustration: Drawing with just a white background]\n  _face p. 364_\n\n_The Cow and the Man Both Gone out of Sight._ All confusion is set\naside, and serenity alone prevails; even the idea of holiness does not\nobtain. He does not linger about where the Buddha is, and as to where\nthere is no Buddha he speedily passes on. When there exists no form\nof dualism, even a thousand-eyed one fails to detect a loophole. A\nholiness before which birds offer flowers is but a farce.[f166]\n\n  All is empty, the whip, the rope, the man, and the cow:\n  Who has ever surveyed the vastness of heaven?\n  Over the furnace burning ablaze, not a flake of snow can fall:\n  When this state of things obtains, manifest is the spirit of the\n    ancient master.\n\n\n                                  IX\n\n  [Illustration: Drawing of a shore line]\n  _face p. 365_\n\n_Returning to the Origin, Back to the Source._ From the very beginning,\npure and immaculate, he has never been affected by defilement. He\ncalmly watches the growth and decay of things with form, while himself\nabiding in the immovable serenity of non-assertion. When he does not\nidentify himself with magic-like transformations, what has he to do\nwith artificialities of self-discipline? The water flows blue, the\nmountain towers green. Sitting alone, he observes things undergoing\nchanges.\n\n  To return to the Origin, to be back at the Source\u2014already a false step\n    this!\n  Far better it is to stay home, blind and deaf, straightway and without\n    much ado,\n  Sitting within the hut he takes no cognisance of things outside,\n  Behold the water flowing on\u2014whither nobody knows; and those flowers\n    red and fresh\u2014for whom are they?\n\n\n                                   X\n\n  [Illustration: Drawing of a monk carrying a sack and basket passing by\n  a fisherman]\n  _face p. 366_\n\n_Entering the City with Bliss-bestowing Hands._ His humble cottage\ndoor is closed, and the wisest know him not. No glimpses of his inner\nlife are to be caught; for he goes on his own way without following\nthe steps of the ancient sages. Carrying a gourd he goes out into the\nmarket, leaning against a stick he comes home. He is found in company\nwith wine-bibbers and butchers, he and they are all converted into\nBuddhas.\n\n  Bare-chested and bare-footed, he comes out into the market-place;\n  Daubed with mud and ashes, how broadly he smiles!\n  There is no need for the miraculous power of the gods,\n  For he touches, and lo! the dead trees come into full bloom.\n\n\n\n\n                             CHINESE NOTES\n\n\n                             CHINESE NOTES\n\n(Note: Here are given all the principal Chinese characters and\nquotations in order to facilitate the identification of the original\nterms and passages found in the text where they are given in their\nJapanese pronunciation or in the mandarin dialect generally according\nto the Wade system. The sources of the Chinese quotations are also\ngiven for the benefit of those readers who wish to study the subject\nfurther in the original.)\n\n\n                                PREFACE\n\n1. \u8a9e\u9304.\n\n2. \u516c\u6848.\n\n\n                             INTRODUCTION\n\n1.1. \u6559\u5916\u5225\u50b3. \u4e0d\u7acb\u6587\u5b57. \u76f4\u6307\u4eba\u5fc3. \u898b\u6027\u6210\u4f5b.\n\n1.2. \u81e8\u6fdf\u7fa9\u7384 (died, 867).\n\n1.3. \u4e0a\u5802\u4e91. \u8d64\u8089\u5718\u4e0a. \u6709\u4e00\u7121\u4f4d\u771e\u4eba. \u5e38\u5f9e\u6c5d\u7b49\u9762\u9580\u51fa\u5165. \u672a\u8b49\u64da\u8005. \u770b. \u770b.\n\u6642\u6709\u50e7\u51fa\u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u7121\u4f4d\u771e\u4eba. \u5e2b\u4e0b\u79aa\u7240\u628a\u4f4f\u4e91. \u9053. \u9053. \u5176\u50e7\u64ec\u8b70. \u5e2b\u6258\u958b\u4e91.\n\u7121\u4f4d\u771e\u4eba. \u662f\u4ec0\u9ebd\u4e7e\u5c4e\u6a5b. \u4fbf\u6b78\u65b9\u4e08. (\u81e8\u6fdf\u9304.)\n\n1.4. \u9ec4\u8617\u5e0c\u904b (died, 850).\n\n1.5. \u96f2\u9580\u6587\u5043 (died, 949).\n\n1.6. \u7766\u5dde\u9673\u5c0a\u5bbf.\n\n1.7. \u79e6\u6642\ud860\udf4f\u8f62\u947d.\n\n1.8. \u8607\u6771\u5761.\n\n1.9. \u5eec\u5c71\u7159\u96e8\u6d59\u6c5f\u6f6e. \u4e0d\u5230\u5343\u822c\u6068\u672a\u6d88. \u5230\u5f97\u6b78\u4f86\u7121\u5225\u4e8b. \u5eec\u5c71\u7159\u96e8\u6d59\u6c5f\u6f6e.\n\n1.10. \u9752\u539f\u60df\u4fe1. \u55e3\u6cd5\u65bc\u9ec3\u9f8d\u6666\u5802\u5fc3. \u4e0a\u5802\u66f0. \u8001\u50e7\u4e09\u5341\u5e74\u524d\u672a\u53c3\u79aa\u6642. \u898b\u5c71\u662f\u5c71. \u898b\u6c34\u662f\u6c34.\n\u53ca\u81f3\u5f8c\u4f86\u89aa\u898b\u77e5\u8b58. \u6709\u7b87\u5165\u8655. \u898b\u5c71\u4e0d\u662f\u5c71. \u898b\u6c34\u4e0d\u662f\u6c34. \u800c\u4eca\u5f97\u7b87\u9ad4\u6b47\u8655. \u4f9d\u524d\u898b\u5c71\u79ea\u662f\u5c71.\n\u898b\u6c34\u79ea\u662f\u6c34. \u5927\u8846\u9019\u4e09\u822c\u898b\u89e3. \u662f\u540c\u662f\u5225. \u6709\u7dc7\u7d20\u5f97\u51fa. \u8a31\u6c5d\u89aa\u898b\u8001\u50e7. (\u7e8c\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u4e8c\u5341\u4e8c.)\n\n1.11. \u554f. \u7d42\u65e5\u8457\u8863\u55ab\u98ef. \u5982\u4f55\u514d\u5f97\u8457\u8863\u55ab\u98ef. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u8457\u8863\u55ab\u98ef. \u9032\u4e91. \u4e0d\u6703. \u5e2b\u4e91.\n\u4e0d\u6703\u5373\u8457\u8863\u55ab\u98ef. (\u7766\u5dde\u9304.)\n\n1.12. \u767e\u4e08\u5c71\u6d85\u69c3\u548c\u5c19 (\u767e\u4e08\u61f7\u6d77\u6cd5\u55e3). \u4e00\u65e5\u8b02\u8846\u66f0. \u6c5d\u7b49\u8207\u6211\u958b\u7530\u4e86. \u6211\u8207\u6c5d\u8aaa\u5927\u7fa9.\n\u8846\u958b\u7530\u4e86. \u6b78\u8acb\u5e2b\u8aaa\u5927\u7fa9. \u5e2b\u4e43\u5c55\u5169\u624b. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u4e5d.)\n\n1.13. \u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u79aa. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u6469\u8a36\u822c\u82e5\u6ce2\u7f85\u871c. \u9032\u4e91. \u4e0d\u6703. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u6296\u64fb\u591a\u5e74\u7a7f\u7834\u8872. \u8964\u6bff\u4e00\u534a\n\u9010\u96f2\u98db. (\u7766\u5dde\u9304.)\n\n1.14. \u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u79aa. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u731b\u706b\u8457\u6cb9\u714e. (\u7766\u5dde\u9304.)\n\n1.15. \u5c45\u58eb\u9f90\u860a\u554f\u99ac\u7956\u4e91. \u4e0d\u8207\u842c\u6cd5\u7232\u4fb6\u8005. \u662f\u4ec0\u9ebd\u4eba. \u7956\u4e91. \u5f85\u6c5d\u4e00\u53e3\u5438\u76e1\u897f\u6c5f\u6c34. \u5373\u5411\u6c5d\u9053.\n(\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u516b.)\n\n1.16. \u9577\u6c99\u666f\u5c91 (\u5357\u6cc9\u666e\u9858\u55e3.) \u56e0\u50e7\u554f. \u5357\u6cc9\u9077\u5316\u5411\u4ec0\u9ebd\u8655\u53bb. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u77f3\u982d\u4f5c\u6c99\u5f4c\u6642. \u53c3\u898b\u516d\u7956.\n\u50e7\u4e91. \u4e0d\u554f\u77f3\u982d\u898b\u516d\u7956. \u5357\u6cc9\u9077\u5316. \u5411\u4ec0\u9ebd\u8655\u53bb. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u6559\u4f0a\u5c0b\u601d\u53bb. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u5341.)\n\n1.17. \u62c2\u5b50. \u7af9\u7b86. \u5982\u610f. \u62c4\u6756.\n\n1.18. \u9577\u6176\u6167\u7a1c (853\u2013932) \u62c8\u62c4\u6756\u793a\u8846\u4e91. \u8b58\u5f97\u9019\u7b87\u4e00\u751f\u53c3\u5b78\u4e8b\u7562. (\u845b\u85e4\u96c6.)\n\n1.19. \u82ad\u8549\u6167\u6e05 (\u4ef0\u5c71\u6167\u5bc2\u6cd5\u5b6b). \u4e0a\u5802. \u62c8\u62c4\u6756\u793a\u8846\u66f0. \u511e\u6709\u62c4\u6756\u5b50. \u6211\u8207\u511e\u62c4\u6756\u5b50. \u511e\u7121\u62c4\u6756\u5b50.\n\u6211\u596a\u511e\u62c4\u6756\u5b50. \u9760\u62c4\u6756\u4e0b\u5ea7. (\u4e94\u71c8\u6703\u5143\u5377\u4e5d.)\n\n1.20. \u5927\u6f59\u6155\u5586\u4e91. \u5927\u6f59\u5373\u4e0d\u7136. \u511e\u6709\u62c4\u6756\u5b50. \u6211\u596a\u5374\u511e\u62c4\u6756\u5b50. \u511e\u7121\u62c4\u6756\u5b50. \u6211\u8207\u511e\u62c4\u6756\u5b50.\n\u5927\u6f59\u65e3\u5982\u662f. \u8af8\u4eba\u9084\u7528\u5f97\u4e5f\u672a. \u82e5\u4eba\u7528\u5f97. \u5fb7\u5c71\u5148\u92d2. \u81e8\u6fdf\u5f8c\u4ee4. \u82e5\u4e5f\u7528\u4e0d\u5f97. \u4e14\u9084\u672c\u4e3b. (\u79aa\u6797\u985e\u805a\n\u7b2c\u5341\u516d.)\n\n1.21. \u7766\u5dde\u56e0\u50e7\u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u8d85\u4f5b\u8d8a\u7956\u4e4b\u8ac7. \u5e2b\u9a40\u62c8\u62c4\u6756. \u793a\u8846\u4e91. \u6211\u559a\u4f5c\u62c4\u6756. \u511e\u559a\u4f5c\u4ec0\u9ebd.\n\u50e7\u7121\u8a9e. \u5e2b\u518d\u5c07\u62c4\u6756\u793a\u8846\u4e91. \u8d85\u4f5b\u8d8a\u7956\u4e4b\u8ac7. \u662f\u511e\u554f\u9ebd. \u50e7\u7121\u8a9e. (\u7766\u5dde\u9304.)\n\n1.22. \u96f2\u554f\u4e00\u65e5\u62c8\u8d77\u62c4\u6756. \u64e7\u6559\u4e91. \u51e1\u672a\u5be6\u5fae\u8b02\u4e4b\u6709. \u4e8c\u4e58\u6790\u8b02\u4e4b\u7121. \u7de3\u89ba\u8b02\u4e4b\u5e7b\u6709. \u83e9\u85a9\u7576\u8ec6\u5373\u7a7a.\n\u4e43\u4e91. \u8872\u50e7\u898b\u62c4\u6756. \u4f46\u559a\u4f5c\u62c4\u6756. \u884c\u4f46\u884c. \u5750\u4f46\u5750. \u7e3d\u4e0d\u5f97\u52d5\u8457. (\u96f2\u9580\u9304.)\n\n1.23. \u96f2\u9580\u6216\u62c8\u62c4\u6756\u793a\u8846\u4e91. \u62c4\u6756\u5b50\u5316\u7232\u9f8d. \u5451\u5374\u4e7e\u5764\u4e86\u4e5f. \u5c71\u6cb3\u5927\u5730\u751a\u8655\u5f97\u4f86. (\u96f2\u9580\u9304.)\n\n1.24. \u96f2\u9580\u56e0\u64e7\u751f\u6cd5\u5e2b\u4e91. \u6572\u7a7a\u4f5c\u97ff. \u64ca\u6728\u7121\u8072. \u5e2b\u4ee5\u62c4\u6756\u7a7a\u4e2d\u6572\u4e91. \u963f\u8036\u8036. \u53c8\u6572\u677f\u982d\u4e91. \u4f5c\u8072\u9ebd.\n\u50e7\u4e91\u4f5c\u8072. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u9019\u4fd7\u6f22. \u53c8\u6572\u677f\u982d\u4e91. \u559a\u4ec0\u9ebd\u4f5c\u8072. (\u96f2\u9580\u9304.)\n\n1.25. \u4fdd\u798f\u5f9e\u5c55. \u898b\u4e00\u50e7\u4e43\u4ee5\u6756\u5b50\u6253\u9732\u67f1. \u53c8\u6253\u5176\u50e7\u982d. \u50e7\u4f5c\u75db\u8072. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u90a3\u7b87\u7232\u4ec0\u9ebd\u4e0d\u75db. \u50e7\u7121\u5c0d.\n(\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u5341\u4e5d.)\n\n1.26. \u695a\u5713\u6148\u660e\u4e0a\u5802\u4e91. \u4e00\u5875\u7e94\u64e7. \u5927\u5730\u5168\u6536. \u4e00\u6bdb\u982d\u7345\u5b50. \u767e\u5104\u6bdb\u982d\u73fe. \u767e\u5104\u6bdb\u982d\u73fe. \u4e00\u6bdb\u982d\u73fe.\n\u5343\u982d\u842c\u982d. \u4f46\u8b58\u53d6\u4e00\u982d. \u4e43\u8c4e\u8d77\u62c4\u6756\u5b50\u4e91. \u8005\u7b87\u662f\u5357\u6e90\u62c4\u6756\u5b50. \u90a3\u7b87\u662f\u4e00\u982d. \u559d\u4e00\u559d. \u5353\u62c4\u6756\u4e00\u4e0b.\n\u4e0b\u5ea7. (\u6148\u660e\u9304.)\n\n1.27. \u78a7\u5dd6\u96c6\u7b2c\u5341\u4e5d\u5247. \u4ff1\u80dd\u4e00\u6307\u982d\u79aa. \u571c\u609f\u66f0. \u4e00\u5875\u64e7\u5927\u5730\u6536. \u4e00\u82b1\u958b\u4e16\u754c\u8d77. \u53ea\u5982\u5875\u672a\u8209\u82b1\u672a\u958b\u6642.\n\u5982\u4f55\u7740\u773c. \u6240\u4ee5\u9053. \u5982\u65ac\u4e00\u7d9f\u7d72. \u4e00\u65ac\u4e00\u5207\u65ac. \u5982\u67d3\u4e00\u7d9f\u7d72. \u4e00\u67d3\u4e00\u5207\u67d3. \u53ea\u5982\u4eca\u4fbf\u5c07\u845b\u85e4\u622a\u65b7.\n\u904b\u51fa\u81ea\u5df1\u5bb6\u73cd. \u9ad8\u4f4e\u666e\u61c9. \u524d\u5f8c\u7121\u5dee. \u5404\u81ea\u73fe\u6210.\n\n\n  ZEN AS THE CHINESE INTERPRETATION OF THE DOCTRINE OF ENLIGHTENMENT.\n\n2.1. \u6c60\u5dde\u5d14\u4f7f\u541b. \u554f\u4e94\u7956\u5927\u5e2b\u4e91. \u5f92\u8846\u4e94\u767e. \u4f55\u4ee5\u80fd\u5927\u5e2b\u7368\u53d7\u8863\u50b3\u4fe1. \u9918\u4eba\u7232\u4ec0\u9ebd\u4e0d\u5f97. \u4e94\u7956\u4e91.\n\u56db\u767e\u4e5d\u5341\u4e5d\u4eba\u76e1\u6703\u4f5b\u6cd5. \u552f\u6709\u80fd\u5927\u5e2b. \u662f\u904e\u91cf\u4eba. \u6240\u4ee5\u50b3\u8863\u4fe1\u2026\u2026\u5357\u6cc9\u4e91. \u7a7a\u52ab\u4e4b\u6642. \u7121\u4e00\u5207\u540d\u5b57.\n\u4f5b\u7e94\u51fa\u4e16\u4f86. \u4fbf\u6709\u540d\u5b57. \u6240\u4ee5\u53d6\u76f8\u2026\u2026\u53ea\u7232\u4eca\u6642\u4eca\u6642\u57f7\u8457\u6587\u5b57. \u9650\u91cf\u4e0d\u7b49. \u5927\u9053\u4e00\u5207\u5be6\u7121\u51e1\u8056.\n\u82e5\u6709\u540d\u5b57\u7686\u5c6c\u9650\u91cf. \u6240\u4ee5\u6c5f\u897f\u8001\u5bbf\u4e91. \u4e0d\u662f\u5fc3. \u4e0d\u662f\u4f5b. \u4e0d\u662f\u7269. \u4e14\u6559\u5f8c\u4eba\u8207\u9ebd\u884c\u5c65. \u4eca\u6642\u76e1\u64ec\u5c07\n\u5fc3\u9ad4\u6703\u5927\u9053. \u9053\u82e5\u8207\u9ebd\u5b78. \u81f3\u5f4c\u52d2\u4f5b\u51fa\u4e16. \u9084\u9808\u767c\u5fc3\u59cb\u5f97. \u6709\u4ec0\u9ebd\u81ea\u7531\u5206. \u53ea\u5982\u4e94\u7956\u6703\u4e0b\u56db\u767e\u4e5d\u5341\u4e5d\u4eba.\n\u76e1\u6703\u4f5b\u6cd5. \u60df\u6709\u76e7\u884c\u8005\u4e00\u4eba. \u4e0d\u6703\u4f5b\u6cd5. \u53ea\u6703\u9053. \u4e0d\u6703\u5225\u4e8b\u2026\u2026(\u5357\u6cc9\u9304.) \u5357\u6cc9\u666e\u9858 (748\u2013834).\n\u5357\u5dbd\u4e0b\u4e09\u4e16. \u55e3\u99ac\u7956.\n\n2.2. \u79aa\u90a3. \u6f22\u8b6f\u4e91. \u5b9a. \u601d\u60df\u4fee. \u975c\u616e.\n\n2.3. \u79aa\u5b9a.\n\n2.4. (I) \u695e\u4f3d\u963f\u8dcb\u591a\u7f85\u5bf6\u7d93. \u56db\u5377. \u5289\u5b8b. \u5143\u5609\u4e8c\u5341\u5e74. \u6c42\u90a3\u8dcb\u9640\u7f85\u8b6f. (II) \u5165\u695e\u4f3d\u7d93.\n\u5341\u5377. \u5143\u9b4f\u5ef6\u660c\u4e8c\u5e74. \u83e9\u63d0\u6d41\u652f\u8b6f. (III) \u5927\u4e58\u5165\u695e\u4f3d\u7d93. \u4e03\u5377. \u5927\u5510. \u55e3\u8056\u4e8c\u5341\u4e00\u5e74. \u5be6\u53c9\u96e3\u63d0\u8b6f.\n\n2.5. \u96f2\u9580\u56e0\u50e7\u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u5fc3. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u5fc3. \u9032\u4e91\u4e0d\u6703. \u5e2b\u4e91\u4e0d\u6703. (\u96f2\u9580\u9304.)\n\n2.6. \u6c7e\u967d\u56e0\u50e7\u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u7956\u5e2b\u897f\u4f86\u610f. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u9752\u7d79\u6247\u5b50\u8db3\u98a8\u51c9. (\u79aa\u6797\u985e\u805a\u7b2c\u56db.)\n\n2.7. \u96f2\u9580\u793a\u8846\u4e91. \u53e2\u6797\u8a00\u8a71\u65e3\u4e0d\u8981. \u4ec0\u9ebd\u751f\u662f\u5b97\u9580\u81ea\u5df1. \u4ee3. \u4f46\u5c55\u5169\u624b. (\u96f2\u9580\u9304.)\n\n2.8. \u85e5\u5c71\u554f\u50e7. \u4ec0\u9ebd\u8655\u4f86. \u50e7\u4e91\u6e56\u5357\u4f86. \u5c71\u4e91\u6d1e\u5ead\u6e56\u6c34\u6eff\u4e5f\u672a. \u50e7\u4e91\u672a\u6eff. \u5c71\u4e91. \u8a31\u591a\u6642\u96e8\u6c34.\n\u7232\u4ec0\u9ebd\u672a\u6eff. \u96f2\u5dd6\u4e91. \u6e5b\u6e5b\u5730. \u6d1e\u5c71\u4e91. \u4ec0\u9ebd\u52ab\u4e2d\u66fe\u6b20\u5c11. \u96f2\u9580\u4e91. \u7957\u5728\u9019\u88e1.\n\n2.9. \u5468\u6566\u9824. \u7a0b\u9865. \u7a0b\u9824. \u6731\u71b9.\n\n2.10. \u8d99\u5dde\u50e7\u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u79aa. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u4eca\u65e5\u5929\u9670. \u4e0d\u7b54\u8a71. (\u8d99\u5dde\u9304.)\n\n2.11. \u96f2\u9580\u50e7\u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u79aa. \u5e2b\u4e91\u662f. \u50e7\u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u79aa. \u5e2b\u4e91\u62c8\u52ab\u4e00\u5b57\u5f97\u9ebd. (\u96f2\u9580\u9304.)\n\n2.12. \u4e0a\u5802. \u64e7. \u50e7\u554f\u5df4\u9675\u9452\u548c\u5c19. \u7956\u610f\u6559\u610f. \u662f\u540c\u662f\u5225. \u9452\u4e91. \u96de\u5bd2\u4e0a\u6a39. \u9d28\u5bd2\u4e0b\u6c34. \u5e2b\u4e91.\n\u5927\u5c0f\u5927\u5df4\u9675\u53ea\u9053\u5f97\u4e00\u534a. \u767d\u96f2\u5373\u4e0d\u7136. \u63ac\u6c34\u6708\u5728\u624b. \u5f04\u82b1\u9999\u6eff\u8863. (\u4e94\u7956\u9304.)\n\n\n                      ENLIGHTENMENT AND IGNORANCE\n\n3.1. \u7169\u60f1\u5df2\u6089\u65b7. \u8af8\u6f0f\u7686\u7a7a\u7aed. \u66f4\u4e0d\u5fa9\u53d7\u751f. \u662f\u540d\u76e1\u82e6\u969b. (\u65b9\u5ee3\u5927\u838a\u56b4\u7d93.)\n\n3.2. \u6f0f.\n\n3.3. \u6cd5.\n\n3.4. \u91d1\u525b\u4e09\u6627\u7d93.\n\n3.5. \u7121\u4f4f\u83e9\u85a9.\n\n3.6. \u667a\u9857.\n\n3.7. \u667a\u8005\u5927\u5e2b.\n\n3.8. \u6167\u601d.\n\n3.9. \u6cd5\u83ef\u4e09\u6627.\n\n\n     HISTORY OF ZEN BUDDHISM FROM BODHI-DHARMA TO HUI-NENG (YENO)\n\n4.1. \u6211\u6709\u6b63\u6cd5\u773c\u85cf. \u6d85\u69c3\u5999\u5fc3. \u5be6\u76f8\u7121\u76f8. \u5fae\u5999\u6cd5\u9580. \u4ed8\u56d1\u6469\u8a36\u8fe6\u8449.\n\n4.2. \u674e\u9075\u52d7\u8457. \u5ee3\u71c8\u9304.\n\n4.3. \u5951\u5d69\u8457. \u50b3\u6cd5\u6b63\u5b97\u8a18.\n\n4.4. \u666f\u5fb7\u50b3\u71c8\u9304.\n\n4.5. \u652f\u5f4a\u6881\u6a13.\n\n4.6. \u90a3\u9023\u8036\u5408.\n\n4.7. \u7e8c\u6cd5\u8a18.\n\n4.8. \u5bf6\u6797\u50b3.\n\n4.9. \u8056\u5191\u96c6.\n\n4.10. \u8eab\u5f9e\u7121\u76f8\u4e2d\u53d7\u751f. \u7336\u5982\u5e7b\u51fa\u8af8\u5f62\u50cf. \u5e7b\u4eba\u5fc3\u8b58\u672c\u4f86\u7121. \u7f6a\u798f\u7686\u7a7a\u7121\u6240\u4f4f.\n\n4.11. \u4e00\u5207\u8846\u751f\u6027\u6e05\u6de8. \u5f9e\u672c\u7121\u751f\u7121\u53ef\u6ec5. \u5373\u6b64\u8eab\u5fc3\u662f\u5e7b\u751f. \u5e7b\u5316\u4e4b\u4e2d\u7121\u7f6a\u798f.\n\n4.12. \u6cd5\u672c\u6cd5\u7121\u6cd5. \u7121\u6cd5\u6cd5\u4ea6\u6cd5. \u4eca\u4ed8\u7121\u6cd5\u6642. \u6cd5\u6cd5\u4f55\u66fe\u6cd5.\n\n4.13. \u901a\u9054\u672c\u5fc3\u6cd5. \u7121\u6cd5\u7121\u975e\u6cd5. \u609f\u4e86\u540c\u672a\u609f. \u7121\u5fc3\u4ea6\u7121\u6cd5.\n\n4.14. \u5fc3\u96a8\u842c\u5883\u8f49. \u8f49\u8655\u5be6\u80fd\u5e7d. \u96a8\u6d41\u8a8d\u5f97\u6027. \u7121\u559c\u4e5f\u7121\u6182.\n\n4.15. \u6211\u672c\u4f86\u8332\u571f. \u50b3\u6cd5\u6551\u8ff7\u60c5. \u4e00\u83ef\u958b\u4e94\u8449. \u7d50\u679c\u81ea\u7136\u6210.\n\n4.16. \u8d99\u5dde\u5f9e\u8ad7\u79aa\u5e2b (778\u2013897).\n\n4.17. \u56b4\u967d\u5c0a\u8005\u554f\u8d99\u5dde. \u4e00\u7269\u4e0d\u5c07\u4f86\u6642\u5982\u4f55. \u5dde\u4e91. \u653e\u4e0b\u8457. \u8005\u4e91. \u5df2\u662f\u4e00\u7269\u4e0d\u5c07\u4f86. \u653e\u4e0b\u9019\u751a\u9ebd.\n\u5dde\u4e91. \u6041\u9ebd\u5247\u64d4\u53d6\u53bb. (\u845b\u85e4\u96c6.)\n\n4.18. \u9f4a\u5b89\u79aa\u5e2b\u55e3\u99ac\u7956. \u56e0\u50e7\u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u672c\u8eab\u76e7\u820d\u90a3\u4f5b. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u8207\u6211\u5c07\u90a3\u7b87\u9285\u7f3e\u4f86. \u50e7\u5373\u53d6\u6de8\u7f3e\u4f86.\n\u5e2b\u4e91\u5374\u9001\u672c\u8655\u5b89\u7f6e. \u5176\u50e7\u9001\u7f3e\u672c\u8655\u4e86. \u5374\u4f86\u518d\u5fb5\u524d\u8a9e. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u53e4\u4f5b\u4e5f\u904e\u53bb\u4e45\u77e3. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u4e03.)\n\n4.19. \u83e9\u63d0\u9054\u6469 (Bodhi-Dharma).\n\n4.20. \u5b97\u9451\u8457. \u91cb\u9580\u6b63\u7d71.\n\n4.21. \u5357\u6cc9\u666e\u9858 (748\u2013834).\n\n4.22. \u99ac\u7956\u9053\u4e00 (\u2013788). \u767e\u4e08\u61f7\u6d77 (720\u2013814). \u9ec4\u8617\u5e0c\u904b (\u2013850). \u77f3\u982d\u5e0c\u9077 (700\u2013790).\n\u85e5\u5c71\u60df\u513c (751\u2013834).\n\n4.23. \u9053\u5ba3\u8457. \u7e8c\u9ad8\u50e7\u50b3.\n\n4.24. \u9053\u539f\u8457. \u666f\u5fb7\u50b3\u71c8\u9304.\n\n4.25. \u5c11\u5ba4\u516d\u9580\u96c6.\n\n4.26. \u5b89\u5fc3\u8ad6.\n\n4.27. \u56db\u884c\u89c0.\n\n4.28. \u83e9\u63d0\u9054\u6469. \u5357\u5929\u7afa\u5a46\u7f85\u9580\u7a2e. \u795e\u6167\u8e08\u6717. \u805e\u7686\u66c9\u609f. \u5fd7\u5b58\u5927\u4e58. \u51a5\u5fc3\u865b\u5bc2. \u901a\u5fae\u5fb9\u6578.\n\u5b9a\u5b78\u9ad8\u4e4b. \u60b2\u6b64\u908a\u9685. \u4ee5\u6cd5\u76f8\u5c0e. \u521d\u9054\u5b8b\u5883\u5357\u8d8a. \u672b\u53c8\u5317\u5ea6\u81f3\u9b4f. \u96a8\u5176\u6240\u6b62. \u8aa8\u4ee5\u79aa\u6559. \u4e8e\u6642\u5408\u570b.\n\u76db\u5f18\u8b1b\u6388. \u4e4d\u805e\u5b9a\u6cd5. \u591a\u751f\u8b4f\u8b17. \u6709\u9053\u80b2. \u6167\u53ef. \u6b64\u4e8c\u6c99\u9580. \u5e74\u96d6\u5728\u5f8c. \u800c\u92b3\u5fd7\u9ad8\u9060. \u521d\u9022\u6cd5\u5c07.\n\u77e5\u9053\u6709\u6b78. \u5c0b\u89aa\u4e8b\u4e4b. \u7d93\u56db\u4e94\u8f09. \u7d66\u4f9b\u8aee\u63a5. \u611f\u5176\u7cbe\u8aa0. \u8aa8\u4ee5\u771e\u6cd5. \u5982\u662f\u5b89\u5fc3. \u8b02\u58c1\u89c0\u4e5f. \u5982\u662f\u767c\u884c.\n\u8b02\u56db\u6cd5\u4e5f. \u5982\u662f\u9806\u7269. \u6559\u8b77\u8b4f\u5acc. \u5982\u662f\u65b9\u4fbf. \u6559\u4ee4\u4e0d\u8457. \u7136\u5247\u5165\u9053\u591a\u9014\u8981\u552f\u4e8c\u7a2e. \u8b02\u7406\u884c\u4e5f. \u85c9\u6559\u609f\u5b97.\n\u6df1\u4fe1\u542b\u751f. \u540c\u4e00\u771e\u6027. \u5ba2\u5875\u969c\u6545. \u4ee4\u6368\u507d\u6b78\u771e. \u51dd\u4f4f\u58c1\u89c0. \u7121\u81ea\u7121\u4ed6. \u51e1\u8056\u7b49\u4e00. \u5805\u4f4f\u4e0d\u79fb.\n\u4e0d\u96a8\u4ed6\u6559. \u8207\u9053\u51a5\u7b26. \u5bc2\u7136\u7121\u7232. \u540d\u7406\u5165\u4e5f. \u884c\u5165\u56db\u884c. \u842c\u884c\u540c\u651d. \u521d\u5831\u6028\u884c\u8005. \u4fee\u9053\u82e6\u81f3.\n\u7576\u5ff5\u5f80\u52ab. \u6368\u672c\u9010\u672b. \u591a\u8d77\u611b\u618e. \u4eca\u96d6\u7121\u72af. \u662f\u6211\u5bbf\u4f5c. \u7518\u5fc3\u53d7\u4e4b. \u90fd\u7121\u6028\u5c0d. \u7d93\u4e91. \u9022\u82e6\u4e0d\u6182.\n\u8b58\u9054\u6545\u4e5f. \u6b64\u5fc3\u751f\u6642. \u8207\u9053\u7121\u9055. \u9ad4\u6028\u9032\u9053\u6545\u4e5f. \u4e8c\u96a8\u7de3\u884c\u8005. \u8846\u751f\u7121\u6211. \u82e6\u6a02\u96a8\u7de3. \u7e31\u5f97\u69ae\u8b7d\u7b49\u4e8b.\n\u5bbf\u56e0\u6240\u69cb. \u4eca\u65b9\u5f97\u4e4b. \u7de3\u76e1\u9084\u7121. \u4f55\u559c\u4e4b\u6709. \u5f97\u5931\u96a8\u7de3. \u5fc3\u7121\u589e\u51cf. \u9055\u9806\u98a8\u975c. \u51a5\u9806\u65bc\u6cd5\u4e5f.\n\u4e09\u540d\u7121\u6240\u6c42\u884c. \u4e16\u4eba\u9577\u8ff7. \u8655\u8655\u8caa\u8457. \u540d\u4e4b\u7232\u6c42. \u9053\u58eb\u609f\u771e. \u7406\u8207\u4fd7\u53cd. \u5b89\u5fc3\u7121\u7232. \u5f62\u96a8\u904b\u8f49.\n\u4e09\u754c\u7686\u82e6. \u8ab0\u800c\u5f97\u5b89. \u7d93\u66f0\u6709\u6c42\u7686\u82e6. \u7121\u6c42\u4e43\u6a02\u4e5f. \u56db\u540d\u7a31\u6cd5\u884c. \u5373\u6027\u6de8\u4e4b\u7406\u4e5f. \u6469\u4ee5\u6b64\u6cd5.\n\u958b\u5316\u9b4f\u571f. \u8b58\u771e\u4e4b\u58eb. \u5f9e\u5949\u6b78\u609f. \u9304\u5176\u8a00\u8a9e. \u5377\u6d41\u65bc\u4e16. \u81ea\u8a00\u5e74\u4e00\u767e\u4e94\u5341\u9918\u6b72. \u904a\u5316\u7232\u52d9. \u4e0d\u6e2c\u65bc\u7d42.\n(\u7e8c\u9ad8\u50e7\u50b3.)\n\n4.29. \u83e9\u63d0\u9054\u6469\u7567\u8fa8\u5927\u4e58\u5165\u9053\u56db\u884c. \u66c7\u7433\u5e8f\u66f0. \u6cd5\u5e2b\u8005. \u56db\u57df\u5357\u5929\u7afa\u570b. \u662f\u5927\u5a46\u7f85\u9580\u570b\u738b. \u7b2c\u4e09\u4e4b\u5b50\u4e5f.\n\u795e\u6167\u8e08\u6717. \u805e\u7686\u66c9\u609f. \u5fd7\u5b58\u6469\u8a36\u884d\u9053. \u6545\u6368\u7d20\u5f9e\u7dc7. \u7d39\u9686\u8056\u7a2e. \u51a5\u5fc3\u865b\u5bc2. \u901a\u9451\u4e16\u4e8b. \u5167\u5916\u4ff1\u660e.\n\u5fb7\u8d85\u4e16\u8868. \u60b2\u8aa8\u908a\u9685. \u6b63\u6559\u9675\u66ff. \u9042\u80fd\u9060\u6d89\u5c71\u6d77. \u904a\u5316\u6f22\u9b4f. \u5fd8\u5fc3\u4e4b\u58eb. \u83ab\u4e0d\u6b78\u4fe1. \u5b58\u898b\u4e4b\u6d41.\n\u4e43\u751f\u8b4f\u8b17. \u4e8e\u6642\u552f\u6709\u9053\u80b2. \u6167\u53ef. \u6b64\u4e8c\u6c99\u9580. \u5e74\u96d6\u5f8c\u751f. \u4fca\u5fd7\u9ad8\u9060. \u5e78\u9022\u6cd5\u5e2b. \u4e8b\u4e4b\u6578\u8f09. \u8654\u606d\u8aee\u5553.\n\u5584\u8499\u5e2b\u610f. \u6cd5\u5e2b\u611f\u5176\u7cbe\u8aa0\u8aa8\u4ee5\u771e\u9053. \u4ee4\u5982\u662f\u5b89\u5fc3\u5982\u662f\u767c\u884c. \u5982\u662f\u9806\u7269. \u5982\u662f\u65b9\u4fbf. \u6b64\u662f\u5927\u4e58\u5b89\u5fc3\u4e4b\u6cd5.\n\u4ee4\u7121\u932f\u8b2c. \u5982\u662f\u5b89\u5fc3\u8005. \u58c1\u89c0. \u5982\u662f\u767c\u884c\u8005. \u56db\u884c. \u5982\u662f\u9806\u7269\u8005. \u9632\u8b77\u8b4f\u5acc. \u5982\u662f\u65b9\u4fbf\u8005. \u9063\u5176\u4e0d\u8457.\n\u6b64\u7567\u5e8f\u6240\u4e91\u723e.\n\n\u592b\u5165\u9053\u591a\u9014. \u8981\u800c\u8a00\u4e4b. \u4e0d\u51fa\u4e8c\u7a2e. \u4e00\u662f\u7406\u5165. \u4e8c\u662f\u884c\u5165. \u7406\u5165\u8005. \u8b02\u85c9\u6559\u609f\u5b97. \u6df1\u4fe1\u542b\u751f. \u540c\u4e00\u771e\u6027.\n\u4f46\u7232\u5ba2\u5875\u5984\u60f3\u6240\u8986. \u4e0d\u80fd\u986f\u4e86. \u82e5\u4e5f\u6368\u5984\u6b78\u771e. \u51dd\u4f4f\u58c1\u89c0. \u7121\u81ea\u7121\u4ed6. \u51e1\u8056\u7b49\u4e00. \u5805\u4f4f\u4e0d\u79fb.\n\u66f4\u4e0d\u96a8\u65bc\u6587\u6559. \u6b64\u5373\u8207\u7406\u51a5\u7b26. \u7121\u6709\u5206\u5225. \u5bc2\u7136\u7121\u7232. \u540d\u4e4b\u7406\u5165. \u884c\u5165\u8005. \u8b02\u56db\u884c. \u5176\u9918\u8af8\u884c.\n\u6089\u5165\u6b64\u4e2d. \u4f55\u7b49\u56db\u90aa. \u4e00. \u5831\u51a4\u884c. \u4e8c. \u96a8\u7de3\u884c. \u4e09. \u7121\u6240\u6c42\u884c. \u56db. \u7a31\u6cd5\u4e4b\u884c. \u4e91\u4f55\u5831\u51a4\u884c.\n\u8b02\u4fee\u9053\u884c\u4eba. \u82e5\u53d7\u82e6\u6642. \u7576\u81ea\u5ff5\u8a00. \u6211\u5f9e\u5f80\u6614. \u7121\u6578\u52ab\u4e2d. \u68c4\u672c\u5f9e\u672b. \u6d41\u6d6a\u8af8\u6709. \u591a\u8d77\u51a4\u618e. \u9055\u5bb3\u7121\u9650.\n\u4eca\u96d6\u7121\u72af. \u662f\u6211\u5bbf\u6b83. \u60e1\u696d\u679c\u719f. \u975e\u5929\u975e\u4eba. \u6240\u80fd\u898b\u8207. \u7518\u5fc3\u5fcd\u53d7. \u90fd\u7121\u51a4\u8a34. \u7d93\u4e91. \u9022\u82e6\u4e0d\u6182.\n\u4f55\u4ee5\u6545. \u8b58\u9054\u6545. \u6b64\u5fc3\u751f\u6642. \u8207\u7406\u76f8\u61c9. \u9ad4\u51a4\u9032\u9053. \u6545\u8aaa\u8a00\u5831\u51a4\u884c. \u4e8c. \u96a8\u7de3\u884c\u8005. \u8846\u751f\u7121\u6211.\n\u4e26\u7de3\u696d\u6240\u8f49. \u82e6\u6a02\u9f4a\u53d7. \u7686\u5f9e\u7de3\u751f. \u82e5\u5f97\u52dd\u5831\u69ae\u8b7d\u7b49\u4e8b. \u662f\u6211\u904e\u53bb\u5bbf\u56e0\u6240\u611f. \u4eca\u65b9\u5f97\u4e4b. \u7de3\u76e1\u9084\u7121.\n\u4f55\u559c\u4e4b\u6709. \u5f97\u5931\u5f9e\u7de3. \u5fc3\u7121\u589e\u51cf. \u559c\u98a8\u4e0d\u52d5. \u51a5\u9806\u65bc\u9053. \u662f\u6545\u8aaa\u8a00\u96a8\u7de3\u884c\u4e5f. \u4e09. \u7121\u6240\u6c42\u884c\u8005.\n\u4e16\u4eba\u9577\u8ff7. \u8655\u3005\u8caa\u8457. \u540d\u4e4b\u7232\u6c42. \u667a\u8005\u609f\u771e. \u7406\u5c07\u4fd7\u53cd. \u5b89\u5fc3\u7121\u7232. \u5f62\u96a8\u904b\u8f49. \u842c\u6709\u65af\u7a7a. \u7121\u6240\u9858\u6a02.\n\u529f\u5fb7\u9ed1\u6697. \u5e38\u76f8\u96a8\u9010. \u4e09\u754c\u4e45\u5c45. \u7336\u5982\u706b\u5b85. \u6709\u8eab\u7686\u82e6. \u8ab0\u5f97\u800c\u5b89. \u4e86\u9054\u6b64\u8655. \u6545\u6368\u8af8\u6709. \u606f\u60f3\u7121\u6c42.\n\u7d93\u4e91. \u6709\u6c42\u7686\u82e6. \u7121\u6c42\u4e43\u6a02. \u5224\u77e5\u7121\u6c42. \u771e\u7232\u9053\u884c. \u6545\u8a00\u7121\u6240\u6c42\u884c\u4e5f. \u56db. \u7a31\u6cd5\u884c. \u6027\u6de8\u4e4b\u7406. \u76ee\u4e4b\u7232\u6cd5.\n\u6b64\u7406\u8846\u76f8\u65af\u7a7a. \u7121\u67d3\u7121\u8457. \u7121\u6b64\u7121\u5f7c. \u7d93\u4e91. \u6cd5\u7121\u8846\u751f. \u96e2\u8846\u751f\u57a2\u6545. \u6cd5\u7121\u6709\u6211. \u96e2\u6211\u57a2\u6545. \u667a\u8005.\n\u82e5\u80fd\u4fe1\u89e3\u6b64\u7406. \u61c9\u7576\u7a31\u6cd5\u800c\u884c. \u6cd5\u8ec6\u7121\u6173. \u65bc\u8eab\u547d\u8ca1. \u884c\u6a80\u6368\u65bd. \u5fc3\u7121\u6061\u60dc. \u9054\u89e3\u4e09\u7a7a. \u4e0d\u501a\u4e0d\u8457.\n\u4f46\u7232\u53bb\u57a2. \u7a31\u5316\u8846\u751f. \u800c\u4e0d\u53d6\u76f8. \u6b64\u7232\u81ea\u884c. \u5fa9\u80fd\u5229\u4ed6. \u4ea6\u80fd\u838a\u56b4. \u83e9\u63d0\u4e4b\u9053. \u6a80\u65bd\u65e3\u723e. \u9918\u4e94\u4ea6\u7136.\n\u7232\u9664\u5984\u60f3. \u4fee\u884c\u516d\u5ea6. \u800c\u7121\u6240\u884c. \u662f\u7232\u7a31\u6cd5\u884c. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304.)\n\n4.29a. \u4f5b\u8a00. \u4e8c\u5165\u8005\u4e00\u8b02\u7406\u5165. \u4e8c\u8b02\u884c\u5165. \u7406\u5165\u8005\u6df1\u4fe1\u7121\u751f\u7570\u771e\u6027. \u4e0d\u4e00\u4e0d\u5171. \u4f46\u4ee5\u5ba2\u5875\u4e4b\u6240\u7ff3\u969c.\n\u4e0d\u53bb\u4e0d\u4f86. \u51dd\u4f4f\u89ba\u89c0. \u8ae6\u89c0\u4f5b\u6027. \u4e0d\u6709\u4e0d\u7121. \u7121\u5df1\u7121\u4ed6. \u51e1\u8056\u4e0d\u4e8c. \u91d1\u525b\u5fc3\u5730. \u5805\u4f4f\u4e0d\u79fb. \u5bc2\u975c\u7121\u7232.\n\u7121\u6709\u5206\u5225. \u662f\u540d\u7406\u5165. \u884c\u5165\u8005\u5fc3\u4e0d\u50be\u501a. \u5f71\u7121\u6d41\u6613. \u65bc\u6240\u6709\u8655. \u975c\u5ff5\u7121\u6c42. \u98a8\u9f13\u4e0d\u52d5. \u7336\u5982\u5927\u5730.\n\u6350\u96e2\u5fc3\u6211. \u6551\u5ea6\u8846\u751f. \u7121\u751f\u7121\u76f8. \u4e0d\u53d6\u4e0d\u6368. \u83e9\u85a9\u5fc3\u7121\u51fa\u5165. \u7121\u51fa\u5165\u5fc3. \u5165\u4e0d\u5165\u6545. \u6545\u540d\u7232\u5165.\n\u83e9\u85a9\u5982\u662f\u5165\u6cd5. \u6cd5\u76f8\u4e0d\u7a7a. \u4e0d\u7a7a\u4e4b\u6cd5. \u6cd5\u4e0d\u865b\u68c4. \u4f55\u4ee5\u6545. \u4e0d\u7121\u4e4b\u6cd5. \u5177\u8db3\u529f\u5fb7. \u975e\u5fc3\u975e\u5f71.\n\u6cd5\u723e\u6e05\u6de8. (\u91d1\u525b\u4e09\u6627\u7d93\u5165\u5be6\u969b\u54c1\u7b2c\u4e94.)\n\n4.30. \u5225\u8a18\u4e91. \u5e2b\u521d\u5c45\u5c11\u6797\u5bfa\u4e5d\u5e74. \u7232\u4e8c\u7d44\u8aaa\u6cd5. \u79ea\u6559\u66f0. \u5916\u606f\u8af8\u7de3. \u5185\u5fc3\u65e0\u5598. \u5fc3\u5982\u7246\u58c1.\n\u53ef\u4ee5\u5165\u9053. \u6167\u53ef\u7a2e\u7a2e\u8aaa\u5fc3\u6027\u7406. \u9053\u672a\u5951. \u5e2b\u79ea\u906e\u5176\u975e. \u4e0d\u7232\u8aaa\u7121\u5ff5\u5fc3\u9ad4. \u6167\u53ef\u66f0. \u6211\u5df2\u606f\u8af8\u7de3. \u5e2b\u66f0.\n\u83ab\u4e0d\u6210\u65b7\u6ec5\u53bb\u5426. \u53ef\u66f0. \u4e0d\u6210\u65b7\u6ec5. \u5e2b\u66f0\u4f55\u4ee5\u9a57\u4e4b\u4e91\u4e0d\u65b7\u6ec5. \u53ef\u66f0. \u4e86\u4e86\u5e38\u77e5\u6545. \u8a00\u4e4b\u4e0d\u53ef\u53ca.\n\u5e2b\u66f0. \u6b64\u662f\u8af8\u4f5b\u6240\u50b3\u5fc3\u9ad4\u66f4\u52ff\u7591\u4e5f. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u4e09.)\n\n4.31. \u5ba2\u5875\u4e0d\u5165.\n\n4.32. \u5e1d\u554f\u5982\u4f55\u662f\u8056\u8ae6\u7b2c\u4e00\u7fa9. \u5e2b\u66f0\u5ed3\u7136\u7121\u8056. \u5e1d\u66f0\u5c0d\u6715\u8457\u8ab0. \u5e2b\u66f0\u4e0d\u8b58. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u4e09.)\n\n4.33. \u795e\u5149.\n\n4.34. \u8fc4\u4e5d\u5e74\u5df2\u6b32\u897f\u8fd4\u5929\u7afa. \u4e43\u547d\u9580\u4eba\u66f0. \u6642\u5c07\u81f3\u77e3\u6c5d\u7b49\u84cb\u5404\u8a00\u6240\u5f97\u4e4e. \u6642\u9580\u4eba\u9053\u526f\u5c0d\u66f0. \u5982\u6211\u6240\u898b.\n\u4e0d\u57f7\u6587\u5b57. \u4e0d\u96e2\u6587\u5b57. \u800c\u7232\u9053\u7528. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u6c5d\u5f97\u543e\u76ae. \u5c3c\u7e3d\u6301\u66f0. \u6211\u4eca\u6240\u89e3. \u5982\u6176\u559c\u898b\u963f\u95a6\u4f5b\u570b.\n\u4e00\u898b\u66fe\u4e0d\u518d\u898b. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u6c5d\u5f97\u543e\u8089. \u9053\u80b2\u66f0. \u56db\u5927\u672c\u7a7a. \u4e94\u9670\u975e\u6709. \u800c\u6211\u898b\u8655. \u7121\u4e00\u6cd5\u53ef\u5f97. \u5e2b\u66f0.\n\u6c5d\u5f97\u543e\u9aa8. \u6700\u5f8c\u6167\u53ef. \u79ae\u62dc\u5f8c. \u4f9d\u4f4d\u800c\u7acb. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u6c5d\u5f97\u543e\u9ad3. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u4e09.)\n\n4.35. \u6167\u53ef (486\u2013593).\n\n4.36. \u9053\u6853.\n\n4.37. \u5176\u767c\u8a00\u5165\u7406. \u672b\u52a0\u925b\u58a8. \u6642\u6216\u7e98\u4e4b. \u4e43\u6210\u90e8\n\u985e.\n\n4.38. \u5411\u5c45\u58eb. \u5f71\u7531\u5f62\u8d77. \u97ff\u9010\u8072\u4f86. \u5f04\u5f71\u52de\u5f62. \u4e0d\u77e5\u5f62\u4e4b\u662f\u5f71. \u63da\u8072\u6b62\u97ff. \u4e0d\u8b58\u8072\u662f\u97ff\u6839.\n\u9664\u7169\u60f1\u800c\u6c42\u6d85\u69c3\u8005. \u55bb\u53bb\u5f62\u800c\u8994\u5f71. \u96e2\u8846\u751f\u800c\u6c42\u4f5b. \u55bb\u9ed8\u8072\u800c\u5c0b\u97ff. \u6545\u8ff7\u609f\u4e00\u9014. \u611a\u667a\u975e\u5225. \u7121\u540d\u4f5c\u540d.\n\u56e0\u5176\u540d\u5247\u662f\u975e\u751f\u77e3. \u7121\u7406\u4f5c\u7406. \u56e0\u5176\u7406\u5247\u8acd\u8ad6\u8d77\u77e3. \u5e7b\u5316\u975e\u771e. \u8ab0\u662f\u8ab0\u975e. \u865b\u5984\u7121\u5be6. \u4f55\u7a7a\u4f55\u6709.\n\u5c07\u77e5\u5f97\u7121\u6240\u5f97. \u5931\u7121\u6240\u5931. \u672a\u53ca\u9020\u8ac7. \u804a\u4f38\u6b64\u610f. \u60f3\u7232\u7b54\u4e4b.\n\n\u8aaa\u6b64\u771e\u6cd5\u7686\u5982\u5be6. \u8207\u771e\u5e7d\u7406\u7adf\u4e0d\u6b8a. \u672c\u8ff7\u6469\u5c3c\u8b02\u74e6\u792b. \u8c41\u7136\u81ea\u89ba\u662f\u771e\u73e0. \u7121\u660e\u667a\u6167\u7b49\u7121\u7570. \u7576\u77e5\u842c\u6cd5\u5373\u7686\u5982.\n\u610d\u6b64\u4e8c\u898b\u4e4b\u5f92\u8f29. \u4f38\u8a5e\u63aa\u7b46\u4f5c\u65af\u66f8. \u89c0\u8eab\u8207\u4f5b\u4e0d\u5dee\u5225. \u4f55\u9808\u66f4\u8994\u5f7c\u7121\u9918. (\u7e8c\u9ad8\u50e7\u50b3\u7b2c\u5341\u516d.)\n\n4.39. \u50e7\u74a8\u554f\u6167\u53ef\u66f0. \u5f1f\u5b50\u8eab\u7e8f\u98a8\u6059. \u8acb\u548c\u5c19\u61fa\u7f6a\u53ef\u66f0\u5c07\u7f6a\u4f86. \u8207\u6c5d\u61fa. \u74a8\u826f\u4e45\u66f0.\n\u8993\u7f6a\u4e0d\u53ef\u5f97. \u53ef\u66f0\u6211\u8207\u6c5d\u61fa\u7f6a\u7adf. \u5b9c\u4f9d\u4f5b\u6cd5\u50e7\u4f4f. \u66f0\u4eca\u898b\u548c\u5c19. \u5df2\u77e5\u662f\u50e7. \u672a\u5be9\u4f55\u540d\u4f5b\u6cd5. \u53ef\u66f0.\n\u662f\u5fc3\u662f\u4f5b. \u662f\u5fc3\u662f\u6cd5. \u6cd5\u4f5b\u7121\u4e8c. \u50e7\u5bf6\u4ea6\u7136. \u66f0\u4eca\u65e5\u59cb\u77e5\u7f6a\u6027\u4e0d\u5728\u5167. \u4e0d\u5728\u5916. \u4e0d\u5728\u4e2d\u9593. \u5982\u5176\u5fc3\u7136.\n\u4f5b\u6cd5\u7121\u4e8c\u4e5f. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u4e09.)\n\n4.40. \u6c99\u5f4c\u9053\u4fe1. \u5e74\u59cb\u5341\u56db. \u4f86\u79ae\u5e2b\u66f0. \u9858\u548c\u5c19\u6148\u60b2. \u4e5e\u8207\u89e3\u812b\u6cd5\u9580. \u5e2b\u66f0\u8ab0\u7e1b\u6c5d. \u66f0\u7121\u4eba\u7e1b.\n\u5e2b\u66f0\u4f55\u66f4\u6c42\u89e3\u812b\u4e4e. \u4fe1\u65bc\u8a00\u4e0b\u5927\u609f. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u4e09.)\n\n4.41. \u4fe1\u5fc3\u9298.\n\n\u81f3\u9053\u7121\u96e3. \u552f\u5acc\u63c0\u64c7. \u4f46\u83ab\u618e\u611b. \u6d1e\u7136\u660e\u767d. \u6beb\u91d0\u6709\u5dee. \u5929\u5730\u61f8\u9694. \u6b32\u5f97\u73fe\u524d.\n\u83ab\u5b58\u9806\u9006. \u9055\u9806\u76f8\u722d. \u662f\u7232\u5fc3\u75c5. \u4e0d\u8b58\u7384\u65e8. \u5f92\u52de\u5ff5\u975c. \u5713\u540c\u5927\u865a. \u7121\u6b20\u7121\u9918. \u826f\u7531\u53d6\u6368. \u6240\u4ee5\u4e0d\u5982.\n\u83ab\u9010\u6709\u7e01. \u52ff\u4f4f\u7a7a\u5fcd. \u4e00\u7a2e\u5e73\u61f7. \u6cef\u7136\u81ea\u76e1. \u6b62\u52d5\u6b78\u6b62. \u6b62\u66f4\u5f4c\u52d5. \u82e5\u6eef\u5169\u908a. \u5be7\u77e5\u4e00\u7a2e. \u4e00\u7a2e\u4e0d\u901a.\n\u5169\u8655\u5931\u529f. \u9063\u6709\u6c92\u6709. \u5f9e\u7a7a\u80cc\u7a7a. \u591a\u8a00\u591a\u616e. \u8f49\u4e0d\u76f8\u61c9. \u7d76\u8a00\u7d76\u616e. \u7121\u8655\u4e0d\u901a. \u6b78\u6839\u5f97\u65e8. \u96a8\u7167\u5931\u5b97.\n\u9808\u81fe\u8fd4\u7167. \u52dd\u537b\u524d\u7a7a. \u524d\u7a7a\u8f49\u8b8a. \u7686\u7531\u5984\u898b. \u4e0d\u7528\u6c42\u771e. \u60df\u9808\u606f\u898b. \u4e8c\u898b\u4e0d\u4f4f. \u613c\u52ff\u8ffd\u5c0b. \u7e94\u6709\u662f\u975e.\n\u7d1b\u7136\u5931\u5fc3. \u4e8c\u7531\u4e00\u6709. \u4e00\u4ea6\u83ab\u5b88. \u4e00\u5fc3\u4e0d\u751f. \u842c\u6cd5\u7121\u548e. \u7121\u548e\u7121\u6cd5. \u4e0d\u751f\u4e0d\u5fc3. \u80fd\u96a8\u5883\u6ec5. \u5883\u9010\u80fd\u6c89.\n\u5883\u7531\u80fd\u5883. \u80fd\u7531\u5883\u80fd. \u6b32\u77e5\u5169\u6bb5. \u5143\u662f\u4e00\u7a7a. \u4e00\u7a7a\u540c\u5169. \u9f4a\u542b\u842c\u8c61. \u4e0d\u898b\u7cbe\u9ea4. \u5be7\u6709\u504f\u9ee8. \u57f7\u4e4b\u5931\u5ea6.\n\u5fc5\u5165\u90aa\u8def. \u653e\u4e4b\u81ea\u7136. \u9ad4\u7121\u53bb\u4f4f. \u5927\u9053\u8ec6\u5bec. \u5c0f\u898b\u72d0\u7591. \u7121\u6613\u7121\u96e3. \u8f49\u6025\u8f49\u9072. \u4efb\u6027\u5408\u9053. \u900d\u9059\u7d76\u60f1.\n\u7e6b\u5ff5\u4e56\u771e. \u660f\u6c88\u4e0d\u597d. \u4e0d\u597d\u52de\u795e. \u4f55\u7528\u8e08\u89aa. \u6b32\u53d6\u4e00\u4e58. \u52ff\u60e1\u516d\u5875. \u516d\u5875\u4e0d\u60e1. \u9084\u540c\u6b63\u89ba. \u5922\u5e7b\u865a\u83ef.\n\u4f55\u52de\u628a\u6349. \u667a\u8005\u7121\u7232. \u611a\u4eba\u81ea\u7e1b. \u6cd5\u7121\u4e8c\u6cd5. \u5984\u81ea\u611b\u8457. \u5c07\u5fc3\u7528\u5fc3. \u8c48\u975e\u5927\u932f. \u8ff7\u751f\u5bc2\u4e82. \u609f\u7121\u597d\u60e1.\n\u4e00\u5207\u4e8c\u908a. \u826f\u7531\u659f\u914c. \u5f97\u5931\u662f\u975e. \u4e00\u6642\u653e\u90e4. \u773c\u82e5\u4e0d\u7761. \u8af8\u5922\u81ea\u9664. \u5fc3\u82e5\u4e0d\u7570. \u842c\u6cd5\u4e00\u5982. \u4e00\u5982\u8ec6\u7384.\n\u5140\u723e\u5fd8\u7e01. \u842c\u6cd5\u9f4a\u89c0. \u6b78\u5fa9\u81ea\u7136. \u6cef\u5176\u6240\u4ee5. \u4e0d\u53ef\u65b9\u6bd4. \u6b62\u52d5\u7121\u52d5. \u52d5\u6b62\u7121\u6b62. \u5169\u65e3\u4e0d\u6210. \u4e00\u4f55\u6709\u723e.\n\u7a76\u7adf\u7aae\u6975. \u4e0d\u5b58\u8ecf\u5247. \u865a\u660e\u81ea\u7167. \u4f55\u52de\u5fc3\u529b. \u975e\u601d\u91cf\u8655. \u60c5\u8b58\u96e3\u6e2c. \u72d0\u7591\u51c8\u76e1. \u6b63\u4fe1\u8abf\u76f4. \u5951\u5fc3\u5e73\u7b49.\n\u6240\u4f5c\u4ff1\u606f. \u4e00\u5207\u4e0d\u7559. \u7121\u53ef\u8a18\u61b6. \u771e\u5982\u6cd5\u754c. \u7121\u4ed6\u7121\u81ea. \u8981\u6025\u76f8\u61c9. \u60df\u8a00\u4e0d\u4e8c. \u4e0d\u4e8c\u7686\u540c. \u7121\u4e0d\u5305\u5bb9.\n\u5341\u65b9\u667a\u8005. \u7686\u5165\u6b64\u5b97. \u5b97\u975e\u4fc3\u5ef6. \u4e00\u5ff5\u842c\u5e74. \u7121\u5728\u4e0d\u5728. \u5341\u65b9\u76ee\u524d. \u6975\u5c0f\u540c\u5927. \u6975\u5927\u540c\u5c0f. \u5fd8\u7d76\u5883\u754c.\n\u4e0d\u898b\u908a\u8868. \u6709\u5373\u662f\u7121. \u7121\u5373\u662f\u6709. \u82e5\u4e0d\u5982\u662f. \u5fc5\u4e0d\u9808\u5b88. \u4e00\u5373\u4e00\u5207. \u4e00\u5207\u5373\u4e00. \u4f46\u80fd\u5982\u662f. \u4f55\u616e\u4e0d\u7562.\n\u4fe1\u5fc3\u4e0d\u4e8c. \u4e0d\u4e8c\u4fe1\u5fc3. \u8a00\u8a9e\u9053\u65b7. \u975e\u53bb\u4f86\u4eca.\n\n4.42. \u725b\u982d\u79aa.\n\n4.43. \u6cd5\u878d (594\u2013657).\n\n4.44. \u5f18\u5fcd (601\u2013675).\n\n4.45. \u9053\u4fe1\u554f\u66f0. \u5b50\u4f55\u59d3. \u7b54\u66f0\u6027\u5373\u6709. \u4e0d\u662f\u5e38\u6027. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u662f\u4f55\u59d3. \u7b54\u66f0. \u662f\u4f5b\u6027. \u5e2b\u66f0.\n\u6c5d\u7121\u59d3\u8036. \u7b54\u66f0. \u6027\u7a7a\u6545. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u4e09.)\n\n4.46. \u4fdd\u8a8c or \u5bf6\u8a8c (418\u2013514).\n\n4.47. \u5085\u7fd5 or \u5085\u5927\u58eb (497\u2013569).\n\n4.48. \u6167\u80fd (637\u2013713).\n\n4.49. \u795e\u79c0 (died, 706).\n\n4.50. \u8eab\u662f\u83e9\u63d0\u6a39. \u5fc3\u5982\u660e\u93e1\u81fa. \u6642\u6642\u52e4\u62c2\u62ed. \u83ab\u4f7f\u60f9\u5875\u57c3.\n\n4.51. \u83e9\u63d0\u672c\u7121\u6a39. \u5fc3\u93e1\u4ea6\u975e\u81fa. \u672c\u4f86\u7121\u4e00\u7269. \u4f55\u8655\u60f9\u5875\u57c3. (\u516d\u7956\u58c7\u7d93.)\n\n4.52. \u5510\u4e2d\u66f8\u4ee4\u5f35\u8aaa\u64b0\u795e\u79c0\u79aa\u5e2b\u7891\u9298.\n\n4.53. \u6cd5\u5bf3\u58c7\u7d93.\n\n4.54. \u4e0d\u601d\u5584\u4e0d\u601d\u60e1. \u6b63\u8207\u9ebd\u662f. \u90a3\u7b87\u662f\u660e\u4e0a\u5ea7. \u7236\u6bcd\u672a\u751f\u4ee5\u524d. \u672c\u4f86\u9762\u76ee.\n\n4.55. \u751f\u4f86\u5750\u4e0d\u81e5. \u6b7b\u53bb\u81e5\u4e0d\u5750. \u4e00\u5177\u81ed\u9aa8\u982d. \u4f55\u7232\u7acb\u529f\u8ab2.\n\n4.56. \u60df\u8ad6\u898b\u6027. \u4e0d\u8ad6\u79aa\u5b9a\u89e3\u812b.\n\n4.57. \u7384\u89ba\u4f86\u53c3. \u9076\u5e2b\u4e09\u531d. \u632f\u932b\u800c\u7acb. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u592b\u6c99\u9580\u8005. \u5177\u4e09\u5343\u5a01\u5100. \u516b\u842c\u7d30\u884c. \u5927\u5fb7\u81ea\u4f55\u65b9\u800c\u4f86\u751f\u5927\u6211\u6162.\n\u89ba\u66f0\u751f\u6b7b\u4e8b\u5927\u7121\u5e38\u8fc5\u901f. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u4f55\u4e0d\u8ec6\u53d6\u7121\u751f. \u4e86\u7121\u901f\u4e4e. \u66f0\u8ec6\u5373\u7121\u751f. \u4e86\u672c\u7121\u901f. \u5e2b\u66f0\u5982\u662f. \u5982\u662f.\n\n\u7384\u89ba\u544a\u8fad. \u5e2b\u66f0\u8fd4\u592a\u901f\u4e4e. \u66f0\u672c\u81ea\u975e\u52d5. \u8c48\u6709\u901f\u8036. \u5e2b\u66f0\u8ab0\u77e5\u975e\u52d5. \u66f0\u4ec1\u8005\u81ea\u751f\u5206\u5225. \u5e2b\u66f0\u6c5d\u751a\u5f97\u7121\u751f\u4e4b\u610f.\n\u66f0\u7121\u751f\u8c48\u6709\u610f\u8036. \u5e2b\u66f0\u7121\u610f\u8ab0\u7576\u5206\u5225. \u66f0\u5206\u5225\u4ea6\u975e\u610f. \u5e2b\u66f0\u5584\u54c9. (\u516d\u7956\u58c7\u7d93.)\n\n4.58. \u6211\u5e2b\u6240\u8aaa. \u5999\u6e5b\u5713\u5bc2. \u9ad4\u7528\u5982\u5982. \u4e94\u9670\u672c\u7a7a. \u516d\u5875\u975e\u6709. \u4e0d\u51fa\u4e0d\u5165. \u4e0d\u5b9a\u4e0d\u4e82.\n\u79aa\u6027\u7121\u4f4f. \u96e2\u4f4f\u79aa\u5bc2. \u79aa\u6027\u7121\u751f. \u96e2\u751f\u79aa\u60f3. \u5fc3\u5982\u865b\u7a7a. \u4ea6\u7121\u865b\u7a7a\u4e4b\u91cf.\n\n\u5e2b\u4e91\u8aa0\u5982\u6240\u8a00. \u6c5d\u4f46\u5fc3\u5982\u865b\u7a7a. \u4e0d\u8457\u7a7a\u898b. \u61c9\u7528\u7121\u7919. \u52d5\u975c\u7121\u5fc3. \u51e1\u8056\u60c5\u5fd8. \u80fd\u6240\u4ff1\u6cef. \u6027\u76f8\u5982\u5982.\n\u7121\u4e0d\u7a7a\u6642\u4e5f. (\u516d\u7956\u58c7\u7d93.)\n\n4.59. \u81e5\u8f2a\u6709\u4f0e\u5006. \u80fd\u65b7\u767e\u601d\u60f3. \u5c0d\u5883\u5fc3\u4e0d\u8d77. \u83e9\u63d0\u65e5\u6708\u9577.\n\n\u6167\u80fd\u6c92\u4f0e\u5006. \u4e0d\u65b7\u767e\u601d\u60f3. \u5c0d\u5883\u5fc3\u6578\u8d77. \u83e9\u63d0\u4f5c\u9ebd\u9577. (\u516d\u7956\u58c7\u7d93.)\n\n4.60. \u5357\u5dbd\u61f7\u8b93\u53c3\u516d\u7956. \u7956\u554f\u4ec0\u9ebd\u8655\u4f86. \u66f0\u5d69\u5c71\u4f86. \u5e2b\u66f0\u4ec0\u9ebd\u7269\u6041\u9ebd\u4f86. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u4e94.)\n\n4.61. \u6c5d\u5dde\u5357\u9662\u548c\u5c19\u554f\u65b0\u5230\u50e7. \u8fd1\u96e2\u4ec0\u9ebd\u8655. \u66f0\u6f22\u4e0a. \u5e2b\u66f0\u6c5d\u4e5f\u7f6a\u904e. \u6211\u4e5f\u7f6a\u904e. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u5341\u4e8c.)\n\n4.62. \u4e09\u8056\u5230\u9999\u56b4. \u56b4\u554f\u4ec0\u9ebd\u8655\u4f86. \u8056\u66f0\u81e8\u6fdf\u4f86. \u56b4\u66f0\u5c07\u5f97\u81e8\u6fdf\u5292\u4f86\u9ebd. \u8056\u4ee5\u5750\u5177\u9a40\u53e3\u6253\u800c\u53bb.\n(\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u5341\u4e8c.)\n\n4.63. \u9673\u5c0a\u5bbf\u554f\u50e7. \u8fd1\u96e2\u4ec0\u9ebd\u8655. \u66f0\u4ef0\u5c71. \u5e2b\u66f0\u4e94\u6212\u4e5f\u4e0d\u6301.\n\n\u5e2b\u53c8\u554f\u50e7. \u8fd1\u8655\u4ec0\u9ebd\u8655. \u66f0\u6c5f\u897f. \u5e2b\u66f0\u8e4b\u7834\u591a\u5c11\u8349\u978b. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u5341\u4e8c.)\n\n4.64. \u9673\u5c0a\u5bbf\u56e0\u50e7\u554f. \u6559\u610f\u7956\u610f\u662f\u540c\u662f\u5225. \u5e2b\u4e91\u9752\u5c71\u81ea\u9752\u5c71. \u767d\u96f2\u81ea\u767d\u96f2. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u5341\u4e8c.)\n\n4.65. \u67f3\u5b97\u5143\u64b0\u5927\u9451\u79aa\u5e2b\u8cdc\u8ae1\u7891\u66f0\u2026\u2026\u516d\u50b3\u81f3\u5927\u9451. \u5927\u9451\u59cb\u4ee5\u80fd\u52de\u82e6\u670d\u5f79. \u4e00\u807d\u5176\u8a00. \u8a00\u5e0c\u4ee5\u7a76.\n\u5e2b\u7528\u611f\u52d5\u9042\u53d7\u4fe1\u5177\u9041\u96b1\u5357\u6d77\u4e0a. \u4eba\u7121\u805e\u77e5. \u53c8\u5341\u516d\u5e74\u5ea6\u5176\u53ef\u884c. \u4e43\u5c45\u66f9\u6eaa\u7232\u4eba\u5e2b. \u6703\u5b78\u8005\u4f86\u751e\u6578\u5343\u4eba.\n\u5176\u9053\u4ee5\u7121\u7232\u7232\u6709. \u4ee5\u7a7a\u6d1e\u7232\u5be6. \u4ee5\u5ee3\u5927\u4e0d\u8569\u7232\u6b78. \u5176\u6559\u4eba\u59cb\u4ee5\u6027\u5584\u7d42\u4ee5\u6027\u5584. \u4e0d\u5047\u8018\u92e4\u672c\u5176\u975c\u77e3.\n\u4e2d\u5b97\u805e\u540d\u4f7f\u5e78\u81e3\u518d\u5fb4\u4e0d\u80fd\u81f4. \u53d6\u5176\u8a00\u4ee5\u7232\u5fc3\u8853. \u5176\u8aaa\u5177\u5728. \u4eca\u5e03\u5929\u4e0b. \u51e1\u8a00\u79aa\u8005\u7686\u672c\u66f9\u6eaa.\n(\u4f5b\u7956\u6b77\u4ee3\u901a\u8f09\u7b2c\u4e8c\u5341\u5377.)\n\n4.66. \u9752\u539f\u884c\u601d (\u2013740). \u5357\u5dbd\u61f7\u8b93 (677\u2013744).\n\n\n                               ON SATORI\n\n5.1. \u609f.\n\n5.2. \u958b\u609f.\n\n5.3. \u5fc3\u83ef\u958b\u767c.\n\n5.4. \u64a5\u8f49\u95dc\u6369\u5b50.\n\n5.5. \u5fc3\u6a5f\u767c\u7165.\n\n5.6. \u5fc3\u5370\u55ae\u50b3.\n\n5.7. \u5c11\u5ba4\u516d\u9580\u96c6\u8840\u8108\u8ad6.\n\n5.8. \u99ac\u7956\u5c45\u5357\u5dbd\u50b3\u6cd5\u9662. \u7368\u8655\u4e00\u5eb5. \u552f\u7fd2\u5750\u79aa. \u51e1\u6709\u4f86\u8a2a\u8005\u90fd\u4e0d\u9867. \u5e2b\u5f80\u5f7c\u4ea6\u4e0d\u9867. \u5e2b\u89c0\u5176\u795e\u5b87\u6709\u7570.\n\u9042\u61b6\u516d\u7956\u8b96. \u4e43\u591a\u65b9\u800c\u8a98\u5c0e\u4e4b. \u4e00\u65e5\u5c07\u750e\u65bc\u5eb5\u524d\u78e8. \u99ac\u7956\u4ea6\u4e0d\u9867. \u6642\u65e3\u4e45. \u4e43\u554f\u66f0. \u4f5c\u4ec0\u9ebd. \u5e2b\u4e91.\n\u78e8\u4f5c\u93e1. \u99ac\u7956\u4e91. \u78e8\u750e\u8c48\u5f97\u6210\u93e1. \u5e2b\u4e91\u78e8\u750e\u65e3\u4e0d\u6210\u93e1. \u5750\u79aa\u8c48\u80fd\u6210\u4f5b\u7956. \u4e43\u96e2\u5ea7\u4e91. \u5982\u4f55\u5373\u662f. \u5e2b\u4e91.\n\u8b6c\u4eba\u99d5\u8eca. \u8eca\u82e5\u4e0d\u884c. \u6253\u725b\u5373\u662f. \u6253\u8eca\u5373\u662f. \u53c8\u4e91. \u6c5d\u5b78\u5750\u79aa. \u7232\u5b78\u5750\u4f5b. \u82e5\u5b78\u5750\u79aa. \u79aa\u975e\u5750\u81e5.\n\u82e5\u5b78\u5750\u4f5b. \u4f5b\u975e\u5b9a\u76f8. \u65bc\u7121\u4f4f\u6cd5\u4e0d\u61c9\u53d6\u6368. \u6c5d\u82e5\u5750\u4f5b. \u5373\u662f\u6bba\u4f5b. \u82e5\u57f7\u5750\u76f8. \u975e\u9054\u5176\u7406. \u99ac\u7956\u805e\u65af\u793a\u8aa8.\n\u8c41\u7136\u958b\u609f. (\u53e4\u5c0a\u5bbf\u8a9e\u9304.)\n\n5.9. \u554f\u7b54.\n\n5.10. \u64e7\u50e7\u554f\u8d99\u5dde. \u5b78\u4eba\u4e4d\u5165\u53e2\u6797. \u4e5e\u5e2b\u6307\u793a. \u8d99\u5dde\u4e91\u723e\u55ab\u7ca5\u4e5f\u672a. \u50e7\u4e91\u55ab\u7ca5\u4e86\u4e5f. \u5dde\u4e91\u6d17\u9262\u76c2\u53bb.\n\u5176\u50e7\u5927\u609f. \u5f8c\u96f2\u9580\u62c8\u4e91. \u4e14\u9053\u6709\u6307\u793a. \u7121\u6307\u793a. \u82e5\u9053\u6709\u6307\u793a. \u5411\u4f0a\u9053\u4ec0\u9ebd. \u82e5\u9053\u7121\u6307\u793a. \u5176\u50e7\u56e0\u4ec0\u9ebd\u609f\u53bb.\n\u6587\u6085\u4e91. \u96f2\u9580\u4e0d\u8b58\u597d\u60e1. \u6041\u9ebd\u8aac\u8a71. \u5927\u4f3c\u7232\u86c7\u7575\u8db3. \u8207\u9ec3\u9580\u683d\u9b1a. \u7fe0\u5dd6\u6587\u6085\u5219\u4e0d\u7136. \u9019\u50e7\u8207\u9ebd\u609f\u53bb.\n\u5165\u5730\u7344\u7bad\u5c04. (\u53e4\u5c0a\u5bbf\u8a9e\u9304\u56db\u5341\u4e00.)\n\n5.11. \u62c8\u5f04.\n\n5.12. \u5fb7\u5c71\u5ba3\u9451 (779\u2013865).\n\n5.13. \u5fb7\u5c71. \u4e00\u5915\u65bc\u5ba4\u5916\u9ed8\u5750. \u9f8d\u6f6d\u554f. \u4f55\u4e0d\u6b78\u4f86. \u5c71\u5c0d\u66f0\u9ed1. \u6f6d\u4e43\u9ede\u71ed\u8207\u5c71. \u5c71\u64ec\u63a5. \u9f8d\u4fbf\u5439\u6ec5.\n\u5c71\u4e43\u79ae\u62dc. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u5341\u4e94.)\n\n5.14. \u99ac\u5927\u5e2b\u8207\u767e\u4e08\u61f7\u6d77\u884c\u6b21. \u898b\u91ce\u9d28\u5b50\u98db\u904e. \u5927\u5e2b\u4e91. \u662f\u4ec0\u9ebd. \u4e08\u4e91\u91ce\u9d28\u5b50. \u5927\u5e2b\u4e91. \u4ec0\u9ebd\u8655\u53bb\u4e5f.\n\u4e08\u4e91\u98db\u904e\u53bb\u4e5f. \u5927\u5e2b\u9042\u626d\u767e\u4e08\u9f3b\u982d. \u4e08\u4f5c\u5fcd\u75db\u8072\u5927\u5e2b\u4e91. \u4f55\u66fe\u98db\u53bb. (\u78a7\u5dd6\u96c6.)\n\n5.15. \u5927\u6167\u5b97\u679c (1089\u20131163).\n\n5.16.\u9053\u8b19\u5728\u8def\u6ce3\u8a9e\u5143\u66f0. \u6211\u4e00\u751f\u53c3\u79aa\u696d. \u7121\u5f97\u529b\u8655\u4eca\u53c8\u5954\u6ce2. \u5982\u4f55\u5f97\u76f8\u61c9\u53bb. \u5143\u544a\u4e4b\u66f0.\n\u511e\u4f46\u5c07\u8af8\u65b9\u53c3\u5f97\u5e95\u609f\u5f97\u5e95. \u5713\u609f\u5999\u559c\u7232\u511e\u8aaa\u5f97\u5e95. \u90fd\u4e0d\u8981\u7406\u6703. \u9014\u53ef\u66ff\u4e8b. \u6211\u76e1\u66ff\u511e. \u53ea\u6709\u4e94\u4ef6\u4e8b.\n\u66ff\u511e\u4e0d\u5f97. \u511e\u9808\u81ea\u5bb6\u652f\u7576. \u8b19\u66f0\u4e94\u4ef6\u8005\u4f55\u4e8b. \u9858\u554f\u5176\u8981. \u5143\u66f0\u8457\u8863\u55ab\u98ef. \u5c59\u5c4e\u653e\u5c3f. \u99dd\u7b87\u6b7b\u5c4d\u8def\u4e0a\u884c.\n\u8b19\u65bc\u8a00\u4e0b\u9818\u65e8. \u4e0d\u89ba\u624b\u821e\u8db3\u8e0f. \u5143\u66f0. \u511e\u6b64\u56d8\u65b9\u53ef\u901a\u66f8\u5b9c\u524d\u9032. \u543e\u5148\u6b78\u77e3. (\u7e8c\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u4e09\u5341\u4e8c\u5377.)\n\n5.17. \u6f59\u5c71\u554f. \u6211\u805e\u6c5d\u5728\u767e\u4e08\u5148\u5e2b\u8655. \u554f\u4e00\u7b54\u5341. \u554f\u5341\u7b54\u767e. \u6b64\u662f\u6c5d\u8066\u660e\u9748\u5229. \u610f\u89e3\u8b58\u60f3. \u751f\u6b7b\u6839\u672c.\n\u7236\u6bcd\u672a\u751f\u6642. \u8a66\u9053\u4e00\u53e5\u770b. \u5e2b\u88ab\u4e00\u554f. \u76f4\u5f97\u832b\u7136. \u6b78\u5bee\u5c07\u5e73\u65e5\u770b\u904e\u5e95\u6587\u5b57. \u5f9e\u982d\u8981\u5c0b\u4e00\u53e5\u916c\u5c0d. \u7adf\u4e0d\u80fd\u5f97.\n\u4e43\u81ea\u6b4e\u66f0. \u7575\u9905\u4e0d\u53ef\u5145\u98e2. \u5c62\u4e5e\u6f59\u5c71\u8aaa\u7834. \u5c71\u66f0. \u6211\u82e5\u8aaa\u4f3c\u6c5d. \u6c5d\u5df2\u5f8c\u7f75\u6211\u53bb. \u6211\u8aaa\u5e95\u662f\u6211\u5e95. \u7d42\u4e0d\u5e72\u6c5d\u4e8b.\n\u5e2b\u9042\u5e73\u6614\u6240\u770b\u6587\u5b57\u71d2\u5374\u66f0. \u6b64\u751f\u4e0d\u5b78\u4f5b\u6cd5\u4e5f. \u4e14\u4f5c\u7b87\u9577\u884c\u7ca5\u98ef\u50e7. \u514d\u5f79\u5fc3\u795e. \u4e43\u6ce3\u8fad\u6f59\u5c71. \u76f4\u904e\u5357\u967d.\n\u89a9\u5fe0\u570b\u5e2b\u907a\u8e5f\u9042\u61a9\u6b62\u7109. \u4e00\u65e5\u829f\u9664\u8349\u6728. \u5076\u62cb\u74e6\u792b. \u64ca\u7af9\u4f5c\u8072. \u5ffd\u7136\u7701\u609f. \u907d\u6b78\u6c90\u6d74\u711a\u9999. \u9059\u62dc\u6f59\u5c71.\n\u8d0a\u66f0. \u548c\u5c19\u5927\u6148\u6069\u903e\u7236\u6bcd. \u7576\u6642\u82e5\u7232\u6211\u8aaa\u7834. \u4f55\u6709\u4eca\u65e5\u4e4b\u4e8b. \u4e43\u6709\u980c. \u4e00\u64ca\u5fd8\u6240\u77e5. \u66f4\u4e0d\u5047\u4fee\u6cbb. \u52d5\u5bb9\u63da\u53e4\u8def.\n\u4e0d\u58ae\u6084\u7136\u6a5f. \u8072\u8272\u5916\u5a01\u5100. \u8af8\u65b9\u9054\u9053\u8005. \u54b8\u8a00\u4e0a\u4e0a\u6a5f. (\u4e94\u71c8\u6703\u5143\u5377\u4e5d.)\n\n5.18. \u5c71\u8c37\u5c45\u58eb\u9ec3\u5ead\u5805. \u5b57\u9b6f\u76f4. \u5f83\u4f9d\u6666\u5802. \u4e5e\u6307\u5f91\u6377\u8655. \u5802\u66f0. \u7957\u5982\u4ef2\u5c3c\u9053. \u4e8c\u4e09\u5b50\u4ee5\u6211\u7232\u96b1\u4e4e.\n\u543e\u7121\u96b1\u4e4e\u723e\u8005. \u592a\u53f2\u5c45\u5e38\u5982\u4f55\u7406\u8ad6. \u516c\u64ec\u5c0d. \u5802\u66f0\u4e0d\u662f\u4e0d\u662f. \u516c\u8ff7\u60b6\u4e0d\u5df2. \u4e00\u65e5\u4f8d\u5802\u5c71\u884c\u6b21\u6642\u5dd6\u6842\u76db\u653e.\n\u5802\u66f0. \u805e\u6728\u7280\u83ef\u9999\u9ebd. \u516c\u66f0\u805e. \u7121\u96b1\u4e8e\u723e\u516c\u91cb\u7136. (\u4e94\u71c8\u6703\u5143\u5377\u5341\u4e03.)\n\n5.19. \u9ec4\u8617\u4f5b\u6cd5\u7121\u591a\u5b50.\n\n5.20. \u7aae\u8af8\u7384\u8faf\u82e5\u4e00\u6beb\u7f6e\u65bc\u592a\u865b. \u7aed\u4e16\u6a1e\u6a5f. \u4f3c\u4e00\u6ef4\u6295\u65bc\u5de8\u58d1.\n\n5.21. \u99ac\u7956\u6b21\u65e5\u965e\u5802. \u8846\u7e94\u96c6. \u767e\u4e08\u51fa. \u5377\u5374\u62dc\u84c6. \u99ac\u7956\u4fbf\u4e0b\u5ea7. \u6b78\u65b9\u4e08. \u6b21\u554f\u767e\u4e08. \u6211\u9069\u4f86\u4e0a\u5802.\n\u672a\u66fe\u8aaa\u6cd5. \u511e\u7232\u4ec0\u9ebd\u4fbf\u5377\u5374\u84c6. \u4e08\u96f2. \u6628\u65e5\u88ab\u548c\u5c19\u626d\u5f97\u9f3b\u5b54\u75db. \u7956\u96f2. \u511e\u6628\u65e5\u5411\u751a\u8655\u7559\u5fc3. \u4e08\u4e91.\n\u4eca\u65e5\u9f3b\u982d\u53c8\u4e0d\u75db\u4e5f. (\u78a7\u5dd6\u96c6.)\n\n5.22. \u6295\u6a5f\u5048.\n\n5.23. \u9577\u6176\u7a1c\u79aa\u5e2b\u53c3\u96ea\u5cef. \u5ffd\u4e00\u65e5\u6372\u7c3e. \u8c41\u7136\u5927\u609f. \u8ff0\u5048\u4e91. \u4e5f\u5927\u5dee. \u4e5f\u5927\u5dee. \u8d77\u7c3e\u4f86\u898b\u5929\u4e0b.\n\u6709\u4eba\u554f\u6211\u89e3\u4f55\u5b97. \u62c8\u8d77\u62c2\u5b50\u9a40\u53e3\u6253. (\u79aa\u6797\u985e\u805a\u7b2c\u5341\u4e94\u5377.)\n\n5.24. \u4e94\u7d44\u6cd5\u6f14\u6295\u6a5f\u5048\u4e91. \u5c71\u524d\u4e00\u7247\u9591\u7530\u5730. \u53c9\u624b\u53ee\u5680\u554f\u7956\u7fc1. \u5e7e\u5ea6\u8ce3\u4f86\u9084\u81ea\u8cb7. \u7232\u6190\u677e\u7af9\u5f15\u6e05\u98a8.\n(\u4e94\u71c8\u6703\u5143\u5377\u5341\u4e5d.)\n\n5.25. \u571c\u609f\u514b\u52e4\u5048\u4e91. \u91d1\u9d28\u9999\u6d88\u9326\u7e61\u5e43. \u7b19\u6b4c\u53e2\u88e1\u9189\u6276\u6b78. \u5c11\u5e74\u4e00\u6bb5\u98a8\u6d41\u4e8b. \u889b\u8a31\u4f73\u4eba\u7368\u81ea\u77e5.\n(\u4e94\u71c8\u6703\u5143\u5377\u5341\u4e5d.)\n\n5.26. \u6c38\u660e\u5ef6\u58fd\u79aa\u5e2b. \u805e\u58ae\u85aa\u6709\u8072. \u8c41\u7136\u5951\u609f. \u4e43\u4e91. \u64b2\u843d\u975e\u4ed6\u7269. \u7e31\u6a6b\u4e0d\u662f\u5875. \u5c71\u6cb3\u4e26\u5927\u5730.\n\u5168\u9732\u6cd5\u738b\u8eab. (\u845b\u85e4\u96c6.)\n\n5.27. \u694a\u5104\u5c45\u58eb\u5b57\u5927\u5e74. \u5048\u6708\u516b\u89d2\u78e8\u76e4\u7a7a\u88cf\u8d70. \u91d1\u6bdb\u7345\u5b50\u8b8a\u4f5c\u72d7. \u64ec\u6b32\u5c07\u8eab\u5317\u6597\u85cf. \u61c9\u9808\u5408\u638c\u5357\u8fb0\u5f8c.\n(\u4e94\u71c8\u6703\u5143\u5377\u5341\u4e8c.)\n\n5.28. \u8861\u5dde\u837c\u9675\u90c1\u5c71\u4e3b\u6709\u980c\u66f0. \u6211\u6709\u795e (\u660e) \u73e0\u4e00\u9846. \u4e45\u88ab\u5875\u52de\u7f88\u93bb(\u57cb\u6c92). \u4eca\u671d\u5875\u76e1\u5149\u751f.\n\u7167\u898b(\u7834)\u9752\u5c71\u842c\u6736. (\u7e8c\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u7b2c\u5341\u4e09.)\n\n\u674e\u9075\u52d7\u6295\u6a5f\u5048\u66f0. \u5b78\u9053\u9808\u662f\u9435\u6f22. \u8457\u624b\u5fc3\u982d\u4fbf\u5224. \u76f4\u8da3\u7121\u4e0a\u83e9\u5824. \u4e00\u5207\u662f\u975e\u83ab\u7ba1. (\u4e94\u71c8\u6703\u5143\u5377\u5341\u4e8c.)\n\n\u5f35\u4e5d\u6210\u805e\u86d9\u9cf4. \u8c41\u7136\u6709\u7701 \u4f5c\u980c\u4e91. \u6625\u5929\u6708\u4e0b\u4e00\u8072\u86d9. \u649e\u7834\u4e7e\u5764\u5171\u4e00\u5bb6. \u6b63\u8207\u9ebd\u6642\u8ab0\u6703\u5f97. \u5dba\u982d\u811a\u75db\u6709\u7384\u6c99.\n(\u79aa\u6797\u985e\u805a\u5377\u4e00.)\n\n\u5927\u71c8\u570b\u5e2b\u5048\u66f0. \u4e00\u56d8\u900f\u904e\u96f2\u95dc\u4e86. \u5357\u5317\u6771\u897f\u6d3b\u8def\u901a. \u5915\u8655\u671d\u904a\u6c92\u8cd3\u4e3b. \u811a\u982d\u811a\u5c3e\u8d77\u6e05\u98a8. (\u5ef6\u5bf6\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u4e8c\u5341.)\n\n\u5922\u60f3\u570b\u5e2b\u5048\u66f0. \u591a\u5e74\u5800\u5730\u8994\u9752\u5929. \u6dfb\u5f97\u91cd\u91cd\u7919\u81ba\u7269. \u4e00\u591c\u6697\u4e2d\u98ba\u788c\u750e. \u7b49\u9591\u64ca\u788e\u865b\u7a7a\u9aa8. (\u5ef6\u5bf6\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u5341\u4e5d.)\n\n\u592a\u539f\u5b5a\u4e0a\u5750\u6295\u6a5f\u5048\u66f0. \u61b6\u6614\u7576\u5e74\u672a\u609f\u6642. \u4e00\u8072\u80e1\u89d2\u4e00\u8072\u60b2. \u5982\u4eca\u6795\u4e0a\u7121\u9591\u5922. \u5927\u5c0f\u6885\u82b1\u4e00\u4efb\u5439. (\u91cb\u5b97\u6f14\u8457.\n\u78a7\u5dd6\u9304\u8b1b\u8a71. \u7b2c\u56db\u5341\u4e03\u5247.)\n\n\u8499\u5c71\u7570\u79aa\u5e2b\u66f0. \u6c92\u8208\u8def\u982d\u7aae. \u8e0f\u98dc\u6ce2\u662f\u6c34. \u8d85\u7fa4\u8001\u8d99\u5dde. \u9762\u76ee\u53ea\u5982\u6b64. (\u79aa\u95dc\u7b56\u9032.)\n\n5.29. \u8aaa\u4f3c\u4e00\u7269\u5373\u4e0d\u4e2d.\n\n5.30. \u9ad8\u5cf0\u539f\u5999 (1238\u20131285).\n\n5.31. \u8d99\u5dde\u56e0\u50e7\u554f. \u72d7\u5b50\u9084\u6709\u4f5b\u6027\u4e5f\u7121. \u5e2b\u4e91\u7121. \u53c8\u554f\u4e00\u5207\u9084\u7686\u6709. \u56e0\u751a\u72d7\u5b50\u5374\u7121. \u5e2b\u4e91\u6709.\n\n5.32. \u963f\u8ab0\u8207\u511e\u62d6\u7b87\u6b7b\u5c4d\u5230\u906e\u88cf.\n\n5.33. \u50e7\u554f\u8d99\u5dde. \u842c\u6cd5\u6b78\u4e00. \u4e00\u6b78\u4f55\u8655. \u5dde\u4e91. \u6211\u5728\u9752\u5dde. \u4f5c\u4e00\u981c\u5e03\u886b. \u91cd\u4e03\u65a4.\n\n5.34. \u4e94\u7956\u6cd5\u6f14\u79aa\u5e2b (\u897f\u66c6\u5343\u767e\u56db\u5e74\u5bc2) \u81ea\u8b9a\u66f0. \u767e\u5e74\u4e09\u842c\u516d\u5343\u671d. \u8fd4\u8986\u5143\u4f86\u662f\u906e\u6f22.\n\n5.35. \u89e3\u590f\u81f3\u5357\u660e. \u6b3d\u4e00\u898b\u4fbf\u554f. \u963f\u8ab0\u8207\u511e\u62d6\u7b87\u6b7b\u5c4d\u5230\u906e\u88e1. \u5e2b\u4fbf\u559d. \u6b3d\u62c8\u68d2. \u5e2b\u628a\u4f4f\u4e91. \u4eca\u65e5\u6253\u67d0\u7532\u4e0d\u5f97.\n\u6b3d\u66f0. \u751a\u9ebd\u6253\u4e0d\u5f97. \u5e2b\u62c2\u8896\u4fbf\u51fa. \u7fcc\u65e5\u6b3d\u554f. \u842c\u6cd5\u6b78\u4e00. \u4e00\u6b78\u4f55\u8655. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u72d7\u445b\u71b1\u6cb9\u943a. \u6b3d\u65e5\u511e\u90a3\u88cf\u5b78\u906e\u865b\u982d\u4f86.\n\u5e2b\u4e91. \u6b63\u8981\u548c\u5c19\u7591\u8457. \u6b3d\u4f11\u53bb. (\u9ad8\u5cef\u9304.)\n\n5.36. \u767d\u96b1\u6167\u9db4 (1683\u20131768).\n\n5.37. \u9060\u7f85\u5929\u91dc.\n\n5.38. \u5927\u7591\u73fe\u524d.\n\n5.39. \u5dd6\u982d\u5168\u8c41\u79aa\u5e2b. \u5e38\u8b02\u8846\u66f0. \u8001\u6f22\u53bb\u6642. \u5927\u543c\u4e00\u8072\u4e86\u53bb. \u5510\u5149\u5553\u4e4b\u5f8c. \u4e2d\u539f\u76dc\u8d77. \u8846\u7686\u907f\u5730. \u5e2b\u7aef\u5c45\u664f\u5982\u4e5f.\n \u4e00\u65e5\u8cca\u5927\u81f3. \u8cac\u4ee5\u7121\u4f9b\u994b. \u9042\u4ec6\u5204\u7109. \u5e2b\u795e\u8272\u81ea\u82e5. \u5927\u53eb\u4e00\u8072\u800c\u7d42. \u8072\u805e\u6578\u5341\u91cc. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u5341\u516d.)\n\n5.40. \u4f5b\u5149\u570b\u5e2b\u5b57\u5b50\u5143. \u5357\u5b8b\u5fb7\u7950\u4e59\u4ea5\u79cb. \u503c\u8b8a\u96e3. \u9000\u904e\u6eab\u4e4b\u96c1\u5cf0. \u6b21\u5e74\u91cd\u5175\u58d3\u5883. \u8209\u8846\u9003\u533f. \u5e2b\u7368\u5140\u5750\u5802\u4e2d.\n\u5175\u4ee5\u5204\u52a0\u982d. \u5e2b\u6021\u7136\u8ff0\u980c\u66f0. \u4e7e\u5764\u7121\u5730\u5353\u5b64\u7b3b. \u4e14\u559c\u4eba\u7a7a\u6cd5\u4ea6\u7a7a. \u73cd\u91cd\u5927\u5143\u4e09\u5c3a\u528d. \u96fb\u5149\u5f71\u88e1\u65ac\u6625\u98a8.\n\u5fa9\u7232\u8aaa\u6cd5. \u8846\u751f\u609a\u805e. \u6094\u8b1d\u4f5c\u79ae\u800c\u53bb. (\u4f5b\u5149\u9304\u5377\u4e5d.)\n\n5.41. \u4e00\u69cc\u6253\u7834\u7cbe\u9748\u7a9f. \u7a81\u51fa\u90a3\u5412\u9435\u9762\u76ae. \u5169\u8033\u5982\u807e\u53e3\u5982\u555e. \u7b49\u9591\u89f8\u7740\u706b\u661f\u98db.\n\n5.42. \u6709\u5b9a\u4e0a\u5ea7\u5230\u53c3. \u554f\u5982\u4f55\u662f\u4f5b\u6cd5\u5927\u610f. \u5e2b\u4e0b\u7e69\u5e8a\u64d2\u4f4f\u8207\u4e00\u638c\u4fbf\u6258\u958b. \u5b9a\u4f47\u7acb. \u508d\u50e7\u65e5. \u5b9a\u4e0a\u5ea7\u4f55\u4e0d\u79ae\u62dc.\n\u5b9a\u65b9\u79ae\u62dc. \u5ffd\u7136\u5927\u609f. (\u81e8\u6fdf\u9304.)\n\n5.43. \u8d99\u5dde\u793a\u8846\u4e91. \u4f5b\u4e4b\u4e00\u5b57. \u543e\u4e0d\u559c\u805e. (\u8d99\u5dde\u9304.)\n\n\u66c7\u9834\u9054\u89c0\u79aa\u5e2b. \u50e7\u554f. \u548c\u5c19\u9084\u66fe\u5ff5\u4f5b\u4e5f\u7121. \u5e2b\u66f0\u4e0d\u66fe\u5ff5\u4f5b. \u66f0\u7232\u751a\u9ebd\u4e0d\u5ff5\u4f5b. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u6015\u6c5a\u4eba\u53e3. (\u7e8c\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u56db.)\n\n\u85e5\u5c71\u60df\u513c. \u4e00\u65e5\u9662\u4e3b\u8acb\u4e0a\u5802. \u5927\u8846\u624d\u96c6. \u5e2b\u826f\u4e45. \u4fbf\u6b78\u65b9\u4e08\u9589\u9580. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u5341\u56db.)\n\n\u767e\u4e08\u6d85\u69c3\u4e00\u65e5\u8b02\u8846\u66f0. \u6c5d\u8207\u6211\u958b\u7530. \u6211\u7232\u6c5d\u8aaa\u5927\u7fa9. \u8846\u958b\u7530\u4e86. \u8acb\u5e2b\u8aaa\u5927\u7fa9. \u5e2b\u4e43\u5c55\u958b\u5169\u624b. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u7b2c\u4e5d.)\n\n\u9054\u89c0\u79aa\u5e2b\u4e0a\u5802. \u8846\u96c6\u5b9a. \u9996\u5ea7\u51fa\u79ae\u62dc. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u597d\u597d\u554f\u7740. \u5ea7\u4f4e\u982d\u554f\u8a71\u6b21. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u4eca\u65e5\u4e0d\u7b54\u8a71. \u4fbf\u6b78\u65b9\u4e08.\n(\u7e8c\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u56db.)\n\n5.44. (\u8d99\u5dde\u5f9e\u8ad7\u548c\u5c19\u554f\u5357\u6cc9\u66f0. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u9053. \u6cc9\u66f0\u5e73\u5e38\u5fc3\u662f\u9053.)\n\n\u5831\u6148\u9662\u6587\u6b3d\u56e0\u50e7\u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u5e73\u5e38\u5fc3\u5408\u9053. \u6b3d\u66f0. \u55ab\u8336\u98ef\u96a8\u6642\u904e. \u770b\u6c34\u770b\u5c71\u5be6\u66a2\u60c5. (\u4e94\u71c8\u6703\u5143\u5377\u516b.)\n\n\u50e7\u554f\u9577\u6c99\u666f\u5c91. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u5e73\u5e38\u5fc3. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u8981\u7720\u5373\u7720. \u8981\u5750\u5373\u5750. \u50e7\u4e91. \u5b78\u4eba\u4e0d\u6703. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u71b1\u5373\u53d6\u51c9. \u585e\u5373\u5411\u706b.\n(\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u7b2c\u5341.)\n\n\n                 PRACTICAL METHODS OF ZEN INSTRUCTION\n\n6.1. \u554f\u7b54 (or \u6a5f\u7de3).\n\n6.2. \u8d99\u5dde\u56e0\u50e7\u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u4e00\u53e5. \u5e2b\u61c9\u8afe. \u50e7\u518d\u554f. \u5e2b\u4e91\u4e0d\u60a3\u807e. (\u8d99\u5dde\u9304).\n\n6.3. \u8d99\u5dde\u50e7\u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u7b2c\u4e00\u53e5. \u5e2b\u54b3\u55fd. \u4e91\u83ab\u4fbf\u662f\u5426. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u8001\u50e7\u54b3\u55fd\u4e5f\u4e0d\u5f97.\n\n\u50e7\u554f\u5982\u4f55\u662f\u4e00\u53e5. \u5e2b\u4e91\u9053\u4ec0\u9ebd.\n\n\u50e7\u554f\u5982\u4f55\u662f\u4e00\u53e5. \u5e2b\u4e91\u662f\u5169\u53e5. (\u8d99\u5dde\u9304.)\n\n6.4. \u9996\u5c71\u7701\u5ff5 (926\u2013993). \u56e0\u50e7\u554f. \u4e00\u53e5\u4e86\u7136\u8d85\u767e\u5104. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u4e00\u53e5. \u5e2b\u4e91\u5230\u8655\u8209\u4f3c\u4eba. \u50e7\u65e5. \u7562\u7adf\u4e8b\u5982\u4f55.\n\u5e2b\u66f0. \u4f46\u77e5\u6041\u9ebd\u9053. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u5341\u4e09.)\n\n6.5. \u8d99\u5dde\u56e0\u50e7\u554f. \u4e00\u71c8\u71c3\u767e\u5343\u71c8. \u4e00\u71c8\u672a\u5be9\u5f9e\u4ec0\u9ebd\u8655\u767c. \u5e2b\u4fbf\u8daf\u51fa\u4e00\u96bb\u5c65. (\u8d99\u5dde\u9304.)\n\n6.6. \u5229\u5c71\u79aa\u5e2b\u50e7\u554f. \u8846\u8272\u6b78\u7a7a. \u7a7a\u6b78\u4f55\u6240. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u820c\u982d\u4e0d\u51fa\u53e3. \u4e91\u7232\u751a\u9ebd\u5982\u6b64. \u5e2b\u4e91\u5185\u5916\u4e00\u5982\u6545. \u5f91\u5c71\u6772\u4e91.\n\u82e5\u662f\u5f91\u5c71\u5373\u4e0d\u7136. \u828d\u85e5\u82b1\u958b\u83e9\u85a9\u9762. \u6936\u6ada\u8449\u6563\u591c\u53c9\u982d. (\u79aa\u6797\u985e\u805a\u5377\u4e03.)\n\n6.7. \u8c3f\u5c71\u548c\u5c19\u50e7\u554f. \u7de3\u6563\u6b78\u7a7a. \u7a7a\u6b78\u4f55\u8655. \u8c3f\u4e91\u67d0\u7532. \u50e7\u61c9\u8afe. \u8c3f\u66f0\u7a7a\u5728\u4f55\u8655. \u66f0\u5374\u8acb\u548c\u5c19\u9053.\n\u8c3f\u66f0\u6ce2\u65af\u55ab\u80e1\u6912. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u516b.)\n\n6.8. \u5085\u5927\u58eb (\u5085\u7fd5 497\u2013569) \u7a7a\u624b\u628a\u92e4\u982d. \u6b65\u884c\u9a0e\u6c34\u725b. \u4eba\u5f9e\u6a4b\u4e0a\u904e. \u6a4b\u6d41\u6c34\u4e0d\u6d41.\n\n6.9. \u82ad\u8549\u548c\u5c19\u793a\u8846\u4e91. \u511e\u6709\u62c4\u6756\u5b50. \u6211\u8207\u511e\u62c4\u6756\u5b50. \u511e\u7121\u62c4\u6756\u5b50. \u6211\u596a\u511e\u62c4\u6756\u5b50. \u7121\u9580\u66f0. \u6276\u904e\u65b7\u6a4b\u6c34.\n\u4f34\u6b78\u7121\u6708\u6751. \u82e5\u559a\u4f5c\u62c4\u6756. \u5165\u5730\u7344\u5982\u7bad. (\u7121\u9580\u95dc.)\n\n6.10. \u8d99\u5dde\u50e7\u554f. \u8ca7\u5b50\u4f86\u5c07\u4ec0\u9ebd\u7269\u8207\u4ed6. \u5e2b\u4e91\u4e0d\u6b20\u5c11. \u53c8\u4e91\u5b88\u8ca7. (\u8d99\u5dde\u9304.)\n\n\u5357\u9662\u6167\u9852\u50e7\u554f. \u4e45\u5728\u8ca7\u4e2d\u5982\u4f55\u5f97\u6fdf. \u5e2b\u4e91\u6eff\u63ac\u6469\u5c3c\u89aa\u81ea\u6367. (\u5357\u9662\u9304.)\n\n\u66f9\u5c71\u548c\u5c19\u50e7\u554f\u4e91. \u6e05\u7a05\u5b64\u8ca7. \u4e5e\u5e2b\u8cd1\u6fdf. \u5c71\u4e91\u7a05\u95cd\u68a8. \u7a05\u61c9\u8afe. \u5c71\u66f0. \u9752\u539f\u767d\u5bb6\u9152\u4e09\u76cf. \u55ab\u4e86\u7336\u9053\u672a\u6cbe\u5507.\n(\u7121\u9580\u95dc.)\n\n6.11. \u56b4\u967d\u5c0a\u8005\u554f\u8d99\u5dde. \u4e00\u7269\u4e0d\u5c07\u4f86\u6642\u5982\u4f55. \u5dde\u4e91. \u653e\u4e0b\u8457. \u8005\u4e91. \u5df2\u662f\u4e00\u7269\u4e0d\u5c07\u4f86\u653e\u4e0b\u9019\u4ec0\u9ebd. \u5dde\u4e91.\n\u6041\u9ebd\u5247\u64d4\u53d6\u53bb. (\u845b\u85e4\u96c6.)\n\n6.12. \u96f2\u9580\u6709\u6642\u4e91. \u5b97\u9580\u4e03\u7e31\u516b\u6a2a. \u6bba\u6d3b\u81e8\u6642. \u50e7\u4fbf\u554f\u5982\u4f55\u662f\u6bba. \u5e2b\u4e91\u51ac\u53bb\u6625\u4f86. \u50e7\u4e91\u51ac\u53bb\u6625\u4f86\u6642\u5982\u4f55.\n\u5e2b\u4e91\u6a6b\u64d4\u62c4\u6756. \u6771\u897f\u5357\u5317. \u4e00\u4efb\u6253\u91ce\u69b8.\n\n6.13. \u6c5d\u5dde\u9996\u5c71\u7701\u5ff5\u79aa\u5e2b. \u56e0\u6307\u7af9\u7b86\u793a\u8846\u4e91. \u6c5d\u7b49\u8af8\u4eba. \u82e5\u559a\u4f5c\u7af9\u7b86\u5373\u89f8. \u559a\u4e0d\u4f5c\u7af9\u7b86\u5373\u80cc. \u6c5d\u8af8\u4eba\u4e14\u559a\u4f5c\u4ec0\u9ebd.\n\u6642\u8449\u7e23\u7701\u548c\u5c1a\u5728\u6703\u4e0b. \u4e43\u8fd1\u524d\u63a3\u5f97\u6298\u4f5c\u5169\u622a. \u62cb\u5411\u965b\u4e0b. \u5374\u4e91\u662f\u4ec0\u9ebd. \u5e2b\u4e91\u778e. \u5927\u6167\u79aa\u5e2b\u62c8\u4e91. \u901f\u9053\u901f\u9053. \uff08\u845b\u85e4\u96c6.\uff09\n\n6.14. \u96f2\u9580\u62c8\u62c4\u6756\u4e91. \u8005\u7b87\u662f\u4ec0\u9ebd. \u82e5\u9053\u662f\u62c4\u6756\u5165\u5730\u7344. \u4e0d\u662f\u62c4\u6756\u662f\u4ec0\u9ebd. (\u96f2\u9580\u9304.)\n\n6.15. \u4e94\u53f0\u5c71\u79d8\u9b54\u5dd6. \u5e38\u6301\u4e00\u672c\u53c9. \u6bcf\u898b\u50e7\u4f86\u79ae\u62dc. \u5373\u53c9\u5374\u9838\u4e91. \u90a3\u7b87\u9b54\u9b45\u654e\u6c5d\u51fa\u5bb6. \u90a3\u7b87\u9b54\u9b45\u654e\u6c5d\u884c\u811a.\n\u9053\u5f97\u4e5f\u53c9\u4e0b\u6b7b. \u9053\u4e0d\u5f97\u4e5f\u53c9\u4e0b\u6b7b. \u901f\u9053. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u5341.)\n\n6.16. \u5fb7\u5c71\u793a\u8846\u66f0. \u9053\u5f97\u4e5f\u4e09\u5341\u68d2. \u9053\u4e0d\u5f97\u4e5f\u4e09\u5341\u68d2. (\u4e94\u71c8\u6703\u5143\u5377\u4e03.)\n\n6.17. \u5357\u6cc9\u56e0\u6771\u897f\u5169\u5802\u5404\u4e89\u732b\u5152. \u5e2b\u9047\u4e4b\u767d\u8846\u66f0. \u9053\u5f97\u5373\u6551\u53d6\u732b\u5152. \u9053\u4e0d\u5f97\u5373\u65ac\u5374\u4e5f. \u8846\u7121\u5c0d. \u5e2b\u4fbf\u65ac\u4e4b.\n\u8d99\u5dde\u81ea\u5916\u6b78. \u5e2b\u64e7\u524d\u8a9e\u793a\u4e4b. \u8d99\u5dde\u4e43\u812b\u5c65\u5b89\u982d\u4e0a\u800c\u51fa. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u6c5d\u9069\u4f86\u82e5\u5728. \u5373\u6551\u5f97\u732b\u5152\u4e5f. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u516b.)\n\n6.18. \u4ef0\u5c71\u5bc2\u79aa\u5e2b\u4f4f\u6771\u5e73. \u6642\u6f59\u5c71\u9644\u66f8\u4e26\u93e1\u4e00\u9762\u81f3. \u5e2b\u965e\u5750. \u6388\u66f8\u4e43\u63d0\u8d77\u93e1. \u793a\u8846\u66f0. \u5927\u8846. \u6f59\u5c71\u5c07\u93e1\u4f86.\n\u800c\u4eca\u4e14\u9053. \u662f\u6f59\u5c71\u93e1. \u6771\u5e73\u93e1. \u82e5\u9053\u662f\u6771\u5e73\u93e1. \u53c8\u662f\u6f59\u5c71\u5bc4\u4f86. \u82e5\u9053\u662f\u6f59\u5c71\u93e1. \u53c8\u5728\u6771\u5e73\u9019\u88e1. \u9053\u5f97\u537d\u5b58\u53d6.\n\u9053\u4e0d\u5f97\u5373\u6253\u7834\u53bb\u4e5f. \u5982\u662f\u4e09\u64e7. \u8846\u7686\u7121\u5c0d. \u5e2b\u4e43\u64b2\u7834. (\u845b\u85e4\u96c6.)\n\n6.19. \u9999\u56b4\u4e00\u65e5\u8b02\u66f0. \u5982\u4eba\u5728\u5343\u5c3a\u61f8\u5d16. \u53e3\u929c\u6a39\u679d. \u811a\u7121\u6240\u8e4b. \u624b\u7121\u6240\u6500. \u5ffd\u6709\u4eba\u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u897f\u4f86\u610f.\n\u82e5\u958b\u53e3\u7b54\u5373\u55aa\u8eab\u5931\u547d. \u82e5\u4e0d\u7b54\u53c8\u9055\u4ed6\u6240\u554f. \u7576\u6041\u9ebd\u6642\u4f5c\u9ebd\u751f. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u5341\u4e00.)\n\n6.20. \u6bba\u6d3b. \u64d2\u7e31. \u8207\u596a. \u89f8\u80cc.\n\n6.21. \u96f2\u9580\u6709\u6642\u4e91. \u4e7e\u5764\u5927\u5730. \u6bba\u6d3b\u7e3d\u5728\u9019\u88cf. \u50e7\u4fbf\u554f\u5982\u4f55\u662f\u6bba. \u5e2b\u4e91\u4e03\u985a\u516b\u5012. \u50e7\u4e91. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u6d3b.\n\u5e2b\u4e91\u8981\u4f5c\u98ef\u982d. \u50e7\u4e91\u4e0d\u6bba\u4e0d\u6d3b\u6642\u5982\u4f55. \u5e2b\u4fbf\u8d77\u4e91. \u6469\u8a36\u822c\u82e5\u6ce2\u7f85\u871c. (\u96f2\u9580\u9304.)\n\n6.22. \u4e00\u50e7\u554f\u5e2b\u4e91. \u9ec3\u6885\u610f\u65e8\u751a\u9ebd\u4eba\u5f97. \u5e2b\u4e91\u6703\u4f5b\u6cd5\u4eba\u5f97. \u50e7\u4e91\u548c\u5c19\u9084\u5f97\u5426. \u5e2b\u4e91\u6211\u4e0d\u6703\u4f5b\u6cd5. (\u516d\u7956\u58c7\u7d93.)\n\n6.23. \u9053\u543e\u5713\u667a\u79aa\u5e2b\u5230\u4e94\u5cf0. \u4e94\u5cf0\u554f. \u9084\u8b58\u85e5\u5c71\u8001\u5bbf\u5426. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u4e0d\u8b58. \u5cef\u66f0. \u7232\u751a\u9ebd\u4e0d\u8b58. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u4e0d\u8b58.\n\u4e0d\u8b58. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u5341\u56db.)\n\n6.24. \u694a\u5dde\u5149\u5b5d\u9662\u6167\u89ba\u79aa\u5e2b\u5230\u5d07\u58fd. \u6cd5\u773c\u554f. \u8fd1\u96e2\u751a\u8655. \u5e2b\u66f0\u8d99\u5dde. \u773c\u66f0\u627f\u554f\u8d99\u5dde\u6709\u5ead\u524d\u6822\u6a39\u5b50\u8a71. \u662f\u5426.\n\u5e2b\u66f0\u7121. \u773c\u66f0\u5f80\u4f86\u7686\u8b02. \u50e7\u554f\u5982\u4f55\u662f\u7956\u5e2b\u897f\u4f86\u610f. \u5dde\u66f0\u5ead\u524d\u6822\u6a39\u5b50. \u4e0a\u5ea7\u4f55\u5f97\u8a00\u7121. \u5e2b\u66f0\u5148\u5e2b\u5be6\u7121\u6b64\u8a9e.\n\u548c\u5c19\u83ab\u8b17\u5148\u5e2b\u597d. \u773c\u66f0\u771e\u7345\u5b50\u5152\u80fd\u7345\u5b50\u543c. (\u4e94\u71c8\u6703\u5143\u5377\u56db. \u845b\u85e4\u96c6.)\n\n6.25. \u88f4\u76f8\u570b\u4e00\u65e5\u8acb\u5e2b\u81f3\u90e1. \u4ee5\u6240\u89e3\u4e00\u7de8\u793a\u5e2b. \u5e2b\u63a5\u7f6e\u65bc\u5ea7. \u7567\u4e0d\u62ab\u95b1. \u826f\u4e45\u66f0. \u6703\u9ebd. \u88f4\u66f0.\n\u672a\u6e2c\u5e2b\u66f0\u82e5\u4fbf\u6041\u9ebd\u6703\u5f97. \u7336\u8f03\u4e9b\u5b50. \u82e5\u4e5f\u5f62\u65bc\u7d19\u58a8. \u4f55\u6709\u543e\u5b97. (\u53e4\u5c0a\u5bbf\u8a9e\u9304\u7b2c\u4e8c.)\n\n6.26. \u8d99\u5dde\u50e7\u554f. \u7d93\u66f0\u842c\u6cd5\u6b78\u4e00. \u4e00\u6b78\u4f55\u8655. \u5dde\u4e91\u8001\u50e7\u5728\u9752\u5dde. \u4f5c\u5f97\u4e00\u981c\u5e03\u886b. \u91cd\u4e03\u65a4. (\u8d99\u5dde\u9304.)\n\n6.27. \u9999\u6797\u9060\u79aa\u5e2b. \u50e7\u554f\u5982\u4f55\u662f\u7956\u5e2b\u897f\u4f86\u610f. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u5750\u4e45\u6210\u52de. (\u78a7\u5dd6\u96c6.)\n\n6.28. \u79be\u5c71\u50e7\u554f\u5982\u4f55\u662f\u771e\u904e. \u5c71\u4e91\u89e3\u6253\u9f13. \u53c8\u554f\u5982\u4f55\u662f\u771e\u8ae6. \u5c71\u4e91\u89e3\u6253\u9f13. \u53c8\u554f\u5373\u5fc3\u5373\u4f5b\u5373\u4e0d\u554f.\n\u5982\u4f55\u662f\u975e\u5fc3\u975e\u4f5b. \u5c71\u4e91\u89e3\u6253\u9f13. (\u78a7\u5dd6\u96c6.)\n\n6.29. \u99ac\u5927\u5e2b\u4e0d\u5b89\u9662\u4e3b\u554f. \u548c\u5c1a\u8fd1\u65e5\u5c0a\u5019\u5982\u4f55. \u5927\u5e2b\u66f0. \u65e5\u9762\u4f5b. \u6708\u9762\u4f5b. (\u78a7\u5dd6\u96c6.)\n\n6.30. \u8d99\u5dde\u50e7\u554f. \u767e\u9ab8\u4ff1\u6f70\u6563. \u4e00\u7269\u93ad\u9577\u9748\u6642\u5982\u4f55. \u5e2b\u66f0\u4eca\u671d\u53c8\u98a8\u8d77. (\u8d99\u5dde\u9304.)\n\n6.31. \u9996\u5c71\u7701\u5ff5\u50e7\u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u4f5b\u6cd5\u5927\u610f. \u5c71\u4e91. \u695a\u738b\u57ce\u7554\u6c5d\u6c34\u6771\u6d41. (\u9996\u5c71\u9304.)\n\n6.32. \u7766\u5dde\u50e7\u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u8af8\u4f5b\u5e2b. \u5dde\u4e91. \u91d8\u91d8\u6771\u6771\u9aa8\u4f4e\u9aa8\u8463.\n\n\u50e7\u554f\u5982\u4f55\u662f\u894c. \u5e2b\u4e91\u5357\u7121\u4e09\u5bf6. \u9032\u4e91\u4e0d\u6703. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u5484\u9019\u8766\u45eb. \u5f97\u8207\u9ebd\u60e1\u696d.\n\n\u53c8\u6709\u50e7\u554f\u5982\u4f55\u662f\u79aa. \u5e2b\u4e91\u6469\u8a36\u822c\u82e5\u6ce2\u7f85\u871c. \u9032\u4e91. \u4e0d\u6703. \u5e2b\u4e91\u6296\u64fb\u591a\u5e74\u7a7f\u7834\u8872. \u8964\u6bff\u4e00\u534a\u9010\u96f2\u98db.\n\n\u50e7\u554f\u5982\u4f55\u662f\u8d85\u4f5b\u8d8a\u7956\u4e4b\u8ac7. \u5e2b\u9a40\u62c8\u62c4\u6756\u793a\u8846\u4e91. \u6211\u559a\u4f5c\u62c4\u6756. \u511e\u559a\u4f5c\u4ec0\u9ebd. \u50e7\u7121\u8a9e. \u5e2b\u518d\u5c07\u62c4\u6756. \u793a\u4e4b\u4e91.\n\u8d85\u4f5b\u8d8a\u7956\u4e4b\u8ac7. \u662f\u511e\u554f\u9ebd. \u50e7\u7121\u8a9e. (\u7766\u5dde\u9304.)\n\n6.33. \u5357\u9662\u6167\u9852\u50e7\u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u4f5b. \u5e2b\u4e91\u5982\u4f55\u662f\u4f5b. \u53c8\u4e91\u6211\u4e0d\u6703\u77e5. \u53c8\u4e91\u5f7c\u6709\u5373\u511e\u9053. \u50e7\u4e91\u8207\u9ebd\u5247\u548c\u5c19\u7121\u4f5b\u4e5f.\n\u5e2b\u4e91\u6b63\u7576\u597d\u8655. \u50e7\u5982\u4f55\u662f\u597d\u8655. \u5e2b\u4e91\u4eca\u65e5\u662f\u4e09\u5341\u65e5. (\u5357\u9662\u9304.)\n\n6.34. \u6b78\u5b97\u667a\u5e38\u5257\u8349\u6b21\u6709\u8b1b\u50e7\u4f86\u53c3. \u5ffd\u6709\u4e00\u86c7\u904e. \u5e2b\u4ee5\u92e4\u65b7\u4e4b. \u50e7\u4e91\u4e45\u56ae\u6b78\u5b97\u5143\u4f86\u662f\u9e81\u884c\u6c99\u9580. \u5e2b\u4e91\u5ea7\u4e3b\u6b78\u8336\u5802\u5185.\n\u55ab\u8336\u53bb.\n\n6.34a. \u5e2b\u4e91\u662f\u511e\u9e81\u662f\u6211\u9e81. \u4e3b\u4e91\u5982\u4f55\u662f\u9ea4. \u5e2b\u7aea\u8d77\u92e4\u982d. \u4e3b\u4e91\u5982\u4f55\u662f\u7d30. \u5e2b\u4f5c\u65ac\u86c7\u52e2. \u4e3b\u4e91\u8207\u9ebd\u5247\u4f9d\u800c\u884c\u4e4b.\n\u5e2b\u4e91\u4f9d\u800c\u884c\u4e4b\u5373\u4e14\u7f6e. \u511e\u4ec0\u9ebd\u8655\u898b\u6211\u65ac\u86c7. \u4e3b\u7121\u8a9e. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u4e03.)\n\n6.35. \u4e94\u7956\u6cd5\u6f14\u4e0a\u5802\u4e91. \u6628\u65e5\u6709\u4e00\u5247\u56e0\u7de3. \u64ec\u64e7\u4f3c\u5927\u8846. \u5374\u7232\u8001\u50e7\u5fd8\u4e8b\u90fd\u5927. \u4e00\u6642\u601d\u91cf\u4e0d\u51fa. \u4e43\u6c88\u541f\u591a\u6642\u4e91.\n\u5fd8\u5374\u4e5f\u5fd8\u5374\u4e5f. \u5fa9\u4e91\u6559\u4e2d\u6709\u4e00\u9053\u771e\u8a00. \u865f\u8070\u660e\u738b. \u6709\u4eba\u5ff5\u8005. \u5fd8\u5373\u8a18\u5f97. \u9042\u4e91. \u5535\u963f\u76e7\u52d2\u7e7c\u5a11\u5a46\u8a36. \u4e43\u62cd\u624b\u5927\u7b11\u4e91.\n\u8a18\u5f97\u4e5f\u8a18\u5f97\u4e5f. \u8994\u4f5b\u4e0d\u898b\u4f5b. \u8a0e\u7956\u4e0d\u898b\u7956. \u751c\u74dc\u5fb9\u8482\u751c\u82e6\u74e0\u9023\u6839\u82e6. \u4e0b\u5ea7. (\u4e94\u7956\u9304.)\n\n6.36. \u9577\u6c34\u5b50\u74bf\u554f\u7405\u746f\u89ba\u548c\u5c19. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u6e05\u6de8\u672c\u7136. \u4e91\u4f55\u5ffd\u751f\u5c71\u6cb3\u5927\u5730. \u89ba\u52f5\u8072\u4e91. \u6e05\u6de8\u672c\u7136\u4e91\u4f55\u5ffd\u751f\u5c71\u6cb3\u5927\u5730.\n(\u845b\u85e4\u96c6.)\n\n6.37. \u865b\u5802\u667a\u611a\u62c8\u4e91. \u6562\u554f\u8af8\u4eba. \u554f\u8655\u4e00\u822c. \u7b54\u4ea6\u4e0d\u5225. \u9577\u6c34\u56e0\u751a\u609f\u53bb. \u5f91\u5c71\u66f4\u8207\u8af8\u4eba\u89e3\u8a3b\u4e00\u5fa7. \u64ca\u62c2\u5b50.\n\u6e05\u6de8\u672c\u7136\u4e91\u4f55\u5ffd\u751f\u5c71\u6cb3\u5927\u5730. (\u865a\u5802\u9304.)\n\n6.38. \u9577\u6c99\u666f\u5c91\u56e0\u50e7\u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u8f49\u5f97\u5c71\u6cb3\u570b\u571f\u6b78\u81ea\u5df1\u53bb. \u5e2b\u4e91\u5982\u4f55\u8f49\u5f97\u81ea\u5df1\u6210\u5c71\u6cb3\u570b\u571f. \u50e7\u4e91\u4e0d\u6703.\n\u5e2b\u4e91\u6e56\u5357\u57ce\u4e0b\u597d\u990a\u6c11. \u7c73\u8ce4\u67f4\u591a\u8db3\u56db\u96a3. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u7b2c\u5341.)\n\n6.39. \u6295\u5b50\u5927\u540c\u56e0\u50e7\u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u4f5b. \u4e91\u4f5b. \u554f\u5982\u4f55\u662f\u9053. \u4e91\u9053. \u554f\u5982\u4f55\u662f\u6cd5\u4e2d\u6cd5. \u4e91\u6cd5\u4e2d\u6cd5. (\u6295\u5b50\u9304.)\n\n6.40. \u8d99\u5dde\u884c\u811a\u6642. \u554f\u5927\u6148. \u822c\u82e5\u4ee5\u4f55\u7232\u8ec6. \u6148\u4e91. \u822c\u82e5\u4ee5\u4f55\u7232\u8ec6. \u5e2b\u50e7\u5475\u5475\u5927\u7b11\u800c\u51fa. \uff08\u8d99\u5dde\u9304.\uff09\n\n6.41. \u5e2b\u554f\u4fee\u5c71\u4e3b. \u6beb\u91d0\u6709\u5dee\u5929\u5730\u61f8\u9694. \u5144\u4f5c\u9ebd\u751f\u6703. \u4fee\u66f0\u6beb\u91d0\u6709\u5dee\u5929\u5730\u61f8\u9694. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u6041\u9ebd\u6703\u53c8\u722d\u5f97.\n\u4fee\u66f0\u548c\u5c19\u5982\u4f55. \u5e2b\u66f0\u6beb\u91d0\u6709\u5dee\u5929\u5730\u61f8\u9694. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u7b2c\u4e8c\u5341\u56db.)\n\n6.42. \u5929\u53f0\u5c71\u5fb7\u97f6\u570b\u5e2b. \u6b77\u53c3\u4e94\u5341\u56db\u54e1\u5584\u77e5\u8b58. \u7686\u6cd5\u7de3\u672a\u5951. \u6700\u5f8c\u81f3\u81e8\u5ddd. \u8b01\u6cd5\u773c. \u773c\u4e00\u898b\u6df1\u5668\u4e4b.\n\u5e2b\u4ee5\u5fa7\u6d89\u53e2\u6797. \u4ea6\u5026\u65bc\u53c3\u554f. \u4f46\u96a8\u8846\u800c\u5df3. \u4e00\u65e5\u6cd5\u773c\u4e0a\u5802\u50e7\u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u66f9\u6e90\u4e00\u6ef4\u6c34. \u773c\u66f0\u662f\u66f9\u6e90\u4e00\u6ef4\u6c34.\n\u50e7\u60d8\u7136\u800c\u9000. \u5e2b\u65bc\u5750\u5074\u8c41\u7136\u958b\u609f. \u5e73\u751f\u51dd\u6eef. \u6e19\u82e5\u6c37\u91cb. (\u4e94\u71c8\u6703\u5143\u5377\u5341.)\n\n6.43. \u5fb7\u97f6\u50e7\u554f. \u627f\u53e4\u6709\u8a00. \u82e5\u4eba\u898b\u822c\u82e5. \u5373\u88ab\u822c\u82e5\u8f49. \u82e5\u4eba\u4e0d\u898b\u822c\u82e5. \u4ea6\u88ab\u822c\u82e5\u8f49. \u65e3\u898b\u822c\u82e5.\n\u7232\u751a\u9ebd\u4ea6\u88ab\u8f49. \u5e2b\u66f0\u511e\u9053\u822c\u82e5\u898b\u8655. \u66f0\u4e0d\u898b\u822c\u82e5. \u7232\u751a\u9ebd\u4ea6\u88ab\u8f49. \u5e2b\u66f0\u511e\u9053\u822c\u82e5\u751a\u9ebd\u8655\u4e0d\u898b. \u4e43\u66f0\u898b.\n\u82e5\u822c\u82e5. \u4e0d\u540d\u822c\u82e5. \u4e0d\u898b\u822c\u82e5. \u4ea6\u4e0d\u540d\u822c\u82e5. \u4e14\u4f5c\u9ebd\u751f\u8aaa\u898b\u4e0d\u898b. \u6240\u4ee5\u53e4\u4eba\u9053\u82e5\u6b20\u4e00\u6cd5. \u4e0d\u6210\u6cd5\u8eab. \u82e5\u5269\u4e00\u6cd5.\n\u4e0d\u6210\u6cd5\u8eab. \u6b64\u662f\u822c\u82e5\u4e4b\u771e\u5b97\u4e5f. (\u4e94\u71c8\u6703\u5143\u5377\u5341.)\n\n6.44. \u7384\u6c99\u5e2b\u5099\u4e91. \u6c5d\u8af8\u4eba\u5982\u4f3c\u5728\u5927\u6d77\u88cf\u5750. \u6c92\u982d\u6c34\u6d78\u5374\u4e86. \u66f4\u5c55\u624b\u5411\u4eba\u4e5e\u6c34\u55ab. \u9084\u6703\u9ebd.\n\n\u50e7\u554f\u5982\u4f55\u662f\u5b78\u4eba\u81ea\u5df1. \u5e2b\u66f0\u7528\u81ea\u5df1\u4f5c\u9ebd.\n\n\u50e7\u554f\u627f\u548c\u5c19\u6709\u8a00. \u76e1\u5341\u65b9\u4e16\u754c. \u662f\u4e00\u9846\u660e\u73e0. \u5b78\u4eba\u5982\u4f55\u5f97\u6703. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u76e1\u5341\u65b9\u4e16\u754c. \u662f\u4e00\u9846\u660e\u73e0. \u7528\u6703\u4f5c\u9ebd.\n\u5e2b\u4f86\u65e5\u5374\u554f\u5176\u50e7. \u76e1\u5341\u65b9\u4e16\u754c\u662f\u4e00\u9846\u660e\u73e0. \u6c5d\u4f5c\u9ebd\u751f\u6703. \u5c0d\u66f0\u76e1\u5341\u65b9\u4e16\u754c\u662f\u4e00\u9846\u660e\u73e0. \u7528\u6703\u4f5c\u61c9. \u5e2b\u66f0.\n\u6c5d\u5411\u5c71\u9b3c\u7a9f\u88e1\u4f5c\u6d3b\u8a08.\n\n\u5e2b\u4e00\u65e5\u8207\u97cb\u76e3\u8ecd\u55ab\u679c\u5b50. \u97cb\u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u65e5\u7528\u800c\u4e0d\u77e5. \u5e2b\u62c8\u8d77\u679c\u5b50\u66f0. \u55ab. \u97cb\u55ab\u679c\u5b50\u4e86. \u518d\u554f\u4e4b. \u5e2b\u66f0.\n\u53ea\u8005\u662f. \u65e5\u7528\u800c\u4e0d\u77e5.\n\n\u554f\u5b78\u4eba\u4e4d\u5165\u53e2\u6797. \u4e5e\u5e2b\u6307\u7b87\u5165\u8def. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u9084\u805e\u5043\u6eaa\u6c34\u8072\u5426. \u66f0\u805e. \u5e2b\u66f0\u662f\u6c5d\u5165\u8655. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5341\u516b.)\n\n6.45. \u7fe0\u5dd6\u590f\u672b\u793a\u8846\u4e91. \u4e00\u590f\u4ee5\u4f86\u7232\u5144\u5f1f\u8aaa\u8a71. \u770b\u7fe0\u5dd6\u7709\u6bdb\u5728\u9ebd. \u4fdd\u798f\u4e91\u4f5c\u8cca\u4eba\u5fc3\u865b. \u9577\u6176\u4e91\u751f\u4e5f.\n\u96f2\u9580\u4e91\u95dc. (\u96ea\u5bf6\u980c. \u5931\u9322\u906d\u7f6a. \u767d\u96b1\u4e0b\u8a9e\u4e91. \u778b\u62f3\u4e0d\u6253\u7b11\u9762.) (\u78a7\u5dd6\u96c6\u53ca\u69d0\u5b89\u570b\u8a9e.)\n\n6.46. \u5e2b\u61c9\u6a5f\u591a\u7528\u559d. \u6703\u4e0b\u53c3\u5f92\u4ea6\u5b78\u5e2b\u559d. \u5e2b\u66f0\u6c5d\u7b49\u7e3d\u5b78\u6211\u559d. \u6211\u4eca\u554f\u6c5d. \u6709\u4e00\u4eba\u5f9e\u6771\u5802\u51fa. \u4e00\u4eba\u5f9e\u897f\u5802\u51fa.\n\u5169\u4eba\u9f4a\u559d\u4e00\u8072. \u9019\u88e1\u5206\u5f97\u8cd3\u4e3b\u9ebd. \u6c5d\u4e14\u4f5c\u9ebd\u751f\u5206. \u82e5\u5206\u4e0d\u5f97. \u5df2\u5f8c\u4e0d\u5f97\u5b78\u8001\u50e7\u559d. (\u81e8\u6fdf\u9304.)\n\n6.47. \u6709\u6642\u4e00\u559d\u5982\u91d1\u525b\u5bf6\u738b\u528d. \u6709\u6642\u4e00\u559d\u5982\u8e1e\u5730\u91d1\u6bdb\u7345\u5b50. \u6709\u6642\u4e00\u559d\u5982\u63a2\u7aff\u5f71\u8349. \u6709\u6642\u4e00\u559d\u4e0d\u4f5c\u4e00\u559d\u7528.\n(\u81e8\u6fdf\u9304.)\n\n6.48. \u5e2b\u554f\u6d1b\u6d66\u4e91. \u5f9e\u4e0a\u4f86\u4e00\u4eba\u884c\u68d2. \u4e00\u4eba\u884c\u559d. \u963f\u90a3\u7b87\u89aa. \u6d1b\u6d66\u4e91. \u7e3d\u4e0d\u89aa. \u5e2b\u66f0\u89aa\u8655\u4f5c\u9ebd\u751f.\n\u6d1b\u6d66\u4fbf\u559d. \u5e2b\u4fbf\u6253. (\u81e8\u6fdf\u9304.)\n\n6.49. \u82ad\u8549\u5c71\u6167\u6e05\u50e7\u554f. \u8acb\u5e2b\u76f4\u6307\u672c\u4f86\u9762\u76ee. \u5e2b\u9ed8\u7136\u6b63\u5750. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u5341\u4e8c.)\n\n6.50. \u8cc7\u798f\u5982\u5bf6\u50e7\u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u61c9\u6a5f\u4e4b\u53e5. \u5e2b\u9ed8\u7136.\n\n6.51. \u676d\u5dde\u6587\u559c\u79aa\u5e2b\u56e0\u50e7\u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u81ea\u5df1. \u5e2b\u9ed8\u7136. \u50e7\u7f54\u63aa. \u518d\u554f. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u9752\u5929\u8499\u6627\u4e0d\u5411\u6708\u908a\u98db (?).\n(\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u5341\u4e8c.)\n\n6.52. \u66f9\u5c71\u672c\u5bc2\u56e0\u50e7\u554f. \u7121\u8a00\u5982\u4f55\u986f. \u5e2b\u66f0\u83ab\u5411\u906e\u88e1\u986f. \u66f0\u5411\u4ec0\u9ebd\u8655\u986f. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u6628\u591c\u4e09\u66f4. \u7240\u982d\u5931\u5374\u4e09\u5973\u9322.\n(\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u5341\u4e03.)\n\n6.53. \u9996\u5c71\u7701\u5ff5\u50e7\u554f. \u7121\u5f26\u7434\u8acb\u5e2b\u97f3\u97fb. \u5e2b\u826f\u4e45\u66f0. \u9084\u805e\u9ebd. \u50e7\u66f0\u4e0d\u805e. \u5e2b\u66f0\u4f55\u4e0d\u9ad8\u8072\u554f\u8457. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5341\u4e09.)\n\n6.54. \u4fdd\u798f\u5f9e\u5c55\u50e7\u554f. \u6b32\u9054\u7121\u751f\u8def. \u61c9\u9808\u8b58\u672c\u6e90. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u672c\u6e90. \u5e2b\u826f\u4e45. \u5374\u554f\u4f8d\u8005\u9069\u4f86\u50e7\u554f\u4ec0\u9ebd. \u5176\u50e7\u518d\u64e7.\n\u5e2b\u4e43\u559d\u66f0. \u6211\u4e0d\u60a3\u807e. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5341\u4e5d.)\n\n6.55. \u695a\u5713\u6148\u660e\u50e7\u554f. \u7956\u5e2b\u897f\u4f86\u8acb\u5e2b\u64e7\u5531. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u6c5d\u5f9e\u751a\u8655\u4f86. (\u6148\u660e\u9304.)\n\n6.56. \u7f85\u5c71\u9053\u9591. \u50e7\u554f\u4e09\u754c\u8ab0\u7232\u4e3b. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u9084\u89e3\u55ab\u98ef\u9ebd. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5341\u4e03.)\n\n6.57. \u5929\u9f8d\u548c\u5c19\u50e7\u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u5f97\u51fa\u4e09\u754c\u53bb. \u5e2b\u4e91\u6c5d\u5373\u4eca\u5728\u4ec0\u9ebd\u8655. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5341.)\n\n6.58. \u8d99\u5dde\u50e7\u554f. \u4e0d\u639b\u5bf8\u7d72\u6642\u5982\u4f55. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u4e0d\u639b\u4ec0\u9ebd. \u5b78\u4e91. \u4e0d\u639b\u5bf8\u7d72. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u5927\u597d\u4e0d\u639b\u5bf8\u7d72.\n(\u8d99\u5dde\u9304.)\n\n6.59. \u5927\u968b\u6cd5\u771e\u50e7\u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u5b78\u4eba\u81ea\u5df1. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u662f\u6211\u81ea\u5df1. \u50e7\u4e91\u7232\u4ec0\u9ebd\u5374\u662f\u548c\u5c1a\u81ea\u5df1. \u5e2b\u4e91\u662f\u6c5d\u81ea\u5df1.\n(\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u7b2c\u5341\u4e00.)\n\n6.60. \u4ef0\u5c71\u6167\u5bc2\u554f\u4e09\u8056\u6167\u7136. \u6c5d\u540d\u4ec0\u9ebd. \u8056\u4e91\u6167\u5bc2. \u4ef0\u5c71\u4e91. \u6167\u5bc2\u662f\u6211. \u8056\u4e91. \u6211\u540d\u6167\u7136. \u4ef0\u5c71\u5475\u5475\u5927\u7b11.\n(\u78a7\u5dd6\u96c6\u7b2c\u516d\u5341\u516b\u5247.)\n\n6.61. \u9583\u96fb\u5149. \u64ca\u77f3\u706b.\n\n6.62. \u9748\u96f2\u5fd7\u52e4. \u50e7\u554f. \u4f5b\u672a\u51fa\u4e16\u6642\u5982\u4f55. \u5e2b\u7aea\u8d77\u62c2\u5b50. \u4e91\u51fa\u4e16\u5f8c\u5982\u4f55. \u5e2b\u4ea6\u7aea\u8d77\u62c2\u5b50. (\u79aa\u6797\u985e\u805a\u7b2c\u5341\u516d\u5377.)\n\n6.63. \u9ec3\u8617\u5e0c\u904b\u79aa\u5e2b. \u6708\u4f3c\u5f4e\u5f13\u5c11\u96e8\u591a\u98a8. (\u9ec3\u8617\u9304.)\n\n6.64. \u767e\u4e08\u60df\u653f\u4e00\u6c5d\u8207\u6211\u958b\u7530\u4e86. \u6211\u7232\u6c5d\u8aaa\u5927\u7fa9. (\u79aa\u6797\u985e\u805a\u7b2c\u5341\u4e5d\u5377.)\n\n6.65. \u9e7d\u5b98\u9f4a\u5b89\u570b\u5e2b. \u53e4\u4f5b\u4e5f\u904e\u53bb\u4e45\u77e3. (\u79aa\u6797\u985e\u805a\u7b2c\u5341\u516d\u5377.)\n\n6.66. \u77f3\u971c\u6176\u8af8 (806\u2013888). (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u7b2c\u5341\u4e94.)\n\n6.67. \u9053\u543e\u5713\u667a (768\u2013835). (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u7b2c\u5341\u56db.)\n\n6.68. \u9f8d\u6f6d\u5d07\u4fe1\u55e3\u5929\u7687\u9053\u609f. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u7b2c\u5341\u56db.)\n\n6.69. \u9053\u543e\u5713\u667a\u8207\u96f2\u5dd6\u4f8d\u7acb\u6b21. \u85e5\u5c71\u66f0. \u667a\u4e0d\u5230\u8655. \u5207\u5fcc\u9053\u8457. \u9053\u8457\u5373\u982d\u89d2\u751f. \u667a\u982d\u9640\u4f5c\u9ebd\u751f. \u5713\u667a\u4fbf\u51fa\u53bb.\n\u96f2\u5dd6\u554f\u85e5\u5c71\u66f0. \u667a\u5e2b\u5144\u7232\u4ec0\u9ebd\u4e0d\u7957\u5c0d\u548c\u5c19. \u85e5\u5c71\u65e5\u6211\u4eca\u65e5\u80cc\u75db. \u662f\u4ed6\u5374\u6703. \u6c5d\u53bb\u554f\u53d6. \u96f2\u5dd6\u5373\u4f86\u554f\u5713\u667a\u66f0.\n\u5e2b\u5144\u9069\u4f86\u7232\u4ec0\u9ebd\u4e0d\u7957\u5c0d\u548c\u5c19. \u5713\u667a\u66f0. \u6c5d\u5374\u53bb\u554f\u53d6\u548c\u5c19. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u7b2c\u5341\u56db.)\n\n6.70. \u5357\u967d\u5fe0\u570b\u5e2b. \u4e00\u65e5\u4e09\u559a\u4f8d\u8005. \u4f8d\u8005\u4e09\u61c9\u8afe. \u5e2b\u4e91\u5c07\u8b02\u543e\u8f9c\u8ca0\u6c5d. \u5374\u662f\u6c5d\u8f9c\u8ca0\u543e.\n\n\u7384\u6c99. \u96f2\u5c45\u932b (\u55e3\u6cd5\u773c). \u7384\u89ba\u5fb5. \u6cd5\u773c. \u8d99\u5dde. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u7b2c\u4e94.)\n\n6.71. \u826f\u9042\u521d\u53c3\u9ebb\u8c37 (\u99ac\u7956\u55e3). \u8c37\u53ec\u66f0. \u826f\u9042. \u9042\u61c9\u8afe. \u5982\u662f\u4e09\u53ec\u4e09\u61c9. \u8c37\u66f0\u906e\u920d\u6839\u963f\u5e2b. \u826f\u9042\u65b9\u7701\u609f.\n\u4e43\u66f0. \u548c\u5c19\u83ab\u8b3e\u826f\u9042. \u82e5\u4e0d\u4f86\u79ae\u62dc\u548c\u5c19. \u5e7e\u7a7a\u904e\u4e00\u751f. \u8c37\u53ef\u4e4b. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u7b2c\u4e5d.)\n\n6.72. \u96f2\u5c45\u9053\u81ba (died 901). \u56e0\u8346\u5357\u7bc0\u5ea6\u4f7f\u554f\u66f0. \u4e16\u5c0a\u6709\u5bc6\u8a9e. \u8fe6\u8449\u4e0d\u8986\u85cf. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u4e16\u5c0a\u5bc6\u8a9e.\n\u5e2b\u53ec\u66f0. \u5c19\u66f8. \u5176\u4eba\u61c9\u8afe. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u6703\u61c9. \u66f0\u4e0d\u6703. \u5e2b\u66f0\u6c5d\u82e5\u4e0d\u6703\u4e16\u5c0a\u5bc6\u8a9e. \u6c5d\u82e5\u6703\u8fe6\u8449\u4e0d\u8986\u85cf. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u7b2c\u5341\u4e03.)\n\n6.73. \u6590\u4f11. \u771e\u5100\u53ef\u898b. \u9ad8\u50e7\u4f55\u5728. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u7b2c\u5341\u4e8c.)\n\n6.74. \u666e\u8acb\u6458\u8336. \u6f59\u5c71\u8b02\u4ef0\u5c71\u66f0. \u7d42\u65e5\u6458\u8336. \u53ea\u805e\u5b50\u8072\u4e0d\u898b\u5b50\u5f62. \u8acb\u73fe\u672c\u5f62\u76f8\u898b. \u4ef0\u5c71\u64bc\u8336\u6a39. \u5e2b\u4e91\u5b50\u53ea\u5f97\u5176\u7528.\n\u4e0d\u5f97\u5176\u8ec6. \u4ef0\u5c71\u4e91. \u672a\u5be9\u548c\u5c19\u5982\u4f55. \u5e2b\u826f\u4e45. \u4ef0\u5c71\u4e91. \u548c\u5c19\u53ea\u5f97\u5176\u8ec6. \u4e0d\u5f97\u5176\u7528. \u5e2b\u4e91\u653e\u5b50\u4e8c\u5341\u68d2. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u7b2c\u4e5d\u5377.)\n\n6.75. \u5b9a\u4e0a\u5ea7. (\u4e94\u71c8\u6703\u5143\u7b2c\u5341\u4e00\u5377.)\n\n6.76. \u5143\u4f86\u9ec3\u8617\u4f5b\u6cd5\u7121\u591a\u5b50. (\u81e8\u6fdf\u9304.)\n\n6.77. \u9127\u96b1\u5cf0\u4e00\u65e5\u63a8\u571f\u8eca\u6b21. \u99ac\u5927\u58eb\u5c55\u811a\u5728\u8def\u4e0a\u5ea7. \u5cef\u4e91\u8acb\u5e2b\u6536\u8db3. \u5927\u5e2b\u4e91. \u5df2\u5c55\u4e0d\u6536. \u5cef\u4e91\u5df2\u9032\u4e0d\u9000.\n\u4e43\u63a8\u8eca\u8f3e\u904e. \u5927\u5e2b\u811a\u640d. \u6b78\u6cd5\u5802\u57f7\u65a7\u5b50\u4e91. \u9069\u4f86\u78be\u640d\u8001\u50e7\u811a\u5e95\u51fa\u4f86. \u5cef\u4fbf\u51fa\u65bc\u5927\u5e2b\u524d\u5f15\u9838. \u5927\u5e2b\u4e43\u7f6e\u65a7.\n(\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u7b2c\u516b.)\n\n6.78. \u91d1\u9675\u5831\u6069\u9662\u7384\u5247\u2014\u2014\u4e19\u4e01\u7ae5\u5b50\u4f86\u6c42\u706b. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u7b2c\u4e8c\u5341\u4e94.)\n\n6.79. \u7fe0\u5dd6\u53ef\u771e\u55e3\u6f6d\u5dde\u77f3\u971c\u695a\u5713\u6148\u660e\u2014\u2014\u7121\u96f2\u751f\u5dba\u4e0a. \u6709\u6708\u843d\u6ce2\u5fc3. (\u7e8c\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u4e03.)\n\n6.80. \u9ec3\u9f8d\u6167\u5357 (1001\u20131069). \u694a\u5c90\u65b9\u6703 (d. 1049).\n\n\n      THE MEDITATION HALL AND THE IDEALS OF THE MONKISH DISCIPLINE\n\n7.1. \u6555\u4fee\u767e\u4e08\u6e05\u898f.\n\n7.2. \u4e00\u65e5\u4e0d\u4f5c\u4e00\u65e5\u4e0d\u98df.\n\n7.3. \u5750\u79aa.\n\n7.4. \u9f90\u5c45\u58eb.\n\n7.5. \u795e\u901a\u4e26\u5999\u7528. \u904b\u6c34\u53ca\u642c\u67f4. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u7b2c\u516b\u5377.)\n\n7.6. \u79aa\u5802.\n\n7.7. \u7d93\u884c.\n\n7.8. \u4e00\u8863\u4e00\u9262. \u6a39\u4e0b\u77f3\u4e0a.\n\n7.9. \u5927\u71c8\u570b\u5e2b. \u907a\u8aa1\u66f0. \u6c5d\u7b49\u8af8\u4eba\u4f86\u6b64\u5c71\u4e2d. \u7232\u9053\u805a\u982d. \u83ab\u7232\u8863\u98df. \u6709\u80a9\u7121\u4e0d\u7740. \u6709\u53e3\u7121\u4e0d\u98df.\n\u53ea\u9808\u5341\u4e8c\u6642\u4e2d\u5411\u7121\u7406\u6703\u8655. \u7a76\u4f86\u7a76\u53bb. \u5149\u9670\u5982\u7bad. \u8b39\u83ab\u96dc\u7528\u5fc3. \u770b\u53d6. \u770b\u53d6. \u8001\u50e7\u884c\u811a\u5f8c. \u6216\u5bfa\u9580\u7e41\u8208.\n\u4f5b\u95a3\u7d93\u5377. \u93e4\u91d1\u9280. \u591a\u8846\u9599\u71b1. \u6216\u8aa6\u7d93\u8af7\u546a. \u9577\u5750\u4e0d\u81e5. \u4e00\u98df\u536f\u9f4b. \u516d\u6642\u884c\u9053. \u76f4\u9952\u96d6\u6041\u9ebd\u53bb.\n\u4e0d\u4ee5\u4f5b\u7956\u4e0d\u50b3\u5999\u9053\u639b\u5728\u80f8\u9593. \u5ffd\u64a5\u7121\u56e0\u679c. \u771e\u98a8\u589c\u5730. \u7686\u662f\u90aa\u9b54\u7a2e\u65cf\u4e5f. \u8001\u50e7\u53bb\u4e16\u4e45\u77e3. \u4e0d\u8a31\u7a31\u5152\u5b6b.\n\u6216\u513b\u6709\u4e00\u4eba\u7dbf\u7d55\u91ce\u5916\u4e00\u628a\u8305\u5e95. \u6298\u811a\u943a\u5167. \u716e\u91ce\u83dc\u6839. \u55ab\u904e\u65e5. \u5c08\u4e00\u7a76\u660e\u5df2\u4e8b\u5e95. \u8207\u8001\u50e7\u65e5\u65e5\u76f8\u898b\u5831\u6069\u5e95\u4eba\u4e5f.\n\u8ab0\u6562\u8f15\u5ffd. \u52c9\u3acb\u52c9\u3acb.\n\n7.10. \u85e5\u77f3.\n\n7.11. \u884c\u666e\u8acb\u6cd5. \u4e0a\u4e0b\u5747\u529b\u4e5f.\n\n7.12. \u53c8\u4e00\u9ede\u4e5f. \u2014\u2014\u5916\u4f86. (\u8d99\u5dde\u9304.)\n\n7.13. \u8d99\u5dde\u5728\u5357\u6cc9. \u4f5c\u7210\u982d. \u5927\u8846\u666e\u8acb. \u64c7\u83dc. \u5e2b\u5728\u5802\u5185\u53eb. \u6551\u706b. \u6551\u706b. \u5927\u8846\u4e00\u6642\u5230\u50e7\u5802\u524d. \u5e2b\u4e43\u95dc\u5374\u50e7\u5802\u9580.\n\u5927\u8846\u7121\u5c0d. \u5357\u6cc9\u4e43\u62cb\u93c1\u5319\u5f9e\u7a93\u5167\u5165\u5802\u4e2d. \u5e2b\u4fbf\u958b\u9580. (\u8d99\u5dde\u9304.)\n\n7.14. \u9577\u6c99\u666f\u5c91. \u55e3\u6cd5\u65bc\u5357\u6cc9\u666e\u9858. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u7b2c\u5341.)\n\n7.15. \u5b50\u6e56\u5229\u8e64 (799\u2013880). \u52dd\u5149. (\u79aa\u6797\u985e\u805a\u5377\u4e8c\u5341.)\n\n7.16. \u4e00\u65e5\u666e\u8acb\u6b21. \u5e2b (\u81e8\u6fdf) \u5728\u5f8c\u884c. \u9ec3\u8617\u56d8\u982d\u898b\u5e2b\u7a7a\u624b. \u554f\u9481\u982d\u5728\u4ec0\u9ebd\u8655. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u6709\u4e00\u4eba\u5c07\u53bb\u4e86\u4e5f.\n\u9ec3\u8617\u4e91\u8fd1\u524d\u4f86. \u5171\u6c5d\u5546\u91cf\u7b87\u4e8b. \u5e2b\u4fbf\u8fd1\u524d. \u9ec3\u8617\u8c4e\u8d77\u9481\u982d\u4e91. \u79ea\u9019\u7b87\u5929\u4e0b\u4eba\u62c8\u6387\u4e0d\u8d77. \u5e2b\u5c31\u624b\u63a3\u5f97\u8c4e\u8d77\u4e91\u7232\u4ec0\u9ebd\u90fd\u5728\u67d0\u7532\u624b\u88cf.\n\u9ec3\u8617\u4e91. \u4eca\u65e5\u5927\u6709\u4eba\u666e\u8acb. \u4fbf\u6b78\u5802. (\u81e8\u6fdf\u9304.)\n\n7.17. \u5e2b (\u81e8\u6fdf) \u666e\u8acb\u92e4\u5730\u6b21. \u898b\u9ec3\u8617\u4f86. \u62c4\u9481\u800c\u7acb. \u9ec3\u8617\u4e91\u9019\u6f22\u56f0\u90a3. \u5e2b\u4e91\u9481\u4e5f\u672a\u64e7. \u56f0\u9053\u4ec0\u9ebd.\n\u9ec3\u8617\u4fbf\u6253. \u5e2b\u63a5\u4f4f\u68d2. \u4e00\u9001\u9001\u5012. \u9ec3\u8617\u559a\u7dad\u90a3. \u7dad\u90a3\u6276\u8d77\u6211. \u7dad\u90a3\u8fd1\u524d\u6276\u4e91. \u548c\u5c19\u722d\u5bb9\u5f97\u9019\u98a8\u985a\u6f22\u7121\u79ae.\n\u9ec3\u8617\u7e94\u8d77\u4fbf\u6253\u7dad\u90a3. \u5e2b\u9481\u5730\u4e91. \u8af8\u65b9\u706b\u846c. \u6211\u9019\u88e1\u4e00\u6642\u6d3b\u57cb. (\u81e8\u6fdf\u9304.)\n\n7.18. \u610f\u8e48\u6bd8\u76e7\u9802\ud865\udd73. \u884c\u62dc\u4e09\u5c3a\u7ae5\u5b50.\n\n7.19. \u4e39\u971e\u5929\u7136\u55e3\u77f3\u982d\u5e0c\u9077. (\u79aa\u6797\u985e\u805a\u7b2c\u4e8c.)\n\n7.20. \u5929\u7afa\u5c71\u5100\u79aa\u5e2b\u2014\u2014\u5bd2\u537d\u570d\u7210\u5411\u731b\u706b. \u2014\u2014\u71b1\u5373\u7af9\u6797\u6eaa\u7554\u5750. (\u79aa\u6797\u985e\u805a\u7b2c\u4e8c.)\n\n7.21. \u7fe0\u5fae\u7121\u5b78\u55e3\u4e39\u971e\u5929\u7136. \u5e2b\u56e0\u4f9b\u990a\u7f85\u6f22. \u6709\u50e7\u554f\u66f0. \u4e39\u971e\u71d2\u6728\u4f5b. \u548c\u5c19\u7232\u4ec0\u9ebd\u4f9b\u990a\u7f85\u6f22. \u5e2b\u66f0\u71d2\u4e5f\u4e0d\u71d2\u8457.\n\u4f9b\u990a\u4ea6\u4e00\u4efb\u4f9b\u990a. \u53c8\u554f\u4f9b\u990a\u7f85\u6f22. \u7f85\u6f22\u9084\u4f86\u4e5f\u7121. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u6c5d\u6bcf\u65e5\u9084\u55ab\u9ebd. \u50e7\u7121\u8a9e. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u5c11\u6709\u9748\u5229\u5e95.\n(\u5085\u71c8\u9304\u7b2c\u5341\u56db.)\n\n7.22. \u96f2\u6816\u7969\u5b8f (1535\u20131615). (\u7dc7\u9580\u5d07\u884c\u9304.)\n\n7.23. \u516c\u6848.\n\n7.24. \u651d (or \u63a5) \u5fc3.\n\n7.25. \u78a7\u5dd6\u96c6. \u81e8\u6fdf\u9304.\n\n7.26. \u63d0\u5531.\n\n7.27. \u5922\u60f3\u570b\u5e2b. \u907a\u8aa1\u66f0. \u6211\u6709\u4e09\u7b49\u5f1f\u5b50. \u6240\u8b02\u731b\u70c8\u653e\u4e0b\u8af8\u7de3. \u5c08\u4e00\u7a76\u660e\u5df1\u4e8b. \u662f\u7232\u4e0a\u7b49. \u4fee\u884c\u4e0d\u7d14.\n\u99c1\u96dc\u597d\u5b78. \u8b02\u4e4b\u4e2d\u7b49. \u81ea\u6627\u5df1\u9748\u5149\u8f1d. \u53ea\u55dc\u4f5b\u7956\u6d8e\u553e. \u6b64\u540d\u4e0b\u7b49. \u5982\u5176\u9189\u5fc3\u65bc\u5916\u66f8. \u7acb\u696d\u65bc\u6587\u7b46\u8005. \u6b64\u662f\u5243\u982d\u4fd7\u4eba\u4e5f.\n\u4e0d\u8db3\u4ee5\u4f5c\u4e0b\u7b49. \u77e7\u4e4e\u98fd\u98df\u5b89\u7720\u653e\u9038\u904e\u6642\u8005. \u8b02\u4e4b\u7dc7\u6d41\u8036. \u53e4\u4eba\u559a\u4f5c\u8863\u67b6\u98ef\u56a2. \u65e3\u662f\u975e\u50e7. \u4e0d\u8a31\u7a31\u6211\u5f1f\u5b50\u51fa\u5165\u5bfa\u4e2d\u53ca\u5854\u982d.\n\u66ab\u6642\u51fa\u5165\u5c19\u4ee5\u4e0d\u5bb9. \u4f55\u51b5\u4f86\u6c42\u639b\u5854\u4e4e. \u8001\u50e7\u4f5c\u5982\u662f\u8aaa. \u83ab\u8a00\u6b20\u535a\u611b\u4e4b\u6148. \u53ea\u8981\u4ed6\u77e5\u975e\u6539\u904e. \u582a\u7232\u7956\u9580\u4e4b\u7a2e\u8349\u8033.\n\n7.28. \u767d\u96a0\u79aa\u5e2b\u5750\u79aa\u548c\u8b83.\n\n  \u8846\u751f\u672c\u6765\u4f5b\u306a\u308a.               \u6c34\u3068\u6c37\u306e\u5982\u304f\u306b\u3066.\n  \u6c34\u3092\u96e2\u308c\u3066\u6c37\u306a\u304f.              \u8846\u751f\u306e\u5916\u306b\u4f5b\u306a\u3057.\n  \u8846\u751f\u8fd1\u304d\u3092\u77e5\u3089\u305a\u3057\u3066.           \u9060\u304f\u6c42\u3080\u308b\u306f\u304b\u306a\u3055\u3088.\n  \u8b6c\u3048\u3070\u6c34\u306e\u4e2d\u306b\u5c45\u3066.            \u6e07\u3092\u53eb\u3076\u304c\u5982\u304f\u306a\u308a.\n  \u9577\u8005\u306e\u5bb6\u306e\u5b50\u3068\u306a\u308a\u3066.           \u8ca7\u91cc\u306b\u8ff7\u3075\u306b\u7570\u306a\u3089\u305a.\n  \u516d\u57f7\u8f2a\u5efb\u306e\u56e0\u7de3\u306f.             \u5df1\u304c\u611a\u75f4\u306e\u95c7\u8def\u306a\u308a.\n  \u95c7\u8def\u306b\u3084\u307f\u3062\u3092\u8e0f\u305d\u3078\u3066.         \u3044\u3064\u304b\u751f\u6b7b\u3092\u96e2\u308b\u3079\u304d.\n  \u305d\u308c\u6469\u8a36\u884d\u306e\u79aa\u5b9a\u306f.            \u8b83\u6b4e\u3059\u308b\u306b\u9918\u308a\u3042\u308a.\n  \u5e03\u65bd\u3084\u6301\u6212\u306e\u8af8\u6ce2\u7f85\u5bc6.          \u5ff5\u4f5b\u61fa\u6094\u4fee\u884c\u7b49.\n  \u5176\u54c1\u591a\u304d\u8af8\u5584\u884c.              \u7686\u6b64\u4e2d\u306b\u5e30\u3059\u308b\u306a\u308a.\n  \u4e00\u5750\u306e\u529f\u3092\u306a\u3059\u4eba\u3082.            \u7a4d\u307f\u3057\u7121\u91cf\u306e\u7f6a\u307b\u308d\u3076.\n  \u60aa\u8da3\u4f55\u51e6\u306b\u3042\u308a\u306c\u3079\u304d.          \u6d44\u571f\u5373\u3061\u9060\u304b\u3089\u305a.\n  \u304b\u305f\u3058\u3051\u306a\u304f\u3082\u6b64\u6cd5\u3092.           \u4e00\u305f\u3073\u8033\u306b\u3075\u308b\u308b\u3068\u304d.\n  \u8b83\u6b4e\u968f\u559c\u3059\u308b\u4eba\u306f.             \u798f\u3092\u7372\u308b\u3053\u3068\u9650\u308a\u306a\u3057.\n  \u6cc1\u3093\u3084\u81ea\u3089\u5efb\u5411\u3057\u3066.            \u76f4\u306b\u81ea\u6027\u3092\u8b49\u3059\u308c\u3070.\n  \u81ea\u6027\u5373\u3061\u7121\u6027\u306b\u3066.             \u65e3\u306b\u622f\u8ad6\u3092\u96e2\u308c\u305f\u308a.\n  \u56e0\u679c\u4e00\u5982\u306e\u9580\u3072\u3089\u3051.            \u7121\u4e8c\u7121\u4e09\u306e\u9053\u306a\u307b\u3057.\n  \u7121\u76f8\u306e\u76f8\u3092\u76f8\u3068\u3057\u3066.            \u884c\u304f\u3082\u5e30\u308b\u3082\u9918\u6240\u306a\u3089\u305a.\n  \u7121\u5ff5\u306e\u5ff5\u3092\u5ff5\u3068\u3057\u3066.            \u8b20\u3075\u3082\u821e\u3075\u3082\u6cd5\u306e\u8072.\n  \u4e09\u6627\u7121\u7919\u306e\u7a7a\u3072\u308d\u304f.            \u56db\u667a\u5713\u660e\u306e\u6708\u51b4\u3048\u3093.\n  \u6b64\u6642\u4f55\u3092\u304b\u6c42\u3080\u3079\u304d.            \u5bc2\u6ec5\u73fe\u524d\u3059\u308b\u6545\u306b.\n  \u7576\u51e6\u5373\u3061\u84ee\u83ef\u570b.               \u6b64\u8eab\u5373\u3061\u4f5b\u306a\u308a.\n\n7.29. \u53c3\u79aa.\n\n7.30. \u6b63\u53d7\u8001\u4eba (1642\u20131721). (\u6b63\u53d7\u8001\u4eba\u5d07\u884c\u9304.)\n\n7.31. \u8056\u80ce\u9577\u990a.\n\n7.32. \u5370\u5b97.\n\n7.33. \u95dc\u5c71\u6167\u7384 (616\u2013700). \u5999\u5fc3\u5bfa\u958b\u7956.\n\n7.34. \u8d99\u5dde\u56e0\u6709\u5a46\u5b50\u554f. \u5a46\u662f\u4e94\u969c\u4e4b\u8eab. \u5982\u4f55\u514d\u5f97. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u9858\u4e00\u5207\u4eba\u751f\u5929. \u9858\u5a46\u5a46\u6c38\u6c88\u82e6\u6d77. (\u8d99\u5dde\u9304.)\n\n7.35. \u554f\u4e45\u56ae\u8d99\u5dde\u77f3\u6a4b. \u5230\u4f86\u53ea\u898b\u63a0\u5f74\u5b50. \u5e2b (\u8d99\u5dde) \u4e91. \u95cd\u9ece\u53ea\u898b\u63a0\u5f74\u5b50. \u4e0d\u898b\u8d99\u5dde\u77f3\u6a4b. \u4e91\u5982\u4f55\u662f\u77f3\u6a4b.\n\u5e2b\u4e91\u5ea6\u9a62\u5ea6\u99ac. (\u8d99\u5dde\u9304.)\n\n7.36. \u5e2b (\u4e94\u7956\u6cd5\u6f14) \u8b02\u5713\u609f\u4e91. \u511e\u4e5f\u5118\u597d. \u53ea\u662f\u6709\u4e9b\u75c5. \u609f\u518d\u4e09\u8acb\u554f. \u4e0d\u77e5\u67d0\u6709\u4ec0\u9ebd\u75c5. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u53ea\u662f\u79aa\u5fd2\u591a.\n\u609f\u4e91. \u672c\u7232\u53c3\u79aa. \u56e0\u751a\u9ebd\u5374\u5acc\u4eba\u8aaa\u79aa. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u53ea\u4f3c\u5c0b\u5e38\u8aaa\u8a9e\u6642. \u591a\u5c11\u597d. \u6642\u6709\u50e7\u4fbf\u554f. \u56e0\u751a\u9ebd\u5acc\u4eba\u8aaa\u79aa.\n\u5e2b\u4e91\u60e1\u60c5\u60b0. (\u4e94\u7956\u9304.)\n\n7.37. \u7121\u9580\u6167\u958b (of the first half of the thirteenth century, Sung). \u6625\u6709\u767e\u82b1\u79cb\u6709\u6708.\n\u590f\u6709\u51c9\u98a8\u51ac\u6709\u96ea. \u82e5\u7121\u9591\u4e8b\u6302\u5fc3\u982d. \u4fbf\u662f\u4eba\u9593\u597d\u6642\u7bc0. (\u7121\u9580\u95dc.)\n\n7.38. \u5357\u81fa\u5b88\u5b89\u55e3\u7f85\u6f22\u6842\u741b. (867\u2013928.) \u5357\u81fa\u975c\u5750\u4e00\u946a\u9999. \u4e98\u65e5\u51dd\u7136\u842c\u4e8b\u5fd8. \u4e0d\u662f\u606f\u5fc3\u9664\u5fd8\u60f3.\n\u90fd\u7de3\u7121\u4e8b\u53ef\u601d\u91cf. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u7b2c\u4e8c\u5341\u56db.)\n\n7.39. \u694a\u5c90\u4e4d\u4f4f\u5c4b\u58c1\u8e08. \u6eff\u5e8a\u7686\u5e03\u96ea\u771e\u73e0. \u7e2e\u5374\u9805\u6697\u55df\u5401. \u826f\u4e45\u4e91. \u7ffb\u61b6\u53e4\u4eba\u6a39\u4e0b\u5c45. (\u694a\u5c90\u9304.)\n\n7.40. \u53bb\u5e74\u8ca7\u672a\u662f\u8ca7. \u4eca\u5e74\u8ca7\u59cb\u662f\u8ca7. \u53bb\u5e74\u7121\u5353\u9310\u4e4b\u5730. \u4eca\u5e74\u9310\u4e5f\u7121. (\u79aa\u6797\u985e\u805a\u7b2c\u516b.)\n\n7.41. \u67af\u6728\u5143\u4e91. \u7121\u5730\u7121\u9310\u672a\u662f\u8ca7. \u77e5\u7121\u5c19\u6709\u5b88\u7121\u8eab. \u5102\u5bb6\u8fd1\u65e5\u8ca7\u4f86\u751a. \u4e0d\u898b\u7576\u521d\u8ca7\u5e95\u4eba. (\u79aa\u6797\u985e\u805a\u7b2c\u516b.)\n\n7.42. \u63ed. \u89aa. \u8981. \u666e. \u9732. \u53bb. \u6dfa. \u6df1. \u73fe. \u77bd. (\u96f2\u9580\u9304.)\n\n7.43. \u5e2b\u4e0a\u5802\u4e91. \u6b64\u4e8b\u5982\u660e\u73e0\u5728\u638c. \u80e1\u4f86\u80e1\u73fe. \u6f22\u4f86\u6f22\u73fe. \u8001\u50e7\u628a\u4e00\u679d\u8349\u4f5c\u4e08\u516d\u5168\u8eab\u7528. \u628a\u4e08\u516d\u5168\u8eab\u4f5c\u4e00\u679d\u8349\u7528.\n\u4f5b\u5373\u662f\u7169\u60f1. \u7169\u60f1\u5373\u662f\u4f5b. \u554f\u4f5b\u8207\u8ab0\u4eba\u7232\u7169\u60f1. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u8207\u4e00\u5207\u4eba\u7232\u7169\u60f1. \u4e91\u5982\u4f55\u514d\u5f97. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u5f97\u514d\u4f5c\u9ebd.\n\n\u5e2b\u793a\u8846\u4e91. \u8fe6\u8449\u50b3\u8207\u963f\u96e3. \u4e14\u9053\u9054\u78e8\u50b3\u8207\u4ec0\u9ebd\u4eba. \u554f. \u5982\u4e8c\u7956\u5f97\u9ad3. \u53c8\u4f5c\u61c9\u751f. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u83ab\u8b17\u4e8c\u7956. \u5e2b\u53c8\u4e91.\n\u9054\u78e8\u4e5f\u6709\u8a9e. \u5728\u5916\u8005\u5f97\u76ae. \u5728\u88cf\u8005\u5f97\u9aa8. \u4e14\u9053\u66f4\u5728\u88cf\u8005. \u5f97\u4ec0\u9ebd. \u554f. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u5f97\u9ad3\u5e95\u9053\u7406. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u4f46\u8b58\u53d6\u76ae.\n\u8001\u50e7\u8005\u88cf\u9ad3\u4e5f\u4e0d\u7acb. \u4e91. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u9ad3. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u8207\u9ebd\u76ae\u4e5f\u6478\u672a\u7740. \u554f\u8207\u9ebd\u5802\u5802. \u8c48\u4e0d\u662f\u548c\u5c19\u6b63\u4f4d. \u5e2b\u4e91.\n\u9084\u77e5\u6709\u4e0d\u80af\u8005\u9ebd. \u5b78\u4e91. \u8207\u9ebd\u5373\u5225\u6709\u4f4d. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u8ab0\u662f\u5225\u8005. \u5b78\u4e91. \u8ab0\u662f\u4e0d\u5225\u8005. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u4e00\u4efb\u53eb. (\u8d99\u5dde\u9304.)\n\n7.44. \u96f2\u9580\u4e0a\u5802\u4e91. \u8af8\u548c\u5c19\u5b50\u83ab\u5984\u60f3. \u5929\u662f\u5929. \u5730\u662f\u5730. \u5c71\u662f\u5c71. \u6c34\u662f\u6c34. \u50e7\u662f\u50e7. \u4fd7\u662f\u4fd7. \u826f\u4e45\u4e91.\n\u8207\u6211\u62c8\u6848\u5c71\u4f86\u770b.\n\n\u4e0a\u5802\u4e91. \u5929\u89aa\u83e9\u85a9\u7121\u7aef\u8b8a\u4f5c\u4e00\u689d\u6994\ud84d\uddd6\u62c4\u6756. \u4e43\u5283\u5730\u4e00\u4e0b\u4e91. \u5875\u6c99\u8af8\u4f5b\u76e1\u5728\u9019\u88cf\u8aaa\u845b\u85e4\u53bb. \u4fbf\u4e0b\u5ea7.\n\n\u4e0a\u5802. \u6709\u50e7\u51fa\u79ae\u62dc\u4e91. \u8acb\u5e2b\u7b54\u8a71. \u5e2b\u53ec\u5927\u8846. \u5927\u8846\u64e7\u982d. \u5e2b\u4fbf\u4e0b\u5ea7.\n\n\u4e0a\u5802. \u826f\u4e45. \u6709\u50e7\u51fa\u79ae\u62dc. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u592a\u9072\u751f. \u50e7\u61c9\u8afe. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u9019\u6f06\u6876.\n\n\u4e0a\u5802\u4e91. \u5929\u5e1d\u91cb\u8207\u91cb\u8fe6\u8001\u5b50. \u5728\u4e2d\u5ead\u88cf\u76f8\u722d\u4f5b\u6cd5. \u751a\u9599. \u4fbf\u4e0b\u5ea7.\n\n\u4e0a\u5802. \u4e91. \u5f9e\u4e0a\u4f86\u4e14\u662f\u7b87\u4ec0\u9ebd\u4e8b. \u5982\u4eca\u6291\u4e0d\u5f97\u5df3. \u4e14\u5411\u6c5d\u8af8\u4eba\u9053. \u76e1\u5927\u5730\u6709\u4ec0\u9ebd\u7269\u8207\u6c5d\u7232\u5c0d\u7232\u7de3.\n\u82e5\u6709\u91dd\u92d2\u8207\u6c5d\u7232\u9694\u7232\u7919. \u8207\u6211\u62c8\u5c07\u4f86. \u559a\u4ec0\u9ebd\u4f5c\u4f5b\u4f5c\u7956. \u559a\u4ec0\u9ebd\u4f5c\u5c71\u6cb3\u5927\u5730\u65e5\u6708\u661f\u8fb0. \u5c07\u4ec0\u9ebd\u7232\u56db\u5927\u4e94\u860a.\n\u6211\u8207\u9ebd\u9053. \u559a\u4f5c\u4e09\u5bb6\u6751\u88cf\u8001\u5a46\u8aaa\u8a71. \u5ffd\u7136\u9047\u8457\u672c\u8272\u884c\u811a\u6f22. \u805e\u8207\u9ebd\u9053. \u628a\u811a\u62fd\u5411\u968e\u4e0b. \u6709\u4ec0\u9ebd\u7f6a\u904e. \u96d6\u7136\u5982\u6b64.\n\u64da\u7b87\u4ec0\u9ebd\u9053\u7406\u4fbf\u8207\u9ebd. \u83ab\u8d91\u53e3\u5feb\u5411\u9019\u88cf\u4e82\u9053. \u9808\u662f\u7b87\u6f22\u59cb\u5f97. \u5ffd\u7136\u88ab\u8001\u6f22\u811a\u8ddf\u4e0b\u5c0b\u8457. \u52ff\u53bb\u8655\u6253\u811a\u6298.\n\u6709\u4ec0\u9ebd\u7f6a\u904e. \u65e3\u8207\u9ebd. \u5982\u4eca\u9084\u6709\u554f\u5b97\u4e58\u4e2d\u8a71\u9ebd. \u5f85\u8001\u6f22\u7b54\u4e00\u8f49\u4e86. \u6771\u884c\u897f\u884c. \u6709\u50e7\u64ec\u554f\u6b21. \u5e2b\u4ee5\u62c4\u6756\u5288\u53e3\u6253.\n\u4fbf\u4e0b\u5ea7.\n\n\u4e0a\u5802\u56e0\u9418\u9cf4. \u4e43\u4e91. \u4e16\u754c\u8207\u9ebd\u5ee3\u6ff6. \u7232\u4ec0\u9ebd\u9418\u8072\u88e1\u62ab\u4e03\u689d.\n\n\u4e0a\u5802\u4e91. \u4e0d\u53ef\u96ea\u4e0a\u52a0\u971c\u53bb\u4e5f. \u73cd\u91cd. \u4fbf\u4e0b\u5ea7.\n\n\u793a\u8846\u4e91. \u770b. \u770b. \u4f5b\u6bbf\u5165\u50e7\u5802\u88cf\u53bb\u4e5f. \u4ee3\u4e91. \u7f85\u6d6e\u6253\u9f13. \u97f6\u5dde\u821e.\n\n\u4e0a\u5802. \u5927\u8846\u96c6. \u5e2b\u826f\u4e45\u4e91. \u4e45\u96e8\u4e0d\u6674.\n\n\u793a\u8846\u4e91. \u770b. \u770b. \u6bba\u4e86\u4e5f. \u4fbf\u4f5c\u5012\u52e2. \u4e91. \u6703\u9ebd. \u82e5\u4e0d\u6703. \u4e14\u5411\u62c4\u6756\u982d\u4e0a\u6703\u53d6. (\u96f2\u9580\u9304.)\n\n7.45. \u4e0a\u5802. \u5475\u5475\u5475. \u662f\u4ec0\u9ebd. \u50e7\u5802\u88f9\u55ab\u8336\u53bb. \u4e0b\u5ea7.\n\n\u4e0a\u5802. \u805a\u96c6. \u5e2b\u4ee5\u62c4\u6756\u64f2\u4e0b\u4f86. \u96a8\u5f8c\u8df3\u4e0b. \u8846\u64ec\u6563. \u5e2b\u4e43\u53ec\u5927\u8846. \u8846\u56d8\u9996. \u5e2b\u4e43\u4e91. \u7232\u8001\u50e7\u6536\u53d6\u62c4\u6756.\n\u4fbf\u6b78\u65b9\u4e08. (\u694a\u5c90\u9304.)\n\n7.46. \u85e5\u5c71\u4e00\u65e5\u9662\u4e3b\u8acb\u5e2b\u4e0a\u5802. \u5927\u8846\u65b9\u96c6. \u5e2b\u826f\u4e45. \u4fbf\u6b78\u65b9\u4e08. \u9589\u9580. \u9662\u4e3b\u9010\u5f8c\u66f0. \u548c\u5c19\u8a31\u67d0\u7532\u4e0a\u5802.\n\u7232\u4ec0\u9ebd\u5374\u6b78\u65b9\u4e08. \u5e2b\u66f0. \u9662\u4e3b. \u7d93\u6709\u7d93\u5e2b. \u8ad6\u6709\u8ad6\u5e2b. \u5f8b\u6709\u5f8b\u5e2b. \u53c8\u722d\u602a\u5f97\u8001\u50e7. (\u50b3\u71c8\u9304\u5377\u5341\u56db.)\n\n7.47. \u4e0a\u5802\u9867\u8996\u79aa\u5e8a\u5de6\u53f3. \u9042\u62c8\u62c4\u6756\u5728\u624b\u4e2d\u4e91. \u53ea\u9577\u4e00\u5c3a. \u4e0b\u5ea7. (\u4e94\u7956\u9304.)\n\n\n                     THE TEN COW-HERDING PICTURES\n\n8.1. \u5357\u5dbd\u61f7\u8b93 (677\u2013744). \u55e3\u516d\u7956\u6167\u80fd. (\u53e4\u5c0a\u5bbf\u9304\u5377\u516b.)\n\n8.2. \u6e05\u5c45.\n\n8.3. \u5ed3\u5eb5.\n\n8.4. \u798f\u5dde\u5927\u5b89 (died 883). \u6703\u554f\u767e\u4e08\u4e91. \u5b78\u4eba\u6b32\u8b58\u4f5b. \u5982\u4f55\u662f\u4f5b. \u4e08\u4e91\u5927\u4f3c\u9a0e\u725b\u8994\u725b. \u5e2b (\u5927\u5b89)\n\u4e91. \u8b58\u5f8c\u5982\u4f55. \u4e08\u4e91\u5982\u4eba\u9a0e\u725b\u81f3\u5bb6. \u5e2b\u4e91. \u672a\u5be9\u59cb\u7d42\u5982\u4f55\u4fdd\u4efb\u5373\u5f97\u76f8\u61c9\u53bb. \u4e08\u4e91\u8b6c\u5982\u7267\u725b\u4e4b\u58eb\u57f7\u6756\u89aa\u4e4b.\n\u52ff\u4ee4\u72af\u4eba\u82d7\u7a3c. (\u79aa\u6797\u985e\u805a\u5377\u4e8c\u5341.)\n\n\u5c0b\u725b\u5716\u980c.\n\n\u5c0b\u725b\u5e8f\u4e00.\n\n\u5f9e\u4f86\u4e0d\u5931. \u4f55\u7528\u8ffd\u5c0b. \u7531\u80cc\u89ba\u4ee5\u6210\u8e08. \u5728\u5411\u5875\u800c\u9042\u5931. \u5bb6\u5c71\u6f38\u9060. \u5c90\u8def\u4fc4\u5dee. \u5f97\u5931\u71be\u7136. \u662f\u975e\u92d2\u8d77.\n\n\u980c\u66f0.\n\n  \u832b\u832b\u64a5\u8278\u53bb\u8ffd\u5c0b. \u6c34\u95ca\u5c71\u9059\u8def\u66f4\u6df1.\n  \u529b\u76e1\u795e\u75b2\u7121\u8655\u8994. \u4f46\u805e\u6953\u6a39\u665a\u87ec\u541f.\n\n\u898b\u8de1\u5e8f\u4e8c.\n\n\u4f9d\u7d93\u89e3\u7fa9. \u95b1\u654e\u77e5\u8e28. \u660e\u8846\u5668\u7232\u4e00\u91d1. \u8ec6\u842c\u7269\u7232\u81ea\u5df1. \u6b63\u90aa\u4e0d\u8fa8. \u771e\u50de\u7b11\u5206. \u672a\u5165\u65af\u9580. \u6b0a\u7232\u898b\u8de1.\n\n\u980c\u66f0.\n\n  \u6c34\u908a\u6797\u4e0b\u8de1\u504f\u591a. \u82b3\u8278\u96e2\u62ab\u898b\u4e5f\u9ebd.\n  \u7e31\u898b\u6df1\u5c71\u66f4\u6df1\u8655. \u907c\u5929\u9f3b\u5b54\u600e\u85cf\u4ed6.\n\n\u898b\u725b\u5e8f\u4e09.\n\n\u5f9e\u8072\u5f97\u5165. \u898b\u8655\u9022\u6e90. \u516d\u6839\u9580\u8457\u8457\u7121\u5dee. \u52d5\u7528\u4e2d\u982d\u982d\u986f\u9732. \u6c34\u4e2d\u9e7d\u5473. \u8272\u88cf\u81a0\u9752. \u8cb6\u4e0a\u7709\u6bdb. \u975e\u662f\u4ed6\u7269.\n\n\u980c\u66f0.\n\n  \u9daf\u9ec3\u679d\u4e0a\u4e00\u8072\u8072. \u65e5\u6696\u98a8\u548c\u5cb8\u67f3\u9752.\n  \u53ea\u6b64\u66f4\u7121\u56d8\u907f\u8655. \u68ee\u68ee\u982d\u89d2\u63cf\u96e3\u6210.\n\n\u5f97\u725b\u5e8f\u56db.\n\n\u4e45\u57cb\u90ca\u5916. \u4eca\u65e5\u9022\u6e20. \u7531\u5883\u52dd\u4ee5\u96e3\u8ffd. \u6200\u82b3\u53e2\u800c\u4e0d\u5df2. \u9811\u5fc3\u5c19\u52c7. \u91ce\u6027\u7336\u5b58. \u6b32\u5f97\u7d14\u548c. \u5fc5\u52a0\u97ad\u97c3.\n\n\u980c\u66f0.\n\n  \u7aed\u76e1\u7cbe\u795e\u7372\u5f97\u6e20. \u5fc3\u5f37\u529b\u58ef\u5352\u96e3\u9664.\n  \u6709\u6642\u7e94\u5230\u9ad8\u539f\u4e0a. \u53c8\u5165\u7159\u96f2\u6df1\u6240\u5c45.\n\n\u7267\u725b\u5e8f\u4e94.\n\n\u524d\u601d\u7e94\u8d77. \u5f8c\u5ff5\u76f8\u96a8. \u7531\u89ba\u6545\u4ee5\u6210\u771e. \u5728\u8ff7\u6545\u4ee5\u7232\u5984. \u4e0d\u7531\u5883\u6709. \u552f\u81ea\u5fc3\u751f. \u9f3b\u7d22\u7262\u727d. \u4e0d\u5bb9\u64ec\u8b70.\n\n\u980c\u66f0.\n\n  \u97ad\u7d22\u6642\u6642\u4e0d\u96e2\u8eab. \u6050\u4f0a\u7e31\u6b65\u5165\u57c3\u5875.\n  \u76f8\u5c07\u7267\u5f97\u7d14\u548c\u4e5f. \u7f88\u9396\u7121\u62d8\u81ea\u9010\u4eba.\n\n\u9a0e\u725b\u6b78\u5bb6\u5e8f\u516d.\n\n\u5e72\u6208\u5df2\u7f77. \u5f97\u5931\u9084\u7a7a. \u5531\u6a35\u5b50\u4e4b\u6751\u6b4c. \u5439\u5152\u7ae5\u4e4b\u91ce\u66f2. \u8eab\u6a2a\u725b\u4e0a. \u76ee\u8996\u96f2\u9704. \u547c\u559a\u4e0d\u56d8. \u6488\u7c60\u4e0d\u4f4f.\n\n\u980c\u66f0.\n\n  \u9a0e\u725b\u8fe4\u9090\u6b32\u9084\u5bb6. \u7f8c\u7b1b\u8072\u8072\u9001\u665a\u971e.\n  \u4e00\u62cd\u4e00\u6b4c\u7121\u9650\u610f. \u77e5\u610f\u4f55\u5fc5\u9f13\u5507\u7259.\n\n\u5fd8\u725b\u5b58\u4eba\u5e8f\u4e03.\n\n\u6cd5\u7121\u4e8c\u6cd5. \u725b\u4e14\u7232\u5b97. \u55a9\u8e44\u5154\u4e4b\u7570\u540d. \u986f\u7b4c\u9b5a\u4e4b\u5dee\u5225. \u5982\u91d1\u51fa\u945b. \u4f3c\u6708\u96e2\u96f2. \u4e00\u9053\u5bd2\u5149. \u5a01\u97f3\u52ab\u5916.\n\n\u980c\u66f0.\n\n  \u9a0e\u725b\u5df2\u5f97\u5230\u5bb6\u5c71. \u725b\u4e5f\u7a7a\u516e\u4eba\u4e5f\u9591.\n  \u7d05\u65e5\u4e09\u7aff\u7336\u4f5c\u5922. \u97ad\u7e69\u7a7a\u9813\u8278\u5802\u9592.\n\n\u4eba\u725b\u4ff1\u5fd8\u5e8f\u516b.\n\n\u51e1\u60c5\u812b\u843d. \u8056\u610f\u7686\u7a7a. \u6709\u4f5b\u8655\u4e0d\u7528\u9068\u904a. \u7121\u4f5b\u8655\u6025\u9808\u8d70\u904e. \u5169\u982d\u4e0d\u8457. \u5343\u773c\u96e3\u7aba. \u767e\u9ce5\u929c\u83ef. \u4e00\u5834\u61e1\u39ac.\n\n\u980c\u66f0.\n\n  \u97ad\u7d22\u4eba\u725b\u76e1\u5c6c\u7a7a. \u78a7\u5929\u907c\u95ca\u4fe1\u96e3\u901a.\n  \u7d05\u7210\u7130\u4e0a\u722d\u5bb9\u96ea. \u5230\u6b64\u65b9\u80fd\u5408\u7956\u5b97.\n\n\u8fd4\u672c\u9084\u6e90\u5e8f\u4e5d.\n\n\u672c\u4f86\u6e05\u6de8. \u4e0d\u53d7\u4e00\u5875. \u89c0\u6709\u76f8\u4e4b\u69ae\u67af. \u8655\u7121\u7232\u4e4b\u51dd\u5bc2. \u4e0d\u540c\u5e7b\u5316. \u8c48\u5047\u4fee\u6cbb. \u6c34\u7da0\u5c71\u9752. \u5750\u89c0\u6210\u6557.\n\n\u980c\u66f0.\n\n  \u8fd4\u672c\u9084\u6e90\u5df2\u8cbb\u529f. \u722d\u5982\u76f4\u4e0b\u82e5\u76f2\u807e.\n  \u5eb5\u4e2d\u4e0d\u898b\u5eb5\u524d\u7269. \u6c34\u81ea\u832b\u832b\u82b1\u81ea\u7d05.\n\n\u5165\u5edb\u5782\u624b\u5e8f\u5341.\n\n\u67f4\u9580\u7368\u63a9. \u5343\u8056\u4e0d\u77e5. \u57cb\u81ea\u5df1\u4e4b\u98a8\u5149. \u8ca0\u524d\u8ce2\u4e4b\u9014\u8f4d. \u63d0\u74e2\u5165\u5e02. \u7b56\u6756\u9084\u5bb6. \u9152\u8086\u9b5a\u884c. \u5316\u4ee4\u6210\u4f5b.\n\n\u980c\u66f0.\n\n  \u9732\u80f8\u8de3\u8db3\u5165\u5edb\u4f86. \u62b9\u571f\u5857\u7070\u7b11\u6eff\u984b.\n  \u4e0d\u7528\u795e\u4ed9\u771e\u7955\u8a23. \u76f4\u6559\u67af\u6728\u653e\u82b1\u958b.\n\n\n\n\n                               FOOTNOTES\n\n\n[f1] As it was not expedient to set up Chinese type in England, special\nChinese notes at the end of the book have been prepared in Japan, in\nwhich are found all the Chinese characters considered by the author\nuseful for scholars\u2019 reference. The superior figures throughout the\npresent work point to the Chinese notes in the Appendix.\n\n[f2] One of the popular lectures prepared by the author for students of\nBuddhism, 1911. It was first published in _The Eastern Buddhist_, under\nthe title, \u201cZen Buddhism as Purifier and Liberator of Life.\u201d Since it\ntreats of Zen in its general aspect, I have decided to make it serve as\nIntroduction to this book.\n\n[f3] See also the Essay entitled \u201cHistory of Zen Buddhism,\u201d p. 151 ff.\n\n[f4] The founder of the Rinzai School of Zen Buddhism, died 867.\n\n[f5] The founder of the Ummon School of Zen Buddhism, died 996.\n\n[f6] Literally, an old clumsy gimlet of the Ch\u2018in dynasty.\n\n[f7] Zen has its own way of practising meditations so called, for\nthe Zen methods are to be distinguished from what is popularly or\nHinayanistically understood by the term. Zen has nothing to do with\nmere quietism or losing oneself in trance. I may have an occasion to\nspeak more about the subject elsewhere.\n\n[f8] See also the Essay entitled, \u201cPractical Methods of Zen\nInstruction.\u201d\n\n[f9] Originally a mosquito driver in India.\n\n[f10] A bamboo stick a few feet long.\n\n[f11] Also a stick or baton fancifully shaped and made of all kinds of\nmaterial. It means literally \u201cas one wishes or thinks,\u201d (_cinta_, in\nSanskrit).\n\n[f12] This reminds one of the remarks made by the master Ten (Chan),\nof Hofuku (Pao-fu), who, seeing a monk approach, took up his staff and\nstruck a pillar, and then the monk. When the monk naturally cried with\npain, said the master, \u201cHow is it that this does not get hurt?\u201d (See\nChinese Notes, [1.25].)\n\n[f13] _Hekiganshu_ is a collection of one hundred \u201ccases\u201d with Seccho\u2019s\n(Hs\u00fceh-tou) poetical comments and Yengo\u2019s partly explanatory and partly\ncritical annotations. The book was brought to Japan during the Kamakura\nera, and ever since it is one of the most important text-books of Zen,\nespecially for the followers of the Rinzai school.\n\n[f14] Gutei was a disciple of Tenryu (T\u2018ien-lung), probably towards\nthe end of the T\u2018ang dynasty. While he was first residing in a small\ntemple, he had a visit from a travelling nun, who came right into the\ntemple without removing her headgear. Carrying her staff with her,\nshe went three times around the meditation chair in which Gutei was\nsitting. Then she said to him, \u201cSay a word of Zen, and I shall take off\nmy hat.\u201d She repeated this three times, but Gutei did not know what to\nsay. When the nun was about to depart, Gutei suggested, \u201cIt is growing\nlate, and why not stay here over night?\u201d Jissai (Shih-chi), which was\nthe name of the nun, said, \u201cIf you say a word of Zen, I shall stay.\u201d As\nhe was still unable to say a word, she left.\n\nThis was a terrible blow on poor Gutei, who pitifully sighed: \u201cWhile I\nhave the form of a man, I seem not to have any manly stamina!\u201d He then\nresolved to study and master Zen. When he was about to start on his Zen\n\u201cwanderings\u201d he had a vision of the mountain god who told him not to go\naway from his temple, for a Bodhisattva in flesh would be coming here\nbefore long and enlighten him in the truth of Zen. Surely enough a Zen\nmaster called Tenryu (T\u2018ien-lung) appeared the following day. Gutei\ntold the master all about the humiliating experience of the previous\nday and his firm resolution to attain the secrets of Zen. Tenryu just\nlifted one of his fingers and said nothing. This however was enough to\nopen Gutei\u2019s mind at once to the ultimate meaning of Zen, and it is\nsaid that ever since Gutei did or said nothing but just holding up a\nfinger to all the questions that might be asked of him concerning Zen.\n\nThere was a boy in his temple, who seeing the master\u2019s trick imitated\nhim when the boy himself was asked about what kind of preaching his\nmaster generally practised. When the boy told the master about it\nshowing his lifted little finger, the master cut it right off with a\nknife. The boy ran away screaming in pain when Gutei called him back.\nThe boy turned back, the master lifted his own finger, and the boy\ninstantly realised the meaning of the \u201cone finger Zen\u201d of Tenryu as\nwell as Gutei.\n\n[f15] Compare this with the statement made by the sixth patriarch\nhimself when he was asked how it was that he came to succeed the fifth\npatriarch \u201cBecause I do not understand Buddhism.\u201d Let me also cite a\npassage from the _Kena-Upanishad_, in which the readers may find a\nsingular coincidence between the Brahman seer and those Zen masters,\nnot only in thought but in the way it is expressed:\n\n  \u201cIt is conceived of by him by whom it is not conceived of;\n   He by whom It is conceived of, knows It not.\n   It is not understood by those who understand It;\n   It is understood by those who understand It not.\u201d\n\nLao-tz\u016d, founder of Taoist mysticism, breathes the same spirit when he\nsays: \u201cHe who knows it speaks not, he who speaks knows not.\u201d\n\n[f16] The conception of Dharmak\u0101ya apart from the physical body\n(_r\u016bpak\u0101ya_) of the Buddha was logically inevitable, as we read in\nthe _Ekottara-\u0100gama_, XLIV., \u201cThe Life of the \u015a\u0101kyamuni-Buddha is\nextremely long, the reason is that while his physical body enters\ninto Nirvana, his Law-body exists.\u201d But the Dharmak\u0101ya could not\nbe made to function directly upon suffering souls, as it was too\nabstract and transcendental; they wanted something more concrete and\ntangible towards which they could feel personally intimate. Hence the\nconception of another Buddha-body, that is, Sambhogak\u0101ya-Buddha or\nVip\u0101kaja-Buddha, completing the dogma of the Triple Body (_Trik\u0101ya_).\n\n[f17] The absolute faith Shinran had in the teaching of H\u014dnen as is\nevidenced in this quotation proves that the Shin sect is the result\nof Shinran\u2019s inner experience and not the reasoned product of his\nphilosophy. His experience came first, and to explain it to himself\nas well as to communicate it to others, he resorted to various Sutras\nfor verification. _The Teaching, Practice, Faith, and Attainment_ was\nthus written by him giving an intellectual and scriptural foundation\nto the Shin-shu faith. In religion as in other affairs of human life,\nbelief precedes reasoning. It is important not to forget this fact when\ntracing the development of ideas.\n\n[f18] This was very well understood by the Buddha himself when he\nfirst attained Enlightenment; he knew that what he realised in his\nenlightened state of mind could not be imparted to others, and that\nif it were imparted they could not understand it. This was the reason\nwhy he in the beginning of his religious career expressed the desire\nto enter into Nirvana without trying to revolve the Wheel of the\nDharma. We read in one of the Sutras belonging to the Agama class\nof Buddhist literature, which is entitled _Sutra on the Cause and\nEffect in the Past and Present_ (fas. II.): \u201cMy original vows are\nfulfilled, the Dharma [or Truth] I have attained is too deep for the\nunderstanding. A Buddha alone is able to understand what is in the mind\nof another Buddha. In this age of the Five Taints (_pa\u00f1ca-kash\u0101y\u0101_),\nall beings are enveloped in greed, anger, folly, falsehood, arrogance,\nand flattery; they have few blessings and are stupid and have no\nunderstanding to comprehend the Dharma I have attained. Even if I make\nthe Dharma-Wheel revolve, they would surely be confused and incapable\nof accepting it. They may on the contrary indulge in defamation, and,\nthereby falling into the evil paths, suffer all kinds of pain. It is\nbest for me to remain quiet and enter into Nirvana.\u201d In the _Sutra\non the Story of the Discipline_, which is considered an earlier\ntranslation of the preceding text and was rendered into Chinese by an\nIndian Buddhist scholar, Ta-li and a Tibetan, Mang-siang, in A.D. 197,\nno reference is yet made to the Buddha\u2019s resolution to keep silent\nabout his Enlightenment, only that what he attained was all-knowledge\nwhich was beyond the understanding and could not be explained, as its\nheight was unscalable and its depth unfathomable, containing the whole\nuniverse in it and yet penetrating into the unpenetrable\u201d.... Cf. the\n_Mah\u0101pad\u0101na Suttanta_ (D\u012bgha Nik\u0101ya, XIV), and the _Ariyapariyesana\nSuttam_ (Majjhima, XXVI).\n\n[f19] Cf. Sa\u1e41yukta \u0100gama (Chinese), Fas. XXXII.\n\n[f20] That the personality of the Buddha was an object of admiration\nand worship as much as, or perhaps more than, his extraordinary\nintellectual attributes, is gleaned throughout the Agama literature.\nTo quote one or two instances: \u201cWhen Subha-M\u0101nava Todeyyaputta saw\nthe Blessed One sitting in the woods, the Brahman was struck with the\nbeautiful serenity of his personality which most radiantly shone like\nthe moon among the stars; his features were perfect, glowing like a\ngolden mountain; his dignity was majestic with all his senses under\nperfect control, so tranquil and free from all beclouding passions,\nand so absolutely calm with his mind subdued and quietly disciplined.\u201d\n(The Middle \u0100gama, fas. XXXVIII.) This admiration of his personality\nlater developed into the deification of his being, and all the evils\nmoral and physical were supposed to be warded off if one thought of him\nor his virtues. \u201cWhen those beings who practised evil deeds with their\nbodies, mouths, or minds, think of the merits of the Tathagata at the\nmoment of their deaths, they would be kept away from the three evil\npaths and born in the heavens; even the vilest would be born in the\nheavens.\u201d (The Ekottara \u0100gama, fas. XXXII.) \u201cWherever \u015arama\u1e47a Gautama\nappears, no evil spirits or demons can approach him; therefore let us\ninvite him here and all those evil gods [who have been harrassing us]\nwould by themselves take to their heels.\u201d (_Loc. cit._) It was quite\nnatural for the Buddhists that they later made the Buddha the first\nobject of Recollection (_sm\u1e5bti_), which, they thought, would keep their\nminds from wandering away and help them realise the final aim of the\nBuddhist life. These statements plainly demonstrate that while on the\none hand the teaching of the Buddha was accepted by his followers as\nthe Dharma beautiful in the beginning, beautiful in the middle, and\nbeautiful in the end, his person was on the other hand regarded as\nfilled with miraculous powers and divine virtues, so that his mere\npresence was enough to create a most auspicious atmosphere not only\nspiritually but materially.\n\n[f21] When the Buddha entered Nirvana, the monks cried, \u201cToo soon has\nthe Tathagata passed away, too soon has the World-honoured One passed\naway, too soon has the Great Law died out; all beings are forever\nleft to misery; for the Eye of the World is gone.\u201d Their lamentation\nwas beyond description, they lay on the ground like great trees with\nroots, stems, and branches all torn and broken to pieces, they rolled\nand wriggled like a slain snake. Such excessive expressions of grief\nwere quite natural for those Buddhists whose hearts were directed\ntowards the personality of their master more than towards his sane and\nrationalistic teachings, Cf. the Pali _Parinibb\u0101na-suttanta_.\n\n[f22] For a more or less detailed account of the various Buddhist\nschools that came up within a few centuries after the Buddha, see\nVasumitra\u2019s _Samayabhedo-paracana-cakra_. Professor Suisai Funahashi\nrecently published an excellent commentary on this book.\n\n[f23] Cf. _The Sukh\u0101vat\u012b-vy\u016bha_ (edited by Max M\u00fcller and B. Nanjio),\np. 7, where we have: \u201cBuddhasvaro anantaghoshah,\u201d that is, the Buddha\u2019s\nvoice is of infinite sounds. See also the _Saddharma-pu\u1e47\u1e0dar\u012bka_ (p.\n128) where we read: \u201cSvare\u1e47a caikena vad\u0101mi dharmam,\u201d I preach the law\nwith one voice. The parable of the water of one taste (_ekarasa\u1e41 v\u0101ri_)\nvariously producing herbs, shrubs, and others, is very well known among\nthe Mahayanists.\n\n[f24] Here we find the justification of a \u201cmystic\u201d interpretation\nof the sacred books of any religion. The Swedenborgian doctrine of\nCorrespondence thus grows illuminating. The philosophy of Shingon\nmysticism somewhat reflects the idea of correspondence, though\nnaturally it is based on a different set of philosophical ideas.\nVarieties of interpretation are always possible in anything not only\nbecause of the presence of the subjective element in every judgment,\nbut because of infinite complications of objective relationship.\n\n[f25] Cf. such Sutras as the _Tevijja_, _Mah\u0101li_, _Brahmaj\u0101la_, etc.\nin the D\u012bgha Nik\u0101ya. See also the _Sutta Nip\u0101ta_, especially the\nAtthakavagga, which is one of the earliest Buddhist texts in our\npossession at present. There we read about \u201cAjjhattasanti\u201d (inward\npeace) which cannot be attained by philosophy, nor by tradition, nor by\ngood deeds.\n\n[f26] That the Buddha never neglected to impress his disciples with\nthe idea that the ultimate truth was to be realised by and in oneself,\nis evidenced throughout the Agamas. Everywhere we encounter with such\nphrases as \u201cwithout depending upon another, he believed, or thought,\nor dissolved his doubts, or attained self-confidence in the Law.\u201d From\nthis self-determination followed the consciousness that one had all\none\u2019s evil leakages (_\u0101srava_) stopped or drained off, culminating in\nthe realisation of Arhatship\u2014which is the goal of Buddhist life.\n\n[f27] _The Dialogue of the Buddha_, Sacred Books of the Buddhists, Vol.\nII., p. 29.\n\n[f28] In fact, the term, _praj\u00f1\u0101_ or in _pai\u00f1\u00f1a_ Pali, is not an\nexclusive possession of the Mahayanists, for it is also fully used\nby their rival disciples of the Buddha. The latter however failed to\nlay any special emphasis on the idea of enlightenment and its supreme\nsignificance in the body of Buddhism, and as the consequence Praj\u00f1\u0101 was\ncomparatively neglected by the Hinayanists. Mahayanism on the other\nhand may be designated as the religion of Praj\u00f1\u0101 _par excellence_. It\nis even deified and most reverently worshipped.\n\n[f29] This is no other than \u201cthe opening of the pure eye of the Dharma\u201d\n(_viraja\u1e41 v\u012btamala\u1e41 dhamma-cakkhum udap\u0101di_), frequently referred to in\nthe Agamas when one attains to Arhatship.\n\n[f30] Read, for instance, chap. XV., entitled \u201cDuration of Life of the\nTathagata.\u201d\n\n[f31] _Dhammanadam_, 153, 154.\n\n[f32] Ata etasm\u0101t k\u0101ra\u1e47an mah\u0101mate mayedam ukta\u1e41: y\u0101\u1e41 ca r\u0101tri\u1e41\ntath\u0101gato \u2019bhisambuddho y\u0101\u1e41 ca r\u0101tri\u1e41 parinirv\u0101syati atr\u0101ntara ekam\napi akshara\u1e41 tath\u0101gatena na ud\u0101h\u1e5bita\u1e41 na ud\u0101harishyati.\u2014_La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_,\nChap. III., p. 144. See also Chapter VII., p. 240. (For this reason,\nO Mah\u0101mati, I say unto you: During the time that elapsed between the\nnight of the Tathagata\u2019s Enlightenment and the night of his entrance\ninto Nirvana, not one word, not one statement was given out by him.)\n\n[f33] According to A\u015bvaghosha\u2019s _Awakening of Faith_, Ignorance means\nthe sudden awakening of a thought (_citta_) in consciousness. This\nmay be variously interpreted, but as long as Ignorance is conceived,\nnot as a process requiring a certain duration of time, but an event\ninstantaneously taking place, its disappearance which is enlightenment\nmust also be an instantaneous happening.\n\n[f34] This is the usual formula given as the qualification of an Arhat,\nto be met with throughout the Nik\u0101yas.\n\n[f35] Chapter II., \u201cOn Skilfullness.\u201d\n\n[f36] In this connection it may not be amiss to say a word\nabout what is known in Buddhism as the \u201cact of no-effort or\nno-purpose\u201d (_an\u0101bhogacary\u0101_) or \u201cthe original vows of no-purpose\u201d\n(_an\u0101bhogapra\u1e47idh\u0101na_). This corresponds, if I judge rightly, to the\nChristian idea of not letting the right hand know what the left hand\nis doing. When spirit attains to the reality of enlightenment and\nas a result is thoroughly purified of all defilements, intellectual\nand affective, it grows so perfect that whatever it does is pure,\nunselfish, and conducive to the welfare of the world. So long as\nwe are conscious of the efforts we make in trying to overcome our\nselfish impulses and passions, there is a taint of constraint and\nartificiality, which interferes with spiritual innocence and freedom,\nand love which is the native virtue of an enlightened spirit cannot\nwork out all that is implied in it and meant to be exercised for the\npreservation of itself. The \u201coriginal vows\u201d are the content of love and\nbegin to be operative, anabhoga (un-purposely), only when enlightenment\nis really creative. This is where religious life differs from mere\nmorality, this is where the mere enunciation of the Law of Origination\n(_prat\u012btya-samutp\u0101da_) does not constitute Buddhist life, and this\nis where Zen Buddhism maintains its reason of existence against the\nalleged positivism of the Hinayana and against the alleged nihilism of\nthe Praj\u00f1\u0101-p\u0101ramit\u0101 school.\n\n[f37] _Dialogues of the Buddha_, Part III., p. 35.\n\n[f38] _Dialogues of the Buddha_, Part I., p. 82.\n\n[f39] The Pali text that will correspond to this Chinese Sutra in the\nD\u012brgha-\u0100gama is the _Kevaddha Sutta_, but the passage quoted here is\nmissing. See also the _Lohicca_ (_Lou-ch\u00ea_) and _S\u0101ma\u00f1\u00f1a-phala_ in the\nChinese \u0100gamas, in which the Buddha tells how essential the life of a\nrecluse is to the realisation of enlightenment and the destruction of\nthe evil passions. Constant application, earnest concentration, and\nvigilant watchfulness\u2014without these no Buddhists are ever expected to\nattain the end of their lives.\n\n[f40] The rendering is by Rhys Davids who states in the footnote: \u201cThe\nword I have here rendered \u2018earnest contemplation\u2019 is Samadhi, which\noccupies in the Five Nikayas very much the same position as faith\ndoes in the New Testament; and this section shows that the relative\nimportance of Sam\u0101dhi, Pa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101, and \u015a\u012bla played a part in early Buddhism\njust as the distinction between faith, reason, and works did afterwards\nin Western theology. It would be difficult to find a passage in which\nthe Buddhist view of the relation of these _conflicting_ ideas is\nstated with greater beauty of thought, or equal succinctness of form.\u201d\nBut why conflicting?\n\n[f41] One hundred and eight samadhis are enumerated in the\n_Mah\u0101vyutpatti_. Elsewhere we read of \u201cinnumerable samadhis.\u201d\nIndians have been great adepts in this exercise, and many wonderful\nspiritualistic achievements are often reported.\n\n[f42] This series of dhyanas has also been adopted by Buddhists,\nespecially by Hinayanists. No doubt the Mahayana conception of dhyana\nis derived or rather has developed from them, and how much it differs\nfrom the Hinayana dhyanas will be seen later as we go on. The detailed\ndescription of these dhyanas is given in the Agamas; see for instance\nthe _S\u0101ma\u00f1\u00f1a-phala Sutta_ in which the fruits of the life of a recluse\nare discussed. These mental exercises were not strictly Buddhistic,\nthey were taught and practised more or less by all Indian philosophers\nand mendicants. The Buddha, however, was not satisfied with them,\nbecause they would not bring out the result he was so anxious to have,\nthat is, they were not conducive to enlightenment. This was the reason\nwhy he left his two old teachers, Arada and Udraka, under whom he first\nbegan his homeless life.\n\n[f43] For example, the ten subjects for meditation are: Buddha, Dharma,\nSangha, Morality, Charity, Heaven, Serenity, Breathing, Impermanence,\nand Death. The five subjects of tranquillisation are: Impurity,\nCompassion, Breathing, Origination, and Buddha. The four subjects of\nrecollection are: Impurity of the Body, Evils of the Senses, Constant\nChange of Thought, and Transitoriness of Existence.\n\n[f44] _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_, Nanjo Edition, p, 77.\n\n[f45] There is however a Sutra in the Sa\u1e41yukta \u0100gama, fas. XXXIII.,\np. 93b (Anguttara-Nik\u0101ya, XI., 10), dealing with true dhyana\n(_\u0101j\u0101n\u012bya-jh\u0101na_) which is to be distinguished from untrained dhyana\n(_kha\u1e37u\u1e45ka-jh\u0101na_). The latter is compared to an ill-disciplined horse\n(_kha\u1e37u\u1e45ka_) kept in the stable that thinks nothing of his duties but\nonly of the fodder he is to enjoy. In a similar way dhyana can never\nbe practised successfully by those who undertake the exercise merely\nfor the satisfaction of their selfish objects; for such will never come\nto understand the truth as it is. If emancipation and true knowledge\nare desired, anger, sleepiness, worrying, and doubt ought to be got\nrid of, and then the dhyana can be attained that does not depend upon\nany of the elements, or space, or consciousness, or nothingness, or\nunthinkability\u2014the dhyana that is not dependent upon this world or that\nworld or the heavenly bodies, or upon hearing or seeing or recollecting\nor recognising\u2014the dhyana that is not dependent upon the ideas of\nattachment or seeking\u2014the dhyana that is not in conformity with\nknowledge or contemplation. This \u201ctrue dhyana\u201d then as is described in\nthis Sutra in the Nikayas, is more of the Mahayana than of the Hinayana\nso called.\n\n[f46] Kern\u2019s translation,\u201d Sacred Books of the East,\u201d Vol. XXI., pp.\n299\u2013300.\n\n[f47] For this and the following, see the Essay entitled, \u201cHistory of\nZen Buddhism from Bodhi-Dharma to Hui-n\u00eang,\u201d p. 151 ff.\n\n[f48] The story of Enlightenment is told in the D\u012bgha-Nik\u0101ya, XIV., and\nalso in the Introduction to the J\u0101taka Tales, in the Mah\u0101vastu, and the\nMajjhima-Nik\u0101ya, XXVI. and XXXVI., and again in the Samyutta-Nik\u0101ya,\nXII. In detail they vary more or less, but not materially. The Chinese\ntranslation of the _Sutra on the Cause and Effect in the Past and\nPresent_, which seems to be a later version than the Pali _Mah\u0101pad\u0101na_,\ngives a somewhat different story, but as far as my point of argument is\nconcerned, the main issue remains practically the same. A\u015bvaghosha\u2019s\n_Buddhacarita_ is highly poetical. The _Lalita-vistara_ belongs to the\nMahayana. In this Essay I have tried to take my material chiefly from\n_The Dialogues of the Buddha_, translated by Rhys Davids, _The Kindred\nSayings_, translated by Mrs. Rhys Davids, Majjhima-Nik\u0101ya, translated\nby S\u012blac\u0101ra, and the same by Neumann, the Chinese \u0100gamas and others.\n\n[f49] The idea that there were some more Buddhas in the past seems\nto have originated very early in the history of Buddhism as we may\nnotice here, and its further development, combined with the idea of the\nJ\u0101taka, finally culminated in the conception of a Bodhisattva, which is\none of the characteristic features of Mahayana Buddhism.\n\nThe six Buddhas of the past later increased into twenty-three or\ntwenty-four in the _Buddha-vamsa_ and _Praj\u00f1\u0101-p\u0101ramit\u0101_ and even into\nforty-two in the _Lalita-vistara_. This idea of having predecessors\nor forerunners seems to have been general among ancient peoples. In\nChina, Confucius claimed to have transmitted his doctrine from Yao and\nShun, and Laotz\u016d from the Emperor Huang. In India, Jainism which has,\nnot only in the teaching but in the personality of the founder, many\nsimilarities to Buddhism, mentions twenty-three predecessors, naturally\nmore or less corresponding so closely to those of Buddhism.\n\n[f50] It is highly doubtful that the Buddha had a very distinct\nand definite scheme for the theory of Causation or Dependence or\nOrigination, as the Pa\u1e6dicca-samupp\u0101da is variously translated. In\nthe present Sutra, he does not go beyond Vi\u00f1\u00f1\u0101na (consciousness or\ncognition), while in its accepted form now the Chain starts with\nIgnorance (_avijj\u0101_). We have however no reason to consider this\ntenfold Chain of Causation the earliest and most authoritative of\nthe doctrine of Pa\u1e6dicca-samupp\u0101da. In many respects the Sutra itself\nshows evidence of a later compilation. The point I wish to discuss\nhere mainly concerns itself with the Buddha\u2019s intellectual efforts to\nexplain the realities of life by the theory of causation. That the\nBuddha regarded Ignorance as the principle of birth-and-death and\ntherefore of misery in this world, is a well-established fact in the\nhistory of Buddhism.\n\n[f51] Cakkhu literally means an eye. It is often found in combination\nwith such terms as pa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101 (wisdom or reason), buddha, or samanta\n(all-round), when it means a faculty beyond ordinary relative\nunderstanding. As was elsewhere noticed, it is significant that\nin Buddhism, both Mahayana and Hinayana, seeing (_passato_) is so\nemphasised, and especially in this case the mention of an \u201ceye\u201d which\nsees directly into things never before presented to one\u2019s mind is\nquite noteworthy. It is this cakkhu or pa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101-cakkhu in fact that,\ntranscending the conditionality of the Fourfold Noble Truth or the\nChain of Origination, penetrates (_sacchikato_) into the very ground of\nconsciousness, from which springs the opposition of subject and object.\n\n[f52] Here as well as in the next verse, \u201cthe truth\u201d stands for Dharma.\n\n[f53] We have, besides this, another verse supposed to have been\nuttered by the Buddha at the moment of Supreme Enlightenment; it is\nknown as the Hymn of Victory. It was quoted in my previous Essay on Zen\nBuddhism and the Doctrine of Enlightenment. The Hymn is unknown in the\nMahayana literature. The _Lalita-vistara_ has only this:\n\n  \u201cChinna vartmopasanta raj\u0101\u1e25 sushk\u0101 \u0101srav\u0101 na puna\u1e25 srav\u0101nti;\n   Chinne vartmani vartata du\u1e25khasyaisho \u2019nta ucyate.\u201d[3.1]\n\n[f54] _The Mah\u0101vyutpatti_, CXLII., gives a list of thirteen terms\ndenoting the act of comprehending with more or less definite shades\nof meaning: buddhi, mati, gati, mata\u1e41, d\u1e5bishta\u1e41, abhisamit\u0101v\u012b,\nsamyagavabodha, supratividdha, abhilakshita, gati\u1e41gata, avabodha,\npratyabhij\u00f1\u0101, and menire.\n\n[f55] Franz Pfeiffer, p. 312, Martensen, p. 29.\n\n[f56] Translated by Bhikkhu S\u012bl\u0101c\u0101ra. The original Pali runs as follows:\n\n  Sabb\u0101bhibh\u016b sabbavid\u016b \u2019ham asmi,\n  Sabbesu dhammesu an\u016bpalitto,\n  Sabba\u1e41jaho tanhakkhaye vimutto,\n  Saya\u1e41 abhi\u00f1\u00f1\u0101ya kam uddiseyya\u1e41.\n  Na me \u0101cariyo atthi, sadiso me na vijjati,\n  Sadevakasmi\u1e41 lokasmi\u1e41 na \u2019tthi me pa\u1e6dipuggalo.\n  Aha\u1e41 hi arah\u0101 loke, aha\u1e41 satth\u0101 anuttaro,\n  Eko \u2019mhi sammasambuddho, s\u012btibh\u016bto \u2019smi nibbuto.\n                               D\u012bgha-Nik\u0101ya, XXVI.\n\n[f57] Ordinarily, the Chain runs as follows: 1. Ignorance (_avijj\u0101_,\n_avidy\u0101_), 2. Disposition (_sankh\u0101ra_, _sa\u1e41sk\u0101ra_), 3. Consciousness\n(_vi\u00f1\u00f1\u0101na_, _vij\u00f1\u0101na_), 4. Name and Form (_n\u0101mar\u016bpa_), 5. Six\nSense-organs (_sa\u1e37\u0101yatana_, _sa\u1e0d\u0101yatana_), 6. Touch (_phassa_,\n_spar\u015ba_), 7. Feeling (_vedana_), 8. Desire (_ta\u1e47h\u0101_, _t\u1e5bsh\u1e47\u0101_), 9.\nClinging (_up\u0101d\u0101na_), 10. Becoming (_bh\u0101va_), 11. Birth (_j\u0101ti_), and\n12. Old Age and Death (_jar\u0101marana\u1e41_).\n\n[f58] _The Buddhacarita_, Book XIV.\n\n[f59] N\u0101na\u00f1 ca pana me dassana\u1e41 udap\u0101di akupp\u0101 me ceto-vimutti aya\u1e41\nantim\u0101 j\u0101ti natthi d\u0101ni punabbhavo.\n\n[f60] \u201cThus knowing, thus seeing,\u201d (_evam j\u0101nato evam passato_) is\none of the set phrases we encounter throughout Buddhist literature,\nHinayana and Mahayana. Whether or not its compilers were aware of the\ndistinction between knowing and seeing in the sense we make now in the\ntheory of knowledge, the coupling is of great signification. They must\nhave been conscious of the inefficiency and insufficiency of the word\n\u201cto know\u201d in the description of the kind of knowledge one has at the\nmoment of enlightenment. \u201cTo see\u201d or \u201cto see face to face\u201d signifies\nthe immediateness and utmost perspicuity and certainty of such\nknowledge. As was mentioned elsewhere, Buddhism is rich in terminology\nof this order of cognition.\n\n[f61] Tassa evam j\u0101nato evam passato k\u0101m\u0101sav\u0101pi citta\u1e41 vimuccati\nbhav\u0101sav\u0101pi citta\u1e41 vimuccati avijj\u0101sav\u0101pi citta\u1e41 vimuccati, vimuttasmi\u1e41\nvimuttamit \u00f1\u0101\u1e47a\u1e41 hoti. Khina j\u0101ti vusita\u1e41 brahmacariya\u1e41 kata\u1e41 karan\u012byam\nn\u0101para\u1e41 itthatt\u0101y\u0101ti paj\u0101n\u0101ti.\n\n[f62] _The Brahmaj\u0101la Sutta_, p. 43. Translation by Rhys Davids.\n\n[f63] The idea of performing miracles systematically through the power\nacquired by self-concentration seems to have been greatly in vogue in\nIndia even from the earliest days of her civilisation, and the Buddha\nwas frequently approached by his followers to exhibit his powers to\nwork wonders. In fact, his biographers later turned him into a regular\nmiracle-performer, at least as far as we may judge by the ordinary\nstandard of logic and science. But from the Praj\u00f1\u0101-p\u0101ramit\u0101 point of\nview, according to which \u201cbecause what was preached by the Tathagata\nas the possession of qualities, that was preached as no-possession of\nqualities by the Tathagata, and therefore it is called the possession\nof qualities,\u201d (yaish\u0101 bhagavan laksha\u1e47asampat tath\u0101gatena bh\u0101shit\u0101\nalaksha\u1e47asampad esh\u0101 tath\u0101gatena bh\u0101shita; tenocyate laksha\u1e47asampad\niti), the idea of performing wonders acquires quite a new signification\nspiritually. In the _Kevaddha Sutta_, three wonders are mentioned as\nhaving been understood and realised by the Buddha: the mystic wonder,\nthe wonder of education, and the wonder of manifestation. The possessor\nof the mystic wonder can work the following logical and physical\nimpossibilities: \u201cFrom being one he becomes multiform, from being\nmultiform he becomes one: from being visible he becomes invisible: he\npasses without hindrance to the further side of a wall or a battlement\nor a mountain, as if through air: he penetrates up and down through\nsolid ground as if through water: he walks on water without dividing\nit, as if on solid ground: he travels cross-legged through the sky\nlike the birds on wing: he touches and feels with the hand even the\nmoon and sun, beings of mystic power and potency they be: he reaches\neven in the body up to the heaven of Brahma.\u201d Shall we understand this\nliterally and intellectually? Cannot we interpret it in the spirit of\nthe Praj\u00f1\u0101-p\u0101ramit\u0101 idealism? Why? Taccittam yacittam acittam. (Thought\nis called thought because it is no-thought.)\n\n[f64] The questions are: Is the world eternal? Is the world not\neternal? Is the world finite? Is the world infinite? _Potthap\u0101da-Sutta_.\n\n[f65] Cf. _Dhammapada_, v. 385. \u201cHe for whom there is neither this nor\nthat side, nor both, him, the fearless and unshackled, I call indeed a\nBrahman.\u201d\n\n[f66] _Sutta-nip\u0101ta_, v, 720. Sanant\u0101 yanti kussobbh\u0101, tun\u1e25\u012b y\u0101ti\nmahodadhi.\n\n[f67] The Majjhima-Nik\u0101ya, 140, _Dh\u0101tuvibhangasuttam_. Asm\u012bti bhikkhu\nma\u00f1\u00f1itam eta\u1e41; Ayam aham asm\u012bti ma\u00f1\u00f1itam eta\u1e41; Bhavissan ti ma\u00f1\u00f1itam\neta\u1e41; Na bhavissan ti ma\u00f1\u00f1itam eta\u1e41; R\u016bp\u012b bhavissan ti ma\u00f1\u00f1itam eta\u1e41;\nAr\u016bp\u012b bhavissan ti ma\u00f1\u00f1itam eta\u1e41; Sa\u00f1\u00f1\u012b bhavissan ti ma\u00f1\u00f1itam eta\u1e41;\nAsa\u00f1\u00f1i bhavissan ti ma\u00f1\u00f1itam eta\u1e41; Nevasa\u00f1\u00f1i-nasa\u00f1\u00f1i bhavissan ti\nma\u00f1\u00f1itam eta\u1e41.\n\n[f68] Majjhima Nik\u0101ya, 22.\n\n[f69] Cf. _Sutta-Nip\u0101ta_, v. 21. \u201cBy me is made a well-constructed\nraft, so said Bhagavat, I have passed over to Nirvana, I have reached\nthe further bank, having overcome the torrent of passions; there is no\nfurther use for a raft: therefore, if thou like, rain, O sky!\u201d\n\n[f70] I left here \u201cdharmas\u201d untranslated. For this untranslatable term,\nsome have \u201crighteousness,\u201d some \u201cmorality,\u201d and some \u201cqualities.\u201d\nThis is as is well known a difficult term to translate. The Chinese\ntranslators have rendered it by _fa_,[3.3] everywhere, regardless of\nthe context. In the present case, \u201cdharma\u201d may mean \u201cgood conduct,\n\u201cprescribed rules of morality,\u201d or even \u201cany religious teaching\nconsidered productive of good results.\u201d In the _La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra-s\u016btra_,\nChapter 1, reference is also made to the transcending of both \u201cadharma\u201d\nand \u201cdharma,\u201d saying: \u201cDharm\u0101 eva prah\u0101tavy\u0101\u1e25 pr\u0101gev\u0101dharm\u0101\u1e25.\u201d And\nit is explained that this distinction comes from falsely asserting\n(_vikalpagraha\u1e47am_) the dualism of what is and what is not, while the\none is the self-reflection of the other. You look into the mirror and\nfinding an image thereon you take it for a reality, while the image is\nyourself and nobody else. The one who views the world thus, has the\nrightful view of it, ya evam pasyati sa samyakpasyati. Indeed, when\nhe takes hold of _ek\u0101gra_ (one-pointedness or oneness of things), he\nrealises the state of mind in which his inner wisdom reveals itself\n(_svapraty\u0101tm\u0101ryaj\u00f1\u0101nagocara_) and which is called the Tath\u0101gatagarbha.\nIn this illustration \u201cdharma\u201d and \u201cadharma\u201d are synonyms of\nbeing (_sat_) and non-being (_asat_) or affirmation (_asti_) and\nnegation (_n\u0101sti_). Therefore, the abandoning of dharma and adharma\n(_dharm\u0101dharmayo\u1e25 prah\u0101\u1e47a\u1e41_) means the getting rid of dualism in all\nits complexities and implications. Philosophically, this abandoning\nis to get identified with the Absolute, and morally to go beyond good\nand evil, right and wrong. Also compare _Sutta-Nip\u0101ta_, verse 886,\nwhere dualism is considered to be the outcome of false philosophical\nreasoning \u201cTakka\u00f1 ca di\u1e6d\u1e6dhisu pakappayitv\u0101, sacca\u1e41 mus\u0101 ti dvayadhammam\n\u0101hu.\u201d\n\n[f71] Abridged from the Majjhima Nik\u0101ya, 22, p. 139. Cf. also the\nSamyutta Nik\u0101ya, XII., 70. p. 125.\n\n[f72] For the Buddhist version of the story, see the\n_Saddharma-pu\u1e47\u1e0dar\u012bka S\u016btra_ chapter 4, and the _Vajrasam\u0101dhi S\u016btra_,\nchapter 4 (Chinese translation).\n\n[f73] Samyutta XII., 65, Nagara; cf. also one of the _Praj\u00f1\u0101-p\u0101ramit\u0101\ns\u016btras_ which is known as one preached by Ma\u00f1ju\u015br\u012b (Nanjo Catalogue,\nNo. 21). In the Sutra we find that the Buddha, after mentioning the\nsimile of a gem-digger, makes reference to a man who feels overwhelmed\nwith delight when people talk pleasantly about the old towns and\nvillages once visited by himself. The same sort of a delightful feeling\nis expressed by one who will listen to the discourse on Praj\u00f1\u0101p\u0101ramit\u0101\nand understand it; for he was in his past lives present at the assembly\nwhich was gathered about the Buddha delivering sermons on the same\nsubject. That the understanding of the doctrine of Praj\u00f1\u0101p\u0101ramit\u0101 is a\nform of memory is highly illuminating when considered in relation to\nthe theory of Enlightenment as advanced here.\n\nThat the ushering of Enlightenment is accompanied with the feeling of\nreturn or remembrance is also unmistakably noted by the writer of the\n_Kena-Upanishad_ (VI., 50):\n\n  \u201cNow in respect to the Atman:\n   It is as though something forces its way into consciousness\n   And consciousness suddenly remembers\u2014\n   Such a state of mind illustrates the awakening of knowledge of the\n     Atman.\u201d\n\nSonadanda the Brahman had the following to say when he grasped the\nmeaning of the Buddha\u2019s discourse on the characteristics of the true\nBrahman (Rhys David\u2019s translation): \u201cMost excellent, oh Gotama, most\nexcellent! Just as if a man were to set up that which has been thrown\ndown, or were to reveal that which has been hidden away, or were to\npoint out the right road to him who has gone astray, or were to bring a\nlight into the darkness so that those who had eyes could see external\nforms\u2014just even so has the truth been made known to me, in many a\nfigure, by the venerable Gotama.\u201d\n\n[f74] _Buddhacarita_, translated by E. B. Cowell, pp. 131\u2013132.\n\n[f75] Lefmann\u2019s edition, p. 289.\n\n[f76] _Ariyapapariyesana-sutta_, Majjhima-Nik\u0101ya, XXVI., p. 167.\n\n[f77] Used to designate the school which upholds the doctrine of\nenlightenment (_sambodhi_).\n\n[f78] This translation is not at all satisfactory.\n\n[f79] J\u014dshu (778\u2014897) was one of the early masters of Zen in the T\u2018ang\ndynasty when it began to flourish with its vigorous freshness. He\nattained to a high age of one hundred and twenty. His sermons were\nalways short and to the point, and his answers are noted for their\nbeing so natural and yet so slippery, so hard to catch.\n\n[f80] _Six Essays by Bodhi-Dharma_[4.25] is the book in which the\nso-called writings of Bodhi-Dharma are collected. See also the Essay\n\u201cOn Satori\u201d which follows.\n\n[f81] For Tao-hs\u00fcan\u2018s edition in the original Chinese, see Note 4.28 in\nthe Appendix.\n\n[f82] This is the most significant phrase in Dharma\u2019s writing. I have\nleft it untranslated, for later this will be explained fully.\n\n[f83] The author of this story or prefatory note is T\u2018an-lin (Donrin),\nwho, according to Dr. Tokiwa, of the Tokyo Imperial University, was a\nlearned scholar partaking in the translation of several Sanskrit works.\nHe is also mentioned in connection with Yeka (Hui-k\u2018\u00ea) in the biography\nof the latter by Tao-hs\u00fcan. If Donrin were more of a scholar as we can\nsee by this identification than a genuine Zen master, it was quite\nnatural for him to write down this \u201cMeditation on Four Acts,\u201d which\nmainly appeals as it stands to the scholarly interpretation of Zen.\nWhile the doctrine of _Pi-kwan_ is emphatically Zen, there is much in\nthe \u201cMeditation\u201d that lends itself to the philosophising of Zen.\n\n[f84] Translated into Chinese during the Northern Liang dynasty which\nlasted A.D. 397\u2013439. The translator\u2019s name is lost.\n\n[f85] \u5927\u4e58\u58c1\u89c0\u529f\u696d\u6700\u9ad8\n\n[f86] We read in Tao-hs\u00fcan\u2019s _Biographies_ that wherever Bodhi-Dharma\nstayed he taught people in his Zen doctrine, but as the whole country\nat the time was deeply plunged into scholastic discussions, there was a\ngreat deal of slanderous talk against meditation when they learned of\nBodhi-Dharma\u2019s message.\n\n[f87] Is it possible that this passage has some reference to the\n_Vajrasam\u0101dhi_ where Bodhisattva Mah\u0101bala speaks of a \u201cflaccid mind\u201d\nand a \u201cstrong mind\u201d? The former which is possessed by most common\npeople \u201cpants\u201d (or gasps or hankers) very much, and prevents them from\nsuccessfully attaining to the Tath\u0101gata-dhy\u0101na, while the \u201cstrong\nmind\u201d is characteristic of one who can enter upon the realm of reality\n(_bh\u016btako\u1e6di_). As long as there are \u201cpantings\u201d (or gaspings) in the\nmind, it is not free, it is not liberated, and cannot identify itself\nwith the suchness of reason. The mind must be \u201cstrong\u201d or firm and\nsteady, self-possessed and concentrating, before it is ready for the\nrealisation of Tath\u0101gata-dhy\u0101na\u2014a dhyana going far beyond the reach of\nthe so-called four dhy\u0101nas and eight sam\u0101dhis.\n\n[f88] This subject was treated in another place, though rather\nsketchily, and will be further elaborated later in an independent essay.\n\n[f89] In this connection I wish to make some remarks against certain\nscholars who consider the philosophy of \u015a\u016bnyat\u0101 to be really the\nfoundation of Zen. Such scholars fail utterly to grasp the true\npurport of Zen which is first of all an experience and not at all\na philosophy or dogma. Zen can never be built upon any set of\nmetaphysical or psychological views; the latter may be advanced after\nthe Zen experience has taken place, but never before. The philosophy\nof the Praj\u00f1\u0101p\u0101ramit\u0101 can never precede Zen, but must always follow\nit. Buddhist scholars like those at the time of Dharma are too apt\nto identify teaching and life, theory and experience, description\nand fact. When this confusion is allowed to grow, Zen Buddhism will\ncease to yield an intelligent and satisfactory interpretation. Without\nthe fact of Enlightenment under the Bodhi-tree near the Naira\u00f1jan\u0101,\nno N\u0101g\u0101rjunas could ever hope to write a single book on the Praj\u00f1\u0101\nphilosophy.\n\n[f90] As I stated before, there is a confusion between Dharma\u2019s\n_mien-pi_ habit of sitting and his doctrine of the _pi-kuan_\nmeditation. The confusion dates quite early, and even at the time\nof the author of the _Records_ the original meaning of _pi-kuan_,\nwall-contemplation, must have been lost.\n\n[f91] Sometimes this man is said to be a civilian and sometimes a\nsoldier embracing Confucianism.\n\n[f92] As one can readily see, this story is more or less fictitious. I\nmean Kuang\u2019s standing in the snow and cutting-off of his arm in order\nto demonstrate his earnestness and sincerity. Some think that the snow\nstory and that of self-mutilation do not belong to that of Kuang, but\nborrowed from some other sources, as Tao-hs\u00fcan makes no reference to\nthem in his book. The loss of the arm was due to a party of robbers\nwho attacked Kuang after his interview with Dharma. We have no way to\nverify these stories either way. The whole setting however is highly\ndramatic, and there must have been once in the history of Zen some\nnecessity to interweave imagination largely with facts, whatever they\nmay be.\n\n[f93] According to Hsieh-sung, the author of the _Right Transmission of\nthe Law_, Bodhi-Dharma has here followed N\u0101g\u0101rjuna in the anatomy of\nZen-understanding. For N\u0101g\u0101rjuna says in his famous commentary on the\n_Praj\u00f1\u0101p\u0101ramit\u0101-s\u016btra_, \u201cMoral conduct is the skin, meditation is the\nflesh, the higher understanding is the bone, and the mind subtle and\ngood is the marrow.\u201d \u201cThis subtle mind,\u201d says Hsieh-sung, is what is\nsecretly transmitted from the Buddha to his successors in the faith.\nHe then refers to Chih-I of the Sui dynasty who regards this mind as\nthe abode of all the Buddhas and as the middle way in which there\nis neither unity nor multiplicity and which can never be adequately\nexpressed in words.\n\n[f94] According to this, there must have been a special volume of\nsermons and letters by Hui-k\u2018\u00ea, which were compiled evidently by\nhis disciples and admirers before they were put down in writing and\nthoroughly revised by the author himself. In the case of Bodhi-Dharma\ntoo, according to Tao-hs\u00fcan, his sayings were apparently in circulation\nin the day of Tao-hs\u00fcan, that is, early in the T\u2018ang dynasty.\n\n[f95] Understood by some to be leprosy.\n\n[f96] In the _Vimalak\u012brti_, Chapter III., \u201cThe Disciples,\u201d we have the\nfollowing: \u201cDo not worry about the sins you have committed, O monks,\u201d\nsaid Vimalak\u012brti, \u201cWhy? Because sins are in their essence neither\nwithin nor without nor in the middle. As the Buddha taught us, all\nthings are defiled when Mind is defiled; all things are pure when Mind\nis pure: and Mind is neither within nor without nor in the middle. As\nis Mind, so are sins and defilements, so are all things\u2014they never\ntranscend the suchness of truth.\u201d\n\n[f97] _Hsin_, is one of those Chinese words which defy translation.\nWhen the Indian scholars were trying to translate the Buddhist Sanskrit\nworks into Chinese, they discovered that there were five classes of\nSanskrit terms which could not be satisfactorily rendered into Chinese.\nWe thus find in the Chinese Tripitaka such words as _praj\u00f1\u0101_, _bodhi_,\n_buddha_, _nirv\u0101\u1e47a_, _dhy\u0101na_, _bodhisattva_, etc., almost always\nuntranslated; and they now appear in their original form among the\ntechnical Buddhist terminology. If we could leave _hsin_ with all its\nnuance of meaning in this translation, it would save us from the many\ndifficulties that face us in its English rendering. For _hsin_ means\nmind, heart, soul, spirit\u2014each singly as well as all inclusively. In\nthe present composition by the third patriarch of Zen, it has sometimes\nan intellectual connotation but at other times it can properly be\ndone by \u201cheart.\u201d But as the predominant note of Zen Buddhism is more\nintellectual than anything else, though not in the sense of being\nlogical or philosophical, I decided here to translate _hsin_ by \u201cmind\u201d\nrather than by \u201cheart.\u201d\n\n[f98] This means: When the absolute oneness of things is not properly\nunderstood, negation as well as affirmation will tend to be one-sided\nview of reality. When Buddhists deny the reality of an objective\nworld, they do not mean that they believe in the unconditioned\nemptiness of things; they know that there is something real which\ncannot be done away with. When they uphold the doctrine of void this\ndoes not mean that all is nothing but an empty hollow, which leads\nto a self-contradiction. The philosophy of Zen avoids the error of\none-sidedness involved in realism as well as in idealism.\n\n[f99] I.e., Tat tvam asi.\n\n[f100] There is however a variation from five years to fifteen years\naccording to different authorities.\n\n[f101] These accounts, whether truly historical or not, concerning the\ncontroversy between the two leaders of Zen early in the T\u2018ang dynasty\nprove how heated was the rivalry between the North and the South. The\n_Sermons of the Sixth Patriarch_ (_Fa-pao-tan-ching_) itself appears\nas if written with the sole object of refuting the opponents of the\n\u201cabrupt\u201d school.\n\n[f102] This is a constant refrain in the teaching of the\n_Praj\u00f1\u0101p\u0101ramit\u0101 S\u016btras_\u2014to awaken one\u2019s thought where there is no abode\nwhatever (na kvacit pratish\u1e6dita\u1e41 citta\u1e41 utp\u0101dayitavyam). When J\u014dshu\ncalled on Ungo, the latter asked, \u201cO you, old wanderer! how is it that\nyou do not seek an abiding place for yourself?\u201d \u201cWhere is my abiding\nplace?\u201d \u201cThere is an old temple ruin at the foot of this mountain.\u201d\n\u201cThat is a fitting place for your old self,\u201d responded J\u014dshu. Later,\nhe came to Sh\u016by\u016bsan, who asked him the same question, saying, \u201cO you,\nold wanderer! why don\u2019t you get settled?\u201d \u201cWhere is the place for me to\nget settled?\u201d \u201cWhy, this old wanderer doesn\u2019t know even where to get\nsettled for himself.\u201d Said J\u014dshu, \u201cI have been engaged these thirty\nyears in training horses, and to-day I have been kicked around by a\ndonkey!\u201d\n\n[f103] This is the name of the place where Hui-n\u00eang had his Zen\nheadquarters.\n\n[f104] _Hsing_ means nature, character, essence, soul, or what is\ninnate to one. \u201cSeeing into one\u2019s Nature\u201d is one of the set phrases\nused by the Zen masters, and in fact the avowed object of all Zen\ndiscipline. Satori is its more popular expression. When one gets\ninto the inwardness of things, there is satori. This latter however\nbeing a broad term, can be used to designate any kind of a thorough\nunderstanding, and it is only in Zen that it has a restricted meaning.\nIn this article I have used the term as the most essential thing in\nthe study of Zen; for \u201cseeing into one\u2019s Nature\u201d suggests the idea\nthat Zen has something concrete and substantial which requires being\nseen into by us. This is misleading, though satori too I admit is a\nvague and naturally ambiguous word. For ordinary purposes, not too\nstrictly philosophical, satori will answer, and whenever _chien-hsing_\nis referred to, it means this, the opening of the mental eye. As to the\nsixth patriarch\u2019s view on \u201cseeing into one\u2019s Nature,\u201d see above under\n\u201cHistory of Zen Buddhism.\u201d\n\n[f105] According to the _Mah\u0101parinirv\u0101na-s\u016btra_, translated into\nChinese by Dharmaraksha, A.D. 423, Vol. XXXIII., he was one of the\nthree sons of the Buddha while he was still a Bodhisattva. He was most\nlearned in all Buddhist lore, but his views tended to be nihilistic and\nhe finally fell into hell.\n\n[f106] That is, from the idea that this sitting cross-legged leads to\nBuddhahood. From the earliest periods of Zen in China, the quietist\ntendency has been running along the whole history with the intellectual\ntendency which emphasises the satori element. Even to-day these\ncurrents are represented to a certain extent by the Soto on the one\nhand and the Rinzai on the other, while each has its characteristic\nfeatures of excellence. My own standpoint is that of the intuitionalist\nand not that of the quietist; for the essence of Zen lies in the\nattainment of satori.\n\n[f107] W. Lehmann, _Meister Eckhart_. G\u00f6ttingen, 1917, p. 243. Quoted\nby Prof. Rudolf Otto in his _The Idea of the Holy_, p. 201.\n\n[f108] In Claud Field\u2019s _Mystics and Saints of Islam_ (p. 25), we read\nunder Hasan Basri, \u201cAnother time I saw a child coming toward me holding\na lighted torch in his hand, \u2018Where have you brought the light from?\u2019 I\nasked him. He immediately blew it out, and said to me, \u2018O Hasan, tell\nme where it is gone, and I will tell you whence I fetched.\u2019\u201d Of course\nthe parallel here is only apparent, for Tokusan got his enlightenment\nfrom quite a different source than the mere blowing out of the candle.\nStill the parallel in itself is interesting enough to be quoted here.\n\n[f109] See the Essay entitled \u201cPractical Methods of Zen Instruction.\u201d\n\n[f110] The lightning simile in the _Kena-Upanished_ (IV. 30), as is\nsupposed by some scholars, is not to depict the feeling of inexpressive\nawe as regards the nature of Brahman, but it illustrates the bursting\nout of enlightenment upon consciousness. \u201cA\u2014a\u2014ah\u201d is most significant\nhere.\n\n[f111] This is spread before the Buddha and on it the master performs\nhis bowing ceremony, and its rolling up naturally means the end of a\nsermon.\n\n[f112] _Tou chi chia_, meaning \u201cthe verse of mutual understanding\u201d\nwhich takes place when the master\u2019s mind and the disciple\u2019s are merged\nin each other\u2019s.\n\n[f113] It was originally a mosquito driver, but now it is a symbol of\nreligious authority. It has a short handle, a little over a foot long\nand a longer tuft of hair, usually a horse\u2019s tail or a yak\u2019s.\n\n[f114] In the Chinese Notes I have added six more such verses which may\nfurther help the reader to gain an insight into the content of satori.\n\n[f115] This is one of the most noted k\u014d-an and generally given to the\nuninitiated as an eye-opener. When J\u014dshu was asked by a monk whether\nthere was Buddha-Nature in the dog, the master answered \u201cMu!\u201d (_wu_ in\nChinese), which literally means \u201cno.\u201d But as it is nowadays understood\nby the followers of Rinzai, it does not mean anything negative as\nthe term may suggest to us ordinarily, it refers to something most\nassuredly positive, and the novice is told to find it out by himself,\nnot depending upon others (_aparapaccaya_), as no explanation will be\ngiven nor is any possible. This k\u014d-an is popularly known as \u201cJ\u014dshu\u2019s Mu\nor Muji.\u201d A k\u014d-an is a theme or statement or question given to the Zen\nstudent for solution, which will lead him to a spiritual insight. The\nsubject will be fully treated in the Second Series of the Essays in Zen\nBuddhism.\n\n[f116] Another k\u014d-an for beginners. A monk once asked J\u014dshu, \u201cAll\nthings return to the One, but where does the One return?\u201d to which the\nmaster answered, \u201cWhen I was in the province of Seiju (Ts\u2018ing-chou), I\nhad a monkish garment made which weighed seven kin (_chin_).\n\n[f117] He is the founder of the modern Japanese Rinzai school of Zen.\nAll the masters belonging to this school at present in Japan trace back\ntheir line of transmission to Hakuin.\n\n[f118] Literally, \u201ca great doubt\u201d, but it does not mean that, as the\nterm \u201cdoubt\u201d is not understood here in its ordinary sense. It means a\nstate of concentration brought to the highest pitch.\n\n[f119] Ganto (Yen-t\u2018ou, 828\u2014887) was one of the great Zen teachers in\nthe T\u2018ang dynasty. But he was murdered by an outlaw when his death-cry\nis said to have reached many miles around. When Hakuin first studied\nZen, this tragic incident in the life of an eminent Zen master who is\nsupposed to be above all human ailments, troubled him very much, and\nhe wondered if Zen were really the gospel of salvation. Hence this\nallusion to Ganto. Notice also here that what Hakuin discovered was a\nliving person and not an abstract reason or anything conceptual. Zen\nleads us ultimately to somewhat living, working, and this is known as\n\u201cseeing into one\u2019s own Nature\u201d (_chien-hsing_). The Chinese Notes,\n[5.39].\n\n[f120] K\u014d-ans (_kung-an_) are sometimes called \u201ccomplications,\u201d\n(_k\u00ea-t\u2018\u00eang_) literally meaning \u201cvines and wistarias\u201d which are\nentwining and entangling; for according to the masters there ought not\nto be any such thing as a k\u014d-an in the very nature of Zen, it was an\nunnecessary invention making things more entangled and complicated than\never before. The truth of Zen has no need for k\u014d-ans. It is supposed\nthat there are one thousand seven hundred k\u014d-ans which will test the\ngenuineness of satori.\n\n[f121] Tsu-y\u00fcan (1226\u20131286) came to Japan when the H\u014dj\u014d family was in\npower at Kamakura. He established the Engakuji monastery which is one\nof the chief Zen monasteries in Japan. While still in China his temple\nwas invaded by soldiers of the Y\u00fcan dynasty, who threatened to kill\nhim, but Bukko was immovable and quietly uttered the following verse:\n\n  \u201cThroughout heaven and earth there is not a piece of ground where a\n     single stick could be inserted;\n   I am glad that all things are void, myself and the world:\n   Honoured be the sword, three feet long, wielded by the great Y\u00fcan\n     swordsmen;\n   For it is like cutting a spring breeze amidst the flashes of\n     lightning.\u201d\n\nSee Chinese Notes, [5.40].\n\n[f122] That is, sitting cross-legged in meditation.\n\n[f123] This lively utterance remind one of a lightning simile in the\n_Kena-Upanishad_ (IV. 30):\n\n  \u201cThis is the way It [that is, Brahman] is to be illustrated:\n   When lightnings have been loosened,\u2014\n     a\u2014a\u2014ah!\n   When that has made the eyes to be closed,\u2014\n     a\u2014a\u2014ah!\n   So far concerning Deity [devata].\u201d\n\nLightning flash is a favourite analogue with the Zen masters too; the\nunexpected onrush of satori into the ordinary field of consciousness\nhas something of the nature of lightning. It comes so suddenly and when\nit comes the world is at once illumined and revealed in its entirety\nand in its harmonious oneness; but when it vanishes everything falls\nback into its old darkness and confusion.\n\n[f124] Pao-tz\u2018u W\u00ean-ch\u2018in, a disciple of Pao-fu Ts\u2018ung-chan, who died\n928 A.D.\n\n[f125] Another time when J\u014dshu was asked about the \u201cfirst word,\u201d he\ncoughed. The monk remarked, \u201cIs this not it?\u201d \u201cWhy, an old man is not\neven allowed to cough!\u201d\u2014this came quickly from the old master. J\u014dshu\nhad still another occasion to express his view on the one word. A monk\nasked, \u201cWhat is the one word?\u201d Demanded the master, \u201cWhat do you say?\u201d\n\u201cWhat is the one word?\u201d\u2014the question was repeated when J\u014dshu gave his\nverdict, \u201cYou make it two.\u201d (Ch. N., [3].)\n\nShuzan (Shu-shan) was once asked, \u201cAn old master says, \u2018There is one\nword which when understood wipes out the sins of innumerable kalpas:\u2019\nwhat is this one word?\u201d Shuzan answered, \u201cRight under your nose!\u201d \u201cWhat\nis the ultimate meaning of it?\u201d \u201cThis is all I can say\u201d:\u2014this was the\nconclusion of the master. (Ch. N., [4].)\n\n[f126] There are many mondoes purporting to the same subject. The\nbest known one by J\u014dshu is quoted elsewhere; of others we mention the\nfollowing. A monk asked Risan (Li-shan), \u201cAll things are reduced to\nemptiness, but where is emptiness reduced?\u201d Risan answered, \u201cThe tongue\nis too short to explain it to you.\u201d \u201cWhy is it too short?\u201d \u201cWithin and\nwithout, it is of one suchness,\u201d said the master. (Ch. N., [6].)\n\nA monk asked Keisan (Ch\u2018i-shan), \u201cWhen relations are dissolved, all\nis reduced to emptiness; but where is emptiness reduced?\u201d The master\ncalled out to the monk, and the monk responded, \u201cYes,\u201d whereupon the\nmaster called his attention, saying, \u201cWhere is emptiness?\u201d Said the\nmonk, \u201cPray, you tell me.\u201d Keisan replied, \u201cIt is like the Persian\ntasting pepper.\u201d While the one light is an etiological question as long\nas its origin is the point at issue, the questions here referred to are\nteleological because the ultimate reduction of emptiness is the subject\nfor solution. But as Zen transcends time and history, it recognises\nonly one beginningless and endless course of becoming. When we know the\norigin of the one light, we also know where emptiness ends. (Ch. N.,\n[7].)\n\n[f127] Another time a monk was told, \u201cHold on to your poverty!\u201d Nan-yin\nYegu\u2019s (Nan-y\u00fcan Hui-y\u00fc) answer to his poverty-stricken monk was more\nconsoling, \u201cYou hold a handful of jewels yourself.\u201d The subject of\npoverty is the all-important one in our religious experience\u2014poverty\nnot only in the material but also in the spiritual sense. Asceticism\nmust have as its ground-principle a far deeper sense than to be merely\ncurving human desires and passions, there must be in it something\npositive and highly religious. \u201cTo be poor in spirit,\u201d whatever meaning\nit may have in Christianity, is rich in signification for Buddhists,\nespecially for Zen followers. A monk, Sei-jei (Ch\u2018ing-shi), came to\nSozan (Ts\u2018ao-shan), a great master of the S\u014dt\u014d school in China, and\nsaid, \u201cI am a poor lonely monk: pray have pity on me.\u201d \u201cO monk, come on\nforward!\u201d Whereupon the monk approached the master, who then exclaimed,\n\u201cAfter enjoying three cupfuls of fine _chiu_ (liquor) brewed at\nCh\u2018ing-y\u00fcan, do you still protest that your lips are not at all wet?\u201d\nAs to another aspect of poverty, cf. Hsiang-yen\u2019s poem of poverty.\n\n[f128] An analogous story is told of Sekito Kisen (Shih-t\u2018ou\nHsi-ch\u2018ien) who is grandson in faith of the sixth patriarch. The story\nis quoted elsewhere.\n\n[f129] When this is literally translated, it grows too long and loses\nmuch of its original force. The Chinese runs thus: _hao li yu ch\u2018a\nt\u2018ien ti hs\u00fcan ch\u00fceh_. It may better be rendered, \u201cAn inch\u2019s difference\nand heaven and earth are set apart.\u201d\n\n[f130] That is, Ts\u2018ao-ch\u2018i, where the sixth patriarch of Zen used to\nreside. It is the birthplace of Chinese Zen Buddhism.\n\n[f131] Does this not remind us of an old mystic who defined God as an\nunutterable sigh?\n\n[f132] A monk asked Hs\u00fcan-sha, \u201cWhat is the idea of the National\nTeacher\u2019s calling out to his attendant?\u201d Said Hs\u00fcan-sha, \u201cThe attendant\nknows well.\u201d Y\u00fcn-ch\u00fc Hsi commented on this: \u201cDoes the attendant really\nknow, or does he not? If we say he does, why does the National Teacher\nsay, \u2018It is you that are not fair to me\u2019? But if the attendant knows\nnot, how about Hs\u00fcan-sha\u2019s assertion? What would be our judgment of the\ncase?\u201d\n\nHs\u00fcan-chiao Ch\u00eang said to a monk, \u201cWhat is the point the attendant\nunderstands?\u201d Replied the monk, \u201cIf he did not understand, he would\nnever have responded.\u201d Hs\u00fcan-chiao said, \u201cYou seem to understand some.\u201d\n\nA monk asked Fa-yen, \u201cWhat is the idea of the National Teacher\u2019s\ncalling out to his attendant?\u201d Fa-yen said, \u201cYou go away now, and come\nback some other time.\u201d Remarked Y\u00fcn-ch\u00fc, \u201cWhen Fa-yen says this, does\nhe really know what the National Teacher\u2019s idea is? or does he not?\u201d\n\nA monk approached Chao-chou with the same question, to which he\nreplied, \u201cIt is like writing characters in the dark: while the\ncharacters are not properly formed, their outlines are plainly\ntraceable.\u201d\n\n[f133] Literally, \u201cA day [of] no work [is] a day [of] no eating.\u201d cf.\nII. Thessalonians, III., 10: \u201cIf any would not work, neither should he\neat.\u201d It is noteworthy that St. Francis of Assisi made this the first\nrule of his Brotherhood.\n\n[f134] _Tso ch\u2018an_ is one of those compound Buddhist terms made of\nSanskrit and Chinese. _Tso_ is Chinese meaning \u201cto sit,\u201d while _ch\u2018an_\nstands for _dhy\u0101na_ or _jh\u0101na_. The full transliteration of the term is\n_ch\u2018anna_, but for brevity\u2019s sake the first character alone has been\nin use. The combination of _tso-ch\u2018an_ comes from the fact that dhyana\nis always practised by sitting cross-legged. This posture has been\nconsidered by the Indians the best way of sitting for a long while in\nmeditation. In it, according to some Japanese physicians, the centre of\ngravitation rests firmly in the lower regions of the body, and when the\nhead is relieved of an unusual congestion of blood, the whole system\nwill work in perfect order and the mind be put in suitable mood to take\nin the truth of Zen.\n\n[f135] He was the noted Confucian disciple of Baso (Ma-tsu), and his\nwife and daughter were also devoted Zen followers. When he thought the\ntime had come for him to pass away, he told his daughter to watch the\ncourse of the sun and let him know when it was midday. The daughter\nhurriedly came back and told the father that the sun had already passed\nthe meridian and was about to be eclipsed. H\u014d came out, and while he\nwas watching the said eclipse, she went in, took her father\u2019s own seat,\nand passed away in meditation. When the father saw his daughter already\nin Nirvana, he said, \u201cWhat a quick-witted girl she is!\u201d H\u014d himself\npassed away some days later.\n\n[f136] This historical temple was unfortunately destroyed by the\nearthquake of 1923, with many other buildings.\n\n[f137] In those monasteries which are connected in some way with the\nauthor of this admonition, it is read or rather chanted before a\nlecture or _Teisho_ begins.\n\n[f138] I must not forget to mention that after the reading of the\n_H\u1e5bidaya S\u016btra_ the following names of the Buddhas and others are\ninvoked: 1. Vairocana-Buddha in his immaculate Body of the Law, 2.\nVairocana-Buddha in his perfect Body of Bliss, 3. \u015a\u0101kyamuni-Buddha\nin his infinite manifestations as Body of Transformation, 4.\nMaitreya-Buddha who is to come in some future time, 5. All the\nBuddhas past, present, and future in the ten quarters of the world,\n6. The great holy Bodhisattva Ma\u00f1ju\u015br\u012b, 7. The great morally-perfect\nBodhisattva Samantabhadra, 8. The great compassionate Bodhisattva\nAvalokite\u015bvara, 9. All the venerable Bodhisattva-mah\u0101sattvas, and 10.\nMah\u0101praj\u00f1\u0101p\u0101ramit\u0101.\n\n[f139] When the slop-basin goes around, spiritual beings are again\nremembered: \u201cThis water in which my bowls were washed tastes like\nnectar from heaven. I now offer this to the numerous spirits of the\nworld: may they all be filled and satisfied! Om ma-ku-ra-sai (in\nPekingese, _mo-hsiu-lo-hsi_) sv\u0101ha!\u201d\n\n[f140] This question of dust reminds one of Berkeley\u2019s remark: \u201cWe have\njust raised a dust and then complain we cannot see.\u201d\n\n[f141] _Sh\u00ea-li_, is some indestructible substance, generally in\npebble-form, found in the body of a saint when it is cremated.\n\n[f142] _Kung-an_ is a question or theme given to the student for\nsolution. It literally means \u201cpublic document,\u201d and, according to a\nZen scholar, it is so called because it serves as such in testing the\ngenuineness of enlightenment a student claims to have attained. The\nterm has been in use since the early days of Zen Buddhism in the T\u2018ang\ndynasty. The so-called \u201ccases\u201d or \u201cdialogues\u201d (_mondo_) are generally\nused as k\u014d-ans. A special chapter devoted to the subject will be found\nin the second series of The Essays.\n\n[f143] I cannot tell how early this \u201cSesshin\u201d originated in the history\nof the Zendo. It is not in Hyakujo\u2019s Regulations, and did not start in\nChina but in Japan probably after Hakuin. The Sojourn period generally\nbeing a \u201cstay at home\u201d season, the monks do not travel, but practise\n\u201cSesshin\u201d and devote themselves to the study of Zen; but in the week\nspecially set up as such, the study is pursued with the utmost vigour.\n\n[f144] That is, _ti-ch\u2018ang_. _Tei_ means \u201cto carry in hand,\u201d \u201cto show\nforth,\u201d or \u201cmanifest,\u201d and _sho_ \u201cto recite.\u201d Thus by a Teisho the\nold master is revived before the congregation and his discourses are\nmore or less vividly presented to view. It is not merely explaining or\ncommenting on the text.\n\n[f145] Dhara\u1e47\u012b is a Sanskrit term which comes from the root _dh\u1e5bi_,\nmeaning \u201cto hold.\u201d In Buddhist phraseology, it is a collection,\nsometimes short, sometimes long, of exclamatory sentences which are\nnot translated into other languages. It is not therefore at all\nintelligible when it is read by the monks as it is done in the Chinese\nand Japanese monasteries. But it is supposed to \u201chold\u201d in it in some\nmysterious way something that is most meritorious and has the power to\nkeep evil ones away. Later, dharanis and mantrams have grown confused\nwith one another.\n\n[f146] The founder of Tenryuji, Kyoto. He is known as \u201cTeacher of Seven\nEmperors.\u201d 1274\u20131361.\n\n[f147] _San-ch\u2018an_ literally means \u201cto attend or study Zen.\u201d As it is\npopularly used now in Japan, it has, besides its general meaning, the\nspecial one as is referred to in the text.\n\n[f148] Formerly, this was an open affair, and all the mondos\n(askings and answerings) took place before the whole congregation,\nas is stated in the Regulations of Hyakujo. But, later, undesirable\nresults followed, such as mere formalism, imitations, and other empty\nnonsenses. In modern Zen, therefore, all sanzen is private, except on\nformal occasions.\n\n[f149] While thus going around, he came to a house where an old woman\nrefused to give him any rice; he however kept on standing in front of\nit, looking as if nothing were said to him. His mind was so intensely\nconcentrated on the subject which concerned him most at the time. The\nwoman got angry, because she thought he was altogether ignoring her\nand trying to have his own way. She struck him with a big broom with\nwhich she was sweeping and told him to depart right at once. The heavy\nbroom smashed his large monkish hat and knocked him down on the ground.\nHe was lying there for a while, and when he came to sense again,\neverything became to him clear and transparent.\n\n[f150] As to the life of his teacher, Daito, reference was made to it\nelsewhere.\n\n[f151] The wind is probably one of the best imageries to get us into\nthe idea of non-attachment or \u015a\u016bnyat\u0101 philosophy. The New Testament\nhas at least one allusion to it when it says, \u201cThe wind bloweth as it\nlisteth,\u201d and here we see the Chinese mystics making use of the wind\nto depict his inner consciousness of absolute identity, which is also\nthe Buddhist notion of the void. Now compare the following passage\nfrom Echkart: Darum ruft die Braue auch weiter: \u201cWeiche von mir, mein\nGeliebter, weiche von mir\u201d: \u201cAlles, was irgend der Darstellung f\u00e4hig\nist, das halte ich nicht f\u00fcr Gott. Und so fliehe ich vor Gott, Gottes\nwegen!\u201d\u2014\u2018Ei, wo ist dann der Seele Bleiben?\u2019\u2014\u201cAuf den Fittichen der\nWinde!\u201d (B\u00fcttner, _Meister Eckeharts Schriften und Predigten_, Erster\nBand, p. 189.) \u201cSo flieche ich vor Gott, Gottes wegen,\u201d reminds us of a\nZen master who said, \u201cI hate even to hear the name of the Buddha.\u201d From\nthe Zen point of view, \u201cGottes wegen,\u201d may better be left out.\n\n[f152] The full passage is: \u201cHe who seeks learnedness gets daily\nenriched. He who seeks the Tao is daily made poor. He is made poorer\nand poorer until he arrives at non-action (_wu wei_). With non-action,\nthere is nothing that he cannot achieve.\u201d (Chap. 48.)\n\n[f153]\n\n  Na v\u0101sanair bhidyate cit na citta\u1e41 v\u0101sanai\u1e25 saha,\n  Abbinnalaksha\u1e47a\u1e41 citta\u1e41 v\u0101sanai\u1e25 pariveshtitar\u1e41.\n  Malavad v\u0101san\u0101 yasya manovij\u00f1\u0101na-sambhav\u0101,\n  Pata-\u015buklopama\u1e41 citta\u1e41 v\u0101sanair na vir\u0101jate.\n  Yath\u0101 na bh\u0101vo n\u0101bh\u0101vo gagana\u1e41 kathyate may\u0101,\n  \u0100laya\u1e41 hi tath\u0101 k\u0101ya bh\u0101v\u0101bh\u0101va-vivarjita\u1e41.\n  Manovij\u00f1\u0101na vy\u0101v\u1e5bitta\u1e41 citta\u1e41 k\u0101lusbya varjitam,\n  Sarvadharm\u0101vabodhena citta\u1e41 buddha\u1e41 vad\u0101myaham.\n\n_The La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra_, p. 296.\n\n[f154] Not an ordinary question asking enlightenment, but one that\nhas a point in it showing some understanding on the part of the\ninquirer. All those questions already quoted must not be taken in\ntheir superficial or literary sense. They are generally metaphors. For\ninstance, when one asks about a phrase having no shadow, he does not\nmean any ordinary ensemble of words known grammatically as such, but\nan absolute proposition whose verity is so beyond a shadow of doubt\nthat every rational being will at once recognise as true on hearing it.\nAgain, when reference is made to murdering a parent or a Buddha, it\nhas really nothing to do with such horrible crimes, but as we have in\nRinzai\u2019s sermon elsewhere, the murdering is transcending the relativity\nof a phenomenal world. Ultimately, therefore, this question amounts to\nthe same thing as asking \u201cWhere is the one to be reduced, when the many\nare reduced to the one?\u201d\n\n[f155] This means Buddha who is supposed by Buddhists to have been the\nowner of a golden-coloured body, sixteen feet in height.\n\n[f156] Generally after a sermon the monks come out and ask various\nquestions bearing on the subject of the sermon, though frequently\nindifferent ones are asked too.\n\n[f157] See the article on the \u201cHistory of Zen Buddhism,\u201d p. 149 et seq.\n\n[f158] For detail see \u201cPractical Methods of Zen Instruction.\u201d\n\n[f159] Cf. also \u201cHistory of Zen Buddhism\u201d where reference is made to\nthe Northern and Southern school of Zen under the fifth patriarch in\nChina.\n\n[f160] See for detail p. 177, \u201cHistory of Zen.\u201d\n\n[f161] According to Fariduddin Attar, A.D. 1119\u20131229, of Khorassan,\nPersia, Cf. Claud Field\u2019s _Mystics and Saints of Islam_, p. 123 et seq.\n\n[f162] Underhill\u2014_Mysticism_, p. 369.\n\n[f163] After this book went to the press, I have come across an old\nedition of the spiritual cow-herding pictures, which end with an empty\ncircle corresponding to the eighth of the present series. Is this the\nwork of Seikyo as referred to in Kakuan\u2019s Preface? The cow is shown to\nbe whitening here gradually with the progress of discipline. I may have\nan occasion later to reproduce this edition.\n\n[f164] See also a Sutra in the Anguttara \u0100gama bearing the same\ntitle, which is evidently another translation of the same text. Also\ncompare \u201cThe Herdsman, I.,\u201d in _The First Fifty Discourses of Gotama\nthe Buddha_; Vol. II., by Bhikkhu S\u012bl\u0101c\u0101ra. Leipzig, 1913. This a\npartial translation of the Majjhima Nik\u0101ya of the Pali Tripitaka.\nThe eleven items as enumerated in the Chinese version are just a\nlittle differently given. Essentially of course, they are the same\nin both texts. A Buddhist dictionary called _Daizo Hossu_ gives\nreference on the subject to the great Mahayana work of N\u0101g\u0101rjuna,\nthe _M\u0101h\u0101pr\u0101j\u00f1\u0101p\u0101ramit\u0101-\u015a\u0101stra_, but so far I have not been able to\nidentify the passage.\n\n[f165] The ten pictures reproduced here were specially prepared for the\nauthor by Reverend Seisetsu Seki, Abbot of Tenryuji, Kyoto, which is\none of the principal historical Zen monasteries in Japan. The original\nChinese verses with their introductory notes are found in the Appendix.\n\n[f166] It will be interesting to note what a mystic philosopher would\nsay about this: \u201cA man shall become truly poor and as free from his\ncreature will as he was when he was born. And I say to you, by the\neternal truth, that as long as ye desire to fulfil the will of God, and\nhave any desire after eternity and God; so long are ye not truly poor.\nHe alone hath true spiritual poverty who wills nothing, knows nothing,\ndesires nothing.\u201d\u2014(From Eckhart as quoted by Inge in _Light, Life, and\nLove_.)\n\n\n\n\n                                 INDEX\n\n\n                                 INDEX\n\n\u201cAbrupt\u201d school, 350.\n\n{Account of Succession in the Law}, 158.\n\n{Accounts of the Orthodox Transmission of the Dharma}, by Ch\u2018i-Sung,\n  156.\n\n\u0100dar\u015ba-J\u00f1\u0101na (mirror-insight), 131f.\n\n{Amit\u0101bha S\u016btra}, (Chinese), 193, see also {Sukh\u0101vat\u012bvy\u016bha}.\n\nAn\u0101bhogacary\u0101 (act of no-purpose), 66fn., 82.\n\n\u0100nanda, 55, 59, and Akshobhya, 284.\n\nAnuttara-samyak-sambodhi (supreme, perfect enlightenment), 58, 78;\n  see also Enlightenment.\n\nArada (or \u0100l\u0101ra K\u0101l\u0101ma), 71fn., 145.\n\nArhat, qualified, 60.\n\nArhatship, 51, 56, 121.\n\n{Ariyapariyesana-suttam}, 38fn.\n\nAsanga, 55.\n\n\u0100\u015brava (leakage), 50fn.\n\nA\u015bvaghosha, 55, 56fn., 145, 161.\n\nA\u015bvajit, 58.\n\n{Avata\u1e41saka S\u016btra} (Chinese), 89.\n\n{Awakening of Faith, the}, by A\u015bvaghosha, 56.\n\n\nB\u0101hva, 89.\n\nBasho (Pa-chiao), on \u201cshuj\u014d,\u201d 259, silent, 281.\n\nBaso (Ma-tsu), 16, 30, 163, 190, 199, 218, 221f.; in his sick bed, 269;\n  his \u201cKwats!\u201d 279f.; and T\u014d-Impo, 291.\n\nBerkeley, on dust, 313fn.\n\nBh\u016btat\u0101, 79.\n\nBh\u016btatathat\u0101, 131.\n\n{Biographies of the High Priests}, by Tao-hs\u00fcan, 163.\n\nBlack-nails, the Brahman, 161.\n\nBlake, 267.\n\nBliss-bestowing, 366.\n\nBodhi, 79ff.; see also Enlightenment.\n\nBodhi-Dharma (Daruma, Tamo), 8, 24, 74, 82, 93, 94, 96, 156, 218; the\n  g\u0101th\u0101 by, 160; his life, 163ff.; Six Essays by, 165fn.; his life by\n  Donrin, 167; and the emperor of Liang, 175; in Wei, 176; and his\n  disciples, 177; and N\u0101g\u0101rjuna, 177fn.; his last days, 178;\n  his coming from West, 266; and a nun, 284; and his four disciples,\n  351.\n\nBodhiruci, a translator of the {La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra}, 74.\n\nBodhisattvahood, 63; contrasted with Arhatship, 52.\n\n{Bodhisattva-s\u012bla S\u016btra}, (Chinese,) 193, 205.\n\nBodhism, 152.\n\nBoehme, Jacob, 114.\n\nBokitsu (Mu-chi), on staff, 20.\n\nBokuju (Mu-chou), on staff, 21; treatment of Ummon, 10; on dressing and\n  eating, 12f.; on teacher of Buddhas, 269; on Zen, 269; on doctrine\n  going beyond Buddhas, 269f.\n\n{Brahmaj\u0101la}, 50fn., 51.\n\nBuddha, his deification, 33; no metaphysician, 39; motherly, 40;\n  deified, 40fn.; as the world-light, 41; the reason of his appearance,\n  61; his secluded habit, 68; as a magician, 86; his personality, 101;\n  his personal experience, 107; his predecessors, 108; his reluctance to\n  preach, 109; his proclamation to Upaka 115; and metaphysics, 124ff.;\n  as empiricist, 127; his g\u0101th\u0101 of law-transmission, 159; and an old\n  lady, 162; as mind, 220.\n\n{Buddhacarita}, by A\u015bvaghosha, 145.\n\nBuddhas, the six, 158; invoked at meal, 310fn.\n\nBuddhism, and its founder, 31ff.; and its Pali scholars, 37; as a life,\n  37; as the teaching of the Buddha, 37; and its divisions, 42; as a\n  living system of Buddhist experience, 42, 44; its vital problems,\n  43ff.; its essence, 44; to be comprehensively and inwardly\n  conceived, 48; Buddhism, growing beyond monasticism, 62ff.; and women,\n  64; Chinese, characterised, 93; persecuted in China, 95; its influence\n  on Taoism, 98; acting on Confucian ideas, 99; defined, 101.\n\nBuilder (or designer, gah\u0101kara), 117; see also Ego.\n\nBukk\u014d (Fo-kuang), or Tsu-y\u00fcan, 239f.; his t\u014dki-no-g\u00e9, 241fn.\n\nBunki (Wen-hsi), silent, 281.\n\n\n{Candrottara-d\u0101rik\u0101 S\u016btra}, (Chinese) 64.\n\nCarlyle, Thomas, 2.\n\nCatushkotika, four logical propositions, 260.\n\n{Cause and Effect in the Past and Present, Sutra on the}, 36fn.\n\nCausation, the twelvefold chain of, 37, 55, 57, 108, 117, 126, 153,\n  154; see also under Origination.\n\nCetovimutti, 60.\n\nChao-chou, see J\u014dsh\u016b.\n\nCh\u2018\u00eang-hao, Confucian philosopher, 99.\n\nCh\u2018\u00eang-i, Confucian philosopher, 99.\n\nChien-ku, 69.\n\nChih-chiang-liang-lou, a Buddhist translator, 158.\n\nChih-I (Chigi), a Buddhist philosopher, 94, 100, 143, 190.\n\nChih-y\u00fceh (Chiyaku), a Buddhist from India, 202.\n\nChih-huang (Chiko), disciple of Hui-n\u00eang, 208f.\n\nChinese language, as vehicle of Zen, 337f.\n\nChinese mind, compared with the Indian, 83ff.; practical, 90.\n\nCh\u014d-kei (Ch\u2018ang-ching), his t\u014dki-no-g\u00e9, 233f.; on Suigan\u2019s eyebrows,\n  279.\n\nChosa (Ch\u2018ang-sha), on Nansen\u2019s death, 17; on earthworm, 313; on the\n  self, 273.\n\nCh\u014dyetsu (Ch\u2018ang-shuo), a Chinese officer, 193.\n\nCh\u014dsui (Ch\u2018ang-shui), on the evolution of the absolute, 272.\n\nChou-tun-i, a Chinese philosopher, 99.\n\nChrist, in the light of Zen, 330.\n\nChristian mystics, 353.\n\nChristianity, and its founder, 35ff.; symbolic, 141.\n\nChu (Chung), the national teacher, 327; calling to his attendant, 288.\n\nChuang-tz\u016d, 89, 100.\n\nChu-hsi, a Chinese philosopher, 99.\n\nCitta, 80.\n\nConfucius, 2, 5, 10.\n\nContradictions, in Zen, 264ff.\n\nCounter-questioning, in Zen, 281ff.\n\nCow, revered by the Indians, 355; on the herding of, 355; gone out of\n  sight, 364; forgotten, 363; on the back of, 362; herding the, 361;\n  seeing the traces of the, 358; seeing the, 359; catching the, 360;\n  looking for the, 357.\n\n\nDaizui (Tai-sui), on self, 282.\n\nDaruma (or Tamo), see Bodhi-Dharma.\n\nDemocracy, in the monastery, 313.\n\nDesigner (or builder, gah\u0101kara), 117.\n\n{Dhammap\u0101da}, 55, 134, 135.\n\nDharan\u012b, 320fn.\n\nDharma, the, 58; and Buddhist life, 37; the comprehensive, 39; manifest\n  in the Buddha, 40; defined, 50; the eye of, 53.\n\nDharmak\u0101ya, 34fn., 76.\n\nDh\u1e5bitaka, a Zen patriarch, 159.\n\nDhy\u0101na (jh\u0101na), and Praj\u00f1\u0101, 34ff.; and Zen, 67ff.; against\n  antinomianism, 67; different kinds of, 71ff.; four kinds of, in the\n  {La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra}, 81; the true, defined in the Samyukta-\u0101gama, 81fn.;\n  distinguished from Zen, 93; as a spiritual exercise, 154f.; the\n  Tath\u0101gata, 210; the patriarchal, 210; see also under Zen.\n\nDirect action, in Zen, 277ff.\n\nDirect method, in Zen, 283ff.\n\n{Discipline, Sutra on the Story of}, Chinese, 38.\n\nDiscipline (\u015biksha), the threefold, 69, 135.\n\nD\u014dfuku (Tao-fu), disciple of Bodhi-Dharma, 177.\n\nD\u014dgo (Tao-wu), Yenchi, disciple of Yakusan, knows not his master, 265;\n  with Yakusan, 287.\n\nD\u014dgo, Tenno, instructing Ry\u016btan, 287.\n\nD\u014diku (Tao-yu), disciple of Bodhi-Dharma, 166, 177.\n\nD\u014dsan (Tung-shan), 97.\n\nD\u014dshin (Tao-hsin), 182, 187; and H\u014dyu (Fa-jung), 188f.\n\nDu\u1e25kha (pain), 141.\n\n{Eastern Buddhist}, the, vi, 1fn.\n\nEating, in the monastery, 310ff.\n\nEckhart, cited, 114, 223, 255, 258, 268, 271, 305, 331fn., 364.\n\nEgo, 4; -centric, 4; -substance, not existent, 46, 47.\n\nEkacitta (one thought), 113.\n\nEkottara-\u0101gama, 34fn., 40fn.\n\nEmerson, on imagination, 293.\n\nEmptiness (\u015b\u016bnat\u0101), 178ff.; as poverty, 336.\n\nEngakuji, in Kamakura, 306.\n\nEnlightenment, and darkness, 13; essence of Buddhism, 44; and Nirvana,\n  45; attainable by us, 47; its relation to Zen, 49ff.; as the Dharma,\n  50; as Nirvana, 51; not intellectual, 56, 111; as final truth, 57; in\n  the {La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra}, 60; not discursive understanding, 61; and spiritual\n  freedom, 62ff.; fuller expression of life, 73; not conceptual, 81; in\n  the {Saddharma-pu\u1e47\u1e0dar\u012bka}, 84; as a significant fact in the Buddha\u2019s\n  life, 101; and intellection, 107; and ignorance, 107ff.; and the will,\n  119; as affirmation, 127; not nihilistic, 130; not a passive\n  reflection, 132; and sam\u0101dhi (or dhy\u0101na), 133ff.; a returning, 138ff.;\n  and the intellect, 139ff.; synthetical, 141; not negative, 144; as\n  essential fact of Buddhism, 152ff.; as satori, 215; graded, 349ff.\n\nEverlasting No, 2.\n\nEverlasting Yea, 2.\n\nEye (insight), 109.\n\nExclamation, in Zen, 278ff.\n\n\n{Fa-pao-tan-ching}, by Hui-n\u00eang, 201fn., 202f.\n\nFinger, pointing at the moon, 7.\n\n{First Fifty Discourses of the Buddha}, tr. by S\u012bl\u0101c\u0101ra, 355fn.\n\nFreedom, spiritual, 121.\n\nFu-hsi (Fuky\u014d, or Fudaishi), 189, 258.\n\n\n{Ga\u1e47\u1e0davy\u016bha S\u016btra}, Chinese, 64.\n\nGant\u014d (Yen-tou), 239f.\n\nG\u0101th\u0101s of transmission, 159.\n\nGenkaku (Hs\u00fcan-chiao), 207.\n\nGenkaku cho (Hs\u00fcan-chiao Ch\u00eang); on Chu the national teacher, 288fn.\n\nGensaku (Hs\u00fcan-t\u2018s\u00ea), 208f.\n\nGensha (Hs\u00fcan-sha), in water, 277; on self, 277; on transparent\n  crystal, 277f.; on the murmuring of a stream, 278; and a piece of\n  cake, 278; on Chu the national teacher, 288fn.\n\nGensoku (Hs\u00fcan-t\u2018s\u00ea), and the god of fire, 294.\n\nGodaishi (Wu-tao-tz\u016d), and the emperor Hs\u00fcan-tsung, 292f.\n\nGod-consciousness, in Zen, 336.\n\nGoroku (Y\u00fc-lu), sayings, III., IV.; Chinese colloquialism in, 97.\n\nGozusan (Niu-tou-shan), 187.\n\n\u201cGradual\u201d school, in Zen, 350.\n\nGunabhadra, a translator of the {La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra}, 74, 202.\n\nGunin (Hung-j\u00ean), the fifth patriarch, 30, 196, 173, 187, 189, 191.\n\nGutei (Chuh-chih), one finger Zen, 22fn.\n\nGwarin, (Wo-luan) a disciple of the sixth Patriarch, 209.\n\n\nHaiky\u016b (P\u2018ei Hsiu), and \u014cbaku, 266f., 289.\n\nHakuin; 238ff., 267, 327; on Ummon\u2019s \u201cKwan!\u201d 279; Song of Zasen, 322f.;\n  and his teacher Sh\u014dju, 324f.\n\n{Hekiganshu}, an important book on Zen, 22fn., 320.\n\nHerbert, George, cited, 305.\n\nHima (Pi-mo), with his forked stick, 261.\n\nHinayanism, as ascetic formalism, 64.\n\nHofuku (Pao-fu), 22fn.; on Suigan\u2019s eyebrows, 279; his \u201cfor a while,\u201d\n  281.\n\nH\u014dgen (Fa-yen), on an inch\u2019s difference, 275; on one drop of water,\n  275f.; on Chu the national teacher, 288f.; with Gensoku, 294.\n\nHokkezammai (fa-hua san-mei), 143.\n\nH\u014dkoji (P\u2018ang Yun), on the companionless man, 16; Chinese Vimalak\u012brti,\n  17; on drawing water, 306, 306fn.\n\nH\u014dji Bunkin (Pao-tz\u2018\u016d Wen-ch\u2018in), on everyday thought, 248.\n\nH\u014dnen Sh\u014dnin, 34fn.\n\nH\u014dshi (Pao-chih), 189.\n\nHossu, 20.\n\nH\u014dyen (Fa-yen), of Gosozan, on Haryo Kan, 103; his t\u014dki-no-g\u00e9, 234; on\n  his own portrait, 237; his sermon, 271; and the yog\u0101c\u0101ra, 275; sermon\n  on burglary, 296f.; on too much Zen, 331; sermon on staff, 345.\n\nHsiang-yen, see Ky\u014dgen.\n\nHsien-chou (Genju), a great Buddhist philosopher, 100.\n\nHsing-sz\u016d, see Seigen Gy\u014dshi.\n\nHs\u00fcan-chuang (Genj\u014d Sanzo), 92, 100.\n\nHuang-nieh, see \u014cbaku.\n\nHui-chung, see Chu the national teacher.\n\nHui-k\u2018\u00ea, see Yeka.\n\nHui-n\u00eang, see Yeno.\n\nHui-sz\u016d (Yeshi), a Chinese Buddhist teacher, 143.\n\nHumility, taught in the monastery, 318.\n\nHyakujo (Pai-chang), 163; and wild geese, 225. rolling up the matting,\n  232; deafened by Baso\u2019s \u201cKwats!\u201d 280; as founder of Zen monastery,\n  301; on cow-herding, 356.\n\nHyakujo, Nehan, 13, 247, 286.\n\n{Hyakujo Shingi}, regulations of the Zen monastery, 301.\n\n\nIbnu \u2019I-Farid, a Persian mystic, 353.\n\nI-ching (Gij\u014d), a Chinese pilgrim and translator, 92.\n\nIgnorance, avidy\u0101, 1, 47; how conquered, 111; not cognitive, 116ff.;\n  and ego, 120, 126.\n\nIku, or Tory\u014d (Tu-ling Yu), his t\u014dki-no-g\u00e9, 234f.\n\nImmortality, 17.\n\nIndian imagination, and the Mahayana texts, 84.\n\nInshu (Yin-tsung), converted by Yeno, 197.\n\nInsight, its synonyms in Sanskrit, 112ff.; see also eye (cakkhu).\n\nIntellect, disturbing, 6.\n\nIsan (Wei-shan), picking tea-leaves, 289, 314; in the remote mountains,\n327.\n\nIshin Seigen (Wei-hsin Ch\u2018in-y\u00fcan), his view of Zen, 12.\n\n{Islamic Mysticism}, by R. D. Nicholson, 353f.\n\n{Itivuttaka}, 131, 133.\n\n\nJimyo (Tz\u016d-ming), on dust, 22; his counter-questioning, 282; and Suigan\n  Kashin, 295f.\n\nJinshu (Sh\u00ean-hsiu), 191, 193, 201, 218.\n\nJ\u014d-j\u014dza (Ting the monk), and Rinzai, 243; with Buddhist scholars, 290f.\n\nJ\u014dshu (Chao-chou), on Zen, 102; \u201cThrow it down!\u201d 162; no abiding place,\n  205fn.; on washing dishes, 224; \u201cMu\u201d, 236, 240; one ultimate word,\n  256, 256fn.; on poverty, 259; on Nansen\u2019s cat, 262; on his new robe,\n  268; one thing abiding, 269; on Praj\u00f1\u0101, 273; his counter-questioning,\n  282; his direct method, 286; on Chu the national teacher, 288fn.; on\n  dust, 313; crying \u201cfire!\u201d 313; and an old woman, 328f.; his stone\n  bridge, 329; on a crystal, 341; on Bodhi-Dharma, 341.\n\n\nKaisu (Ch\u2018i-sung), a Chinese historian, 158.\n\nKakuan (K\u2018uo-an), on ten cow-herding pictures, 355.\n\nKan of Haryo (Pa-Ling Chien), 103.\n\nKarma, 86.\n\n{Katha-Upanishad}, 114.\n\n\u201cKechimyak-ron,\u201d one of the Six Essays by Bodhi-Dharma, quoted, 219ff.\n\nKegon (Avata\u1e41saka), 54, 160.\n\nKeisan (Chi-shan), 257fn.\n\n{Kena-Upanishad}, 30fn., 143fn.\n\nKensho, seeing into one\u2019s nature, 349.\n\n{Kevaddha Sutta}, 69fn., 88.\n\nKido (Hs\u00fc-t\u2018ang), on the evolution of the absolute, 272f.\n\nKisu (Kuei-tsung), weeding, 270.\n\nK\u014d-an, IV., 239f., 250; its meaning explained, 319fn.\n\nKoboku Gen (K\u2018u-mu Y\u00fcan), on poverty, 334f.\n\nK\u014dh\u014d (Kao-f\u00eang), his Zen experience, 236ff.\n\nK\u014drin (Hsiang-lin), tired with sitting, 268.\n\nK\u014dzankoku (Huang-shan-ku), and Kwaido, 230.\n\nKum\u0101raj\u012bva, 100.\n\nKwanzan, 327.\n\nKwasan (H\u00ea-shan), his drum, 269.\n\n\u201cKwatsu!\u201d ({h\u00ea}), 22; four forms of, 280.\n\nKy\u014dgen (Hsiang-yen), 210; his satori, 227f.; a man up in a tree, 263;\n  on poverty, 334.\n\nKy\u014dzan (Yang-shan), on Isan\u2019s mirror, 262; and Sansho, 282; picking\n  tea-leaves, 314.\n\nKwanchu (Huan-chung), on Praj\u00f1\u0101, 273.\n\n\n{Lalita-vistara}, 146.\n\n{La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra S\u016btra}, 60, 82, 94, 102, 103, 161, 173ff., 193, 202,\n  336f.; not one word uttered, 55; three Chinese translations of, 74;\n  its special features discussed, 75; a hymn cited from, 76; its main\n  thesis, 76; passages often repeated in, 80; quotation from the first\n  chapter of, 87ff.; on abrupt understanding, 200.\n\nLao-tz\u016d, 30fn., 100, 335.\n\nLawrence, Brother, 18, 305.\n\n\u201cLearning by doing,\u201d in the monastery, 315.\n\nLiang-chiu (\u201cfor a little while\u201d), 281.\n\nLieh-tz\u016d, 89, 330, 351ff.\n\nLife, as affirmation, 2; suffering, 3; assertion of, 285.\n\nLightning simile, 230f., 241, 284.\n\nLin-chi, see Rinzai.\n\n{Lohicca}, 69fn.\n\n\nM\u0101dhyamika, the, 90, 100, 160.\n\nMah\u0101k\u0101\u015byapa, or K\u0101\u015byapa, 49, 74, 155, 159.\n\n{Mah\u0101li-sutta}, 50fn., 123, 132.\n\n{Mah\u0101pad\u0101na-suttanta}, 38fn., 108.\n\n{Mah\u0101parinibb\u0101na}, 69.\n\n{Mah\u0101parinirv\u0101na S\u016btra}, Chinese, 220fn.\n\nMah\u0101sa\u1e45ghikas, 42.\n\nMahayana, traceable in Hinayana, 48.\n\nMahayanism, and libertinism, 64.\n\n{Mah\u0101yutpatti}, 70fn.\n\nMaitreya, 85.\n\nMajjhima-nik\u0101ya, 146, 147.\n\nManas, 80.\n\nMa\u00f1ju\u015br\u012b, 64, 86, 90; as Praj\u00f1\u0101, 273.\n\nMa\u00f1\u00f1itams, (self-assertion), 136.\n\nManovij\u00f1\u0101na, 80.\n\nManura, the twenty-second patriarch of Zen, 159.\n\nMa-tsu, see Baso.\n\nMaturing, of Zen life, 327f.\n\nMaudgaly\u0101yana, 58.\n\nMayoku (Ma-ku), and Ry\u014dsui, 288.\n\nMeaningless affirmation, in Zen, 267ff.\n\nMeditation, 81; in Zen, 19, 20fn., 206ff.; five objects of, 72fn.; ten\n  objects of, 72fn.; meditations on food, three, 310; five, 310.\n\nMeditation Hall, IV., 24, 301ff.\n\nMencius, 4.\n\nMeritlessness, 330; meritless deeds, 336.\n\nMiracles, Buddhist view of, 123fn.\n\nMoksha, 52; see also Vimoksha.\n\nMonastery life, described, 309f.; practical, 305.\n\nMond\u014d (questions and answers), 222, 256.\n\nMonks, as labourers, 312.\n\nMoon, and a finger, 6.\n\nMu-chou, see Bokuj\u016b.\n\nMumon (Wu-men), on poverty, 33.\n\nMus\u014d Kokushi, 321; his exhortation, 321.\n\nMy\u014d-j\u014dza (Ming the Monk), 195.\n\n{Mystics and Saints of Islam}, by Claud Field, 225fn.\n\n\nNa-lien-ya-sh\u00ea, a Buddhist translator from India, 158.\n\nNan-ch\u2018\u00fcan, see Nansen.\n\nNangaku (Nan-y\u00fceh), 210, 212, 222, 236; and his disciples, 351.\n\nNansen (Nan-ch\u2018\u00fcan), 17, 30, 163, 292; everyday thought, 248; and his\n cat, 262.\n\nN\u0101g\u0101rjuna, 55, 56, 100, 161, 355fn.\n\nNanyin (Nan-y\u00fcan,) 210.\n\nNan-y\u00fceh, see Nangaku.\n\nNegation, in Zen, 260ff.\n\nNenro, commentary remark peculiar to Zen, 225.\n\nNigrodha, 68.\n\nNirvana, 37, 45, 101; in samsara, 13; not annihilation, 47; in\n  enlightenment, 51; the anup\u0101di\u015besha, 51, 63; conditioned by samsara,\n  79; in Sutta Nipata, 131f.; described as security, 147.\n\n{Nirv\u0101\u1e47a S\u016btra}, Chinese, 193, 197, see also {Mah\u0101parinirv\u0101na}.\n\nNoble Truth, the Fourfold, 37, 39, 54, 55, 57, 96, 113, 116, 128f. 141,\n  154.\n\n\u201cNo work, no eating,\u201d 302f.\n\nNon-achievement, 218.\n\nNon-attachment, 161, 335f.\n\nNon-ego, 37, 153, 154.\n\nNyoi, 20.\n\n\n\u014cbaku (Huang-po), 9, 163, 218; with his staff, 285f.; with Haiky\u016b, 289;\n  and Rinzai, 291; with a hoe, 314.\n\n\u014ckubo Shibun, and his bamboo picture, 259f.\n\n\u201cOne thought\u201d (ekacitta), 56, 113.\n\nOne voice (eka\u015bvara), 43fn.\n\n{Orategama}, a collection of letters by Hakuin, 238.\n\nOriginal face, the, 195, 210.\n\nOrigination, theory or chain of (prat\u012btya-samutp\u0101da), 46, 66fn., 96,\n  142f.; see also Causation.\n\n\nPai-chang, see Hyakujo.\n\n{Pali Text Society, Journal of}, 111.\n\nPa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101, 109; and enlightenment, 126; its Pali synonyms, 112ff.; See also\n  Praj\u00f1\u0101.\n\nPa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101-vimutti, 60.\n\n{Pao-lin-ch\u2018uan}, a lost Zen history, 158.\n\nParadox, in Zen, 258ff.\n\nParam\u0101rtha, or param\u0101rthasatya, 79, 202.\n\nP\u0101ramit\u0101s, virtues of perfection, 170.\n\nParikalpana (or vikalpa), 113.\n\n{Parinibb\u0101na-suttanta}, 41fn.; see also {Mah\u0101parinibb\u0101na-suttanta}.\n\nPaticca-samupp\u0101da, 114, 116, 129; see also Origination and Causation.\n\nPatriarchs, the twenty-eight, 157.\n\n{Pieh-chi}, a Zen document, 172.\n\nPi-kwan, wall-gazing, 167, 171ff.\n\n{Platform Sutra}, by Hui-n\u00eang, 209; see also {Fa-pao-tan-ching}.\n\nPlotinus, 268.\n\nPoverty, in Zen, 333ff.\n\nPraj\u00f1\u0101, 52ff., 61, 65, 66, 94, 113, 134ff., 273, 275; see also Pa\u00f1\u00f1\u0101,\n  and under Dhy\u0101na and Enlightenment.\n\n{Praj\u00f1\u0101-p\u0101ramit\u0101 S\u016btra}, 88, 90, 91, 100, 103, 142fn., 161, 205fn.,\n  266; the philosophy of, 136f.; its school, 80.\n\nPraty\u0101tmaj\u00f1\u0101na, or -gocara, 76ff., 81, 91, 153.\n\nProdigal son, the, in the Buddhist texts, 140ff.\n\n\nRaft, the simile of, 136ff.\n\nRakuho (Le-p\u2018u), his \u201cKwats!\u201d 280.\n\nRasan (Lo-shan), his counter-questioning, 282.\n\nR\u0101vana, 77, 87.\n\n{Records of the Right Transmission}, a Zen history by Ch\u2018i-sung, 158.\n\n{Records of the Spread of the Lamp}, a Zen history by Li Tsun-hs\u00fc, 156.\n\n{Records of the Transmission of the Lamp}, a Zen history by Tao-y\u00fcan,\n  156, 158, 164, 166, 204.\n\nRefuge formula, the threefold, 62.\n\nReiun (Ling-y\u00fcn), on the appearance of the Buddha, 285.\n\n{Religion of the Samurai}, by Kwaiten Nukariya, v.\n\nRepetition, in Zen, 271ff.\n\nReturning, 139; to the origin, 365.\n\nRhys Davids, 70fn.\n\nRighteousness, the eightfold path of, 37, 55. 96, 153, 154.\n\n{Rightful Lineage of the S\u0101kya Doctrine}, a history of Chinese\n  Buddhism, 163.\n\nRinzai (lin-chi), 190, 210, 281; on a man of no title, 8f.; on staff,\n  21; the school of, 212; on \u014cbaku\u2019s Buddhism, 232; and \u014cbaku, 291; his\n  \u201cKwats!\u201d 279f.; his \u201crough\u201d method, 290; with a hoe, 314; sermon on\n  Zen life, 331f.\n\n{Rinzairoku}, Sayings of Rinzai, 320.\n\nRisan (li-shan), 256fn.\n\nRuskin, 15.\n\nRy\u014dsui (Liang-sui), answering Mayoku, 288.\n\nRy\u00fcttan (Lung-t\u2018an), receiving instructions from D\u014dgo, 287.\n\n\n{Saddharma-pu\u1e47\u1e0dar\u012bka S\u016btra}, 43fn., 54, 61, 66, 84, 89, 193. 355f.\n\nSai-an (Chi-an), and Vairocana Buddha, 162.\n\nSam\u0101dhi, 94, 208f.; distinguished from dyh\u0101na, 70; its synonyms,\n  70.\n\n{S\u0101ma\u00f1\u00f1\u0101-phala Sutta}, 68, 69fn., 71fn., 128, 131.\n\nSa\u1e41s\u0101ra, 79.\n\nSamyutta-nik\u0101ya, 59, 142fn.\n\nSandhana, a follower of the Buddha, 68.\n\nSangha, 68.\n\nSansho (San-sh\u00eang) 210; and Ky\u014dzan, 282.\n\nSanzen, 323f.\n\n\u015a\u0101riputra, 61, 86; his spiritual attainment, 58; in the {Pu\u1e47\u1e0darika},\n  61.\n\nSatori, (awakening), 19, 24, 215ff.; as intuitive understanding, 216;\n  and conversion, 217; as ken-sh\u014d (chien-hsing), 219; not discursive,\n  228; and mental effort, 231; and self-suggestion, 244; absolutely\n  needed in Zen, 244f.; not meditation, 246; and seeing God, 246;\n  intimate experience, 247; not abnormal, 248; and freedom, 249; as\n  enlightenment, 249.\n\nSchopenhauer, 144.\n\nSecch\u014d (Hs\u00fceh-tou), compiler of {Hekigan}, 22fn.; on Ummon\u2019s \u201cKwan!\u201d\n  279.\n\nSecret Virtue, 328ff.\n\nSeigen Gy\u014dshi (Ch\u2018ing-y\u00fcan Hsing-sz\u016d), the source of the Soto, 212.\n\nSeizei (Ch\u2018ing-shi), 259fn.\n\nSeki, Seisetsu, 357fn.\n\nSekis\u014d (Shih-shuang), on the ultimate fact, 286.\n\nSekit\u014d (Shih-t\u2018ou), 17, 163, 190, 199, 264.\n\nSelf-suffering, in Zen, 329.\n\nS\u00eang-t\u2018san, see S\u014dsan.\n\nSesshin period, 319ff.\n\nShari (\u015b\u0101r\u012bra), 316.\n\nSh\u00ean-hsui, see Jinshu.\n\n{Sheng-chou-chi}, a lost Zen history, 158.\n\nShifuku (Tzu-fu), silent, 281.\n\nShih-t\u2018ou, see Sekit\u014d.\n\nShiko (Tz\u016d-hu), on earthworm, 314.\n\nShin sect, as \u201cother-power,\u201d v.\n\nShingon, 160; and Swedenborg, 45fn.\n\nShinko (Sh\u00ean-kuang), 176f.; see also Yeka.\n\nShinran, 34fn.\n\nShipp\u00e9, 20.\n\nSh\u014dk\u014d (Sh\u00eang-kuang), on earthworm, 314.\n\nShuan (Shou-an), on poverty, 333.\n\nShujy\u014d, 20.\n\nShuk\u014d (Chu-hung), on anger, 317f.\n\nShuzan (Shu-shan), 256fn.; on shipp\u00e9, 261; on Buddhism, 269; his \u201cfor a\n  while,\u201d 281.\n\n\u015aiksh\u0101nanda, a translator of the {La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra}, 74.\n\nSilence, in Zen, 280f.; Vimalak\u012brti\u2019s 280; and Zen masters, 281.\n\nSix Essays by Bodhi-Dharma, 218; see also under Bodhi-Dharma.\n\nSixth Patriarch, see Yeno.\n\nS\u014dji (Tsung-chih), 177.\n\nSonadanda, the Brahman, 142fn.\n\nSorrow, sanctifying, 4.\n\nS\u014dsan (S\u00eang-t\u2018san), 181ff.; his writing, 182ff.\n\nS\u014dt\u014d school, the, 212.\n\nSot\u014dba (Su Tung-p\u2018o), on Mount Lu, 11f.\n\nShaku, Soyen, vii.\n\nSozan (Ts\u2018ao-shan), silence revealed by, 281.\n\nSpirits, fed at meal, 311.\n\n{\u015ar\u012bm\u0101l\u0101 S\u016btra}, Chinese, 64.\n\nSt. Francis, on work, 303f.\n\nSthaviras, 41.\n\nSudhana, 64.\n\nSuffering, 3, 4.\n\nSufis, 353.\n\nSuibi (Ts\u2018ui-wei), Mugaku, on Tanka, 317.\n\nSuibi (Ts\u2018ui-yen), on his eyebrows, 279.\n\nSuigan Kashin, and Jimy\u014d, 295f.\n\n{Sukh\u0101vativy\u016bha S\u016btra}, 43fn.\n\nSumeru, Mount, 87.\n\nSumiye-painting, and Zen, 284.\n\n\u015a\u016bnyat\u0101, emptiness, 47, 56, 80, 100.\n\nSupernaturalism, Indian, 86; miracles, wonders, etc., 88, 90.\n\n{\u015a\u016bra\u1e45gama S\u016btra}, Chinese, 272.\n\n{Sutta Nipata}, 50fn., 130, 132.\n\nSwedenborg, 45fn.\n\n\nTai-an, on cow-herding, 356.\n\nTaigi (tai-i), fixation, 238f.\n\nTanka (Tan-hsia), burning a Buddha\u2019s image, 316f.\n\n\u201cTat twam asi,\u201d 258.\n\nTathagata, his knowledge, 122.\n\nTath\u0101gata-dhy\u0101na, 82.\n\nTath\u0101gata-garbha, 78, 80.\n\nTathat\u0101, 79.\n\nTao-hs\u00fcan, a Buddhist historian, 163ff.\n\nTao-shin, see S\u014dsan.\n\nTao-wu, see D\u014dgo.\n\nTao-y\u00fcan, a Zen historian, 164ff.\n\nTauler, 305, 333.\n\nTeisho, Zen lecture, 320.\n\nTen Cow-herding Pictures, 349ff.\n\nTendai, 54; and Zen, 190.\n\nTennyson, 20.\n\nTenryu (T\u2018ien-lung), \u201cone finger\u201d Zen, 22fn.; his counter-questioning,\n  282.\n\nTenry\u016bji, in Kyoto, 321, 357fn.\n\nTerstegen, 278.\n\nT\u00ea-shan, see Tokusan.\n\nTesshikaku (T\u2018ieh-tsui Chiao), knows not his master, 265.\n\n{Tevijja}, 50fn.\n\nThree conceptions of being, 290.\n\nT\u014dki-no-g\u00e9, 233; by Ch\u014dkei, 223f.; by H\u014dyen Goso, 234; by Yengo, 234;\n  by Yenju, 234; by Y\u014ddainen, 235; by Iku of Tory\u014d, 235; by Bukk\u014d,\n  241fn.\n\nT\u014d-Impo (T\u00eang-yin-f\u00eang), crushing Baso\u2019s legs, 291.\n\nTokusan (T\u00ea-shan), on staff, 21; and the {Diamond Sutra}, 225,\n  232; and his stick. 261, 280.\n\nTokush\u014d (T\u00ea-shao), one drop of water, 276; on Praj\u00f1\u0101, 276.\n\nT\u014dsu (T\u2018ou-tz\u016d), on the Buddha, etc., 273.\n\nTrik\u0101ya, 34fn.\n\nTsung-chien (S\u014dkan), a Buddhist historian, 163.\n\nTung-shan, see Dozan.\n\nTz\u016d-ming, see Jimyo.\n\n\nUdraka, 71fn.\n\n{Udumbarika-s\u012bhan\u0101da Suttanta}, 68.\n\nUmmon (Y\u00fcn-men), on a good-for-nothing fellow, 10; on staff, 21; 261,\n  263f.; defines Zen, 102; sermons, 344; on J\u014dshu\u2019s washing dishes, 224;\n  on poverty, 335; on Zen, 260; his \u201cKwan!\u201d 279; his laconism, 338.\n\nUmp\u014d (Y\u00fcn-f\u00eang), on Ummon\u2019s comment on J\u014dshu, 224.\n\nUngan (Y\u00fcn-yen), \u201cOverflowing!\u201d 97; with Yakusan, 287.\n\nUngo (Y\u00fcn-ch\u00fc), D\u014dy\u014d, and an officer, 288.\n\nUngo, Shaku, on Chu the national teacher, 288fn.\n\nUp\u0101ya (expediency, or device), 65, 66f.\n\n\n{Vajracchedik\u0101 S\u016btra}, 137, 173ff., 189, 191, 198.\n\n{Vajrasam\u0101dhi S\u016btra}, Chinese, 64, 94, 170, 173; the prodigal son in,\n  140.\n\nVasubandhu, 55.\n\nVasumitra, 42fn.\n\nVia negativa, 56.\n\nVictory, the hymn of, 55, 59.\n\nVikalpa, 79, 81.\n\nVimalak\u012brti, 86, 89, 90, 258, 280f.\n\n{Vimalak\u012brti S\u016btra}, Chinese, 63, 64, 161, 181fn., 193, 205f., 207.\n\nVimoksha (or Moksha), 49.\n\nVimutti, 52, 53; see also Vimoksha and Moksha.\n\nVipa\u015byi, 159.\n\n\nWei-shan, see Isan.\n\nWilde, Oscar, quoted, 4.\n\nWind, the simile of, 331.\n\nWither, 267.\n\n\nYakusan (Y\u00fceh-shan), 96, 163, 190, 247; with his disciples, 287; giving\n  no sermon, 344.\n\nYang-shan, see Ky\u014dzan.\n\nYath\u0101bh\u016bta\u1e41, 114, 116, 128, 133f.; intuitional, 129f.; empirical, 131.\n\nYegu (Hui-y\u00fc), 259fn., 270.\n\nYeka (Hui-k\u2018\u00ea), 74, 82, 166, 173, 177; his life, 178ff.\n\nYenchi (Y\u00fcan-chih), with Sekiso, 286f.\n\nYengo (Y\u00fcan-wu), 22; on dust and flower, 23; his t\u014dki-no-g\u00e9, 234.\n\nYenkwan (Yen-kuan), on Vairocana Buddha, 286.\n\nYen\u014d (Hui-n\u00eang), the sixth patriarch, 17, 24, 30, 92, 94, 160, 189,\n  190ff., 218, 250, 327; and the {Vajracchedik\u0101}, 174; on the flapping\n  pennant, 197; on seeing into one\u2019s nature, 197; talk with the imperial\n  messenger, 198; long sitting, 201; on self-nature, 202; his view of\n  Zen in the {Platform Sutra}, 203ff.; on praj\u00f1\u0101, 204f.; on abrupt\n  teaching, 205; as dynamic intuitionalist, 207; on sam\u0101dhi and dhy\u0101na,\n  208f.; his method of instruction, 210; his death, 211; on quiet\n  sitting, 221; on his understanding of Buddhism, 30, 263.\n\nYerv\u014d Ch\u014dkei, on staff, 20.\n\nYesei Bash\u014d, on staff, 20.\n\nYeshi (Hui-sz\u016d), a Tendai philosopher, 190.\n\nY\u014ddainen, his t\u014dki-no-g\u00e9, 235.\n\nYog\u0101c\u0101ra, 100, 160.\n\nY\u014dgi (Yang-ch\u2018i), on poverty, 334.\n\nY\u00fceh-shan, see Yakusan.\n\nY\u00fcn-men, see Ummon.\n\n\nZazen, 304.\n\nZen: (1) in its relation to Buddhism 29; and the doctrine of\n  enlightenment, 29ff., 83ff.; as the essence of Buddhism, 43; is the\n  enlightenment-mind of the Buddha, 49ff.; and the theory of \u015aunyat\u0101,\n  174fn.; and the {La\u1e45k\u0101vat\u0101ra}, 74ff.: (2) in its relation to the\n  Chinese mind, 95; as Chinese product, 154; how it ruled in China,\n  92ff.; and the Sung philosophy, 98ff.; and the Tendai, 190; and other\n  Buddhist sects in China, 95; in the T\u2018ang dynasty, 95; in the Sung,\n  95; in the Yuan and the Ming, 95; legendary history of, 155: (3)\n  as a discipline, 14; and asceticism, 15, 309; its monastery training,\n  326f.; and poverty, 259fn.; and the boiling oil, 16; deadly poison,\n  18: (4) in its relation to the intellect, 6; as \u201cself-power,\u201d 111; as\n  a liberating agent, 1; teaches freedom, 11; as the solution of\n  life-problems, 5; no generalisation, 12; never explains, 8f.;\n  irrational, 11; paradoxical, 258ff.; the culmination of intellectual\n  efforts, 254; as an unutterable sigh, 278fn.: (5) psychologically\n  viewed, self-suggestion, 18; subconsciousness, 19; the sense of\n  returning, 143; leaving no traces, 3: (6) specific features of, summed\n  in four lines, 7, 163; its methods of teaching, 24, 253ff.; methods\n  classified, 257; its gradation, 24; (see also the Ten Cow-herding\n  Pictures); its derivation, 67; and dhy\u0101na, 67ff.; and meditation, 67;\n  practical, 54; different from tranquillisation, 73; not quiet sitting,\n  222; seeing into one\u2019s own nature, 203, 204; acquiring a new\n  viewpoint, 215ff.; nothing secret in, 13; and the sumiye-painting,\n  284; defined, 102; Southern and Northern schools, 199; the instant and\n  the gradual, 199; its monastery system psychologically and morally\n  considered, 303ff.: (7) its language, 274; and colloquialism, 340.\n\n\n\n\nTranscriber\u2019s Notes\n\n\nItalics are enclosed in _underscores_.\n\nThough breaks, presented as extra space between paragraphs in the\noriginal printed text, is presented here as a line of 5 spaced\nasterisks.\n\nFootnotes, originally at the bottoms of the pages on which they were\nreferenced, have been collected, sequentially renumbered, prefixed with\nthe letter \u2018f\u2019, wrapped by square brackets, and moved to the end of the\nmain text, just before the Index.\n\nReferences to the Chinese text have been prefixed with the essay number\nfollowed by a period, and wrapped by square brackets.\n\nMissing punctuation has been added.\n\nIllustrations are indicated by [Illustration: description]. Ornamental\nillustration do not include a description.\n\nIn some cases a Chinese variant character is used in place of the\nprinted character in the book. This occurs when a proper Unicode\nglyph is not found.\n\nVariations in the use of diacritics in names has been largely\nunchanged. An exception is made for very common names (see below).\n\nHyphenation has not been standardised.\n\nNote that Chinese [5.44] does not have anchor in the text or an obvious\nplace where one could be placed.\n\nNote that Chinese [5.16] does not have anchor in the printed text. One\nhas been added to an appropriate place in etext.\n\nNote on pg 405 \u95dc\u5c71\u6167\u7384 Kanzan Egen should be (1277\u20131360) not\n(616\u2013700).\n\nSome spelling and other errors have been corrected and listed below:\n\n  pg 19  \u201cso is the Subsconcious\u201d changed to \u201cso is the Subconscious\u201d\n\n  pg 60  \u201ccausal dependance\u201d changed to \u201ccausal dependence\u201d\n\n  pg 74  Added Chinese text reference [2.4] to appropriate place in\n         text.\n\n  pg 86  \u201clearning from Man\u016bju\u015br\u012b\u201d changed to \u201clearning from Ma\u00f1ju\u015br\u012b\u201d\n\n  pg 100 \u201cpractival tendency\u201d changed to \u201cpractical tendency\u201d\n\n  pg 118 \u201chis spiritual greatmess\u201d changed to \u201chis spiritual greatness\u201d\n\n  pg 151 \u201cin-<CR>investigation will\u201d changed to \u201c<CR>investigation will\u201d\n\n  pg 163 \u201cTien-tai point of view\u201d changed to \u201cT\u2018ien-tai point of view\u201d\n\n  pg 181 \u201centertain a dualitic\u201d changed to \u201centertain a dualistic\u201d\n\n  pg 191 \u201cpartiarchal mantle\u201d changed to \u201cpatriarchal mantle\u201d\n\n  pg 198 \u201cprefering his stay\u201d changed to \u201cpreferring his stay\u201d\n\n  pg 216 \u201chave gained a saroti\u201d is changed to \u201chave gained a satori is\u201d\n\n  pg 217 \u201care many similacra\u201d changed to \u201care many simulacra\u201d\n\n  pg 233 \u201cvaried and dissimiliar\u201d changed to \u201cvaried and dissimilar\u201d\n\n  pg 236 \u201ccorpse of yours?\u201d[5.23]\u201d changed to \u201ccorpse of yours?\u201d[5.32]\u201d\n\n  pg 263 \u201cwhom we got acquained\u201d changed to \u201cwhom we got acquainted\u201d\n\n  pg 304 \u201cgiving real beneficience\u201d changed to \u201cgiving real beneficence\u201d\n\n  pg 318 \u201cmade to the Ahrats\u201d changed to \u201cmade to the Arhats\u201d\n\n  pg 331 \u201chave so thoroughy\u201d changed to \u201chave so thoroughly\u201d\n\n  pg 356 \u201ccarpetted with\u201d changed to \u201ccarpeted with\u201d\n\n  pg 416 \u201cPast and Present, Sutra on the, 36fn.\u201d changed to\n         \u201cPast and Present, Sutra on the, 38fn.\u201d\n\n  pg 417 \u201c{Eastern Buddhist}, the, 1fn.\u201d changed to\n         \u201c{Eastern Buddhist}, the, vi, 1fn.\u201d\n\n  pg 418 \u201cKena-Upanishad, 30fn., 143fn.\u201d changed to\n         \u201cKena-Upanishad, 30fn., 142fn.\u201d\n\n  pg 418 \u201cPersain mystic\u201d changed to \u201cPersian mystic\u201d\n\n  pg 418 \u201cMah\u0101yutpatti, 70fn.\u201d changed to \u201cMah\u0101vyutpatti, 70fn.\u201d\n\n  pg 420 \u201cKwaiten Nukariya, 111.\u201d changed to \u201cKwaiten Nukariya, v.\u201d\n\n  pg 420 \u201c{Pali Text Society, Journal of}, 111.\u201d changed to\n         \u201c{Pali Text Society, Journal of}, v.\u201d\n\n  pg 421 \u201cSeki, Seisetsu, 357.\u201d changed to \u201cSeki, Seisetsu, 357fn.\u201d\n\n  pg 421 \u201cShin sect, as \u201cother-power,\u201d 111.\u201d changed to\n         \u201cShin sect, as \u201cother-power,\u201d v.\u201d\n\n  pg 421 \u201cShaku, Soyen, v.\u201d changed to \u201cShaku, Soyen, vii.\u201d\n\n  pg 422 \u201cTung-shan, see Dozan.\u201d changed to \u201cTung-shan, see Dosan.\u201d\n\n  pg 423 \u201cas \u201cself-power,\u201d 111;\u201d changed to \u201cas \u201cself-power,\u201d v;\u201d\n\n  Footnote 48 \u201cS\u012blac\u0101ra\u201d changed to \u201cS\u012bl\u0101c\u0101ra\u201d\n\n  Footnote 56 \u201cS\u012bl\u0101cara\u201d changed to \u201cS\u012bl\u0101c\u0101ra\u201d\n\n  Footnote 73 \u201cMa\u00f1jusr\u012b\u201d changed to \u201cMa\u00f1ju\u015br\u012b\u201d\n\n  Index \u201cS\u012blacara\u201d changed to \u201cS\u012bl\u0101c\u0101ra\u201d","title":"Essays in Zen Buddhism : $b First series","tradition":"scripture-revelation","translated_text":null,"word_count":137235}