{"collection":"scripture-revelation","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_73092/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_73092","id":"gutenberg_73092","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73092","summary":null,"tags":["Category: Religion/Spirituality","Judaism"],"text":"THE\n JEWISH RELIGION.\n\n\n BY\n M. FRIEDL\u00c4NDER.\n\n\n SECOND EDITION,\n REVISED AND ENLARGED.\n\n\n LONDON:\n P. VALLENTINE & SON,\n\n 7, NORTH CRESCENT, TOTTENHAM COURT ROAD, W.C.\n AND 33, DUKE STREET, ALDGATE, E.C.\n\n 1900.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nPREFACE.\n\n\nIn presenting this volume to the public the author does not claim much\noriginality. He merely desires to reproduce the religious principles\nwhich were sown into his heart by his parents, \u200f\u05d6\u05f4\u05dc\u200e, and cultivated by\nthe great teachers of Israel\u2014the Prophets, the Soferim, and their\nsuccessors\u2014in order that the blessing which he himself has always\nderived from these principles may also be enjoyed by his brethren. The\noriginal sources of religious knowledge, viz., the Scriptures and\nPost-Biblical Jewish Literature, are of course accessible to all, and\nevery one may sit at the feet of our great teachers and listen to their\ninstruction. But there are many who are in need of assistance, who\nrequire the aid of an interpreter. The present volume is intended to\nrender that assistance and to serve as such interpreter. The author\ntherefore addresses himself to his brethren, especially to his\ndisciples, in the words of an ancient teacher of the Mishnah (Aboth v.\n25), \u201cTurn it, and turn it over again;\u201d and if he cannot add also \u201cfor\neverything is in it,\u201d he hopes that that which is in it will be found\nuseful to those who seek religious knowledge, and that it will prove an\nincentive to many \u201cto learn and teach, to heed and do, and to fulfil in\nlove all the words of instruction in the Divine Law.\u201d\n\nTo a great extent this work owes its origin to the warm interest which\nthe late Mr. Jacob A. Franklin, \u200f\u05e2\u05f4\u05d4\u200e, took in all matters connected\nwith Judaism. He repeatedly urged upon the author the necessity of\npublishing a book on the Jewish Religion. A plan was suggested,\ndiscussed, and finally adopted; but the progress of the work was slow\non account of other literary engagements of the author. Although Mr.\nFranklin departed from our midst long before it was completed, his\nphilanthropy, which survived him, has a share in its completion, the\nbook being printed at the expense of the Jacob A. Franklin Trust Fund\nfor the advancement of Judaism. In recognition of these facts the\nauthor dedicates this work\u2014\n\n\n\n In Piety,\n\n TO THE MEMORY OF HIS LATE FRIEND,\n\n \u200f\u05e8\u05f3 \u05e2\u05e7\u05d9\u05d1\u05d4 \u05d1\u05df \u05d4\u05d7\u05d1\u05e8 \u05e8\u05f3 \u05d0\u05d1\u05e8\u05d4\u05dd \u05d6\u05f3\u05dc\u200e\n\n JACOB A. FRANKLIN, O.B.M. AND OF HIS BELOVED LATE GRANDCHILDREN:\n\n AZRIEL & URIEL GASTER.\n\n \u200f\u05e2\u05d6\u05e8\u05d9\u05d0\u05dc \u05d5\u05d0\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9\u05d0\u05dc \u05d2\u05d0\u05e1\u05d8\u05e2\u05e8\u200e\n\n \u200f\u05ea\u05f3\u05e0\u05f3\u05e6\u05f3\u05d1\u05f3\u05d4\u200e\n\n\n\nIn conclusion, the author begs to thank the Rev. S. Singer for his\nassistance and his many valuable suggestions while the book was passing\nthrough the press\n\n\nM. FRIEDL\u00c4NDER.\n\nJews\u2019 College, 3 Iyar 5651.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nPREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.\n\n\nThe first edition being exhausted a second edition has been prepared.\nThere is no cause for any change in the body of the book. Religion,\nboth \u201cGlaubenslehre\u201d and \u201cPflichtenlehre,\u201d are given as objectively as\npossible, and the most rigid examination of all that is taught in \u201cThe\nJewish Religion,\u201d discovered no misstatement. A few unimportant errors,\nwhich according to the Psalmist (Ps. xix) are excusable, are rectified\nin the list of Errata. Questions concerning religious principles which\nhave arisen in the Community since the publication have been foreseen\nand dealt with according to Law and Tradition. A few notes are added in\nthe second edition, where further elucidations seemed necessary. There\nis also appended the bibliography of text-books of Jewish Religion, an\nabstract of a paper on Religious Education, read before the Jews\u2019\nCollege Literary Society, and the prayer which in the Spanish and\nPortuguese Synagogues is offered up by the Barmitzvah when called to\nthe Law. The latter practice is worthy of imitation.\n\n\nM. F.\n\nLondon, Adar I., 5660.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nCONTENTS.\n\n\n PAGE\nIntroduction 1\u201318\n What is Judaism? 2\n\nOUR CREED.\n\nFaith as commended in Bible and Tradition 5\n Faith according to Saadiah 9\n ,, ,, ,, Ibn Gabirol 11\n ,, ,, ,, Dunash ben Tamim, Bachya b. Joseph 12\n ,, ,, ,, Shem-tob; Abraham b. David; Jehudah hallevi 13\n ,, ,, ,, Ibn Ezra; Maimonides; Joseph Albo 14\n ,, ,, ,, Eliah del Medigo 15\n ,, ,, ,, Moses Mendelssohn 16\n\nThe Thirteen Principles of Faith 19\n First Group of Principles\u2014Existence of God 22\n Natural Religion 22\n Polytheism 25\n Pantheism 26\n Atheism 27\n Deism; Theism 29\n The First Principle: God, the Creator and Ruler of\n the Universe 30\n Natural Laws and Miracles 31\n Evolution and Creation 33\n Principle II.\u2014Unity of God 38\n ,, III. 41\n Anthropomorphism in the Bible 41\n Principle IV. 43\n ,, V. 44\n Various Attributes of God 41\n\n Second Group of Principles\u2014Revelation 46\n General Remarks\u2014Early Revelations 46\n Prophet 49\n Text of Prophecies 53\n Massorah 55\n Names and Authors of the Books of the Bible 55\n Pentateuch 57\n Earlier Prophets 62\n Latter Prophets 66\n Isaiah 66\n Jeremiah 70\n Ezekiel 75\n Minor Prophets 78\n Hagiographa 87\n Psalms 87\n Proverbs 96\n Job 108\n The Song of Solomon 112\n Ruth; Lamentations 113\n Ecclesiastes 114\n Esther; Daniel 116\n Ezra; Nehemiah 125\n Chronicles 126\n Apocrypha 127\n The Book of Wisdom 127\n The Wisdom of Jesus, Son of Sirach 128\n Baruch 129\n Tobit; Judith 130\n The Books of the Maccabees 131\n Principle VI.\u2014Truth of the Prophecies 131\n ,, VII.\u2014Distinction of Moses from other Prophets 133\n ,, VIII.\u2014Authenticity of the Torah 134\n The Oral Law 136\n Principle IX.\u2014Immutability of the Torah 139\n\n Third Group of Principles\u2014Reward and Punishment 142\n Divine Justice and Man\u2019s Free-will 142\n Principle X.\u2014God\u2019s Omniscience 148\n ,, XI.\u2014Reward and Punishment 150\n Principle XII.\u2014Messiah 155\n ,, XIII.\u2014Resurrection\u2014Future Life 163\n\n Notes on the Number of Principles 169\n On Principle I. 174\n Creation according to Maimonides 174\n ,, ,, ,, Saadiah 177\n Bible and Science 178\n On Principle V.\u2014Efficacy of Prayer 183\n ,, Revelation 190\n ,, Principle VI. 192\n Revelation according to Saadiah 192\n ,, ,, ,, Jehudah hallevi 194\n ,, ,, ,, Ibn Ezra 197\n ,, ,, ,, Maimonides 197\n ,, ,, ,, Albo 201\n On Principle VII. 201\n ,, ,, VIII. 202\n ,, Vari\u00e6 Lectiones, Tikkun Soferim, Ittur Soferim 203\n ,, Al-tikre, Biblical Quotations in Talmud and Midrash 204\n ,, Bible Criticism 205\n ,, the Pentateuch 205\n Explanation of 2 Kings xxii. 8 sqq. 207\n Abraham ibn Ezra\u2019s View on the Integrity of the Pentateuch 210\n Authenticity of the Book of the Prophet Isaiah 212\n Authenticity of the Book of Daniel 214\n On Principle IX. 215\n Explanation of Jer. xxxi. 31\u201333 216\n ,, ,, some Talmudical Passages 216\n The Immutability of the Torah according to Maimonides 217\n The Immutability of the Torah according to Jehudah hallevi 218\n The Immutability of the Torah according to Albo and\n R. Abraham b. David 219\n On Principle X. 220\n ,, ,, XI. 221\n ,, Eternal Punishment 223\n ,, Vicarious Atonement 224\n ,, Principle XII. 225\n Maimonides on Messiah, Jesus, and Mohammed 226\n Principle XIII. 231\n\nOUR DUTIES.\n\n On Religious Duties in General 233\n Classification of the Divine Precepts 239\n Object of the Divine Law 242\n\n I. The Ten Commandments 247\u2013272\n Notes on the Ten Commandments 266\u2013272\n Different Opinions on the Division of the Commandments 266\n Ibn Ezra on Exod. xx. 2 269\n Abarbanel and R. S. Hirsch on the Ten Commandments 270\n Parallels to the Decalogue 272\n\n II. General Moral Principles 272\u2013328\n Duties towards God 273\u2013291\n (a.) Duties of the Heart 273\u2013278\n Fear and Love of God 273\n Gratitude toward Him 275\n Reverence for His Name 275\n Obedience to His Will 276\n Faith and Confidence in His Goodness 277\n Resignation to His Will 277\n (b.) Duties with reference to Speech 278\u2013288\n Prayer 280\n Study of His Word 285\n (c.) Duties with reference to Action 288\u2013291\n Sanctification of God\u2019s Name 289\n Imitation of His Ways 290\n Duties towards our Fellow-creatures 292\u2013319\n General Principles 292\n Duties in reference to the Life and the Property\n of our Fellow-man 292\n Prohibition of Interest and Usury 294\n Duties in reference to our Fellow-men\u2019s Honour and\n Well-being 298\n Charity, \u200f\u05d2\u05de\u05dc\u05d5\u05ea \u05d7\u05e1\u05d3\u200e and \u200f\u05e6\u05d3\u05e7\u05d4\u200e 302\n Special Duties 305\u2013318\n Children and Parents 305\n Friends 306\n Husband and Wife 310\n Fellow-citizens 310\n Fellow-members of a Community 312\n Duties towards Members of another Community 312\n Employers and Employed 313\n Superiors and Inferiors 313\n Teacher and Pupil; Master and Servant; Rich and Poor 314\n Duties towards the Old, Magistrates, and all to whom\n Honour is due 317\n Kindness to Animals 318\n Duties to Ourselves 319\u2013328\n\n III. Signs as Outward Reminders of God and His Will 328\u2013338\n Tsitsith 329\n Tefillin 331\n Mezuzah 335\n Circumcision 336\n Notes 336\n\n IV. Sabbath, Festivals, and Fasts 339\u2013413\n On Sabbath and Festivals in General 339\u2013360\n 1. \u200f\u05d6\u05db\u05d5\u05e8\u200e \u201cRemember\u201d 340\u2013349\n Kiddush and Habhdalah 340\n Lessons from the Pentateuch and the Prophets 345\n 2. \u200f\u05e9\u05de\u05d5\u05e8\u200e \u201cTake Heed\u201d 349\u2013353\n Work Forbidden 349\n 3. \u200f\u05e2\u05e0\u05d2\u200e \u201cDelight\u201d 353\u2013355\n Sabbath and Festivals Days of Cheerfulness 353\n 4. \u200f\u05db\u05d1\u05d5\u05d3\u200e \u201cHonour\u201d 355\u2013358\n Sabbath and Festival Bread and Lights 355\n Notes 358\n The Jewish Calendar 360\n Notes 367\n The Festivals 368\u2013409\n The Three Festivals \u200f\u05e9\u05dc\u05e9 \u05e8\u05d2\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd\u200e 369\u2013400\n The Four Distinguished Sabbaths 369\n Passover 372\u2013392\n Seder-evening 379\n Counting of the Omer 389\n The Days of the Counting of the Omer 392\n The Feast of Weeks 393\u2013394\n The Feast of Tabernacles 395\u2013400\n Solemn Days \u200f\u05d9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd \u05e0\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e 400\u2013409\n New-year 402\n Day of Atonement 405\n Historical Feasts and Fasts 409\u2013413\n Chanuccah 409\n Purim 411\n The Four Fasts 412\n Optional Fasts 413\n\n V. Divine Worship 413\u2013455\n Beginnings of Divine Worship 413\n Sacrifices 414\n Prayer 418\u2013455\n Devotion 419\n Minhag or Custom 419\n Prayer in Hebrew 420\n Efficacy of Prayer 422\n Synagogue 423\n Instrumental Music in Synagogue 427\n The Ritual, in Talmud and Midrash 429\n Prayers at Fixed Times 435\n Shema, \u200f\u05e9\u05de\u05e2\u200e 436\n Amidah or Tefillah 437\n Abridged Forms of the Amidah 439\n Other Constituent Elements of the Service 439\n Night-prayer 440\n Public Service 441\n Kaddish 441\n Kedushah 442\n Repetition of Amidah 442\n Priests\u2019 Benediction 442\n The Reading of the Law 442\n Occasional Prayers; Benedictions; Grace 442\n Notes on Customs in Synagogue 444\n Temporary Substitutes for the Service 446\n Repetition of the Amidah 446\n Kedushah; Kaddish 447\n Sermons and Lectures 448\n Special Prayer-Meetings 449\n Reform of the Ritual 449\n Congregations and their Religious Guide 454\n\n VI. The Dietary Laws 455\u2013466\n Their Object 455\n \u200f\u05e2\u05e8\u05dc\u05d4\u200e Fruit of Trees in the First Three Years 457\n \u200f\u05d7\u05d3\u05e9\u200e, \u200f\u05db\u05dc\u05d0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e, \u200f\u05e9\u05e2\u05d8\u05e0\u05d6\u200e 457\n Meaning of \u200f\u05d7\u05e7\u05d5\u05ea\u200e 458\n The Killing of Animals for Food 459\n Prohibition of Blood 459\n Trefah 459\n Clean and Unclean Animals 459\n Forbidden Fat 461\n The Sinew that Shrank 461\n Meat and Milk 461\n Notes.\u2014Explanation of Gen. ix. 4\u2014Seven Noachide\n Precepts 462\n On Shechitah 463\n How to Kasher the Meat 463\n Explanation of Num. xi. 22 and Lev. xvii. 13 464\n On Clean and Unclean Birds 465\n Meat and Milk 465\n Honey 466\n Wine of Libation 466\n\n VII. Jewish Life 467\u2013496\n Guiding Principles in Jewish Life 467\n Torah and Abodah; Beth-hammidrash and Synagogue 469\n Charity 469\n Jewish Women 470\n The Days of the Week 473\n Anticipation of Sabbath, Feast, and Fast 474\n Friday Evening.\u2014Sabbath and Festivals 475\n New-moon and Full-moon 476\n Important Moments in the Life of the Jew 476\u2013494\n Birth.\u2014Initiation of the Male Child into the\n Covenant of Abraham 477\n Redemption of the First-born 478\n Thanksgiving of the Mother after Confinement 479\n \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05ea \u05d4\u05d2\u05d5\u05de\u05dc\u200e 479\n Education 479\n Bar-mitsvah 481\n Choice of Vocation 482\n Marriage 483\n Divorce 487\n Obligatory Marriage (\u200f\u05d9\u05d1\u05d5\u05dd\u200e) and Obligatory\n Divorce (\u200f\u05d4\u05dc\u05d9\u05e6\u05d4\u200e) 488\n Death and Mourning 489\n Regard for the Memory of the Deceased 494\n Notes on Customs in Connection with the Burial Rites 496\n\nAppendices:\u2014\n\n I. The Thirteen Principles in Hebrew 497\u2013498\n II. The Jewish Calendar 498\u2013501\n III. Religious Education 501*\u2013504*\n IV. Prayer for Barmitzvah 505*\u2013506*\n V. Bibliography 507*\u2013510*\n\n I. Index of Quotations from Bible and Post-Biblical\n Literature 502\u2013512\n II. General Index 513\u2013520\n III. Index of Names 521\u2013523\n IV. Index of Hebrew Terms 524\u2013528\n Errata 529\u2013530\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTHE JEWISH RELIGION.\n\n\nINTRODUCTION.\n\n\n\u201cMan is the most privileged of creatures; he has been made in the image\nof God. His privilege is still further enhanced by the fact that he has\nbeen made aware of his distinction\u201d (Aboth iii. 14). There is in man a\nconsciousness or feeling of a certain relation between him and a\nsuperior Being, on whose Will his own existence depends. This\nconsciousness is the basis of religion, but is not religion itself. It\nis the influence which this feeling exercises over man\u2019s actions and\nconduct in life that forms the essence of religion. When man begins to\nfeel that he is responsible for his actions to a higher Being, and\nforms his actions in harmony with this feeling, he may be called\nreligious. Two elements must therefore be distinguished in religion:\nthe notion of man\u2019s dependence on and responsibility to a superior\nBeing, and the influence of this notion on his actions: religious\nbelief and religious practice, or faith and duty. Religious belief or\nfaith, in its most simple and most general form, may be said to be\ncommon almost to all mankind; and in the great variety of faiths,\nproduced by various circumstances and experiences, this simple idea may\neasily be detected as the fundamental principle of all of them. The\nsame can be said with regard to religious practice. There are certain\nfundamental principles of duty which are recognised and adopted by the\nmost diverse religious sects; they form, as it were, the common stem\nfrom which a large number of branches spring forth in all directions.\nThese branches diverge more and more the larger they grow and the more\nnumerous they become.\n\nJudaism is one of these various religions. It has been the source of\nmost of the religions of the civilised world, and is destined to\nbecome, in its simplest principles, the universal religion.\n\nWhat is Judaism? or what does Judaism teach its adherents to believe,\nand what does it teach them to do? The answers to these two questions\nform the main subject of every book on our holy religion. The answer to\nthe first question must include our doctrine about God, His attributes,\nHis relation to the material world, and especially to man; the mission\nof man, his hopes and fears. The answer to the second question must\ninclude our duties toward God, toward our fellow-men, and toward\nourselves. Both answers must be based on that which we are taught in\nthe Holy Writings, and especially in the Torah. Recourse may be had to\nphilosophic speculation, to which, indeed, the first question\npeculiarly invites, but the result must be rectified by the teaching of\nthe Torah.\n\nIn accordance with the maxim, \u201cThe secret things belong to the Lord our\nGod; but those things which are revealed belong unto us and to our\nchildren for ever: that we may do all the words of this Law,\u201d abstruse\nmetaphysical disquisitions about the essence and the attributes of the\nDivine Being will be avoided in the present work, as also every attempt\nat proving, philosophically or mathematically, truths which have been\nrevealed unto us in a supernatural way. [1] But the simple truths\ntaught in the Holy Writings and explained by our sages will be\nexpounded, the different opinions about them will be examined, and it\nwill be shown that these truths are not contradicted by common sense or\nby the results of scientific research.\n\nThe second question, however, What does Judaism teach us to do? refers\nto \u201cthe things which are revealed,\u201d and must be treated more fully.\nCare will be taken, as far as possible, that nothing be omitted that is\nrequired for the right understanding and the correct estimate of our\nreligious duties.\n\nReligion therefore includes two elements: faith and practice. In\nreligious life, as well as in the teaching of religion, both elements\nare equally essential; faith without religious practice does not\nsuffice, nor the latter without faith. We are accustomed to look upon\ncertain dogmas as fundamental, and certain practices as essential, and\nare therefore prone to renounce beliefs which are not fundamental in\nour eyes, and to abandon such religious practice as seems to us less\nessential. Hence the frequent inquiry as to what is the minimum of\nbelief, and what the minimum degree of conformity to the Law, that\nJudaism demands. But in reality there can be no compromise in religion,\nwhether in matters of faith or of practice. Convinced of a certain\nnumber of truths, it is impossible for us to abandon any of them\nwithout being false to ourselves; being convinced of the binding\ncharacter of certain religious commands and prohibitions, it would be\nperverse to pronounce at the same time part of them as superfluous.\nJudaism is the adherence to the truths taught in the Holy Law, and the\nfaithful obedience to its precepts.\n\nThe principal Hebrew equivalents for the modern term \u201cReligion,\u201d \u200f\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e\nand \u200f\u05d0\u05de\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4\u200e, confirm this view. In the Bible \u200f\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e signifies\n\u201cinstruction,\u201d and is applied to the teaching of religions truth, as\nwell as to that of religious precepts. The same is the case with the\nsecond term \u200f\u05d0\u05de\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4\u200e which signifies \u201cfirmness,\u201d \u201cperseverance,\u201d or\n\u201cpermanence,\u201d and is used of \u201cconsistency\u201d in faith as well as of\nconscientiousness in the practice of the Divine ordinances. [2]\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nI.\n\nOUR CREED.\n\n\nINTRODUCTION.\n\n\nFaith is the implicit and absolute belief in the truth of the\ncommunication made to us and in the trustworthiness of him who makes it\nto us. The child has faith in its parents that their wishes or commands\nare for its good; the pupil in his teachers that they impart correct\nknowledge; we have faith in our friends that they have no intention to\ndeceive us; in the men of science and learning that the results of\ntheir researches may be accepted as well established. In all these\ncases the faith is but imperfect and of a relative and temporary\ncharacter. Time, investigation, and extended observation and knowledge\nmay either confirm the contents of our faith or may convince us that we\nhave been in error. This is not the case with religious faith. It keeps\nwithin the boundaries of its own domain and does not encroach on that\nof the senses and of reason. Whatever can be known by means of\nscientific research and thorough investigation we need not accept on\nfaith. Religion\u2014I have, of course, our own religion, the Jewish, in\nmind\u2014does not only not forbid such examination, but even encourages it.\nThus we read in the Book of Proverbs, \u201cA fool believeth every word, but\nthe prudent man looketh well to his going\u201d (xiv. 15). For this purpose\nGod has given us intellectual faculties that we should employ them in\nour search for truth. At the same time, however, He has set limits to\nour faculties, and there are things which are beyond these limits,\nbeing nistaroth, \u201cthings hidden\u201d from our senses, whose existence has\nbeen made known to us through the grace of God, by such means as His\ninfinite wisdom determined. We search and investigate, examine and\ndemonstrate, within the sphere of our senses; but all that is beyond\ntheir reach belongs to the nistaroth, the knowledge of which can only\nbe imparted to us directly by the Almighty, or indirectly by those to\nwhom they have been communicated by Him. Our belief with regard to\nthese nistaroth may be supported or strengthened by philosophical or\ndialectical arguments, but can never be proved by mathematical or\nlogical demonstration.\n\nThe sources from which we derive our knowledge of these nistaroth are\nRevelation and Tradition. God reveals things otherwise unknown to man\nto such persons or to such a generation as His wisdom chooses, and from\nthose thus privileged the knowledge spreads to the rest of mankind by\nmeans of Tradition. In addition to these two sources there is a third\none in ourselves: God implanted in our souls certain ideas common to\nall of us as essential elements of our inner life, and these ideas form\nto some extent the basis of our faith. Such is, e.g., the idea of an\nall-powerful Being, God, who is the source and origin of everything in\nexistence.\n\nThere is no real conflict between faith and reason. It may sometimes\nseem as if there were such a conflict, and we then naturally begin to\ndoubt. In such cases the truth of our faith may be doubted, but the\ncorrectness of our reasoning is no less subject to doubt. We may have\nerroneously included in our faith beliefs which do not belong to it,\nand on becoming aware that they are contrary to reason, we cast them\naside without the least injury to our faith. On the other hand, our\nreason is not perfect; we frequently discover mistakes in our arguments\nand conclusions, and reject opinions which we hitherto have considered\nas firmly established.\n\nThrough patient and thorough investigation of our doubts, without\nover-estimation of our reasoning faculties, we shall be able to settle\nthe seeming conflict between reason and faith in a satisfactory manner.\nThe examination of our doubts will prove that none of the truths which\nthe Almighty revealed to mankind are contrary to reason.\n\nIn this way we are enabled to separate from our faith all elements that\nin reality are foreign to it; we shall be able to distinguish between\nfaith and superstition. The latter consists of erroneous notions and\nbeliefs which can be tested and subjected to the ordinary means of\ninquiry. Superstition is not tolerated by true religion; strict\nadherence to the teachings of our holy religion is the best check to\nsuperstitious beliefs.\n\nThe importance which the Bible attaches to implicit faith in God and\nHis word may be gathered from the following passages:\u2014\n\n\u201cAnd he (Abraham) believed in the Lord, and He reckoned it to him as\nrighteousness\u201d (Gen. xv. 6). The Hebrew for \u201crighteousness\u201d is in the\noriginal \u200f\u05e6\u05d3\u05e7\u05d4\u200e which is used in the Bible as the sum-total of\neverything good and noble in man\u2019s life.\n\nWhen the Israelites had crossed the Red Sea, it is said of them: \u201cAnd\nIsrael saw the great work which the Lord did upon the Egyptians, and\nthe people feared the Lord: and they believed in the Lord, and in Moses\nHis servant\u201d (Exod. xiv. 31).\n\nAgain, when Moses and Aaron had sinned at the waters of Meribah by\nstriking the rock instead of speaking to it, they were rebuked for want\nof \u200f\u05d0\u05de\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4\u200e \u201cfaith,\u201d in the following words: \u201cBecause ye believed not in\nme (\u200f\u05dc\u05d0 \u05d4\u05d0\u05de\u05e0\u05ea\u05dd \u05d1\u05d9\u200e) to sanctify me in the eyes of the children of\nIsrael, therefore ye shall not bring this assembly into the land which\nI have given them\u201d (Numb. xx. 12).\n\nWhen Moses in his song \u200f\u05d4\u05d0\u05d6\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5\u200e blamed the Israelites for their evil\ndoings, he called them \u201cchildren in whom there is no faith\u201d \u200f\u05d0\u05de\u05d5\u05df\u200e\n(Deut. xxxii. 20).\n\nKing Jehoshaphat, addressing the army before the battle, says: \u201cHave\nfaith in the Lord and you will be safe; have confidence in His prophets\nand you will succeed\u201d (2 Chron. xx. 20).\n\nIn the same sense Isaiah says to King Ahaz: \u201cIf you have no faith,\nsurely you will not be safe\u201d (Isa. vii. 9).\n\nAlso Jeremiah, speaking of Israel\u2019s disobedience to the word of God,\nexclaims: \u201cThe faith, \u200f\u05d4\u05d0\u05de\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4\u200e is perished, and it is cut off from\ntheir mouth\u201d (Jer. vii. 28).\n\nThe prophet Habakkuk, praying to God for an explanation why evil-doers\nsucceed and prosper, receives the divine answer: \u201cThe righteous shall\nlive by his faith\u201d \u200f\u05d5\u05e6\u05d3\u05d9\u05e7 \u05d1\u05d0\u05de\u05d5\u05e0\u05ea\u05d5 \u05d9\u05d7\u05d9\u05d4\u200e (Hab. ii. 4); and when Hosea\npredicts the future redemption of Israel, he tells them in the name of\nGod, \u201cAnd I will betroth thee unto me by faith\u201d \u200f\u05d5\u05d0\u05e8\u05e9\u05ea\u05d9\u05da \u05dc\u05d9 \u05d1\u05d0\u05de\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4\u200e\n(Hos. ii. 22).\n\nOur teachers, the sages and rabbis, who succeeded the prophets, have\nbeen equally emphatic in commending religious faith. The following are\na few of their sayings concerning faith:\u2014\n\n\u201cGreat is the merit of faith. Through their faith in the Creator of the\nuniverse the Israelites were inspired by the holy spirit, and were\nenabled to sing praises to the Lord.\u201d \u201cFaith in the Lord was the source\nof all the temporal and eternal blessings which were bestowed upon\nAbraham; it gave him the enjoyment of this world and the world to\ncome.\u201d \u201cWhen the Psalmist says: \u2018This gate leads to the Lord; righteous\npeople (\u200f\u05e6\u05d3\u05d9\u05e7\u05d9\u05dd\u200e) shall come in through it,\u2019 he denoted by the term\n\u2018righteous\u2019 those who possess faith in God\u201d (Yalkut on Ex. xiv. 31).\n\nIn spite of the fact that the Torah and the prophets most emphatically\ndeclare faith \u200f\u05d0\u05de\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4\u200e to be a very essential element in Judaism, it\ndoes not seem to have the same importance in the writings of Jewish\ntheologians and philosophers, some of whom have endeavoured to\nsubstitute reasoning and logical arguments for simple faith, and to\nrebuild upon scientific research the religious edifice erected on the\nfoundation of faith. The following are the utterances of the principal\nJewish theologians since the close of the Talmud on the relation\nbetween faith and reason:\u2014\n\nThe Gaon Saadiah of Fayyum wrote a book on creeds and religious beliefs\n(\u200f\u05d0\u05de\u05d0\u05e0\u05d0\u05ea \u05d5\u05d0\u05e2\u05ea\u05e7\u05d0\u05d3\u05be\u05d0\u05de\u05d5\u05e0\u05d5\u05ea \u05d5\u05d3\u05e2\u05d5\u05ea\u200e). In the Introduction to this work the\nphilosopher describes the causes of human error and doubt, and assumes\nfour classes of believers. There are, first, those who recognise the\ntruth found by them, cling to it, and are happy in it. There are,\nsecondly, those who have the true principle before them, but do not\nrecognise it, doubt its correctness, and abandon it again. The third\nclass includes those who adopt an opinion without having recognised it\nas true; they mistake falsehood for truth. The last division consists\nof those who form no definite opinion, but remain continually in an\nunsettled state of mind. Saadiah is anxious to see at least his\nco-religionists in the first class, and his work was intended to help\nthem towards this end.\n\nAccording to Saadiah, belief or faith must be an integral part of our\nsoul; the various truths which form the faith are stored up in the soul\nas in a repository, completely ready for use whenever required. It is,\nhowever, possible that we store up opinions as true which are false.\nTests must be applied to each opinion in order to ascertain its right\ncharacter. Three of the tests are of a general nature, but the fourth\nhas its force only for us, the believers in the truth of the Holy\nWritings. The first three tests will show us whether a certain opinion\nis confirmed or contradicted by our senses, by our innate ideas, or by\nour logical reasoning. In addition to these we possess a fourth test in\nthe trustworthy communication (\u200f\u05d4\u05d2\u05d3\u05d4 \u05d4\u05e0\u05d0\u05de\u05e0\u05ea\u200e), i.e., the contents of\nHoly Writ and Tradition. Holy Writ recognises the necessity of the\nthree general tests, and frequently exhorts us to apply them. On the\nother hand, Saadiah is convinced that the contents of Holy Writ and\nTradition are never contradicted, but in many cases are confirmed by\nthese tests. Such confirmation is in reality superfluous; but the human\nmind feels more at ease when it finds that the teaching of Holy Writ is\nsupported by other proofs. Besides, attacks on the Bible come\nfrequently from these tests, and it is therefore useful to learn how to\nrefute them. According to Saadiah, the truth taught in the Bible can\nnever be contradicted by the results of scientific or philosophical\nresearch.\n\nThus to Saadiah philosophy and science are mere luxuries, and cannot be\nconsidered as handmaids to the Torah. They are not studied on account\nof their intrinsic value or as helps for the understanding of Holy\nWrit, but merely for the purpose of procuring proper weapons for\ntheological warfare, or of superadding the conviction that what is\nknown to us from the most trustworthy source is confirmed from other\nless reliable sources.\n\nThe poet and philosopher Solomon ibn Gabirol, who is lost in enthusiasm\nin contemplating the powers of the human soul, humbly acknowledges that\nit was his faith that saved him from fall and ruin. Referring to man\u2019s\nfaculty of acquiring knowledge, he says in his \u201cRoyal Crown\u201d \u200f\u05db\u05ea\u05e8\n\u05de\u05dc\u05db\u05d5\u05ea\u200e: \u201cWho can comprehend Thy wisdom in giving to the soul the\nfaculty of acquiring knowledge, on which her existence depends,\nknowledge being her foundation? She is permanent and immortal in the\nsame measure as her foundation is well established.\u201d But, reflecting on\nhuman weakness, he expresses his feeling of gratitude to the Creator\nfor His guidance in the following words: \u201cThou hast done yet more for\nme. Thou hast implanted in my heart a perfect faith, so that I believe\nin Thee as the true God, and in Thy prophets as true prophets; Thou\nhast not cast my lot among those that rebel against Thee, or among\nthose who provoke Thy name, despise Thy Law, attack Thy servants, and\ndisbelieve Thy prophets.\u201d Knowledge\u2014philosophy and science\u2014is the very\nessence, the immortal element of the soul, and yet without the Word of\nGod man would go astray and be lost.\n\nThe boundaries between faith and reason are more distinctly set forth\nin the Commentary on Sefer Yetsirah by Dunash ben Tamim (ed. L. Dukes\nin Shire Shelomoh, i. p. vi. seq.): \u201cAll these beings above and below\nhave been created by God, and it is within the province of man to\nexplore and to examine all of them; but he must not pass beyond these\nboundaries to investigate into the essence of God; \u2018for in the city of\nhis refuge shall he dwell,\u2019 and \u2018if he goeth out of his place, and the\navenger of blood smite him, he hath no remedy.\u2019 Besides, wisdom and\nscience acknowledge that man is unable to comprehend by his own\nintellect anything that exists outside the sphere of created beings.\u201d\n\nR. Bachya, son of Joseph hassephardi, who lived in the eleventh\ncentury, treats, in the Introduction to his \u201cDuties of the Heart,\u201d of\nthe three sources of human knowledge\u2014Holy Writ, Tradition, and Reason.\nBachya is fully convinced that the knowledge derived from the first two\nsources is complete and correct. \u201cIf you are a man endowed with\nknowledge and reason, and are able to demonstrate the principles of\nyour belief and your religious practice, which you have been taught by\nthe Sages in the name of the prophets, it is your duty to do so, and to\nlet reason confirm what Tradition teaches. If you abstain from\nattempting this investigation, you neglect your duty towards your\nCreator.\u201d\n\nStill more emphatic is Shem-tob ibn Palqera in demanding the right of\nfree inquiry into everything taught by Revelation and Tradition. In a\ndialogue between the believer and the inquirer (Hammebhakkesh) the\nformer is represented as ignorant of everything our mind desires to\nknow; whilst the wise man, who combines belief and confidence in\nTradition with the right use of his reason, knows how to satisfy the\ninquirer, and lays down the rule, \u201cLet the study of the Torah be the\nfoundation, and the study of other things secondary; believe nothing\nthat is not proved by reason or by God\u201d (i.e., by the word of\nRevelation).\n\nR. Abraham ben David, in Emunah ramah: \u201cBecause three out of four\nscholars (R. Akiba, Ben-azai, Ben-zoma, and Elisha) were unsuccessful\nin their philosophical researches, therefore many turn their backs upon\nscience, and in consequence of this neglect they remain ignorant of the\nchief principles of our religion.\u201d The object of his book is to\nreconcile religion and science.\n\nR. Judah hallevi, in his \u201cKuzari,\u201d endeavours to convince the Kuzarite\nking of the truth of the Jewish religion by philosophical arguments,\nbut gives unhesitatingly the preference and the higher authority to\nDivine revelation. He is convinced that reason or philosophical\nargument could never refute any principle taught in the Law. He says:\n\u201cProphecy is certainly stronger than logical inference.\u201d\n\nR. Abraham ibn Ezra believes that man\u2019s intellectual faculties are\ninsufficient to solve all transcendental problems; thus, e.g., the\nnature of the spirit of man is unknown to most, and is only\ncomprehended by him \u201cwhose thoughts are weighed in the balance of\nreason, and are established on the four elements of wisdom, viz., the\nthree R\u2019s: reading, writing, and reckoning; (in Hebrew, the three \u200f\u05e1\u200e:\n\u200f\u05e1\u05b0\u05e4\u05b8\u05e8 \u05e1\u05b5\u05e4\u05b6\u05e8 \u05e1\u05b4\u05e4\u05bc\u05d5\u05bc\u05e8\u200e) and the Divine Law.\u201d Ibn Ezra recommends the study of\nscience, united with the belief in Divine revelation. \u201cThe Torah,\u201d Ibn\nEzra remarks in his Commentary on Ps. xix. 8, \u201cis perfect in itself; it\nrequires no evidence from without for the truths which it teaches.\u201d\n\nMaimonides\u2019 \u201cGuide to the Perplexed\u201d is entirely devoted to the problem\nhow to reconcile Scripture and reason. Scripture cannot contain\nanything contrary to reason; nor can the result of scientific research\nand philosophical speculation be conceived as contrary to reason, which\nis their very basis. But where any such contradiction is perceived, we\nare at fault either in our reasoning or in our interpretation of the\nDivine Writings. The Incorporeality and Unity of God are doctrines that\nhave been fully proved, and Scripture cannot teach anything that is\ncontrary to them. Where we believe them to be contradicted in the Holy\nWritings the contradiction is only apparent, and by assuming an\nallegorical use of words and phrases the seeming contradiction is\nremoved.\n\nR. Joseph Albo prefaces his book on the principles of Judaism as\nfollows: \u201cAs the human understanding is incapable of finding out what\nis true and what is good, there must be a higher Being that assists us\nin determining what is good and in comprehending what is true. It is\ntherefore necessary, above all, to study and to know the divine Law\nthat guides man in these problems.\u201d\n\nR. Eliah del Medigo, in his Bechinath haddath (Examination of Religion)\nsays as follows:\u2014\n\n\u201cLet us first see whether or not the study of philosophy is permitted\nto the followers of our religion; and, if it be permitted, whether the\nstudy is to be considered a duty and a laudable act. The right-minded\nJew does not doubt that the Law aims at leading us to humane conduct,\ngood deeds, and true knowledge, the common people according to their\ncapacity, and the more gifted according to their abilities. Certain\nfundamental truths are therefore set forth in the Law and the Prophets\nin an authoritative, poetical, or dialectical style; but the higher\norder of intellects are encouraged to search for proper proofs. Thus\nthe whole nation is addressed by Isaiah: \u2018Lift up your eyes on high and\nsee who hath created these,\u2019 and the like. Also the chief of the\nProphets tells the Israelites: \u2018Hear, O Israel, the Lord is our God;\nthe Lord is One.\u2019 Those who are more highly endowed than their\nfellow-men are exhorted, either directly or indirectly, to follow the\ncourse which is suitable to them. The direct exhortation to\nphilosophical research is contained in the words: \u2018Know then this day,\nand take it to thy heart, that the Lord He is God,\u2019 &c.; and indirectly\nit is contained in the commandment to love and to fear God, as has been\nexplained by R. Moses Maimonides.\u2014The study of science will certainly\nbe of use to the scholar; it leads to a knowledge of the created\nthings, and through these to a knowledge of the Creator. Such study may\neven be considered as necessary to the Jewish scholar, though not to\nthe ordinary Jew. The scholar must, however, not entirely rely on his\nresearch, but on that which is taught in the Law. In this the scholar\nand the ordinary man are equal, that both accept the teaching of the\nTorah as infallible; only with this difference, that the scholar can in\naddition satisfy his thirst for knowledge and confirm by scientific\nproof what he has already accepted as true on the authority of the\nBible.\u201d\n\nOf modern scholars I only quote Moses Mendelssohn\u2019s theory. He accepts\nunconditionally the teaching of the Bible; all its truths are absolute\nand perfect; no reasoning whatever can refute them; but difficulties\nmay sometimes present themselves to us in reconciling the teaching of\nthe Bible with that of our reason. What have we then to do? The\nphilosopher declares: \u201cIf I were to find my reason in contradiction to\nthe Word of God, I could command reason to be silent; but the\narguments, so long as they have not been refuted, will nevertheless\nassert themselves in the innermost recesses of my heart; the arguments\nwill assume the form of disquieting doubts, which will resolve\nthemselves into childlike prayers, earnest supplication for\nenlightenment. I should utter the words of the Psalmist: \u2018Lord, send me\nThy light, Thy truth, that they may guide me, and bring me to Thy holy\nmount, to Thy dwelling-place!\u2019\u201d\n\nThe conception which Moses Mendelssohn had of Jewish belief and its\nrelation to reason we learn from the following passage:\u2014\u201cI recognise no\nother eternal truths than those which are not only comprehensible to\nthe human mind, but also demonstrable by human powers. This principle\nby no means brings me into conflict with my own religion; on the\ncontrary, I consider it an essential element in Judaism, and the\ncharacteristic difference between Judaism and Christianity. Judaism has\nno revealed religion in the sense in which Christianity has. The Jews\nhave a revealed legislation which instructs them in the divinely\nordained means by which they may attain the eternal bliss. Laws and\nrules for conduct in life were revealed to Moses in a supernatural way,\nbut no doctrines, no saving truth, and no general laws of logic. The\nlatter the Eternal reveals to us, as to all men, through nature and\nthrough the things themselves; never through words and letters. The\ndivine book revealed to Moses, though a book of laws, includes an\ninexhaustible treasure of truths and doctrines.... The more we study it\nthe more we wonder at the depth of the knowledge contained in it. But\nthese truths are taught, and not forced upon us as dogmas. Belief does\nnot allow itself to be commanded; it is based upon conviction. In the\nHebrew language, the very word which is generally translated \u2018faith,\u2019\nviz., \u200f\u05d0\u05de\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4\u200e denotes originally confidence, trust that the promise\nmade will also be fulfilled, and not what we understand by \u2018religious\nfaith.\u2019\u201d\n\nThese words of Mendelssohn show how greatly those err who quote his\nopinions in support of the dictum that Judaism recognises no dogmas.\nAccording to Mendelssohn, Judaism does not consist entirely of laws; it\nteaches also certain truths. We have certain dogmas without which the\nlaws can have no meaning, yet there is no precept, \u201cThou shalt\nbelieve.\u201d Nowhere in our Law, whether written or oral, is a solemn\ndeclaration of our creed demanded. In so far Mendelssohn\u2019s view is\ncorrect; but when he believes that all the truths we are taught in\nScripture can be made evident by logical demonstration he is mistaken.\nAs to the meaning of \u200f\u05d0\u05de\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4\u200e comp. supra, p. 4.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTHE THIRTEEN PRINCIPLES OF OUR CREED.\n\n\nThe main source of our creed is the Bible, and among the Biblical\nbooks, chiefly the Pentateuch (\u200f\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e). In these books we find many\ntruths taught by God Himself, or by His inspired messengers, and they\nform the substance of our creed. It matters little how we arrange them,\nhow we collect them into groups, and subdivide these again, provided we\nbelieve in them implicitly. In the Bible they are not arranged\nsystematically; they are intermingled with, and are contained\nimplicitly in, the history and the laws that form the subject-matter of\nthe Scriptures; it is the observance of those laws which constitutes\nthe best evidence of the belief seated in the heart. No declaration or\nrecital of a creed is commanded in the Pentateuch; no tribunal is\nappointed for inquiring whether the belief of a man is right or wrong;\nno punishment is inflicted or threatened for want of belief. It became,\nhowever, necessary to formulate the truths taught in the Bible, when\ndisputes arose as to their meaning and to their validity. The Mishnah,\ntherefore, declares certain opinions as un-Jewish and contrary to the\nteaching of the Divine Word. Later on, when controversies multiplied\nbetween the various sections of the Jewish nation, as well as between\nJews and Christians and Jews and Mohammedans, it was found most\nimportant to settle the form and arrangement of our beliefs. Moses\nMaimonides, the great religious philosopher, taught, in his Commentary\non the Mishnah, thirteen principles of faith, which found general\nacceptance among the Jews, and are known as the Thirteen Principles.\nThey have found their way into the Prayer-book in two different forms,\none in prose and one in poetry. Maimonides, in commending them to the\nreader, says: \u201cRead them again and again and study them well, and let\nnot your heart entice you to believe that you have comprehended their\nfull meaning after having read them a few times; you would then be in a\ngreat error, for I have not written down what occurred to my mind at\nfirst thought. I first thoroughly studied and examined what I was going\nto write, compared the various doctrines, the correct ones and the\nincorrect ones, and when I arrived at what we ought to accept as our\ncreed, I was able to prove it by arguments and reasoning.\u201d The thirteen\narticles as put forth by Maimonides, and called by him principles and\nfoundations of our religion, are the following:\u2014\n\n1. The first principle: The belief in the existence of the Creator;\nthat is, the belief that there exists a Being who requires no other\ncause for His existence, but is Himself the cause of all beings.\n\n2. The second principle: The belief in the Unity of God; that is, the\nbelief that the Being who is the cause of everything in existence is\nOne; not like the unity of a group or class, composed of a certain\nnumber of individuals, or the unity of one individual consisting of\nvarious constituent elements, or the unity of one simple thing which is\ndivisible ad infinitum, but as a unity the like of which does not\nexist.\n\n3. The third principle: The belief in the Incorporeality of God; that\nis, the belief that this One Creator has neither bodily form nor\nsubstance, that He is not a force contained in a body, and that no\ncorporeal quality or action can be attributed to Him.\n\n4. The fourth principle: The belief in the Eternity of God; that is,\nthe belief that God alone is without a beginning, whilst no other being\nis without a beginning.\n\n5. The fifth principle: The belief that the Creator alone is to be\nworshipped, and no other being, whether angel, star, or ought else, all\nthese being themselves creatures.\n\n6. The sixth principle: The belief in Prophecy; that is, the belief\nthat there have been men endowed with extraordinary moral and\nintellectual powers, by which they were enabled to reach a degree and\nkind of knowledge unattainable to others.\n\n7. The seventh principle: The belief that our teacher Moses was the\ngreatest of all prophets, both those before him and those after him.\n\n8. The eighth principle: The belief in the Divine origin of the Law;\nthe belief that the whole Pentateuch was communicated to Moses by God,\nboth the precepts and the historical accounts contained therein.\n\n9. The ninth principle: The belief in the integrity of the Law; that\nboth the written and the oral Law are of Divine origin, and that\nnothing may be added to it or taken from it.\n\n10. The tenth principle: The belief that God knows and notices the\ndeeds and thoughts of man.\n\n11. The eleventh principle: The belief that God rewards those who\nperform the commandments of His Law, and punishes those who transgress\nthem.\n\n12. The twelfth principle: The belief that Messiah will come at some\nfuture time, which it is impossible for us to determine; that he will\nbe of the house of David, and will be endowed with extraordinary wisdom\nand power.\n\n13. The thirteenth principle: The belief in the revival of the dead, or\nthe immortality of the soul.\n\nThese thirteen principles (\u200f\u05e9\u05dc\u05e9\u05d4 \u05e2\u05e9\u05e8 \u05e2\u05e7\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e) may be divided into three\ngroups, according to their relation to the three principles:\u20141.\nExistence of God. 2. Revelation. 3. Reward and punishment. The first\ngroup includes the first five principles, the second the next four, and\nthe third the remaining four. In this order they will now be\nconsidered.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1. EXISTENCE OF GOD \u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d9\u05d0\u05d5\u05ea \u05d4\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0\u200e.\n\nThe notion of the existence of God, of an invisible power which\nexercises its influence in everything that is going on in nature, is\nwidespread, and common to almost the whole human race. It is found\namong all civilised nations and many uncivilised tribes. The existence\nof God may be regarded as an innate idea, which we possess from our\nearliest days. This is the origin of Natural Religion. Thinkers of all\nages and nations have attempted to confirm this innate idea by\nconvincing arguments. Prophets and divine poets have frequently\ndirected the attention of those whom they addressed to the marvels of\nnature in order to inspire them with the idea of an All-wise and\nAll-powerful Creator.\n\n\u201cLift up your eyes on high, and behold who hath created these? Who is\nHe who bringeth them forth by number? All of them He calleth by name,\nby the greatness of His might, and for that He is strong in power, not\none is lacking\u201d (Isa. xl. 26). \u201cThe heavens declare the glory of God,\nand the firmament sheweth His handywork\u201d (Ps. xix. 2).\n\nThe regularity in the rising and setting of the heavenly bodies, which\nenables us to foretell the exact time and duration of an eclipse of the\nsun or the moon, is certainly a strong argument for the belief that\nthere is a mighty and wise Creator who fixed the laws in accordance\nwith which these luminaries move.\n\n\u201cBeautiful are the luminaries which our God has created. He has formed\nthem with knowledge, reason, and understanding; He endowed them with\npower and strength to rule in the midst of the world. Full of splendour\nand beaming with light, they illumine the whole world; they rejoice\nwhen they rise, they are glad when they set, doing in reverence the\nwill of their Master\u201d (Sabbath Morning Service).\n\nA similar regularity we notice when looking on the face of the earth.\nThe various seasons of the year, each with its peculiar aspect and\ninfluence, the sequence of day and night at regular intervals, the\ngradual and systematic development of vegetable and animal life\u2014all\npoint forcibly to the fact that these things do not owe their existence\nto chance, but to the will of an Almighty and All-wise Creator.\n\nAgain, if we consider the structure of a single plant, or of a single\nanimal, we find that every one of the members and parts of which it is\ncomposed has its peculiar function or purpose in the economy of the\nwhole plant or the whole animal. Let one of these component parts\nrefuse its function or cease to fulfil its purpose and the whole is\ndisorganised. Certainly there must be a Being who makes the different\nmembers of an organism co-operate for the development and advantage of\nthe whole. The idea of purpose which regulates this co-operation cannot\nhave originated in the parts nor in the whole, but in the conception of\nHim by whose Will these were created.\n\n\u201cThe finger of God\u201d is further recognised in the important events of\nthe life of the individual as well as in the history of whole nations.\nWe are frequently reminded of the lesson, \u201cThe heart of man deviseth\nhis way, but the Lord directeth his step\u201d (Prov. xvi. 9). \u201cSalvation is\nthe Lord\u2019s, and on Thy people it is incumbent to bless Thee\u201d (Ps. iii.\n9).\n\nAnother argument in support of the belief in the existence of God is\ntaken from the moral consciousness which every human being possesses.\nThis points to the existence of a higher Being, perfect in goodness, as\nthe origin and cause of the moral consciousness in our own heart.\n\nThese and similar arguments are employed to strengthen and purify our\nbelief in God. The question, however, arises, are these arguments alone\nsufficient to convince us? Are they strong enough to resist the attacks\nof scepticism?\n\nOn examining them thoroughly we shall find them of excellent service to\nthe believer. His belief is strengthened against many doubts by which\nhe may be assailed; and scepticism will be kept at bay by these\narguments. But of themselves and unsupported they may not always\nsuffice to establish belief in God; and if they carry conviction with\nthem for the moment, we are not sure whether fresh arguments of\nopponents might not again unsettle the mind. Another method was\ntherefore chosen by the Almighty, by which certainty is attained, and a\nsure guide is given for our moral and religious life. It is Revelation.\nOf this we shall speak later on.\n\nThe principal forms of religion or worship that sprang from the natural\nbelief in God are Polytheism, Pantheism, Atheism, Theism, and Deism.\n\n1. The first form of Divine worship of which history and arch\u00e6ology\ngive us information is Polytheism. The creating and ruling power of\nsome invisible Being was noticed everywhere. Every manifestation of\nsuch influence was ascribed to its peculiar deity, which was worshipped\naccording to the peculiar conception of the deity in the mind of the\nindividual person, family, or nation. This is chiefly the kind of\nidolatry mentioned in the Bible and combated by the prophets.\n\nA very general object of worship were the stars. Rabbi Jehudah ha-Levi,\nin Kuzari iv. 1, in trying to explain the origin of this practice, says\nas follows:\u2014\u201cThe spheres of the sun and the moon do not move in the\nsame way. A separate cause or god was therefore assumed for each, and\npeople did not think that there was a higher force on which all these\ncauses depended.\u201d The ancient monuments and the treasures stored up in\nour museums show how great was the variety of forms which idolatry\ntook, and to how great an extent people adhered, and still adhere, to\nthis kind of worship. But there have been thinkers and philosophers\neven among the idolatrous nations who sought a unity in the\nconstruction and working of the universe, and early arrived at the idea\nof a First Cause as the sole source of all that exists.\n\n2. The fact that the influence of the Divine power makes itself\nperceptible to the observing eye of man everywhere produced another\nkind of human error: Pantheism (All-God). Modern Pantheism dates from\nSpinoza; but long before Spinoza, when the secret forces at work in the\nchanges noticed by us in all material objects were recognised as\nproperties inherent in the substance of things, these forces were\nconsidered as the sole independent causes of the existing universe, and\nthe combination of these forces, called Nature, was considered to be\nthe First Cause, or God. A modification of this theory is contained in\nthe philosophy of Spinoza. According to this great philosopher\u2019s\nsystem, the universe in its entirety has the attributes of the Deity:\nthere exists nothing but the Substance (God), its attributes, and the\nvarious ways in which these attributes become perceptible to man.\nSpinoza tried to defend himself from the reproach of describing God as\ncorporeal, but he did not succeed. The attribute of extension or space\nwhich God possesses, according to Spinoza, is only conceivable in\nrelation to corporeal things. The philosophy of Spinoza is in this\ndilemma: either God is corporeal, or the corporeal world does not\nexist. Both assumptions are equally absurd. It is true, in one of his\nletters he complains that he has been misrepresented, as if he believed\nGod to consist of a certain corporeal mass. But we cannot help assuming\nthe existence of a certain corporeal mass, and if this is not God, we\nmust distinguish in our mind God and something that is not God,\ncontrary to the fundamental doctrine of Pantheism. Besides, there are\nmany incongruities and improbabilities involved in this theory. It has\nno foundation for a moral consciousness. The wicked and the good are\nalike inseparable from God. They both result with necessity from the\nattributes of God, and they cannot be otherwise than they actually are.\nIf we, by the consideration that injury done to us by our fellow-man\nwas not done by that person alone, but by a series of predetermined\nnecessary causes, may be induced to conquer hatred against the apparent\ncause of our injury, we may equally be induced by the same reasoning to\nconsider the kindness and benefits of our friends not worthy of\ngratitude, believing that they were compelled to act in this manner,\nand could not act otherwise.\n\n3. Pantheism, by teaching All in One and One in All, is opposed to the\ntheory of man\u2019s responsibility to a higher Being, denies the existence\nof God in the ordinary sense of the word, and is, in its relation to\ntrue religion, equal to atheism.\n\nIn the Bible atheism is stigmatised as the source of all evils. Thus\nthe patriarch Abraham suspected the people of Gerar, that there was \u201cno\nfear of God\u201d in the place, and was afraid \u201cthey might slay him\u201d (Gen.\nxx. 11); whilst Joseph persuaded his brothers to have confidence in him\nby the assertion, \u201cI fear God\u201d (Ib. xlii. 18). The first instance of an\natheist we meet in Pharaoh, king of Egypt, when he defiantly said, \u201cI\nknow not the Lord, neither will I let Israel go\u201d (Exod. v. 2). Another\nform of atheism is warned against in the words of Moses: \u201cLest thou\nsayest in thine heart, My strength and the power of my hand has got for\nme all this wealth\u201d (Deut. viii. 17); and \u201cLest they say, Our hand is\nhigh, and it is not the Lord that hath done all this\u201d (Ib. xxxii. 27).\nThe prophets likewise rebuke the people for want of belief in God. In\nthe Psalms, the crimes and evil designs of oppressors are traced to\ngodlessness. \u201cThe wicked says in his heart, There is no God\u201d (Ps. xiv.\n1). But this atheism of the Bible is not a theoretical or dogmatic one;\nit is not the result of thought, or of deep inquiry into the causes of\nthings, but merely the voice of an evil inclination which tempts man to\nact contrary to the command of God, and assures him of immunity, under\nthe impression that his actions are not watched by a higher authority.\nIn post-Biblical literature we meet with the phrase, \u200f\u05dc\u05d9\u05ea \u05d3\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05df \u05d5\u05dc\u05d9\u05ea \u05d3\u05b7\u05bc\u05d9\u05b8\u05bc\u05df\u200e\n\u201cThere is no judgment, and there is no judge,\u201d as the basis of atheism.\n\n4. Although the conviction of man\u2019s responsibility to a higher\nauthority is the essential element in the belief in God, yet the notion\nof godlessness was so intimately connected with crime and wickedness,\nthat those who rejected the authority and mastership of the Deity\nrefused to be called godless or atheists. Many philosophers retained\nthe name \u201cGod\u201d (theos, deus) for their \u201cFirst Cause\u201d of the universe,\nalthough it is deprived of the chief attributes of God. Thus we have as\nthe principal religious theories resulting from philosophical\ninvestigations, Theism and Deism. Literally these two terms denote,\nTheory of God, or Belief in God; the one word being derived from the\nGreek theos, the other from the Latin deus, both meaning \u201cGod.\u201d\n\nThere is, however, an essential difference between the two theories.\nTheism and Deism have this in common, that both assume a spiritual\npower, a divine being, as the cause and source of everything that\nexists. They differ in this: to Theism this power is immanent in us and\nthe things round us; Deism considers this power as separate from the\nthings. Revelation or prophecy is altogether denied by the Deists,\nwhilst the Theists would accept it after their own fashion and\nrationalise it.\n\nAll these various systems of religion have this in common, that they\nattempt to remove from religion everything that cannot be comprehended\nby human reason. But all attempts to substitute human reason for Divine\nauthority have failed. A limit has been set to human reason, and that\ncannot be overcome. In every system of religion\u2014the natural and the\nrational included\u2014there is a mystic element, which may be enveloped in\na mist of phrases, but remains unexplained. Whether we call the Creator\nand Ruler of the universe God, Deus, or Theos, His relation to the\nuniverse, and to man in particular, cannot be determined by the laws\nwhich determine the natural phenomena in the universe, created by His\nWill.\n\nWhat is our conception of the Deity? The fundamental idea, from which\nall our notions concerning God are derived, and which we have in common\nwith all other believers in God, is that He is the First Cause, the\nCreator of the universe. This idea expressed in the term \u200f\u05d4\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d9\u05ea\u05d1\u05e8\u05da\n\u05e9\u05de\u05d5\u200e forms the basis of our creed. It is the Creator that is described\nin it. Seven of the articles begin, \u201cI believe with a perfect faith\nthat the Creator, blessed be His name,\u201d &c.\n\nWe do not use the term \u201cFirst Cause,\u201d because it is too narrow; it only\nexpresses part of the truth, not the whole of it. By \u201cFirst Cause\u201d some\nunderstand the cause of the gradual development of the primitive matter\ninto the innumerable variety of things contained in the universe; the\ndevelopment of the original chaos into system and order. It is true\nthat the Creator is the cause of all this; but He is more than this: He\nis the cause of the primitive matter, and of the original chaos. For He\nhas created the world out of nothing. The first verse of the Bible\nteaches us creation from nothing (creatio ex nihilo): \u201cIn the beginning\nGod created the heaven and the earth\u201d (Gen. i. 1); that is, the whole\nuniverse. It is true that there were men who explained the meaning of\nthe Hebrew root \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d0\u200e in a different manner, and desired to assign to\nit the meaning: cutting out, forming out of a given material. But they\ncertainly misunderstood the spirit of the Scriptures. The eternal\ncoexistence of God and matter would imply a dualism utterly\nincompatible with the teaching of the Bible. The frequently repeated\ndeclaration, \u201cHe is our God; there is none besides\u201d (\u200f\u05d0\u05d9\u05df \u05e2\u05d5\u05d3\u200e),\nclearly excludes every form of dualism. Those who assert that the\nuniverse could not come from nothing belong to the class of people of\nwhom the Psalmist says, \u201cAnd they returned and tempted God, and set\nlimits to the Holy One of Israel\u201d (Ps. lxxviii. 41).\n\nIf we cannot understand the act of the Creation, it is our own\nintellect that is limited; and if we were to persuade ourselves that we\nunderstand better the eternity of matter, we should deceive ourselves.\nWe cannot conceive matter without form as existing in reality, nor can\nwe have a clear notion of anything infinite. We are human beings,\nendowed by the will and wisdom of the Creator with limited physical and\nintellectual faculties, and in things that surpass our powers we cannot\ndo better than follow the guidance of the Divine Word. If we do so we\nmay be sure that we shall be on the right way to truth.\n\nThe first principle declared in our creed is this: God is not only the\nCreator of the heavens and the earth, with all their hosts; He is also\nthe constant ruler of all created beings; He is \u200f\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d5\u05de\u05e0\u05d4\u05d9\u05d2\u200e. We\ntherefore praise Him in our daily Morning prayer as \u201cDoing wonders;\nrenewing in His goodness the work of the creation every day.\u201d When we\nobserve the ordinary phenomena in nature, occurring in accordance with\ncertain fixed laws which have been discovered and described by man, we\nsee in them the greatness of the Creator by whose will these laws are\nstill in force, and by whose will any or all of these laws may one day\ncease to continue.\n\nIt has been asserted that any interruption or change of these fixed\nlaws would indicate a weakness and want of foresight on the part of the\nCreator, and a fault in the plan of the Creation. This notion has led\npeople either to deny the truth of the Biblical accounts concerning the\nmiracles wrought by the Almighty, or to admit the correctness of the\nfacts while denying their miraculous character, or to consider the\nfixed laws of nature, together with their exceptions, as designed in\nthe original plan of the Creation. How short-sighted is man! He cannot\neven fully comprehend his own short-sightedness! God made him ruler\nover the works of His hands, and he presumes to be the ruler of God\nHimself! When we learn from numerous observations and experiments the\nlaw that seems to regulate certain recurring phenomena, have we then\nfathomed the infinite wisdom of God in the Creation? Do we know the\nreason which led Him to produce certain things according to certain\nlaws, and not otherwise? Have we in discovering a law of nature\nobtained the power of prescribing the same law to God, and disallowing\nHim to deviate therefrom? Far be it from us human beings, dust and\nashes, to arrogate to ourselves such a right! It may even be one of the\nobjects with which miracles were wrought to teach us that we do not yet\nknow all things, that events may happen which we are unable to foresee,\nthat phenomena may appear which we are unable to explain according to\nthe laws hitherto discovered; in short, that our knowledge and wisdom\nare limited.\n\nThe fact that God has created the universe ex nihilo has been expressed\nby Jewish philosophers as follows:\u2014God is the only Being who demands no\ncause for His existence; the very idea of God implies existence, and\ncannot be conceived without it. All other beings owe their existence to\ncertain causes, in the absence of which they would not exist. God alone\nis therefore only active, without ever being passive, only cause\nwithout ever being effect, whilst every other being is both active and\npassive, cause and effect; it has been produced by certain causes, and\nis in its turn the cause of the existence of other beings. In the first\narticle a phrase expressing this idea has been added: \u201cAnd He alone is\nthe active cause of all things, whether past, present, or future.\u201d By\nthe addition of this sentence it was intended to deny the Eternity of\nmatter (\u200f\u05e7\u05d3\u05de\u05d5\u05ea \u05d4\u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd\u200e). The reference to past, present, and future is\nto emphasise the constant action of the Creator, and the dependence of\nthe natural forces on His Will. The first principle has, therefore, the\nfollowing form:\u2014\n\n\u201cI firmly believe that the Creator, blessed be His name, is both\nCreator and Ruler of all created beings, and that He alone is the\nactive cause of ALL things, whether past, present, or future.\u201d [3]\n\nBefore passing on to the second principle concerning God, let us\nbriefly answer a question that has frequently been asked: What is the\nrelation between the theory of evolution, or in general the results of\nmodern science, and the history of the creation as related in the\nBible? In the Biblical account of the creation the various kinds of\nplants and animals are described as the result or different and\ndistinct acts of the Creator, whilst according to the theory of\nEvolution one creative act sufficed, and the great variety of creatures\nis the result of gradual development according to certain laws inherent\nin the things created. The Bible tells us of six days of the creation,\nwhilst according to the theory of evolution it must have taken millions\nof years before the various species could have developed the one from\nthe other. Whilst the Biblical account describes the earth as the\ncentre of the universe, astronomy shows that the earth is one of the\nmost insignificant of the bodies that fill the infinite space of the\nuniverse. According to astronomy and geology, the age of the earth\nnumbers millions of years; from the Biblical account we infer that the\nearth is comparatively young. In the Bible man is described as the aim\nand end of the whole creation; natural history and the theory of\nevolution consider man simply as one of the forms resulting from a\nnatural development of the animal world. What shall be our decision in\nthis discrepancy? Shall we shut our eyes to the results of modern\nscience in our firm belief in the truth of the Bible? Or shall we\naccept the former and abandon the latter?\n\nWe should adopt neither of these alternatives. We have great confidence\nin our reasoning power, and in the results of science based on reason,\nbut we have still greater confidence in the truthfulness of Divine\nteaching. The conflict is not a modern product; it existed in former\ntimes as well. When the Jews first became acquainted with Greek\nliterature and philosophy, faith was shaken in the heart of many a Jew\nthat was led away by the attractive language and the persuasive\narguments of the Greek. Such was the case with the Jews in Alexandria,\nwho were almost more Greek than Jewish. Feeling that their faith in\ntheir old traditions was beginning to give way, they looked about them\nfor the means of reconciling faith and philosophy. Where the literal\nsense of Holy Writ was awkward, the allegorical interpretation was\nsubstituted for it; but the authority of the Bible was recognised.\nLater on, in the Middle Ages, when Aristotle, as understood and\ninterpreted in the Arabic schools, was infallible, perplexity again\nbecame general, among the educated and learned, as to the course to be\npursued in case of a conflict; whether to remain true to the Bible or\nto join the banner of Aristotle. The most prominent amongst the Jewish\ntheologians who sought the way of reconciliation was Moses Maimonides.\nThis philosopher wrote his famous work, \u201cGuide of the Perplexed,\u201d\nexpressly for those scholars who, whilst firmly adhering to the\ninherited faith, had been trained in the study of philosophy, and were\nunwilling to abandon either. Maimonides shows the way how to explain\nBiblical passages implying statements contrary to philosophical\nteachings, and how to reconcile theology and philosophy. A similar task\nwas undertaken in modern times by Moses Mendelssohn in his \u201cJerusalem\u201d\nand \u201cMorgenstunden,\u201d in order to show that strict adherence to the\nJewish religion is quite compatible with the teaching of philosophy.\nThe various systems of philosophy in Alexandria, in the Mohammedan\ncountries in the Middle Ages, and in Germany in the last century, which\nthreatened to endanger our religion, have lived their time and have\ngone to their fathers, giving way to new systems and new ideas, whilst\nthe authority of the Word of God has maintained its place. This having\nbeen the case in former days, there is no reason why we should not in\nthe present conflict assume, prim\u00e2 facie, that the scientific and\nphilosophical dogmas now in favour, alike with Jews and non-Jews, will\nhave their time, and will ultimately give way to other theories, and\nthe present conflict will then likewise terminate, dying a natural\ndeath. This reflection should put us on our guard lest we be persuaded\nby the plausibility of the modern philosophical and scientific dogmas,\nand throw aside our religious faith and traditions. We ought to bear in\nmind that, however correct the conclusions of modern science may appear\nthat can be tested by our senses, theories which are not subject to\nsuch tests are in reality nothing but hypotheses to which a greater or\nlesser degree of probability attaches.\n\nSuppose now\u2014always bearing in mind the imperfect character of our\npowers of observation\u2014we were to observe that certain plants or species\nof animals developed by training and circumstances into new species, or\nto see plants being transformed into animals, or even to notice\nliterally \u201cthe foal of a wild ass born a man,\u201d what would all this\nprove? That the Creator endowed the species of plants and animals with\nsuch properties as would enable them to transform into new species, or\ninto any other of the species already in existence; but it does not\nfollow that the Creator must have adopted the same method in the act of\ncreation. He created as many species as His wisdom determined, although\nthey might all have been able to develop from one single species.\nSuppose the problem which the Alchymists of the Middle Ages proposed to\nthemselves, viz., to produce an animal being by mere chemical\ncombination, had actually been solved, would any one have believed that\nall animals had been produced in that way? Or does the success of\nartificial hatching of eggs convince any person that all birds have\nsprung from artificially hatched eggs? The same argument applies to the\ngeological formation of the earth. We notice changes brought about\nthrough natural forces, and mark the amount of change effected in a\ncertain period; we are then able to calculate what time would be\nrequired for such or such a change\u2014provided that only those laws be in\nforce which we have noticed in our calculation. Is it reasonable or\nlogical to apply to the act of creation the laws which have been\nbrought into force through this very act? \u201cHe said, and it was: He\ncommanded, and they were created\u201d (Ps. xxxiii. 9). The word of God\nproduced in a moment what the natural forces established by the Creator\nwould effect by gradual development in millions of years.\n\nIt is true that the earth is one of the most insignificant bodies in\nthe universe, and man is a small portion of the creatures on earth, and\nyet it is neither impossible nor unreasonable to believe that the\nbenefits which man derives from the various parts of the creation, from\nthe sun, the moon, and the stars, were essential elements in the scheme\nof the All-wise Creator.\n\nAttempts have frequently been made to interpret the Biblical account of\nthe creation in such a manner as to reconcile it with the scientific\ntheories of the time. Thus it has been argued that the period between\nthe creation of \u201cheaven and earth\u201d and the creation of \u201cthe light\u201d is\nnot described in the Bible, and may have been millions of millions of\nyears. It has likewise been suggested that the term \u201cday\u201d is to be\nunderstood in the sense of \u201cperiod.\u201d It has further been pointed out\nthat the account of the creation of animals indicates a process of\ndevelopment rather than a creatio ex nihilo; for it says, \u201cAnd God\nsaid, Let the waters bring forth abundantly living beings,\u201d &c. (Gen.\ni. 20). \u201cLet the earth bring forth living beings,\u201d &c. (Ibid. 24).\nThese interpretations may be true, and may suffice temporarily to check\nsceptical ideas that rise in our mind; but without the firm belief in\nthe Word of God, and the consciousness of the insufficiency of human\nreason thoroughly to understand the plans and ways of God, our faith\ncan never be safe. Supported by this belief we shall always be able to\nbrave the ever-recurring billows of scepticism.\n\n2. The next principle contained in our Creed concerning God is the\nUnity of God.\n\n\u201cI am the Lord thy God, who brought thee out from the land of Egypt,\nout of the house of bondage: thou shalt have no other gods before me\u201d\n(Exod. xx. 2\u20133). This is the first lesson the Israelites were taught\nwhen God revealed Himself to them on Mount Sinai. The words, \u201cHear, O\nIsrael; the Lord is our God, the Lord is One\u201d (Deut. vi. 4), are\nproclaimed by us thrice every day; we recite them when we rise; keep\nthem in memory during the day, and repeat them in the evening before we\ngo to rest; they form our watchword throughout our life, and with these\nwords upon our lips we end our earthly existence. The Unity of God is\nthe doctrine that distinguishes the Jews from other religious sects, in\nso far as the Jews were the first nation of Monotheists. From them\nMonotheism has spread among other peoples, who, however, did not always\nreceive or preserve it in its original purity. We not only proclaim God\nas One, refusing to recognise as divine any power beside Him, but\nrefrain also from attributing to God anything that might directly or\nindirectly involve any notion contrary to the Unity of God.\n\nFor this reason certain Jewish philosophers considered it unlawful to\nassign to God any positive attribute. They feared this might lead to\ndualism, to believe in God and in His attribute as two distinct beings,\nbecause attributes are so easily personified and addressed as separate\ndeities. Some theologians even were of opinion that the admission of\nGod\u2019s attributes is itself a form of dualism which must be excluded\nfrom our faith. Nevertheless, attributes are assigned to God both in\nthe Scriptures and in our Prayers. We must not, however, forget that\nsuch attributes do not describe anything inherent in the Divine Being,\nbut only God\u2019s relation to man and His actions in such terms as are\nintelligible to human beings. Most of the attributes are interpreted as\nbeing of a negative character, indicating what we must not say of God.\nWhen we speak of the Will, Wisdom, and Spirit of God, we do not speak\nof anything separate from the Divine Being, but of the Divine Being\nHimself. The Jewish doctrine of the Unity of God does not admit any\nkind of dualism in the Divine Being, and therefore rejects the\nexistence of Divine Attributes as distinct from God Himself. He is One,\nsimple and indivisible. Even this property of being One seemed to some\ntheologians to be contrary to strict unity, and we are therefore taught\nthat we must not understand it in the sense of a numerical unit, in\nwhich sense the term is used when applied to created beings. The second\narticle therefore declares: \u201cThe Creator is One, and there is no\nOneness like His in any way.\u201d\n\nThe Unity of God is the creed which the Jews have always proclaimed by\nword of mouth, to which they have given expression throughout their\nliterature, and for which they have willingly sacrificed their lives as\nmartyrs. When persecuted by Mohammedans or Christians the Jews were\nfrequently forced to break the Sabbath, to ignore the dietary laws, and\nto neglect Divine worship. They bore all this patiently when under\npressure of persecution, but when they were asked to renounce the\nbelief in God\u2019s Unity they did not doubt for a moment as to what their\nduty was; they adhered firmly to \u200f\u05d9\u05d7\u05d5\u05d3 \u05d4\u05e9\u05dd\u200e \u201cthe belief in God\u2019s\nUnity,\u201d and sacrificed their lives for \u200f\u05e7\u05d3\u05d5\u05e9 \u05d4\u05e9\u05dd\u200e \u201cthe sanctification\nof God\u2019s name.\u201d\n\nThe Jews have been victorious. In spite of persecution and oppression\nthey have maintained their faith. The doctrine of the Unity of God, for\nwhich they had to suffer so much in past centuries, is now admitted as\ntrue by most of their former persecutors.\n\nIn order to make clear what we mean by unity, and to express that God\ncould not be conceived as existing at any time in a double form, we add\nthe words: \u201cAnd He alone was, is, and will be our God.\u201d The second\narticle runs therefore as follows:\u2014\n\n\u201cI firmly believe that the Creator, blessed be His name, is One; that\nthere is no Oneness like His, in any way, and that He alone was, is,\nand will be our God.\u201d\n\n3. The strict Unity of God, in the sense explained above, implies His\nIncorporeality, which forms the subject of the third article.\nCorporeality implies substance and form, a dualism which must be\nrigidly excluded from God. It would not have been necessary to\nformulate a special article for the exclusion of corporeality from the\nidea of God but for the fact that many erroneous notions have been\nentertained on the subject. Besides the fact that the corporeality of\nGod was assumed by certain religious sects, there have been scholars\namong the Jews who defended the literal sense of anthropomorphic\nphrases in the Scriptures.\n\nIn the Bible anthropomorphic expressions are employed in order to\nillustrate the different acts of Divine Providence in such a way as to\nrender them more intelligible to us human beings. We consist of body\nand soul, and we produce an impression or exercise an influence on\nothers by means of our body and by the activity of our bodily organs.\nHow an incorporeal being acts upon the corporeal world we are unable\nfully to comprehend, much less to describe. If we desire to picture to\nourselves or to others the fact that through Divine Providence\nsomething has been produced on earth, we must employ the same phrases\nwhich we use in describing human acts which effect a similar result. In\nreality, however, there is no comparison or similarity between God and\ncorporeal beings, between His actions and ours.\n\nWhen we therefore speak of the house of God we mean the house which we\ndevote to our prayers, in which we feel the omnipresence of the\nAlmighty more than in any other place. The heaven is called the throne\nof God and the earth His footstool only to express the idea that the\nmajesty of God is far beyond comparison with that of any earthly ruler,\nand that the house of God built by human hands is not intended to\nsatisfy the requirements of the Supreme Being but those of man. We call\nHim our Father and He calls us His children, because we love Him as we\nlove our father, and He loves us as a father loves his children. In the\nsame sense the Psalmist (ii. 7) repeats the words of God to him, \u201cThou\nart my son; I have this day begotten thee.\u201d Such expressions as these\nare anthropomorphic.\n\nThe Bible frequently exhorts us not to imagine or ascribe to God any\nform or likeness. Comp. Deut. iv. 15, \u201cTake ye therefore good heed unto\nyourselves; for ye saw no manner of form on the day that the Lord spake\nunto you in Horeb out of the midst of fire.\u201d In the same sense the\nprophet asks in the name of God (Isa. xl. 18), \u201cTo whom then will you\nliken God, or what likeness will you compare unto Him?\u201d \u201cTo whom then\nwill you liken Me, that I should be equal to Him? saith the Holy One\u201d\n(Ibid. 25).\n\nWe declare therefore in the third article:\u2014\n\n\u201cI firmly believe that the Creator, blessed be His name, is not a body,\nthat corporeal relations do not apply to Him, and that there exists\nnothing that is in any way similar to Him.\u201d\n\n4. The next property we declare of God in the Creed is the eternity of\nGod. As He is the cause of everything in existence, and requires no\ncause for His existence, and as it is impossible to separate the idea\nof existence from the idea of God, it follows that God is always in\nexistence, and that neither beginning nor end can be fixed to His\nexistence. Maimonides, in expressing his belief in the eternity of God,\nlays stress only on God being without a beginning, and in this sense he\ninterprets the phrase Dip \u200f\u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9 \u05e7\u05d3\u05dd\u200e (Deut. xxxiii. 27), \u201cthe eternal\nGod\u201d who is without a beginning. That God is without end is equally\ntrue, but Maimonides did not desire to introduce this idea into the\nfourth article as a distinguishing characteristic, as it is not\nnecessary to believe that the universe will once come to an end. If it\nplease the Almighty to give the universe existence for ever, it will\ncontinue for ever. Following, however, the example of the prophets, who\ntold us in the name of God, \u201cI am the first, and I am the last,\u201d we\nexpress this idea in our Creed, and understand it thus: If, by the will\nof the Almighty, the entire universe should come to an end, God\u2019s\nexistence would still continue. Thus the Psalmist says, \u201cOf old hast\nThou laid the foundation of the earth; and the heavens are the work of\nThy hands. They shall perish, but Thou shalt endure; yea, all of them\nshall wax old like a garment: as a vesture shalt Thou change them, and\nthey shall be changed: but Thou art the same, and Thy years shall have\nno end\u201d (Ps. cii. 26\u201328).\n\nThe fourth article is:\u2014\n\n\u201cI firmly believe that the Creator, blessed be His name, was the first,\nand will be the last.\u201d\n\n6. After having declared our faith in God as the sole Ruler of the\nuniverse, who is One, incorporeal and eternal, we proclaim Him as our\nSupreme Master, who alone is capable of granting our petitions. All\nexisting things are under His control; all forces in nature only work\nat His will and by His command. No other being possesses the power and\nindependence to fulfil our wishes of its own accord, if it were\napproached by us with our prayers. It is, therefore, to Him alone that\nwe can reasonably address our petitions, and in doing so we have\nconfidence in the efficacy of our prayers, for \u201cthe Lord is nigh to all\nthose who call upon Him, to all who call upon Him in truth\u201d (Ps. cxlv.\n18).\n\nThis article, although expressly directed against idolatry, and\nprimarily against the worship of \u201cthe angels, the stars, and the\nspheres,\u201d implies our belief in God as the Omnipotent, who can do\neverything, and can help us when we have not any prospect of relief.\n\nWe therefore declare in the fifth article:\u2014\n\n\u201cI firmly believe that the Creator, blessed be His name, alone is\nworthy of being worshipped, and that no other being is worthy of our\nworship.\u201d\n\nThe Omnipotence of God is also implied in the first article, which\ndeclares Him the Creator and the Ruler of the universe. That Maimonides\ndoes not directly make omnipotence, like unity, incorporeality, &c.,\nthe subject of a separate article has its good reason, and is not \u201cthe\nresult of mere chance.\u201d Silly questions were frequently asked; e.g.,\nhow far the omnipotence of God extended, whether it implied the power\nof making twice two equal to three, or the whole of a magnitude larger\nthan the sum of its parts, and similar logical impossibilities. To\navoid misunderstanding, Maimonides did not express our belief in the\nomnipotence of God in a separate article, but the first and the fifth\narticles imply it.\n\nWe believe of God that He is immutable or unchangeable. It is, however,\nnot necessary to express this in a separate article. By declaring the\nUnity of God we proclaim also His Immutability, since unity, in the\nsense in which we conceive it, is incompatible with any kind of change.\nWhatever the change might be that we assumed in God, it would destroy\nthe idea of His unity.\n\nThere are other qualities which we ascribe to God. We call Him perfect,\nall-wise, good, kind, merciful, long-suffering, and the like; in short,\nwhatever we find in our own person good and noble we believe to be\npresent in God in a higher degree, in the most perfect form. But these\nattributes approach very closely anthropomorphisms, which Maimonides\nrigidly excludes from the Creed. They express rather the impressions\nproduced in our soul by the different acts of God\u2019s Providence, and do\nnot describe God Himself.\n\nOf this class of attributes are the thirteen divine attributes, \u200f\u05e9\u05dc\u05e9\n\u05e2\u05e9\u05e8\u05d4 \u05de\u05d3\u05d5\u05ea\u200e (Exod. xxxiv. 6). They describe in thirteen terms the\ngoodness and mercy of God towards man in his various conditions of\ninnocence, guilt, and repentance. These are not distinctly mentioned in\nour Creed, but when we declare that He is the only Being whom we can\naddress in our prayers, we are certainly conscious and convinced that\nHe, being good, kind, and merciful, listens to our supplications.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2. REVELATION, \u200f\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4 \u05de\u05df \u05d4\u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd\u200e.\n\nThe second group of principles refers to Revelation. The real process\nof revelation, by what means and in what manner the infinite and\nincorporeal Being makes His Will known to man, and how the latter\nbecomes conscious and convinced of the fact that a Divine communication\nhas been made to him, remains a mystery to all but those privileged\npersons who have been actually addressed by the Almighty. \u201cAs the blind\nman who had never possessed the sense of sight is incapable of\ncomprehending the actual process of seeing, so are we, born without\nthat wonderful prophetic eye, without the prophetic faculty of the\nmind, incapable of comprehending and depicting the process of\ninspiration that goes on within the mind of the privileged\u201d (Schmiedl,\nStudien, p. 183). God reveals Himself also in nature, in the power and\nwisdom displayed in its phenomena. He reveals Himself in the history of\nnations, and especially in the history of Israel. He reveals Himself in\nthe intelligence of man. In all these cases the revelation is made to\nall alike. Those who have eyes may see, those who have ears may hear,\nand recognise, every one according to his capacity, the presence of the\nAlmighty in the working of the laws of nature, in the development and\nfates of nations, and in the life of every individual person. In all\nthese cases we can test and prove the revelation by ourselves, and need\nnot exclusively rely on authority. When, however, a Divine\ncommunication is made to one privileged individual, through whom it is\nmade known to a whole community, or to mankind, there is no other means\nof testing the correctness of the revelation than the trustworthiness\nof the privileged individual.\n\nThe first lesson or proof given to the Israelites of the fact that such\nrevelation was not only possible, but had actually been vouchsafed by\nthe Almighty, was the revelation on Mount Sinai, the \u200f\u05de\u05e2\u05de\u05d3 \u05d4\u05e8 \u05e1\u05d9\u05e0\u05d9\u200e,\nwhich became the foundation of the faith of Israel. \u201cAnd the Lord said\nunto Moses, Lo, I come unto thee in a thick cloud, that the people may\nhear when I speak with thee, and may also believe thee for ever\u201d (Exod.\nxix. 9). The trustworthiness of Moses having thus been tested and\nestablished \u201cfor ever,\u201d his teaching remained the foundation of the\nteaching of all succeeding prophets, and the test of their truthfulness\nand genuineness. A prophet who taught anything opposed to the law of\nMoses could not be a true prophet, although he supported his words by\nsigns and miracles (Deut. xiii. 2, sqq.). Besides, revelation of the\nDivine Being had taken place before. God revealed Himself to the first\nman. Adam heard the voice of God; he felt the presence of the Almighty,\nand learnt the amount of evil man brings upon himself by disobeying the\nword of God. The consciousness of the existence of God, and of the fact\nthat He has revealed Himself to man, has been inherited by the\ndescendants of Adam. It has not been preserved in all men in the same\nstrength and purity. The notion of a Divine Being, and of His\nrevelation to man, became in course of time corrupt, and led to the\ncorruption of the human race, with the exception of Noah and his\nfamily. \u201cNoah was a righteous man; perfect he was in his generations:\nwith God did Noah walk\u201d (Gen. vi. 9). The inherited consciousness of\nGod\u2019s existence and of His rule over man was strengthened in him by\nfresh, direct revolution of God. He was told that the wicked would be\ndestroyed by a flood, and that he with his family would be saved. \u201cThe\nrighteous man\u201d witnessed the infliction which the wicked brought upon\nthemselves by evil deeds, and also that protection of himself and his\nfamily which had been promised and granted by the Almighty. After Noah\nhad left the ark the word of God was again communicated to him,\npromising that never again would a flood be sent to destroy all living\nbeings\u2014a promise which succeeding generations up to the present have\nseen fulfilled. In the midst of rain the \u201csign of covenant,\u201d the\nrainbow, reminds us still of His promise and its fulfilment. Of the\ndescendants of Noah the Semites alone seem to have preserved the belief\nin God\u2019s existence and His revelation to man in its original purity;\nand of the Semites it was Abraham who was chosen by Providence to be\nthe founder of a family of faithful believers in God, who formed, as it\nwere, the centre from which the true faith should spread in all\ndirections over the whole face of the earth. Abraham received Divine\ncommunications, and so also his son Isaac and his grandson Jacob. Even\nwhen the children of Israel were in Egyptian slavery, and when they did\nnot hearken to Moses \u201cbecause of anguish of spirit, and because of\ncruel bondage,\u201d the memory of these revelations was never entirely\nextinguished in their minds; and when again addressed by Moses and\nAaron \u201cthe people believed; and when they heard that the Lord had\nvisited the children of Israel, and that He had seen their affliction,\nthen they bowed their heads and worshipped\u201d (Exod. iv. 31). Their faith\nwas strengthened when they witnessed the fulfilment of the Divine\nmessage which was brought to them by Moses: \u201cAnd they believed in the\nLord, and in Moses His servant\u201d (Ibid. xiv. 31).\n\nThe foundation of the belief in the possibility of Divine revelation\nhaving thus been laid, that belief was further strengthened through the\nrevelation on Mount Sinai, when every Israelite heard and understood\nthe words addressed to him by God, \u201cwho had brought them out of Egypt,\nof the house of bondage;\u201d they heard the very words which Moses\nsubsequently told them in the name of God, and they were convinced of\nthe truth of the words of Moses. He taught them that there would be\nother persons chosen by God to bring messages from Him to the children\nof Israel or to mankind, and at the same time he laid down the rule by\nwhich the truth of such messages could be tested.\n\nA person favoured by Divine communications was called a prophet,\n\u200f\u05e0\u05d1\u05d9\u05d0\u200e. That which characterised a prophet and distinguished him from\nthe ordinary man was the privilege of being chosen by Providence to be\n\u200f\u05de\u05dc\u05d0\u05da \u05d9\u05d9\u200e \u201cthe messenger of God\u201d to man. This notion of the\ncharacteristics of a prophet explains the circumstance that, although\nDaniel was favoured with numerous prophetic visions, the book called\nafter his name was not placed among the Prophets, but among the\nHagiographa. It is on account of his addressing his brethren and\ninforming them of the Will of God that a person was called a prophet.\n[4] By simply receiving a communication, without the direction to\nimpart the knowledge acquired to others, a person may become a man of\nGod, a man in whom there is the spirit of God, but not a prophet.\n\nIt is our belief that God would not reveal Himself to any one that is\nunworthy of such distinction. As a conditio sine qu\u00e2 non it was\nnecessary that the prophets distinguished themselves in every kind of\nvirtue, that they set to their fellow-men an example of purity in\nthought, loftiness in speech, and nobility in action. As regards\ngeneral knowledge and experience they were inferior to none of their\ncontemporaries. In the Talmud the saying occurs: \u200f\u05d0\u05d9\u05df \u05d4\u05e9\u05db\u05d9\u05e0\u05d4 \u05e9\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4 \u05e2\u05dc\n\u05d0\u05d3\u05dd \u05d0\u05dc\u05d0 \u05d0\u05dd \u05db\u05df \u05d4\u05d9\u05d4 \u05d7\u05db\u05dd \u05d2\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8 \u05d5\u05e2\u05e9\u05d9\u05e8\u200e \u201cThe Divine spirit does not rest on\nman, unless he is wise, strong, and rich\u201d (Babyl. Talm. Shabbath, 92a).\nThis is certainly a true conception of the character of a prophet,\n\u201cstrong\u201d and \u201crich\u201d being understood in a figurative sense: \u201cstrong\u201d in\npossessing mastery over his passions, and \u201crich\u201d in being contented\nwith what he has (Aboth iv. 1). It was a matter of indifference,\nhowever, whether the prophet was strong in body or weak, whether he had\nmany earthly possessions or none at all.\n\nIn spite of his distinction from his fellow-men in wisdom, moral\nstrength, and contentedness, the prophet remained a human being; he\nwas, like every other person, exposed to the temptation to sin and\nliable to error. The sins and errors of prophets are recorded in order\nto save us from despair when we are conscious of our sinfulness, and to\nshow us the way to repentance. This is illustrated especially in the\nhistory of the prophet Jonah. The records of the sins of prophets serve\nas a warning that we should not consider any man as perfect or deify\nhim.\n\nAlthough the prophet is assumed to have been wise, surpassing his\nfellow-men in knowledge and wisdom, it is by no means necessary to\nbelieve that he was familiar with all sciences, or that he knew any of\nthe discoveries made in later times. The prophet had frequently to\ninform his brethren of what would happen in future, to tell them of\nthings which no human eye could foresee. But he had in general no\ngreater knowledge of coming events than other men, except in reference\nto those events concerning which he had received a message from God for\nHis people or for mankind.\n\nCan a man be trained for the office of a prophet? Was there a school or\ninstitution for this purpose? Every one could certainly be trained in\nthe primary conditions of a prophet, in the exercise of all human\nvirtues, and in the acquisition of all available knowledge; and it was\nthe duty and the aim of the prophets to encourage all their brethren to\nsuch training by their own example. But the principal element in\nprophecy the Divine communication, depended solely on the Will of God.\n\u201cThe sons of the prophets\u201d are generally believed to be the pupils of\nthe prophets; they formed \u201cthe schools of the prophets.\u201d These schools,\nhowever, could not have been schools or colleges in the ordinary sense\nof the word. The sons of the prophets were instructed by the prophets,\nbut not with the purpose of training them as prophets. It seems that\nthe sons of the prophets served as agents for promulgating the inspired\nmessages of their chief. Most probably they led a simple, pious life,\nwere God-fearing, and spent their time when meeting together in music\nand song, repeating hymns and lessons taught by their master.\n\nAn account of some of the messages and deeds of the prophets is given\nin the Biblical books; some of their speeches also are preserved, in\nthe section of the Bible called \u201cLatter Prophets,\u201d \u200f\u05e0\u05d1\u05d9\u05d0\u05d9\u05dd \u05d0\u05d7\u05e8\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e.\nThe speeches of the prophets were in some cases prepared and written\ndown before they were spoken, in others delivered ex tempore without\npreparation, and were written down afterwards from memory, either by\nthe prophet himself or by one of his hearers, or were handed down viv\u00e2\nvoce from generation to generation before they were committed to\nwriting.\n\nThere is another kind of Divine revelation which did not find\nexpression in any message to the Israelites or to mankind, but in a\ncertain supernatural impulse given to the thought or will of a person\nas regards his words and actions. Such an impulse is called\ninspiration, and the inspired person is moved to speak or act by the\n\u200f\u05e8\u05d5\u05d7 \u05d9\u05d9\u200e \u201cspirit of the Lord.\u201d\n\nIt was the spirit of the Lord that moved Samson to heroic deeds against\nthe enemies of his people; David likewise felt that Divine impulse when\npouring forth his heart before the Lord in his Psalms. He says: \u201cThe\nspirit of the Lord spake in me, and His word was on my tongue\u201d (2 Sam.\nxxiii. 2). It was the spirit of the Lord that filled the hearts of\nthose who collected and sifted the Holy Writings containing law,\nhistory, prophecies, and poetry, and gave them the form in which we\npossess them now.\n\nWe are not quite certain as to the form of the letters in the original\ncopies of the Holy Writings; but from the way in which the Pentateuch\nis written now in the Synagogue scrolls, we may infer with certainty\nthat the ancient copies of the Torah contained no vowels or accents,\nand that these have come down to us by oral tradition.\n\nFor the multiplication of copies, human copyists had to be employed. It\nis by no means contrary to our faith in the Bible to assume that, as\nfar as the human work of these copyists is concerned, it must have been\nsubject to the fate of all human work, to error and imperfection. And,\nin fact, there are many copies of the Bible that abound in mistakes;\nthere are passages in Scripture that vary in the different manuscripts;\nhence the numerous vari\u00e6 lectiones met with in the critical editions of\nthe Bible. But, on the other hand, it would not be reasonable to assume\nthat the holy literature and the national treasure, very limited in\nsize, should have been neglected by the religious authorities of the\ntime to such an extent that no reliable, correct copy was kept, to be\nconsulted in case of doubt or difference of opinion. This being the\ncase with all Biblical books, it applies with special force to the\nTorah or Pentateuch, which contains the Divine commandments. The least\nalteration made by copyists\u2014unknowingly or knowingly\u2014might involve a\nquestion of life and death. Must it not have been the duty of the\njudicial authority to keep a correct authorised copy in a safe place?\nIt is certainly most reasonable to assume that such a copy was kept,\nand that there were in every generation among the priests or prophets\nmen who had a thorough knowledge of the Law, and could easily detect\nany interference with the text. As the laws do not form a separate\nsection of the Bible, but are interwoven with a historical account of\nimportant events from the Creation to the death of Moses, the entire\nPentateuch, composed of both laws and history, was preserved with the\nsame anxiety and watchfulness. That great care was taken in copying the\nLaw we learn from the fact mentioned in the Talmud, that Ezra minutely\nexamined the three scrolls he found in the Temple, and in three\npassages noticed different readings, of which he adopted the one found\nin two copies.\n\nThe other books of the Bible are of less importance, but the exclusion\nof error on the part of the copyist, though it has not the same, has\nyet a high degree of certainty, inasmuch as they too formed part of the\nholy, national literature. If a mistake should be clearly proved, it\nwould not be contrary to our religious principles to admit it. But we\nshall find, after thorough study and examination of the impugned\npassages, that there is in each case far greater doubt as to the\ncorrectness of any of the numerous emendations suggested than of the\ntraditional and Massoretic text before us. It may frequently occur that\nsome emendations appear strikingly correct, and yet after due\nreflection they are found more doubtful than the original. It is\ntherefore our duty thoroughly to examine each proposed emendation, and\nto hesitate long before admitting the incorrectness of the received\ntext and the correctness of the emendation.\n\nOne of the means of preserving the text of the Scriptures in its\nintegrity has been the Massorah. The notes which are found in the\nmargin of Biblical books form part of the Massorah. At first the\nMassorah was part of the oral tradition; exceptional forms of letters,\npunctuation, and words were probably taught viv\u00e2 voce, and learnt by\nheart, especially by scribes, readers, and teachers. Where a\nconfounding with other and similar forms was apprehended, attention was\ncalled to the fact, and by certain notes and rules it was guarded\nagainst. The material for the Massorah increased in the course of time,\nin the same degree as, with the multiplication of copies of the\nScriptures, the number of misreadings and misinterpretations increased.\nAlthough these notes were arranged and written down at a late period,\nthey helped to preserve the Biblical text in its integrity, and it is\ntherefore stated in the Mishnah (Aboth iii. 13): \u201cMassorah (tradition)\nis a fence to the Law.\u201d\n\nAs to the name of the author of each book or section, and the time and\nplace of its composition, we are guided by the headings where such are\nextant; in the absence of these we are left to the resources of our own\njudgment or fancy. There is no reason whatever to doubt the correctness\nof these headings, as the religious and learned authorities of the time\nwere trustworthy men, who would not add a heading where none was handed\ndown to them by tradition. Several books and many psalms are therefore\nleft without a heading; there was no sure tradition about them. How far\nthe heading of a book or section extends, whether it was meant only for\nthe beginning or for the whole of it, is in some cases doubtful, and\nmust be decided by the nature and contents of the book. For instance,\nthe second part of Isaiah, from chap. xl. to the end, has no heading of\nits own; it is therefore open to discussion whether the heading in the\nfirst verse of the first chapter describes only the first thirty-nine\nor all the sixty-six chapters of the book. It is possible that Psalms,\nascribed, according to their heading, to David, consist of two or more\nparts, of which one only was composed by David. The names of the books\ndo not necessarily imply a reference to the author. The Book of Joshua,\ne.g., may have received its name from its contents, the history of the\nIsraelites under Joshua being contained in it. The two books of Samuel\ncould not have been written by Samuel, not even the whole of the first\nbook, since the death of Samuel is therein recorded; but they owe their\nname to the fact that the first book commences with the history of\nSamuel.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTHE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE, \u200f\u05ea\u05e0\u05f4\u05da\u200e\n\nThe collection of books known by these names are \u200f\u05e1\u05e4\u05e8\u05d9 \u05e7\u05d3\u05e9\u200e or \u200f\u05db\u05ea\u05d1\u05d9\n\u05e7\u05d3\u05e9\u200e \u201choly books\u201d or \u201choly writings,\u201d because the authors of these\nbooks were holy men their object is a holy one, viz., to train man to\nholiness, and the contents of the books is holy, free from all blemish\nand error. The books vary greatly in character, in style, and in\npurpose, but truthfulness is common to all of them. Whether they\nnarrate events or proclaim God\u2019s decrees, or instruct or edify their\nhearers, what they say is true.\n\nThe name Bible is derived from the Greek \u03b2\u03b9\u03b2\u03bb\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, \u201cbook.\u201d \u200f\u05ea\u05e0\u05f4\u05da\u200e\n(pronounced tenach) has no meaning in itself, and is a word formed of\nthe initials of \u200f\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4 \u05e0\u05d1\u05d9\u05d0\u05d9\u05dd \u05db\u05ea\u05d5\u05d1\u05d9\u05dd\u200e. Sometimes \u200f\u05d0\u05e0\u05f4\u05da\u200e (the initials of\nthe Chaldee \u200f\u05d0\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\u05d0 \u05e0\u05d1\u05d9\u05d0\u05d9\u05df \u05db\u05ea\u05d9\u05d1\u05d9\u05df\u200e) is used instead of \u200f\u05ea\u05e0\u05f4\u05da\u200e. Another\nname is \u200f\u05de\u05e7\u05e8\u05d0\u200e \u201ctext for reading,\u201d as opposed to viv\u00e2 voce tradition. A\npassage quoted from the Bible is called \u200f\u05e7\u05e8\u05d0\u200e or \u200f\u05de\u05e7\u05e8\u05d0\u200e or \u200f\u05db\u05ea\u05d5\u05d1\u200e.\nChristians call the books of the Hebrew Bible the Old Testament as\ndistinguished from the New Testament.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1. \u200f\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e LAW.\n\nThe Torah or Law is divided into five books, and is therefore called\n\u200f\u05d7\u05d5\u05de\u05e9\u200e or Pentateuch (Fivefold or Five-book). The names of the five\nbooks are: (1) \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9\u05d9\u05ea\u200e Genesis (Creation); (2) \u200f\u05e9\u05de\u05d5\u05ea\u200e Exodus\n(departure, scil., of the Israelites from Egypt); (3) \u200f\u05d5\u05d9\u05e7\u05e8\u05d0\u200e Leviticus\n(on the laws concerning the Levites or priests), also called \u200f\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05ea\n\u05db\u05d4\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201claw of the priests;\u201d (4) \u200f\u05d1\u05de\u05d3\u05d1\u05e8\u200e Numbers; (5) \u200f\u05d3\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e\nDeuteronomy, a Greek term denoting \u201csecond-law\u201d or \u201crepetition of the\nlaw,\u201d a translation of the Hebrew \u200f\u05de\u05e9\u05e0\u05d4 \u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e.\n\nThese names are derived from the beginnings of the books. The Hebrew\nnames are either the first word of the book, as is the case in the\nfirst and the third books (\u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9\u05d9\u05ea\u200e and \u200f\u05d5\u05d9\u05e7\u05e8\u05d0\u200e), or the first\ncharacteristic word, as is the case in the other three books (\u200f\u05e9\u05de\u05d5\u05ea\u200e\nthe second word, \u200f\u05d1\u05de\u05d3\u05d1\u05e8\u200e the fifth, \u200f\u05d3\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e the second). The English or\nGreek names describe the subject-matter of the first section of the\nbook. This applies also to the rest of the Biblical writings.\n\nThe contents of the five books are as follows:\u2014\n\nThe first book (\u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9\u05d9\u05ea\u200e).\u2014It begins with the important lesson, the\nbasis of all that is taught in the whole Bible: that God is the Creator\nof the whole universe. Then follows an account of the Creation, the\nhistory of the first man and the first woman, their transition from the\nstate of innocence and happiness to the state of sin and toil, their\ndescendants, the beginnings of industry and civilisation, the\ndeterioration of mankind, the flood, Noah, and the succeeding\ngenerations to Abraham; the history of the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac,\nand Jacob, or Israel; the immigration of Jacob with his family into\nEgypt; and with the death of Joseph, the son of Jacob, the book\nconcludes.\n\nThe book contains principally history, but mention is made also of some\nreligious institutions. Reference is thus made to the institution of\nmarriage (ii. 23\u201325); Sabbath (ii. 1\u20133); the Covenant of Abraham or the\ncommandment of circumcision (xvii. 1\u201314); the prohibition of eating\nflesh cut off from an animal while alive (ix. 4, \u200f\u05d0\u05d1\u05e8 \u05de\u05df \u05d4\u05d7\u05d9\u200e), of\nmurder (ix. 5\u20136), and of eating \u201cthe sinew that shrank\u201d (xxxii. 33,\n\u200f\u05d2\u05d9\u05d3 \u05d4\u05e0\u05e9\u05d4\u200e).\n\nThe second book (\u200f\u05e9\u05de\u05d5\u05ea\u200e).\u2014The history of the family of Jacob, the\nIsraelites, is continued: their sojourn in Egypt, the Exodus, the\njourney to Mount Sinai, the Revelation, the erection of the Tabernacle,\nand the events in the camp of the Israelites during their stay in the\nwilderness of Sinai.\n\nThe Divine precepts take a more prominent place in this book. Chief\namong these are the institution of the Jewish Calendar, appointing the\nmonth of Abib\u2014Nisan\u2014to be the first month (xii. 2); the Sacrifice of\nthe Passover and the Feast of Unleavened Bread (chap. xii.); the\nSabbath (xvi. 22\u201330); the Decalogue (chap. xx. 1\u201312); civil legislation\n(xxi. to xxiii.); the year of release (xxiii. 10, 11); and the \u200f\u05e9\u05dc\u05e9\n\u05e8\u05d2\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd\u200e or festivals of pilgrimage to the sanctuary of the Lord; viz.,\nPassover, Pentecost, and Tabernacles (\u200f\u05e4\u05e1\u05d7\u200e, \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05d5\u05e2\u05d5\u05ea\u200e and \u200f\u05e1\u05db\u05d5\u05ea\u200e xxiii.\n14\u201317).\n\nThe third book (\u200f\u05d5\u05d9\u05e7\u05e8\u05d0\u200e) contains the laws revealed during the stay of\nthe Israelites near Mount Sinai. A few historical incidents are\nmentioned in illustration of the Law. Leviticus contains the laws\nconcerning the sacrifices (i. to vii.); the initiation of Aaron and his\nsons as priests (viii. to x.); dietary laws (xi.); laws about cleanness\nand uncleanness (\u200f\u05d8\u05d4\u05e8\u05d4 \u05d5\u05d8\u05d5\u05de\u05d0\u05d4\u200e) in man and woman (xii. to xv.); the Day\nof Atonement (xvi.); prohibition of blood (xvii. 10\u201314); marriage laws\n(xviii. and xx. 10\u201322); laws concerning the holiness of man (xix.);\nlaws concerning the priests (xxi., xxii. 16) and sacrifices (xxii.\n17\u201333); the Festivals of the Lord (xxiii.); the year of release and the\nyear of jubilee, and land-laws connected with these (xxv.); laws\nconcerning the transfer of property to the sanctuary and the priests.\n\nThe fourth book records the departure of the Israelites from Mount\nSinai, their journeyings until they came to the east of the Jordan in\nthe plains of Moab; the chief incidents during these travels, viz., the\nconsecration of the altar, and the instalment of the Levites as\nassistants to the priests in the performance of the Divine Service; the\nfirst appointment of a council of seventy elders; the punishment of\nMiriam for slander; the spies; the rebellion of Korah; death of Miriam;\nMoses and Aaron\u2019s sin at Meribah, and their punishment; death of Aaron;\nwars with Sihon and Og; the blessings of Bileam instead of his intended\ncursings; the zeal and distinction of Phineas; war against Midian; the\nappointment of Joshua as future leader of Israel.\n\nThere is also in the book a list of all the stations where the\nIsraelites had encamped during their travels through the Arabian desert\n(chap. xxxiii.), and a minute description of the boundaries of the land\nof Canaan (chap. xxxiv.).\n\nThe following are the principal laws mentioned in Numbers: the laws\nconcerning Nazirites; concerning a woman suspected of faithlessness\nagainst her husband; the second Passover (\u200f\u05e4\u05e1\u05d7 \u05e9\u05e0\u05d9\u200e) for those who\ncould not fulfil their duty on the 14th of Nisan; the law of fringes\n(\u200f\u05e6\u05d9\u05e6\u05ea\u200e); the law of purification of persons who have become unclean\nthrough contact with the dead body of any person (\u200f\u05e4\u05e8\u05d4 \u05d0\u05d3\u05d5\u05de\u05d4\u200e chap.\nxix.); the law of inheritance (xxvii.); the sacrifices for the\nfestivals (xxviii., xxix.); the laws of vows (xxx.); laws concerning\nmurder and cities of refuge (xxxv.).\n\nThe fifth book (\u200f\u05d3\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e) contains speeches of Moses which he addressed\nto the Israelites during the last year of his life, reminding them of\ntheir repeated disobedience to the Divine command, and their want of\nconfidence in Him, and exhorting them to be faithful to God. He\nfrequently emphasises the truth that blessing and happiness can only be\nobtained through obedience, trouble and curses being the certain result\nof sin and transgression. Chapter xxviii., called \u200f\u05ea\u05d5\u05db\u05d7\u05d4\u200e \u201cexhortation\u201d\nor \u201crebuke\u201d (see also Lev. xxvi.), is especially devoted to this\nprinciple. In the song \u200f\u05d4\u05d0\u05d6\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5\u200e (chap, xxxii.), which all the people\nwere to learn by heart, Moses rebukes his brethren for their\ningratitude to God, and foretells them that, in the remote future,\nsimilar conduct will be visited severely, and that after a period of\npunishment God will show mercy to them, and again restore them to a\nstate of happiness and glory. Before his death he gives a special\nblessing to each tribe. The book concludes with the death of Moses, the\nsuccession of Joshua, and the praise of Moses as the greatest of all\nprophets.\n\nMany of the commandments are repeated in the course of the\nexhortations: the Decalogue, the laws concerning the three agricultural\nand national festivals (\u200f\u05e9\u05dc\u05e9 \u05e8\u05d2\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd\u200e), and such other laws as Moses\nconsidered necessary to impress on the heart of the Israelites before\nhe departed from among them. The Israelites being near Jordan, and\nabout to take possession of the promised land, their attention is\ncalled to such laws as would then come into practice, e.g., those which\nrefer to the political and judicial arrangements of the country (xvi.\nto xviii.); and the solemn declaration of allegiance to the Will of God\n(xxvii.).\n\nThe Pentateuch is divided into verses (\u200f\u05e4\u05e1\u05d5\u05e7\u05d9\u05dd\u200e), paragraphs (\u200f\u05e4\u05e1\u05e7\u05d5\u05ea\u200e),\nand into sections called \u200f\u05e1\u05d3\u05e8\u05d5\u05ea\u200e or \u201cweekly portions.\u201d The division\ninto chapters is of comparatively modern origin.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2. THE PROPHETS\n\nare divided into two groups: Earlier and Latter Prophets (\u200f\u05e0\u05d1\u05d9\u05d0\u05d9\u05dd\n\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd \u05d5\u05e0\u05d1\u05d9\u05d0\u05d9\u05dd \u05d0\u05d7\u05e8\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e).\n\nThe Earlier Prophets do not contain prophecies in the usual meaning of\nthe word. They contain the history of Israel from the accession of\nJoshua to the leadership of Israel, to the capture of Jerusalem by\nNebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. They are, nevertheless, called\n\u201cProphets,\u201d for two reasons:\u2014\n\n(1.) The history is written in a prophetic spirit, with the view of\nillustrating the principle that obedience to the word of God was the\ncause of Israel\u2019s prosperity and success, disobedience the cause of\ntrouble and misery.\n\n(2.) The Earlier Prophets include the history of Deborah, Samuel,\nNathan, Ahijah, Elijah, Elisha, and a few anonymous prophets.\n\nNo collection of their speeches has been made or preserved in the\nScriptures, and they are thus distinguished from the latter prophets,\nwhose prophecies have been collected and form the contents of the\n\u201cLatter Prophets.\u201d\n\nThe following books belong to the Earlier Prophets:\u2014\n\n1. The Book of Joshua (\u200f\u05d9\u05d4\u05d5\u05e9\u05e2\u200e), containing the history of the conquest\nand division of the land of Canaan by the Israelites, from their\ncrossing the Jordan to the death of Joshua.\n\nAmong the various incidents related in the book the following are\nnoteworthy:\u2014The circumcision of those who had been born during the\nwandering of Israel in the wilderness; the celebration of the first\nPassover in the Holy Land; the appearance of \u201cthe prince of the host of\nthe Lord\u201d (v. 14), just before the war commenced, in order to remind\nJoshua that \u201cthe place upon which he stood was holy;\u201d [5] the crossing\nof the Jordan; the taking of Jericho; the disastrous consequences of\nAchan\u2019s sin, as an illustration of the principle that the whole\ncommunity is made responsible for the crime of the individual till the\ncrime is discovered and punished; the battle at Gibeon, famous through\nJoshua\u2019s exclamation, \u201cSun, stand thou still upon Gibeon; and thou\nmoon, in the valley of Ajalon!\u201d (x. 12); and the appointment of the\ncities of refuge.\n\n2. The Book of Judges (\u200f\u05e9\u05d5\u05e4\u05d8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e) contains episodes of the history of\nthe Israelites from the death of Joshua to the days of the high-priest\nEli. The name \u201cJudge\u201d is identical with that of chief magistrate, or\nsimply chief or leader. The judges were persons chosen by God, and\ninspired with an extraordinary spirit of courage and bravery, to be the\nliberators of the country, or part of the country, from the tyranny of\noppressors. The virtues that were required in order to qualify them for\nthis mission were patriotism and courage. Some of them may have\ncontinued in power after the restoration of peace and order, but on the\nwhole their mission as judges was fulfilled with the cessation of war.\nThey were not the religious teachers of the nation, nor are they set up\nas examples of piety.\n\nDuring the period of the judges the tribes of Israel were not united\n(song of Deborah, Judges v. 15\u201317). There was no common government, or\nif there was one, it must have possessed little power and influence.\nThe people became degraded; many worshipped idols and altogether\nignored the Divine commandments. But the conscience of the nation was\nroused when a shocking crime was committed at Gibeah in the tribe of\nBenjamin, and all Israel united in demanding the punishment of the\nevil-doers (chaps. xix. to xxi.). The book contains two beautiful\npoetical passages, the song of Deborah (v.) and the parable of Jotham\n(ix.).\n\n3. The two books of Samuel (\u200f\u05e9\u05de\u05d5\u05d0\u05dc \u05d0\u05f3 \u05d5\u05d1\u05f3\u200e)\u2014also called the first and\nsecond books of Kings\u2014contain the history of Israel during the time of\nthe high-priest Eli, the prophet Samuel, and Saul, the first king of\nIsrael (Book I.); and the reign of David (Book II.).\n\nThe following passages are noteworthy:\u2014\n\nii. 6\u20137: \u201cThe Lord killeth and maketh alive; He bringeth down to the\ngrave and bringeth up. The Lord maketh poor and maketh rich; He\nbringeth low and lifteth up.\u201d\n\nxii. 22: \u201cThe Lord will not forsake His people, for His great name\u2019s\nsake; because it hath pleased the Lord to make you His people.\u201d\n\nxv. 22\u201323: \u201cHath the Lord as great delight in burnt offerings and\nsacrifices as in obeying the voice of the Lord? Behold, to obey is\nbetter than sacrifice, and to hearken than the fat of rams. For\nrebellion is as the sin of witchcraft, and stubbornness is as iniquity\nand idolatry; because thou hast rejected the word of the Lord, He hath\nalso rejected thee from being king.\u201d\n\nxvi. 7: \u201cThe Lord seeth not as man seeth; for man looketh on the\noutward appearance, but the Lord looketh on the heart.\u201d\n\nxxiv. 14: \u201cWickedness proceedeth from the wicked.\u201d\n\nII., xxiv. 14: \u201cI am in a great strait; let us fall now into the hand\nof the Lord; for His mercies are great: and let me not fall into the\nhand of man.\u201d\n\nThe following poetical passages of the book should also be marked:\u2014\n\nThe prayer of Hannah (ii. 1\u201310); David\u2019s lament over Saul\u2019s death (II.,\ni. 18\u201327); Parable of the prophet Nathan (xii. 1\u20136); Song of\nthanksgiving by David (xxii.); David\u2019s faith in God\u2019s justice (xxiii.\n1\u20137).\n\n4. The first and the second books of Kings (\u200f\u05de\u05dc\u05db\u05d9\u05dd \u05d0\u05f3 \u05d5\u05d1\u05f3\u200e), also\ncalled the third and fourth books of Kings, contain the history of\nIsrael from the death of David to the Babylonian exile. The first book\ndescribes the last days of King David, the reign of Solomon, the\ndivision of the country into two kingdoms, Judah and Israel, the\nhistory of the kingdom of Judah from Rehoboam to Jehoshaphat, and the\nhistory of the kingdom of Israel from Jeroboam to Ahab. The second book\ncontinues the history of the kingdom of Israel from Ahab to the\nconquest of Samaria by Shalmanessar, king of Assyria, and that of the\nkingdom of Judah from Abijam, son of Jehoshaphat, to the conquest of\nJerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon.\n\nI., ii. 2: \u201cI go the way of all the earth; be thou strong therefore,\nand show thyself a man.\u201d\n\nxviii. 21: \u201cHow long halt ye between two opinions? If the Lord be God.\nfollow Him; but if Baal, then follow him.\u201d\n\nII., xiv. 9: \u201cThe thistle that was in Lebanon sent to the cedar that\nwas in Lebanon, saying, Give thy daughter to my son to wife: and there\npassed by a wild beast that was in Lebanon and trod down the thistle.\u201d\n[6]\n\nNote, besides, prayer of Solomon (I., viii. 12\u201361) and message of\nIsaiah to King Hezekiah (II., xix. 21\u201331).\n\nThe \u200f\u05e0\u05d1\u05d9\u05d0\u05d9\u05dd \u05d0\u05d7\u05e8\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e Latter Prophets, contain the following books:\u2014\n\n\n\nI. Isaiah (\u200f\u05d9\u05e9\u05e2\u05d9\u05d4\u05d5\u200e).\u2014Isaiah prophesied chiefly during the Assyrian\ninvasions in Palestine in the reign of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and\nHezekiah, kings of Judah. The book is divided into two main sections,\nseparated from each other by the narrative of Sennacherib\u2019s invasion\nand defeat, Hezekiah\u2019s illness and recovery, and the congratulatory\nmessage of the Babylonian king to Hezekiah (chaps, xxxvi. to xxxix.).\nThe first section is divided into five parts with separate headings:\u2014\n\n(1.) Chap. i.\u2014This prophecy was probably repeated by Isaiah many times\nfrom the beginning to the end of his prophetic mission. The Israelites\nin Jerusalem and Judah are rebuked for their rebellion against God,\nwhich has brought a series of misfortunes upon the nation; God does not\naccept their sacrifices unless they return to Him and improve their\nconduct. They will be punished, but the punishment is only the means\nfor their purification. When this effect is obtained their redemption\nwill follow.\n\n(2.) Chaps. ii. to v.\u2014The fulfilment of the mission of the\nIsraelites\u2014the Messianic period\u2014is depicted, when the Israelites will\nbe so perfect in the knowledge and the worship of God, that all nations\nwill seek enlightenment and guidance in the house of the God of Jacob.\nThe prophet shows his brethren how they receded from that aim, and,\nestranging themselves from the Almighty, trusted in things that are\npowerless. But all these things, grand and high as they may appear,\nwill prove worthless, and the glory of God will in the end be\nrecognised. The prophet illustrates the conduct of the Israelites and\ntheir punishment in the beautiful parable of the vineyard (v. 1\u20137). As\nspecial sins are named: greediness, lust, mockery, and injustice. The\npunishment threatened is the invasion of a cruel conqueror.\n\n(3.) Chap. vi.\u2014On the occasion of the death of King Uzziah, who had\npresumed to approach God and to offer incense in the Holy of Holies,\ncontrary to the Law, and was punished with leprosy, Isaiah had a vision\nin which he despairingly contrasted the infinite holiness of the\nAlmighty with his own sinfulness, living as he did among people of\nunclean lips. He is reassured, and shown that his sin is removed when\nhis words are inflamed by the holy fire taken from the altar of God. He\nmust, nevertheless, not expect a speedy effect from his words to the\npeople; they will continue in disobedience and bring upon themselves\ncontinued punishments, but ultimately, when the leaves have fallen off,\nthe stem will remain\u2014a seed of holiness.\n\n(4.) vii. to xii.\u2014The invasion of Judah by Pekah, king of Israel, and\nRezin, king of Aram, brings to light the want of faith in God and His\nword on the part of Ahaz, king of Judah. Isaiah, taking with him his\nson Sh\u2019ar-yashub (\u201cA-remnant-will-return\u201d), a reminder of punishment\nand of redemption, rebukes Ahaz, and gives him a sign (\u200f\u05d0\u05d5\u05ea\u200e): \u201cThe\nyoung woman is with child, and will bear a son, and call his name\nImmanuel\u201d (\u200f\u05e2\u05de\u05e0\u05d5 \u05d0\u05dc\u200e \u201cGod-is-with-us\u201d). \u201cCream and honey shall he eat,\nwhen he will know to reject the evil and to choose the good.\u201d By this\nsign Ahaz is informed (1) that at the time of the birth of the child\nJudah will be freed from the armies of the two kings, and the name\nImmanuel was to be the expression of thanks for the delivery; (2)\nanother more serious invasion of the Assyrians will come and devastate\nthe country; and after their departure the Israelites will not have any\ncorn or bread; \u201ccream and honey will every one eat that is left in the\nmidst of the land.\u201d\n\nThe invasion of Syria and Palestine by the Assyrians is also foretold\nin the very name of Isaiah\u2019s own son, Maher-shalal-\u2019hash-baz (\u201cThe\nspoiler hastens to be quick with the spoil\u201d). In spite of such dark\nprospect the prophet sets forth the testimony and the lesson (\u200f\u05ea\u05e2\u05d5\u05d3\u05d4\u200e,\n\u200f\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e): \u201cHope in the Lord, though He hides His face from the house of\nJacob. For often have people in affliction seen great light.\u201d \u201cA child\n[7] has been born unto us, called The Almighty, the Eternal, the Prince\nof Peace, devises wonders, for the purpose of increasing the dominion\nand establishing endless peace upon the throne of David and his\nkingdom, to order it and support it by judgment and righteousness from\nnow even for ever\u201d (ix. 5, 6). The Assyrian invasion is a punishment\nfor the sins of the Israelites, and its success will continue so long\nas the Israelites refuse to repent and to return to God. This, however,\nwill ultimately come to pass, and Ashur will then receive the penalty\nfor his insolence and presumptuousness. Israel will in the end be\nguided by a wise and just ruler, who will spring forth from the roots\nof Jesse. The Messianic times will then begin, and amidst universal\npeace all mankind will join in the praises of God.\n\n(5.) xiii. to xxxv.\u2014This group of prophecies was probably delivered\nduring the Assyrian invasion. Isaiah takes a survey of the neighbouring\nstates, their conduct in times of success, and their well-deserved\npunishment in the immediate or the remote future. The prophecies are\ndirected against Babylon, Plesheth, Moab, Damascus, Egypt, Ashdod,\nBabylon, Dumah, Arab, the Assyrian Shebnah, Tyre, Edom, and Ephraim.\nGreat confusion will ensue, amid which Judah will suffer much, but he\nwill ultimately be delivered through the Divine intervention, and will\nthus be strengthened in his faith in God. Isaiah rebukes Judah for\nseeking help from Egypt against Assyria, because such an act indicates\nwant of faith in God. It is only the Almighty that can help in times of\ndistress.\n\n(6.) xxxvi. to xxxix.\u2014The historical chapters which intervene between\nthe two large prophetical sections of the book conclude with an account\nof Hezekiah\u2019s conduct towards the Babylonian ambassadors, and the\nrebuke he received of Isaiah, who announced to the king that the\nBabylonians would one day be conquerors of Jerusalem.\n\n(7.) xl. to xlviii.\u2014The prediction of the Babylonian exile is followed\nby comforting messages and by the good tidings of the promised\nRestoration. Contrasting the omnipotence of God with the helplessness\nof earthly powers and idols, the prophet calls for absolute faith in\nGod, who has already appointed the conqueror of Babylon and the\nliberator of the exiled Jews.\n\n(8.) xlviii. to liv.\u2014It is not only deliverance from exile that the\nJews have to hope for, but far greater things. The people of the Lord\nare to become glorious, and to be the source of salvation to all\nmankind. They will suffer at the hand of the nations, but the latter\nwill ultimately see what wrong they have done to Israel.\nNotwithstanding all apparent obstacles, this prophecy will be\nfulfilled.\n\n(9.) lv. to lx.\u2014The prophet exhorts the people to follow the word of\nGod, to abandon idolatry, and to be sincere in their prayer and\nrepentance; only then might they hope for salvation. God has punished\nIsrael, but the redeemer will come unto Zion.\n\n(10.) lxi. to lxvi.\u2014Encouragement is given especially to the \u200f\u05e2\u05e0\u05d5\u05d9\u05dd\u200e\n\u201cthe meek,\u201d \u201cthe broken-hearted;\u201d the day of vengeance is announced\nagainst the haughty and sinners. The prophet prays to God, and God\nanswers him with the promise of the ultimate triumph of the \u200f\u05e2\u05e0\u05d5\u05d9\u05dd\u200e and\n\u200f\u05d9\u05e8\u05d0\u05d9 \u05d9\u05d9\u200e \u201cthe meek and the God-fearing.\u201d\n\n\n\n2. Jeremiah (\u200f\u05d9\u05e8\u05de\u05d9\u05d4\u200e).\u2014Jeremiah prophesied in the thirteenth year of\nJosiah, and continued to prophesy during his reign and that of his\nsuccessors, and after the fall of Jerusalem, but it is not certain how\nlong he lived after the destruction of the Temple, and where he died.\nHe was the son of Hilkiah, of the priests in Anathoth, in the tribe of\nBenjamin. He was exposed to cruel persecutions, but these did not deter\nhim from delivering the Divine message with which he was entrusted to\nthe king and to the people. The prophecies of Jeremiah were written\ndown by Baruch, at Jeremiah\u2019s dictation (chap. xxxvi.), but the book\nwas seized by King Jehoiakim, and burnt by him. The Book of Jeremiah,\nin our Bible, is probably the copy made later on by Baruch, and\nmentioned in Jer. xxxvi. 32.\n\nThe book is composed of the following parts:\u2014\n\n(1.) Chap. i.\u2014The appointment of Jeremiah as prophet \u201cover the nations\nand the kingdoms, to pluck up and to break down, and to destroy and to\noverthrow, to build and to plant\u201d (ver. 10).\n\n(2.) Chaps, ii. to vi.\u2014Jeremiah addresses the inhabitants of Jerusalem.\n\u201cIsrael is a holy portion, belonging to the Lord; whosoever eats of it\nis guilty, and will be punished.\u201d Israel ought therefore to be faithful\nto God. This they are not, in spite of the benefits bestowed on them;\nthey are exhorted to repentance: in vain. They are therefore threatened\nwith a hostile invasion from the north.\n\n(3.) Chaps, vii. to x.\u2014The prophet addresses the people in the gate of\nthe Temple, exhorting them to true repentance. Without obedience to God\nthe Temple and sacrificial service have no value. The foundation of the\nLaw is, \u201cYou shall be to me a people, and walk in the way which I\ncommand you.\u201d You have not obeyed, and punishment is determined upon.\nJeremiah, foreseeing the desolation of the country and the ruin of the\nnation, laments and weeps, but he is sure that God is \u200f\u05e2\u05e9\u05d4 \u05d7\u05e1\u05d3 \u05de\u05e9\u05e4\u05d8\n\u05d5\u05e6\u05d3\u05e7\u05d4\u200e \u201cone who doth loving-kindness, judgment, and righteousness,\u201d and\nthat those nations which indulged in cruelties against the Israelites\nwhen under Divine punishment will themselves not escape retribution.\n\n(4.) xi. to xiii.\u2014\u201cThe covenant was: Hear my voice, and do what I\ncommand you: ye shall be my people, and I will be your God.\u201d You have\nbroken this covenant and worshipped idols; evil must come upon you.\nThis Jeremiah proclaimed in \u201cthe cities of Judah and the streets of\nJerusalem,\u201d and probably also in Anathoth; whereupon he was threatened\nwith death. Such conduct gave occasion to further prophecies concerning\nthe wickedness of the people and their impending punishment. The fact\nthat Israel has been chosen to be the people of the Lord and has shown\nhimself unworthy of the distinction, is symbolised by a girdle, forming\nat first an ornament to man, but which when rotten by moisture in the\ncrevices of rocks, is no longer of any use.\n\n(5.) Chaps, xiv. to xvii.\u2014Drought visits Judah; Jeremiah prays to God\nfor relief from famine. God rejects his petition. The prophet is\ndisappointed, but he is assured that God will protect him from the\nattacks of the people, if he tries \u201cto bring forth a precious thing\nfrom the vile.\u201d He tries, but in vain.\n\n(6.) xvii. 19\u201327.\u2014Exhortation to keep the Sabbath, to abstain from all\nmanner of work, and from carrying burdens out of or into the town.\n\n(7.) xviii.\u2014God changes His decrees according to the deeds of man, as a\npotter transforms the clay from one vessel to another. Jeremiah is\nagain insulted and threatened, and he prays to God against his\npersecutors.\n\n(8.) xix. and xx.\u2014In the valley of Hinnom, Jeremiah denounces the\nidolatry of Israel, and as a symbol of the impending ruin of Israel, he\nbreaks a pot of earthenware. Returning from the valley, he announces\nthe coming evil in the court of the Temple in the presence of the\npeople; he is taken into prison by Pashchur, the chief of the Temple,\nfor one day. When released he repeats the same prophecy, but feels that\nhe has given offence, and in utter despair curses the day of his birth.\n\n(9.) Chaps, xxi. to xxiv.\u2014Nebuchadnezzar attacked Judah, and Zedekiah\n(later king of Judah) sent to Jeremiah asking him to pray for the\nsafety of the people. But Jeremiah prophesied defeat and disgrace on\naccount of their iniquity. He went even by the command of God to the\nroyal palace, and repeated there the Divine decree against the royal\nfamily, Shallum (= Joahaz), Jojakim, and Coniah (= Jeboiachin). There\nwill come, however, one day a righteous offspring of David, who will\nrule justly and prosperously; He shall be called \u201cThe Lord is our\nsalvation.\u201d For the present it would be better to submit to the\nBabylonian rule. They are false prophets who flatter and speak in the\nname of God of victories over the Babylonians. The false prophets will\nall be punished\u2014those who proclaim as their own prophecy the very words\nthey heard from true prophets, those who in different words reproduce\nmessages of the true prophets as their own, and those who invent\nfalsehood. The advisability of submitting to the Babylonian power is\nalso illustrated by the vision of two baskets of figs; good figs\nrepresenting those who will submit, and bad figs those who prefer war\nwith the Babylonians.\n\n(10.) xxv. to xxvii.\u2014Jeremiah continues, during the reign of Jehoiakim,\nhis prophecies in favour of a peaceful submission to the Babylonians,\nwith the Divine promise of a redemption from the exile and the\nrestoration to their own country and dominion.\n\n(11.) xxviii.\u2014The same prophecy is continued during the reign of\nZedekiah. He was opposed by the false prophet Hananiah, to whom\nJeremiah foretold that he would be punished and die the same year; this\ncame also to pass.\n\n(12.) xxix. to xxxi.\u2014To the Jews already in Babylon Jeremiah sends a\nletter of consolation and encourages them in their hopes for the\nredemption from exile. Of the same tenor were the messages spoken by\nJeremiah to all Jews. In days to come a new covenant will be\ninstituted; new in so far as it will not be broken again, the Law\nremaining permanently written on their heart, \u201cI shall be their God,\nand they shall be my nation.\u201d\n\n(13.) xxxii. and xxxiii.\u2014Jeremiah, kept in prison, bought property from\nhis uncle Hanamel, wrote and signed the document of transfer, and\nhanded it to Baruch. By this he expressed his conviction that the Jews\nwould return from exile and take possession of their land. In addition\nto this he sent forth from the prison a Messianic prophecy, describing\nthe future greatness of the seed of David, and the restoration of the\npriests and Levites to the sacrificial service.\n\n(14.) xxxiv. and xxxv.\u2014Jeremiah exhorts the people to keep \u201cthe year of\nrelease,\u201d and held up the family of the Rechabites as patterns of\npiety, who could not be induced to break their vow of abstinence,\nthough it was voluntarily undertaken.\n\n(15.) xxxvi. to xlv.\u2014Jeremiah continues to prophesy, advising, though\nfruitlessly, submission to the Babylonian king. Zedekiah made war\nagainst Nebuchadnezzar, was defeated, and Jerusalem was taken by the\nBabylonians. When some Jews wanted to emigrate to Egypt, Jeremiah\nwarned them in the name of God not to do so. He was not listened to; he\nwas even forced to go with them; but he prophesied against them, and\nforetold their ruin. Baruch, to whom Jeremiah dictated his prophecies,\nwas discontented at being driven from place to place; Jeremiah appeased\nand encouraged him.\n\n(16.) xlvi. to lii.\u2014Jeremiah prophesies against Egypt, the Philistines,\nMoab, Ammon, Edom, Damascus, Kedar, Elam, and Babylon. The book\nconcludes with an account of the fall of Jerusalem, similar to that\ngiven at the end of the second book of Kings.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n3. EZEKIEL (\u200f\u05d9\u05d7\u05d6\u05e7\u05d0\u05dc\u200e)\u2014Ezekiel prophesied in exile.\n\n(1.) Chap. i. to vii.\u2014In the fifth year of the exile of Joiachin,\nEzekiel, in the vision of the chariot, representing the rule of God\nover the universe, is appointed a Divine messenger, to warn the people\nand tell them of the impending danger, that they might not be ignorant\nof the fate awaiting them, whether they listened or forbore to listen.\nThe message with which he is inspired is represented as a scroll which\nhe swallows. The threatened danger he indicates by symbolic acts,\nfollowed by their explanation. The siege of Jerusalem is illustrated by\nthe prophet besieging a brick representing Jerusalem, and the ruin of\nthe nation by cutting and scattering the hair of his head and beard.\n\n(2.) viii. to xi.\u2014In the sixth year, on the sixth day of the fifth\nmonth, in the presence of the elders of Judah, Ezekiel is carried in a\nprophetic vision to Jerusalem, is shown there the sins committed by the\nIsraelites in the very Temple, and the consequent departure of the\nDivine Presence from the Temple. Israel will suffer for his sins, but\nwill at last repent and improve. God promises, \u201cI will give them one\nheart, and I will put a new spirit within you; and I will take the\nstony heart out of their flesh, and will give them a heart of flesh;\nthat they may walk in my statutes, and keep mine ordinances, and do\nthem; and they shall be my people, and I will be their God\u201d (xi. 19,\n20).\n\n(3.) xii. and xiii.\u2014The prophet indicates the coming captivity by the\nsymbolic act of preparing the things necessary for going into exile.\nThe false prophets and prophetesses, who tell the people to have no\ndread of any coming exile, will be disappointed and punished. The\nfalsehood of the proverb, \u201cIn the length of time every vision faileth,\u201d\nwill then be evident.\n\n(4.) xiv. to xix.\u2014Ezekiel describes the sinfulness of Israel, and\nexhorts them to return to God, or else the threatened calamity will\novercome them. He illustrates the approaching calamity by the figure of\na cedar-tree and the eagle. Although the fathers have sinned, if the\nsons abstain from sinning they may prevent the catastrophe; for the\nproverb, \u201cThe fathers have eaten the sour grapes, and the teeth of the\nchildren are set on edge,\u201d will prove untrue. If they do not improve,\nthe catastrophe must take place which the prophet depicts in the\nparables of the lioness caught and of the vine consumed by fire.\n\n(5.) xx.\u2014In the seventh year, the Elders of Israel came to Ezekiel \u201cto\ninquire of the Lord,\u201d \u200f\u05dc\u05d3\u05e8\u05e9 \u05d0\u05ea \u05d4\u200e. Ezekiel describes the wickedness of\nIsrael, and the punishment they deserved.\n\n(6.) xxi. to xxiii.\u2014Comparing Jerusalem and Samaria to two sisters,\nOholibah and Oholah, he complains that the former, having witnessed the\npunishment of the latter, has not profited by it.\n\n(7.) xxiv.\u2014On the tenth day of the tenth month in the ninth year\nEzekiel prophesies the siege and fall of Jerusalem on the very day on\nwhich the siege commenced. The greatness of the calamity, to express\nwhich the usual outward signs of grief would be inadequate, is\nindicated by the Divine command that the prophet on the death of his\nwife should exhibit no signs of mourning.\n\n(8.) xxv. to xxxii.\u2014Like Isaiah and Jeremiah, he foretells the fate of\nthe neighbouring nations, Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites, Philistines,\nTyrians, and Egyptians. The last-named are promised recovery after\nforty years\u2019 desolation of their country.\n\n(9.) xxxiii. and xxxiv.\u2014The prophet describes the duties and\nresponsibilities of watchmen and shepherds, and blames those of his own\ntime as not fulfilling their duties: \u201cBut I will save my flock, and\nthey shall no more be a prey; and I will judge between cattle and\ncattle. And I will set up one shepherd over them, and he shall feed\nthem, even my servant David: he shall feed them, and he shall be their\nshepherd. And I the Lord will be their God, and my servant David prince\namong them\u201d (xxxiv. 22\u201324).\n\n(10.) xxxv.\u2014He prophesies against Seir, for their enmity against\nIsrael.\n\n(11.) xxxvi. and xxxvii.\u2014Ezekiel foretells the restoration of Israel in\nthe parable of the dry bones. The union of Israel and Judah is\nsymbolically shown by the union of two staves.\n\n(12.) xxxviii. and xxxix.\u2014Gog, the prince of Rosh, Meshech, and Tubal,\nwill make the last efforts for the destruction of Israel. All his\npreparations will be in vain. He and his army will fall in the land of\nIsrael. And the Divine promise is given: \u201cThey shall know that I am the\nLord their God, in that I caused them to go into captivity among the\nnations, and have gathered them into their own land, and I will leave\nnone of them any more there: neither will I hide my face any more from\nthem; for I have poured out my spirit upon the house of Israel, saith\nthe Lord God\u201d (xxxix. 28, 29).\n\n(13.) xl. to xlviii.\u2014In the fourteenth year after the fall of\nJerusalem, in the beginning of the year, on the tenth day of the month,\nEzekiel is carried in a vision to the land of Israel, and is shown\nthere the rebuilding of the future Temple, and the division of the land\namong the twelve tribes, the Levites and the priests.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n4. THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS, \u200f\u05ea\u05e8\u05d9 \u05e2\u05e9\u05e8\u200e\u2014\n\n(1.) Hosea (\u200f\u05d4\u05d5\u05e9\u05e2\u200e).\u2014Hosea, a contemporary of Isaiah, prophesied about\nthe sinfulness of the northern kingdom of the ten tribes, and turns his\nattention to Judah only in so far as Judah participated in the sins of\nIsrael, and their consequences.\n\n(a.) Chaps, i. to iii.\u2014In an allegory of a faithless woman and her\nthree children the sin of the ten tribes is represented, who\nfaithlessly turned away from the worship of God in Jerusalem. The\nconsequent three stages of punishment are represented by the names of\nthe three children: Jezreel, referring to the catastrophe of the house\nof Ahab, ending in the death of Jezebel in Jezreel; Lo-ruhama (\u201cNot\npitied\u201d), indicating the fall of the house of Jehu, from which the\nmercy of God was withdrawn after it had been shown in the successes of\nKing Jeroboam II.; and the third, Lo-ami (\u201cNot-my-people\u201d), predicting\nthe final dissolution of the kingdom. But a time of mercy and Divine\nprotection is foretold by the prophet when he said in the name of God,\n\u201cI will betroth thee unto me for ever; and I will betroth thee unto me\nin righteousness and judgment and in loving-kindness and in mercy; and\nI will betroth thee unto me in faithfulness, and thou shalt know the\nLord; and I will sow them unto me in the land, and I will show mercy to\nLo-ruhama; and I will say to Lo-ami, Thou art my people; and he shall\nsay, My God\u201d (ii. 21, 22, 25). This happy time, however, will only come\nafter a period of trial, represented in the allegory by the period of\ntrial of a faithless woman before the husband has again full confidence\nin her. \u201cFor many days shall the children of Israel dwell without king,\nwithout prince, without sacrifice, without a statue, and without ephod\nand teraphim. After that the children of Israel will return and seek\nthe Lord their God, and David their king; and they will anxiously\nhasten to the Lord and to His goodness in latter days\u201d (iii. 4, 5).\n\n(b.) iv. to viii.\u2014Hosea rebukes Ephraim for their sinfulness and\nobstinacy. When an attempt is made at repentance it is not made in\nearnest, and is soon abandoned. The sins of Ephraim find imitation in\nJudah, and therefore the punishment of Ephraim will also affect Judah.\n\n(c.) ix. to xiv.\u2014The prophet blames Israel for seeking help in their\ndistress in Egypt or Assyria. He censures their conduct, and contrasts\nit with the kindness of God in the course of the history of Israel\nsince the time of the patriarchs. Samaria must fall, but Israel need\nbut earnestly return to God, and \u201che will be like dew to Israel, who\nwill blossom like the lily, and extend his roots like the cedars of\nLebanon\u201d (xiv. 6); for \u201cstraight are the ways of the Lord: whilst the\nrighteous walk by them, transgressors stumble by them\u201d (Ibid. 10).\n\n(2.) Joel (\u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05d0\u05dc\u200e).\u2014Joel is a contemporary of Isaiah. Locusts have\ndevastated the fields in Judah. Joel exhorts the people to repentance\nand prayer. His exhortation is acted upon, and relief is promised. At\nthe same time the punishment of the enemies of Israel in the valley of\nJehoshaphat is announced. \u201cThe day of the Lord, great and wonderful,\u201d\nwill be indicated by extraordinary phenomena in heaven and on earth, so\nclear that all will understand their significance and foresee the\ncoming judgment.\n\n(3.) Amos (\u200f\u05e2\u05de\u05d5\u05e1\u200e)\u2014Amos, a contemporary of the former, prophesied\nduring the reign of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam, king of\nIsrael. Amos first mentions in short paragraphs the sinful conduct of\nthe neighbouring states, Damascus, Gaza, Tyre, Edom, Ammon, Moab, and\nJudah, and the punishment decreed against them, introducing each\nparagraph with the words, \u201cFor three sins of ... (scil., will I take\nback the decree of punishment), but for the fourth, I will not take it\nback.\u201d He then dwells on the sins of Israel, laying special stress on\nthe luxuries of the rich, obtained through oppression of the poor, and\ntells them that, though God has frequently pardoned, He will pardon no\nmore. Amaziah, a priest of Beth-el, warns Amos, and bids him leave the\ncountry, but the prophet, nevertheless, continues to proclaim the\ncoming judgment of God, viz., the exile of Israel, adding, however, the\ncomforting prophecy that the time will come when Israel shall be\nrestored to his own land and enjoy lasting happiness.\n\n(4.) Obadiah (\u200f\u05e2\u05d1\u05d3\u05d9\u05d4\u200e).\u2014Obadiah prophesies against the Edomites, and\nannounces the Divine decree against them for their cruel treatment of\nJudah in times of distress.\n\n(5.) Jonah (\u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4\u200e).\u2014Jonah, son of Amittai, prophesied success to King\nJeroboam II. (2 Kings xiv. 25). He was sent to threaten the inhabitants\nof Nineveh with the destruction of their city in forty days. Instead of\ngoing to Nineveh he set out in a boat for Tarshish; during a storm he\nwas thrown overboard, swallowed by a fish, and again brought to the\nshore. He then carried out the Divine mission, the result of which was\nthat the Ninevites repented of their evil deeds and obtained a respite.\nJonah, disappointed that the threat of which he was the bearer was not\nfulfilled, was rebuked by God, and taught by his own grief at the\ndestruction of a plant \u201cthat had come up in a night\u201d how wrong it was\nto wish that God should not show mercy upon the inhabitants of Nineveh,\nand to neglect anything that could lead to their repentance and\nconsequent salvation.\n\n(6.) Micah (\u200f\u05de\u05d9\u05db\u05d4\u200e).\u2014Micah of Moresha was likewise a contemporary of\nIsaiah. He prophesied in Judah.\n\n1. (i.\u2013iii.) He raises his voice especially against the princes,\nmagistrates, and false prophets, who unite in oppressing and ruining\nthe people. When Micah tells them their sins and the coming punishment,\nthey say to him, \u201cDo not preach; they do not preach for such things;\nthey do not offend\u201d (ii. 6). But the prophet of the Lord is not\ndeterred from his mission, but continues to denounce their wickedness:\n\u201cHer chiefs judge for bribery, and her priests teach for payment, and\nher prophets decide for silver; yet will they lean upon the Lord, and\nsay, Is not the Lord in our midst? no evil shall come upon us.\nTherefore shall Zion be plowed into a field, and Jerusalem shall become\nheaps, and the mountain of the Temple as the high places of a forest\u201d\n(iii. 11, 12).\n\n2. (iv.\u2013v.) Like Isaiah, he depicts the Messianic period, in which the\nhouse of Jacob will be an example of true faith in God to all nations;\nin which Israel will be restored to his land, under the rule of a\ndescendant of David. But a period of trials and troubles must precede\nthose happy days, in order to punish Israel, and to purify and prepare\nhim for his future greatness.\n\n3. (vi.\u2013vii.) The same principles are taught in the next part (vi. and\nvii.) in the form of a controversy (\u200f\u05e8\u05d9\u05d1 \u05dc\u05d9\u05d9 \u05e2\u05dd \u05e2\u05de\u05d5\u200e) between the Lord\nand His people. The latter are reminded of the benefits God has\nbestowed on them; and when they ask how they are expected to show their\ngratitude, the prophet says, \u201cO man, He has told thee what is good; and\nwhat does the Lord require of thee but to do justice, love kindness,\nand to walk humbly with thy God?\u201d (vi. 8).\n\n(7.) Nahum (\u200f\u05e0\u05d7\u05d5\u05dd\u200e).\u2014The fall of Nineveh is predicted. The power of the\nmighty Assyrian Empire, hitherto a terror to Judah and other kingdoms,\nwill come to an end; no remedy can save her any more.\n\n(8.) Habakkuk (\u200f\u05d7\u05d1\u05e7\u05d5\u05e7\u200e).\u2014Habakkuk prophesied at the time when the\nCasdim or Chaldeans were about to occupy the place of the Assyrians as\nconquerors of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, and to become the rod in the\nhand of God for the punishment of Israel. Habakkuk, on receiving the\nmission to announce the Casdim as the executors of the Divine decree,\nis at a loss to understand why these wicked and cruel people should be\nchosen to chastise those who are far less wicked; why the evil-doer\nshould swallow him who is more righteous. The answer he receives is,\n\u201cBut the just shall live by his faith.\u201d The evil-doer will in due time\nreceive his full punishment. Habakkuk then gives expression to his\nimplicit faith in the justice of God, in a hymn which is superscribed,\n\u201cPrayer (\u200f\u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d4\u200e) of the prophet Habakkuk on account of errors;\u201d for in\nit he rectifies, as it were, his previous groundless doubt.\n\n(9.) Zephaniah (\u200f\u05e6\u05e4\u05e0\u05d9\u05d4\u200e).\u2014He prophesied in the days of King Josiah. He\nproclaims the approach of the great day of the Lord, on which all those\nwho turned away from Him will receive their punishment, all the rich\nand powerful who say the Lord does neither good nor evil. He appeals to\nthe humble in the land (\u200f\u05e2\u05e0\u05d5\u05d9 \u05d0\u05e8\u05e5\u200e) to seek the Lord in prayer, in\norder to be saved on \u201cthe day of the anger of the Lord.\u201d For the\nPhilistines, the Ph\u0153nicians, Moab, Ammon, and Assyria will be punished,\nnor will Jerusalem escape free. \u201cI will then turn,\u201d he says in the name\nof God, \u201ca pure language to the nations, that all of them will call by\nthe name of God, and serve Him with one accord\u201d (iii. 9). \u201cIn that day\nshalt thou not be ashamed for all thy doings wherein thou hast\ntransgressed against me; for then I will take away out of the midst of\nthee them that rejoice in thy pride, and thou shalt no more be haughty\non my holy mountain. And I will leave in thy midst a poor and humble\npeople, and they shall trust in the name of the Lord. The remnant of\nIsrael shall not do iniquity, and they shall not speak falsehood, and a\ntongue of deceit shall not be found in their mouth\u201d (iii. 9, 11\u201313).\n\n(10.) Haggai (\u200f\u05d7\u05d2\u05d9\u200e)\u2014The Israelites, who by the command of Cyrus had\ndiscontinued the rebuilding of the Temple after the foundation had been\nlaid by his permission, were exhorted by Haggai, in the second year of\nthe reign of Darius, to resume the work. Guided by Zerubbabel and\nJoshua, son of Jehozadak, they obeyed, and the prophet describes to\nthem the blessing which they will henceforth enjoy.\n\n(11.) Zechariah (\u200f\u05d6\u05db\u05e8\u05d9\u05d4\u200e):\u2014\n\n1. (i. to vii.) Zechariah, a contemporary of Haggai, exhorts the\nIsraelites to listen to the words of the prophets, seeing that the\nwords of former prophets have been fulfilled. The Divine scheme for the\nrestoration of Israel and the rebuilding of the Temple in spite of all\nobstacles, is shown to the prophet in various visions. In one vision\nJoshua is appointed high-priest, notwithstanding the aspersions of his\nadversary (\u200f\u05d4\u05e9\u05d8\u05df\u200e), and Zerubbabel or Zemach, the political chief of\nthe community. Joshua is exhorted \u201cto walk in the ways of the Lord, to\nkeep the charge entrusted to him, and to guard the House of God and His\ncourts;\u201d and Zerubbabel is reminded that success is not obtained \u201cby\nmight and strength, but by the spirit of the Lord.\u201d \u201cThus the\none\u2014Zemach by name\u2014shall sit on his throne and be ruler, and the\nother\u2014Joshua\u2014shall sit on his throne and be priest, and a counsel of\npeace shall be between the two\u201d (vi. 13).\n\n2. Chap. viii.\u2014The prophet is asked whether the day of mourning in the\nfifth month is to be continued. The prophetic answer is as follows: The\nreason for the mourning was, that your fathers did not listen to the\nword of God, and were punished for their disobedience. Now, as the time\nof punishment is over, it is for you to prevent a recurrence of these\nsad experiences. What you have to do is this: Speak the truth one to\nanother; truth and judgment of peace judge in your gates. Let no one\nplan in his heart the ruin of his neighbour, and do not love to swear\nfalsely. Let the fasts of the fourth, fifth, seventh, and tenth months\nbe to the house of Judah for rejoicing, joy, and good seasons; love\ntruth and peace (viii. 16, 17, 19). At the same time the promise is\ngiven that the time will come when nations will seek the Lord in\nJerusalem, and say to the Jews, \u201cWe will go with you, for God is with\nyou\u201d (viii. 23).\n\n3. (ix.\u2013xi.) The prophet encourages Zion to rejoice in her future\nmission; her enemies round about will be brought to silence, and her\nking, meek and humble, \u201cpoor and riding on an ass,\u201d \u201cwill speak peace\nto the nations, and his rule will extend from sea to sea, and from the\nriver to the ends of the earth\u201d (ix. 9, 10). Judah and Ephraim will\nunite, and both will enjoy the Divine protection. If this has not yet\ntaken place, it is the fault of the \u201cbad shepherds,\u201d i.e., the bad\nleaders of the people.\n\n4. (xii.\u2013xiv.) The prophet foretells troubles which will come upon\nJerusalem when the nations will make the last effort to take that city.\nThey will be defeated, and Judah will be filled on that occasion with\n\u201ca spirit of grace\u201d (\u200f\u05e8\u05d5\u05d7 \u05d7\u05df \u05d5\u05ea\u05d7\u05e0\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e), and will pray to God for the\nsafety of his enemy; the very Jews, \u201cwhom the enemy desired to pierce,\u201d\nwill pray for him, and mourn for his death as a father mourneth for the\nloss of his only child. Judah will then be free from false prophets and\nbad shepherds. God will make Himself known to all: \u201cAnd the Lord will\nbe a King over the whole earth; on that day will the Lord be One and\nHis name One\u201d (xiv. 9). All will come to Jerusalem \u201cto worship the\nKing, the Lord Zebaoth, and to celebrate the feast of Succoth\u201d (Ibid.\n16), expressing thereby their conviction that God alone is able to\nafford protection and blessing.\n\n(12.) Malachi (\u200f\u05de\u05dc\u05d0\u05db\u05d9\u200e).\u2014Malachi, the last of the prophets, exhorts the\npriests to true reverence of the sanctuary, and to conscientious\nfulfilment of their duties. The distinction of the priest was based on\nthe distinction of his conduct: \u201cThe law of truth was in his mouth, and\niniquity was not found on his lips; in peace and uprightness he walked\nwith me, and many turned he back from iniquity. For the lips of the\npriest shall keep knowledge, and instruction shall they seek of his\nmouth, for he is a messenger of the Lord Zebaoth\u201d (ii. 6, 7). Judah is\nthen rebuked for his faithlessness. Both, the Levites (including the\npriests) and Judah, will pass through a process of refining; the wicked\nwill be removed, whilst for \u201cthose who fear the name of God\u201d the sun of\nsalvation will shine. Those who desire to obtain a place among these\nlatter must \u201cremember the law of Moses, the servant of God, which God\ncommanded him on Horeb for all Israel; statutes and judgments\u201d (iii.\n22). Before the great day of the Lord, the day of judgment, the Lord\nwill send \u201cthe prophet Elijah, who will cause the hearts of fathers and\nchildren to unite in returning to God.\u201d\n\n\n\n\n\n\n3. THE HAGIOGRAPHA (\u200f\u05db\u05ea\u05d5\u05d1\u05d9\u05dd\u200e).\n\nThe Hagiographa form the last collection of holy writings, composed by\nmen who, although they were not prophets, were filled with the spirit\nof the Lord (\u200f\u05e8\u05d5\u05d7 \u05d9\u05d9\u200e). They include the three larger works: (a)\n\u200f\u05ea\u05d4\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd\u200e (or \u200f\u05ea\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd\u200e) Psalms, \u200f\u05de\u05e9\u05dc\u05d9\u200e Proverbs, and \u200f\u05d0\u05d9\u05d5\u05d1\u200e Job; (b) the\nFive Scrolls (\u200f\u05d7\u05de\u05e9 \u05de\u05d2\u05dc\u05d5\u05ea\u200e), viz., \u200f\u05e9\u05d9\u05e8 \u05d4\u05e9\u05d9\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e Song of Songs, \u200f\u05e8\u05d5\u05ea\u200e\nRuth, \u200f\u05d0\u05d9\u05db\u05d4\u200e Lamentations, \u200f\u05e7\u05d4\u05dc\u05ea\u200e Ecclesiastes, \u200f\u05d0\u05e1\u05ea\u05e8\u200e Esther; (c) the\nhistorical books: \u200f\u05d3\u05e0\u05d9\u05d0\u05dc\u200e Daniel, \u200f\u05e2\u05d6\u05e8\u05d0\u200e Ezra, \u200f\u05e0\u05d7\u05de\u05d9\u05d4\u200e Nehemiah, and\n\u200f\u05d3\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9 \u05d4\u05d9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd\u200e the two books of Chronicles.\n\n\n\n1. Psalms (\u200f\u05ea\u05d4\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd\u200e).\u2014The Psalms are hymns containing praises of God\u2019s\ngreatness, prayers for His mercy, and meditations on His wisdom, power,\njustice, and goodness. However various the Psalms are in form and\ncontents, they have this in common, that they all are based on the\npurest and sincerest trust in God\u2019s justice and goodness. \u201cThe mighty\nand proud, \u200f\u05d6\u05d3\u05d9\u05dd\u200e who rely on their own strength and are guided by the\ndictates of their own will, cannot succeed for ever; the poor and\nhumble, \u200f\u05e2\u05e0\u05d5\u05d9\u05dd\u200e who rely on God\u2019s mercy and are guided by the word of\nGod, will not suffer for ever.\u201d This is the truth which the Psalmist\nproclaims in his songs over and over again. Yet there is a great\nvariety in the contents of the Psalms. Some are simply praises of God\u2019s\ngreatness, e.g., viii., xix., xxxii., xcii., xcv. to xcix., ciii.,\nciv., &c. Others are the expression of gratitude, e.g., ix., xviii.,\nxxxiv., lxvi., lxviii., &c. Many are prayers in time of trouble; in\nmost of these the suppliant feels sure that God will accept his prayer,\nand is confident that help will come. Such psalms are iii., iv., v.,\nvi., xii., xiii., &c. To this class belong also all the psalms which\nrefer to the troubles of David during the reign of Saul, as lii., liv.,\nlvi., lix., lxiii., &c.; some of the Asaph-psalms, lxxiii., lxxvii.,\nlxxix., lxxx.; the penitential psalms, in which the sinner prays for\nmercy, as xxv., xxxii., xxxviii., li.; and those in which a longing is\nexpressed for the House of God, e.g., xxvii., xlii., xliii., lxv.,\nlxxxiv. Some psalms are a protest against those who rely on human force\nand human cunning instead of having faith in God, a protest of the\n\u200f\u05e2\u05e0\u05d5\u05d9\u05dd\u200e against the view and creed of the \u200f\u05d6\u05d3\u05d9\u05dd\u200e and \u200f\u05d2\u05d0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e or \u200f\u05d2\u05d5\u05d9\u05dd\u200e\ne.g., ix. and x., xi., xiv., xvi., xvii., &c. Some psalms are of a more\ndidactic character, showing the way of true happiness (Ps. i.),\ndepicting a truly pious life (xv., xxiv.), or the excellence of the\nword of God, as xix., cxix.; or the uselessness of sacrifice without\npurity of heart (xl., l., li.).\n\nThe poetical form of the Psalms, as of Hebrew poetry in general, is\nparallelism. The sentences are formed in such a manner that the psalm\ncan be arranged in lines divisible into two parts, which are either two\nelements of a single idea, or a double expression of the same idea, or\na combination of two ideas or things opposed to each other,\nillustrating an idea by its antithesis. In some of the Psalms the\nparallelism is perfect throughout, in others it is partly abandoned,\nprobably in order not to slavishly subordinate the idea to the form of\nits expression. The same is to be noticed as regards other forms of the\nPsalms. Some are arranged alphabetically, that is, the successive\nverses begin with successive letters of the alphabet; but deviations\nfrom the plan are met with almost in all such psalms. There are psalms\nwhich are divided into a certain number of parts or strophes, each part\nbeginning or ending with the same phrase or verse; but almost\ninvariably these phrases or verses undergo some modification.\n\nThe style is naturally poetical, and figurative language is employed\nthroughout. God is a Rock (\u200f\u05e6\u05d5\u05e8\u200e), an habitation (\u200f\u05de\u05e2\u05d5\u05df\u200e), a Shepherd\n(\u200f\u05e8\u05d5\u05e2\u05d4\u200e), who feeds His flock with great care and love; He is an eagle,\nunder whose wings (\u200f\u05d0\u05d1\u05e8\u05ea\u05d5\u200e, \u200f\u05db\u05e0\u05e4\u05d9\u05d5\u200e) the weak find protection; He rides\nin the heavens of the heavens of old (\u200f\u05e8\u05db\u05d1 \u05d1\u05e9\u05de\u05d9 \u05e9\u05de\u05d9 \u05e7\u05d3\u05dd\u200e). Man is\ncompared to \u201cgrass that withers,\u201d to a \u201cflower that blossoms in the\nmorning, and in the evening it is withered and dried up;\u201d the life of\nman is but a breath (\u200f\u05d4\u05d1\u05dc\u200e); a lie (\u200f\u05db\u05d6\u05d1\u200e); light in the balance\n(\u200f\u05d1\u05de\u05d0\u05d6\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd \u05dc\u05e2\u05dc\u05d5\u05ea\u200e); he changes like a garment, like a raiment. The days\nof a long life are like the days of the heavens, the sun or the moon\n(\u200f\u05db\u05d9\u05de\u05d9 \u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd\u200e, \u200f\u05dc\u05e4\u05e0\u05d9 \u05e9\u05de\u05e9\u200e, \u200f\u05e2\u05dd \u05e9\u05de\u05e9\u200e or \u200f\u05dc\u05e4\u05e0\u05d9 \u05d9\u05e8\u05d7\u200e). The mighty are\nmountains with many peaks (\u200f\u05d4\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd \u05d2\u05d1\u05e0\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e), they have horns like those\nof the unicorns, whilst the weak are \u201ca wall bent\u201d (\u200f\u05e7\u05d9\u05e8 \u05e0\u05d8\u05d5\u05d9\u200e), \u201ca\nfence thrust down\u201d (\u200f\u05d2\u05d3\u05e8 \u05d4\u05d3\u05d7\u05d5\u05d9\u05d4\u200e); \u201cthey have sunk in deep mire;\u201d \u201cthey\nhave come into fire and into water;\u201d \u201cthe waters have come unto the\nsoul.\u201d The meek are \u201cbroken in heart,\u201d \u201ccrushed in spirit.\u201d The wicked\nand unjust are like lions and dogs; they have poison \u201clike the poison\nof a serpent, like a deaf adder that stoppeth its ears, that does not\nlisten to the voice of charmers, to the clever sorcerer.\u201d Their words\nare smooth like cream and oil, whilst in the heart there are war,\ndaggers, sharp swords. The threatened one runs like a hind, escapes\nlike a bird. Those who have no higher aim than material enjoyments are\nlike \u201csheep driven to death;\u201d \u201cman in his dignity, without\nunderstanding, is like cattle that perish.\u201d Mishaps come upon man like\nthe waves of the sea. The Divine judgment visits the wicked like a\nthunderstorm; it shakes the earth like an earthquake or volcano.\nSinners receive \u201cthe cup of confusion\u201d (\u200f\u05db\u05d5\u05e1 \u05d4\u05ea\u05e8\u05e2\u05dc\u05d4\u200e) at the hand of\nGod; for \u201ca cup is in the hand of the Lord, and the wine therein is\nred; it is full with drink, and He pours out from it, but its dregs all\nthe wicked of the earth will suck and drink.\u201d\n\nThe sinner is punished by his own deed; \u201che digs a pit and falls into\nit;\u201d he feels like a sick person whose \u201cbones are troubled, and\nwither;\u201d his purification is toe healing of the soul; he is purified\nwith hyssop; he becomes whiter than snow (li. 9). When man sins he\nfeels as if he had become a changed creature, as if he had now been\nborn and conceived in sin (ver. 7); when he repents and improves, God\ncreates in him a new heart, and renews a firm spirit within him (ver.\n12). The wife of the God-fearing man is compared to the fruitful vine,\nhis children to young olive-trees (cxxviii.). The righteous will\nflourish like a palm-tree, will grow high like a cedar upon Lebanon\n(xcii. 13). Whilst the righteous is like a tree planted by the brook of\nwater, the wicked are like chaff which the wind drives away (i. 3, 4).\nIsrael is likened to a vine brought from Egypt and planted in Palestine\n(lxxx. 9). Peacefulness and brotherly love, between high and low, the\nmighty and the weak, the rich and the poor, the wise and the simple,\nare illustrated by the fine oil that flows down from the head to the\nbeard, the beard that descends over the garments, and the dew of the\nhigh Hermon that comes down to the lower mountains of Zion (cxxx.).\n\nThere are some instances of play upon words (lvi. 9), and of rhymes\n(cxlv. 11; xxxiv. 6); the latter are apparently not intentional.\n\nAlthough we generally speak of the Psalms of David, only a portion of\nthem was composed by King David; the headings ascribe also one psalm to\nMoses, two to King Solomon, twelve to Asaph, one to Heman, and one to\nEthan; and some have no author mentioned in the heading. Many have no\nsuperscription at all, and most of these seem to belong to a later\nperiod.\n\nThe individual psalms have various names. The most general of them is\n\u200f\u05de\u05d6\u05de\u05d5\u05e8\u200e a poem, set in music. Of some it is distinctly stated that they\nwere intended to be sung; this is expressed in the heading by the word\n\u200f\u05e9\u05d9\u05e8\u200e \u201csong,\u201d which either precedes or follows the title \u200f\u05de\u05d6\u05de\u05d5\u05e8\u200e or\nstands alone without \u200f\u05de\u05d6\u05de\u05d5\u05e8\u200e. The term, \u200f\u05e9\u05d9\u05e8\u200e \u201csong,\u201d is further\nqualified by \u200f\u05d7\u05e0\u05d5\u05db\u05ea \u05d4\u05d1\u05d9\u05ea\u200e \u201cof the dedication of the house,\u201d \u200f\u05d9\u05d3\u05d9\u05d3\u05d5\u05ea\u200e\n\u201cof love,\u201d and \u200f\u05d4\u05de\u05e2\u05dc\u05d5\u05ea\u200e or \u200f\u05dc\u05de\u05e2\u05dc\u05d5\u05ea\u200e \u201cof degrees leading upward,\u201d i.e.,\ntowards God. Another name occurring in twelve psalms is \u200f\u05de\u05e9\u05db\u05d9\u05dc\u200e\n\u201cinstructive song;\u201d the maschil proclaims the lesson that God is King\nof the universe, and that those are happy who trust in His justice and\nmercy. A similar meaning attaches to \u200f\u05dc\u05dc\u05de\u05d3\u200e the word superadded to\n\u200f\u05de\u05e9\u05db\u05b4\u05dc\u200e in Ps. lx.; lit. \u201cto teach,\u201d i.e., that the song be learnt by\nall, in order that people may strengthen their confidence in God in\ntimes of trouble (comp. 2 Sam. i. 18). The meaning of \u200f\u05dc\u05d4\u05d6\u05db\u05d9\u05e8\u200e which\noccurs in two psalms (xxxviii. and lxx.), is \u201cfor prayer.\u201d There is one\npsalm \u200f\u05dc\u05ea\u05d5\u05d3\u05d4\u200e (c.), \u201cfor thanksgiving;\u201d another \u201cfor the Sabbath-day,\u201d\n\u200f\u05dc\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d4\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea\u200e (xcii.). Four psalms are called \u200f\u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d4\u200e \u201cprayer\u201d (xvii.,\nlxxxvi., xc, cii.); one (cxlv.), \u200f\u05ea\u05d4\u05dc\u05d4\u200e \u201cpraise;\u201d one (vii.), \u200f\u05e9\u05d2\u05d9\u05d5\u05df\u200e\n\u201can error,\u201d [8] referring to the miscalculation of the wicked in\npreparing weapons against the innocent, which weapons are turned\nagainst themselves; and six are superscribed \u200f\u05de\u05db\u05ea\u05dd\u200e \u201ca jewel.\u201d Such a\njewel is the Psalmist\u2019s \u201cfaith in God,\u201d that inspires him with hope and\npure joy in the midst of misfortune.\n\nThe headings include also instructions for the singers and references\nto the musical instruments which are to be used. The most general term\nis \u200f\u05dc\u05de\u05e0\u05e6\u05d7\u200e \u201cto the chief,\u201d scil., of the singers or Levites; it refers\nto the chief of a particular division of the Levites if it is followed\nby a qualifying phrase, and to the chief of all the Levites if it is\nnot followed by any qualification. The term \u200f\u05dc\u05de\u05e0\u05e6\u05d7\u200e describes the psalm\nas a Temple-song, although this may not have been its original object.\nEven poems which have been composed by David on certain personal events\nbecame\u2014perhaps slightly modified\u2014national songs, and formed part of the\npublic service. The adaptation was easy, because these historical\npsalms rarely contain any allusion to the particular event mentioned in\nthe superscription.\n\nThe term \u200f\u05dc\u05de\u05e0\u05e6\u05d7\u200e is qualified by \u200f\u05e2\u05dc \u05e0\u05d2\u05d9\u05e0\u05ea\u200e \u201con a stringed instrument,\u201d\n\u200f\u05e0\u05d2\u05d9\u05e0\u05ea\u200e being the particular instrument of the Levites, of whom this\n\u200f\u05de\u05e0\u05e6\u05d7\u200e was the master. The term \u200f\u05d1\u05e0\u05d2\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5\u05ea\u200e which in several psalms\nfollows the word \u200f\u05dc\u05de\u05e0\u05e6\u05d7\u200e is grammatically unconnected with the latter;\nit means \u201con stringed instruments,\u201d and is the instruction for the\n\u200f\u05de\u05e0\u05e6\u05d7\u200e. There were several kinds of such instruments; two kinds are\nnamed \u200f\u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05e0\u05d9\u05ea\u200e and \u200f\u05d2\u05ea\u05d9\u05ea\u200e \u201cthe neginath with eight strings\u201d or\n\u201cchords,\u201d and \u201cthe gittith\u201d coming from Gath, a town in the land of the\nPhilistines. Other kinds of musical instruments are \u200f\u05e0\u05d4\u05d9\u05dc\u05d5\u05ea\u200e (v.),\n\u200f\u05de\u05d7\u05dc\u05ea\u200e (liii.), and \u200f\u05e2\u05dc\u05de\u05d5\u05ea\u200e (xlvi.); these are hollow flute-like\ninstruments, also called \u200f\u05e0\u05d1\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd\u200e (1 Chron. xv. 20). In some cases the\ndivision of Levites is named instead of the instrument: \u200f\u05d9\u05d3\u05d5\u05ea\u05d5\u05df\u200e\n\u201cJeduthun\u201d (xxxix., lxii. and lxxvii.; comp. 1 Chron. xxv. 3); \u200f\u05dc\u05d1\u05e0\u05d9\n\u05e7\u05e8\u05d7\u200e \u201cto the sons of Korah\u201d (xlii. to xlix., and lxxxiv. to lxxxviii.);\nonce the direction occurs \u200f\u05dc\u05e2\u05e0\u05d5\u05ea\u200e (lxxxviii.), \u201cto sing alternately,\u201d\nreferring to the two divisions of Levites headed by \u200f\u05d4\u05d9\u05de\u05df \u05d4\u05d0\u05d6\u05e8\u05d7\u05d9\u200e and\n\u200f\u05d0\u05d9\u05ea\u05df \u05d4\u05d0\u05d6\u05e8\u05d7\u05d9\u200e \u201cthe Ezrahite Heman,\u201d and \u201cthe Ezrahite Ethan\u201d (lxxxviii.\nand lxxxix.).\n\nA few terms are met with in the headings which describe the contents of\nthe psalm in a poetical style. Such are (a.) \u200f\u05e9\u05d5\u05e9\u05df \u05e2\u05d3\u05d5\u05ea\u200e, \u200f\u05e9\u05e9\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd \u05e2\u05d3\u05d5\u05ea\u200e\nand \u200f\u05e9\u05e9\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e (lx., lxxx., xlv., and lxix.), \u201cTestimony for the lily or\nlilies,\u201d or \u201cfor lilies.\u201d The poet calls by this name the flower of the\nnation, the meek and God-fearing, who are under the special protection\nof God, and are destined to be crowned in the end with glory and\nvictory, (b.) \u200f\u05d0\u05d9\u05dc\u05ea \u05d4\u05e9\u05d7\u05e8\u200e (xxii.), \u201cThe strength of the dawn.\u201d The\nphrase refers to the strength given to the sufferer in the darkness of\nhis despair by the awakening of his faith in God, which is compared by\nthe poet to the dawn as the forerunner of daylight, (c.) \u200f\u05d0\u05dc \u05ea\u05e9\u05d7\u05ea\u200e \u201cDo\nnot destroy\u201d (lvii., lviii., lix., and lxxv.). By this heading the\nauthor indicates that the psalm is a protest against the\nself-confidence of the wicked in the success of their wickedness,\neither with reference to their evil designs against the author himself,\nor to their plans in general. (d.) \u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05e0\u05ea \u05d0\u05dc\u05dd \u05e8\u05d7\u05e7\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cDove in the force\nof those far,\u201d scil., from God (lvi.). The psalm contains the\nexpression of David\u2019s faith in God when he was caught by the\nPhilistines in Gath.\n\nIn some of the headings the event is mentioned which prompted the\nPsalmist to compose the psalm: David\u2019s flight from Jerusalem when\nAbsalom rebelled against him (iii.); the slander of the Benjamite Kush\n(vii.); the death of Labben (ix.); rescue from the hands of Saul and\nother enemies (xiii.); dedication of the house (xxx.); David\u2019s escape\nfrom Abimelech, king of the Philistines (xxxiv.); his capture by the\nPhilistines in Gath (lvi.); his stay in the cave of Adullam (lvii.,\ncxlii.); danger of being put to death by the servants of Saul (lix.);\nwar with Aram and Edom (lx.); sojourn in the wilderness of Judah\n(lxiii.).\n\nThe order of the Psalms is not chronological; e.g., chap. iii. refers\nto the rebellion of Absalom, whilst chap, cxlii. was composed before\nthe death of Saul. The principle which guided the collector in fixing\nthe place of each psalm is not known. But it is certainly not the\nresult of mere chance that the first two psalms speak of the Law of\nGod, and of the punishment of those who rebel against God and against\nHis anointed; and that the last psalm calls upon all to praise God with\nall their soul: \u201cLet every thing that hath breath praise the Lord,\nHallelujah!\u201d Nor is it mere chance that the psalms are divided, like\nthe Law, into five groups or books, each one ending with a doxology. It\nis possible that the psalms were recited or sung at the public service\nin a manner corresponding to the reading of the Law and the Prophets.\n\nThe first two books contain most of the psalms superscribed \u200f\u05dc\u05d3\u05d5\u05d3\u200e \u201cby\nDavid,\u201d but there are also some in the other books (one in III., two in\nIV., fourteen in V.). At the end of the second book (lxxii. 20) the\nfollowing words are added: \u201cThe prayers of David, the son of Jesse, are\nended;\u201d i.e., the hope which has just been expressed in the words\n\u200f\u05d5\u05d9\u05de\u05dc\u05d0 \u05db\u05d1\u05d5\u05d3 \u05d9\u05d9 \u05d0\u05ea \u05db\u05dc \u05d4\u05d0\u05e8\u05e5\u200e \u201cAnd the whole earth shall be filled with\nthe glory of God,\u201d forms the aim and end of all the prayers of David,\nthe son of Jesse. The verse does not mean that the first seventy-two\nchapters of the Psalms contain all the prayers of David, as there are\nseveral psalms of David between chaps, lxxiii. and cl.\n\nThe Psalms were composed by David and other authors partly for private\nuse, partly for the public service in the Temple and other places of\nworship. Of those that were originally for private use some were\nsubsequently adapted for public service, and even those intended from\nthe beginning for public worship were adapted to the different modes of\nrecitation or singing. The Book of Psalms includes, therefore, two\nrecensions of several chapters; e.g., xiv. and liii.; xviii. and 2 Sam.\nxxii.; lx. 7\u201314 and cviii. 7\u201314; lvii. 8\u201312 and cviii. 2\u20136; cv. 1\u201315\nand 1 Chron. xvi. 8\u201322; xcvi. and 1 Chron. xvi. 23\u201333; cxxxv. and\ncxxxvi.\n\nA considerable portion of our daily prayers consists of psalms. We\ndistinguish the following groups:\u2014(a.) \u200f\u05e4\u05e1\u05d5\u05e7\u05d9 \u05d3\u05d6\u05de\u05e8\u05d0\u200e \u201cVerses of song,\u201d\nPs. cxlv. to cl.; to which the following are added on Sabbaths and\nFestivals: xix., xxxiv., xc, xci., cxxxv., cxxxvi. (called \u200f\u05d4\u05dc\u05dc \u05d4\u05d2\u05d3\u05d5\u05dc\u200e\n\u201cthe great Hallel\u201d), xxxiii., xcii., and xciii. (b.) \u200f\u05e9\u05d9\u05e8 \u05e9\u05dc \u05d9\u05d5\u05dd\u200e \u201cSong\nof the day;\u201d a different psalm is recited each day of the week after\nthe morning prayer in the following order: xxiv., xlviii., lxxxii.,\nxciv., lxxxi., xciii., xcii. (c.) \u200f\u05e7\u05d1\u05dc\u05ea \u05e9\u05d1\u05ea\u200e \u201cFriday evening psalms,\u201d\nxcv. to xcix. (d.) Sabbath afternoon psalms: civ., cxx. to cxxxiv. (e.)\n\u200f\u05d4\u05dc\u05dc\u200e \u201cPraise,\u201d cxiii. to cxviii. (f.) Penitential psalms after evening\nprayer on week-days, in the following order: xxv., xxxii., xxxviii.,\nli., lxxxvi.\n\n\n\n2. \u200f\u05de\u05e9\u05dc\u05d9\u200e Proverbs of Solomon, the son of David, king of Israel. The\nBook of Proverbs belongs to those Biblical books which are called \u200f\u05e1\u05e4\u05e8\u05d9\n\u05d7\u05db\u05de\u05d4\u200e \u201cbooks of wisdom.\u201d They appeal to the reason of man, and do not\nsupport their words by the authority of Revelation, although the\nauthors and those who gave them the final shape were inspired and\nguided by the \u200f\u05e8\u05d5\u05d7 \u05d4\u05f3\u200e \u201cthe divine spirit.\u201d The commandments of God and\nHis ways are referred to as the safest guide for man in all conditions\nof life. Three books are included in this class: Proverbs, Job, and\nEcclesiastes.\n\n\u201cThe Proverbs of Solomon\u201d are divided into the following six\nsections:\u2014(A.) Introduction, i. to ix.; (B.) Collection of Proverbs:\n(a.) Proverbs of Solomon, x. to xxii. 16; (b.) Words of the Wise, xxii.\n17 to xxiv. 22; (c.) Second group of Words of the Wise, 23 to 34; (d.)\nProverbs of Solomon collected by the men of Hezekiah, xxv. to xxviii.;\n(e.) Words of Agur-bin-yakeh, xxx.; (f.) Words of Lemuel, xxxi.\n\nThe fourth section (chaps, xxv. to xxix.) is introduced by the\nfollowing superscription:\u2014\u201cAlso these are the Proverbs of Solomon,\nwhich the men of Hezekiah, king of Judah, had removed.\u201d The men of\nHezekiah seem to have been uncertain whether this section should form\npart of the book, because of the seeming contradiction between the\nfourth and fifth verses of the twenty-sixth chapter. The men of the\nGreat Synagogue decided the question in favour of its incorporation in\nthe book, and reconciled the seeming contradiction by their\ninterpretation.\n\nThe fifth collection of proverbs is ascribed to Agur-bin-yakeh, an\nallegorical phrase meaning \u201ccollection deserving respect.\u201d The\ncollection is further called \u201cthe burden\u201d\u2014the usual heading of\nprophecies\u2014in order to give it more weight. Also the rest of the\nsuperscription, \u201cThe saying of the man Le\u00efthiel,\u201d Le\u00efthiel ve-ucchal,\nis of an allegorical character, signifying, \u201cGod\u2014i.e., the word of\nGod\u2014is my task, and I shall prevail.\u201d The phrase is set forth more\nclearly in the succeeding verses: human knowledge is insufficient, but\n\u201cAll the word of God is pure; he is a shield to those who trust in him\u201d\n(xxx. 5). The second half of this collection has the heading La-alukah,\n\u201cFor a necklace\u201d (comp. i. 9), similar in meaning to the heading \u200f\u05de\u05db\u05ea\u05dd\u200e\n\u201cJewel,\u201d in the Psalms. The form of these proverbs, based on the\nnumbers two, three, and four, is similar to that of the prophecies of\nAmos (chaps, i. and ii.). The last collection is headed, \u201cWords to\nLemuel, the king; the burden wherewith his mother instructed him.\u201d The\ncontents of the instruction is, \u201cBe not licentious and intemperate;\nhelp the poor and oppressed.\u201d The name Lemuel is likewise allegorical,\nmeaning \u201cGod-ward.\u201d The book concludes with the praises of a virtuous\nwoman.\n\n(A.) Introduction.\u2014The object of the book is set forth in verses 2 to 7\nof the first chapter as follows: \u201cTo make man know wisdom and\ninstruction, comprehend words of understanding, and take the\ninstruction of acting wisely, with justice, judgment, and\nrighteousness; to give skill to the simple; to the young knowledge and\ndiscretion; that the wise may hear and increase doctrine, and the\nprudent acquire cleverness to understand proverb and figure, the words\nof wise men and their allegories. The beginning of knowledge is the\nfear of the Lord; wisdom and instruction fools despise.\u201d This last\nsentence is the basis of the book. Without fear of the Lord all\nknowledge and wisdom will prove insufficient for establishing man\u2019s\ntrue happiness. The Introduction consists of several connected\naddresses, in which the author persuades the reader to listen to his\nadvice, and keep away from wicked people before it is too late. He\nexhorts man to entrust himself to the guidance of the Lord, and not to\nrely on his own understanding. \u201cBe not wise in thine eyes, fear the\nLord, and depart from evil\u201d (iii. 7). He warns against bad society,\nagainst becoming security for debtors, and against idleness. The two\nways open to man are allegorically represented by two women, the one\nwise, the other foolish; the one leading to happiness, the other to\nruin; each one inviting man to her house, and displaying in the very\nact of invitation her full character.\n\n(B.) The collections of proverbs begin with the tenth chapter. The\nproverbs have the form of parallelism, each verse being divided into\ntwo parts, mostly containing an antithesis illustrating the difference\nbetween the wise and the foolish, the good and the bad, the just and\nthe unjust, the industrious and the idle, the rich and the poor, and\nthe like. Each verse is a proverb by itself, and is independent of the\nverses which precede and follow. There are only a few passages in which\nseveral verses are connected, and these occur in the later collections,\ne.g., xxii. 22\u201323, 24\u201325, 26\u201327; xxiii. 1\u20133, 4\u20135, 6\u20139, 10\u201311, 12\u201313,\n20\u201321, 29\u201335; xxiv. 3\u20137, 10\u201312, 30\u201334; xxvii. 23\u201327. The whole of the\nthirtieth chapter consists of small paragraphs of three or four verses,\nand the last chapter consists of two continuous parts.\n\nIn these collections of proverbs we find advice for every condition of\nour life. Our relation to God is shown; how He loves the good and\njust:\u2014\n\n\n \u201cThe way of the wicked is an abomination of the Lord; but he loveth\n him who pursues righteousness\u201d (xv. 9).\n\n \u201cThe sacrifice of the wicked is an abomination of the Lord, but the\n prayer of the righteous is his pleasure\u201d (xv. 8).\n\n \u201cThe Lord is far from the wicked, but he heareth the prayer of the\n righteous\u201d (xv. 29).\n\n \u201cTo do justice and judgment is more acceptable to the Lord than\n sacrifice\u201d (xxi. 3).\n\n\nHe protects the poor, the weak, the widow, and the orphan:\u2014\n\n\n \u201cHe who oppresseth the poor, blasphemeth his Maker; and he who is\n gracious to the needy, honoureth him\u201d (xiv. 31).\n\n \u201cHe who is gracious to the poor, lendeth to the Lord, and he will\n repay him his reward\u201d (xix. 17).\n\n \u201cDo not rob the poor because he is poor; and do not crush the poor\n in the gate, for the Lord will plead their cause, and will take the\n soul of those who rob them\u201d (xxii. 23).\n\n \u201cThe Lord will pull down the house of the proud, and will establish\n the border of the widow\u201d (xv. 25).\n\n \u201cThe rich and the poor meet; the Maker of them all is the Lord\u201d\n (xxii. 2).\n\n\nHe punishes the evil-doer and rewards the righteous:\u2014\n\n\n \u201cDo not say, I will repay evil; hope in the Lord, and he will help\n thee\u201d (xx. 22).\n\n \u201cHe who closeth his ear because of the crying of the poor, he also\n will call and will not be answered\u201d (xxi. 13).\n\n \u201cHe who keepeth a command, keepeth his soul; he who despiseth his\n ways shall die\u201d (xix. 16).\n\n \u201cWhen the Lord is pleased with the ways of man, he will cause even\n his enemies to make peace with him\u201d (xvi. 7).\n\n \u201cThe Lord will not let the soul of the righteous be hungry, but the\n desire of the wicked will he thrust back\u201d (x. 3).\n\n\nHe knows the heart of man:\u2014\n\n\n \u201cThere is a test for silver, and a refining pot for gold; but God\n trieth the hearts\u201d (xvii. 3).\n\n\nHe directs all events:\u2014\n\n\n \u201cMan\u2019s heart planneth his way, but the Lord directeth his step\u201d\n (xvi. 9).\n\n \u201cThe horse is prepared for the day of war, but the victory is the\n Lord\u2019s\u201d (xxi. 31).\n\n\nHis blessing is a true blessing:\u2014\n\n\n \u201cThe blessing of the Lord, it maketh rich, and doth not increase\n trouble with it\u201d (x. 22).\n\n\nHis Will alone must be obeyed:\u2014\n\n\n \u201cThere is no wisdom, and no understanding, and no counsel against\n the Lord\u201d (xxi. 30).\n\n \u201cWhoso despiseth a word will be punished, but he who feareth a\n commandment will be rewarded\u201d (xiii. 13).\n\n \u201cWithout a vision the people cometh into disorder; but he who\n keepeth the Law, happy is he\u201d (xxix. 18).\n\n\nThe fear of the Lord is the basis of a virtuous and happy life:\u2014\n\n\n \u201cThe fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge (i. 7); the\n fountain of life (xiv. 27); the fear of the Lord adds days, but the\n years of the wicked will be short\u201d (x. 27).\n\n\nAccording as we display wisdom or folly we make others and ourselves\nhappy or unhappy:\u2014\n\n\n \u201cA wise son giveth joy to his father, and a foolish son is the\n sorrow of his mother\u201d (x. 1).\n\n \u201cThe wisdom of woman buildeth her house, and folly pulleth it down\n by her hands\u201d (xiv. 1).\n\n \u201cEat, my son, honey, for it is good, and honeycomb, which is sweet\n for thy palate; know that thus is wisdom for thy soul; if thou hast\n found it, there is a future, and thy hope will not be cut off\u201d\n (xxiv. 13, 14).\n\n \u201cThe prudent seeth evil, and is hidden; the ignorant pass by, and\n are punished\u201d (xxvii. 12).\n\n \u201cAs a jewel of gold in a swine\u2019s snout, so is a fair woman without\n discretion\u201d (xi. 22).\n\n \u201cThe simple believeth every word; but the prudent man looketh well\n to his going\u201d (xiv. 15).\n\n\nThe ways of wisdom and folly are frequently displayed in our words:\u2014\n\n\n \u201cIn the multitude of words there wanteth not sin, but he who\n spareth his words acts wisely\u201d (x. 19).\n\n \u201cA soft answer turneth back wrath, but a harsh word raiseth anger\u201d\n (xv. 1).\n\n \u201cAlso a fool when silent is considered wise; he who closeth his\n lips is prudent\u201d (xvii. 28).\n\n \u201cHe who keepeth his mouth and his tongue, keepeth his soul from\n troubles\u201d (xxi. 23).\n\n \u201cBy long-suffering the prince is persuaded; and a soft tongue\n breaketh a bone\u201d (xxv. 15).\n\n \u201cAnswer not a fool like his folly, lest thou be equal to him.\n Answer a fool according to his folly, lest he be wise in his eyes\u201d\n (xxvi. 4, 5).\n\n\nThe principal virtues recommended to man are righteousness (\u200f\u05e6\u05d3\u05e7\u05d4\u200e),\nhonesty (\u200f\u05d0\u05de\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4\u200e), truthfulness (\u200f\u05d0\u05de\u05ea\u200e), meekness (\u200f\u05e2\u05e0\u05d5\u05d4\u200e), industry,\nthrift, temperance, contentment, and moderation:\u2014\n\n\n \u201cTreasures of wickedness are of no profit, but righteousness\n delivereth from death\u201d (x. 2).\n\n \u201cBetter a little in the fear of the Lord than a large treasure, and\n confusion therewith\u201d (xv. 16).\n\n \u201cThe righteousness of the upright maketh his way straight, but the\n wicked falleth by his wickedness\u201d (xi. 5).\n\n \u201cThe remembrance of the righteous is for blessing; but the name of\n the wicked will rot\u201d (x. 7).\n\n \u201cGuilt is the interpreter of fools, but favour that of the\n straightforward\u201d (xiv. 9).\n\n \u201cTo do justice is joy to the righteous, and a terror to evil-doers\u201d\n (xxi. 15).\n\n \u201cLike a fountain made turbid and a well that is corrupted, is the\n righteous that yieldeth in the presence of the wicked\u201d (xxv. 26).\n\n \u201cWhere a man of honesty is, there is multitude of blessings; but he\n who hasteneth to become rich will not be guiltless\u201d (xxviii. 20).\n\n \u201cThe lip of truth will be established for ever, but the tongue of\n falsehood for a moment\u201d (xii. 19).\n\n \u201cA witness of faithfulness is he who does not lie, but he who\n uttereth falsehood is a false witness\u201d (xiv. 5). [9]\n\n \u201cA lip of excellency becometh not a low man; how much less doth a\n lip of falsehood a noble man!\u201d (xvii. 7).\n\n \u201cPride came, and shame came; but with the meek is wisdom\u201d (xi. 2).\n\n \u201cMeekness cometh before honour\u201d (xv. 33). \u201cPride cometh before the\n fall, and haughtiness of spirit before the stumbling\u201d (xvi. 18).\n \u201cLet another praise thee, and not thy mouth; a stranger, and not\n thy lips\u201d (xxvii. 2).\n\n \u201cHe is poor who worketh with a slack hand, but the hand of the\n industrious maketh rich\u201d (x. 4).\n\n \u201cBetter is he who thinketh little of himself, and is a slave to\n himself, than he who thinketh much of himself and lacketh bread\u201d\n (xii. 9).\n\n \u201cThe hand of the industrious shall rule, but the slack hand shall\n be tributary\u201d (xii. 24).\n\n \u201cIn all labour there is profit; but when there is only a word of\n lips it leads but to want\u201d (xiv. 23).\n\n \u201cAlso he who is lazy in his work is a brother to the man that\n destroyeth\u201d (xviii. 9).\n\n \u201cI passed by the field of a slothful man, and the vineyard of a man\n wanting heart; and behold, thorns have come up over the whole of\n it; its surface is covered with thistles, and its stone-fence is\n pulled down. And I beheld, I turned my heart, I saw, I took\n instruction: a little of sleep, a little of slumber, a little of\n joining the hands to lie down; then thy poverty cometh like a\n traveller, and thy want like an armed man\u201d (xxiv. 30\u201334).\n\n \u201cThe righteous eateth to the fulness of his soul, but the belly of\n the wicked shall want\u201d (xiii. 25).\n\n \u201cWine is a mocker, strong drink roareth, and every one that erreth\n therein will not be wise\u201d (xx. 1).\n\n \u201cWho hath woe? who hath sorrow? who hath contentions? who hath\n complaining? who hath wounds without cause? who hath redness of\n eyes? Those who tarry long at the wine; those who come to search\n mixed drink. Do not look upon the wine though it be red, though it\n send forth its colour through the cup, though it flow smoothly; in\n the end it biteth like a serpent and stingeth like an asp; thine\n eyes shall see strange things, and thy heart shall speak perverse\n things; and thou shalt be like one that lieth in the midst of the\n sea, and like one that lieth on the top of the mast. They have\n stricken me, shalt thou say, and I was not sick. They have beaten\n me; I felt it not. When shall I awake? I will seek it yet again\u201d\n (xxiii. 29\u201335).\n\n \u201cHe who is greedy after gain troubleth his house, but he who hateth\n gifts shall live\u201d (xv. 27).\n\n \u201cHe whose desire is wide stirreth up strife, but he who trusteth in\n the Lord shall be fattened\u201d (xxviii. 25).\n\n \u201cThere are who spend liberally, and there is an increase; and there\n are who withhold more than is right, and yet it leads to want\u201d (xi.\n 24).\n\n \u201cKnow well the state of thy flock; set thy heart to the droves; for\n treasure is not for ever, nor a crown for generation and\n generation. When hay is gone, and grass is spoilt, and the herbs of\n the field are gathered in, there are lambs for thy clothing, and\n he-goats are the price of a field: and there will be goats\u2019 milk\n enough for thy food, for the food of thy house, and maintenance for\n thy maidens\u2019 (xxvii. 23\u201327).\n\n \u201cLust overcome is sweet to the soul; but to depart from evil is the\n abomination of fools\u201d (xiii. 19).\n\n \u201cBetter is he who is long-suffering than a hero; and he who ruleth\n his spirit is better than he who conquereth a city\u201d (xvi. 32).\n\n \u201cLike an open town without a wall is the man whose spirit is\n without restraint\u201d (xxv. 28).\n\n\nThe following proverbs refer to the relation between husband and wife,\nand between man and his neighbour as friend or enemy, father and child,\nrich and poor, king and people:\u2014\n\n\n \u201cHe who hath found a wife hath found a good thing, and obtained\n favour of the Lord\u201d (xviii. 22).\n\n \u201cA virtuous wife is the crown of her husband, but a wicked woman is\n like rottenness in his bones\u201d (xii. 4).\n\n \u201cHouse and wealth are the inheritance of fathers, but a wise wife\n is from the Lord\u201d (xix. 14; chap. xxxi. 10 to end).\n\n \u201cHe who revealeth a secret is a slanderer, but he who is faithful\n in spirit covereth a thing\u201d (xi. 13).\n\n \u201cHatred stirreth up strifes, but love covereth all sins\u201d (x. 12).\n\n \u201cBetter is a meal of herbs where love is, than a stalled ox and\n hatred therewith\u201d (xv. 17).\n\n \u201cHe who covereth transgression seeketh love, but he who repeateth a\n matter separateth a friend\u201d (xvii. 9).\n\n \u201cOpen rebuke is better than secret love\u201d (xxvii. 5).\n\n \u201cHe who saith to the wicked, Thou art righteous, him shall the\n people curse, nations shall abhor him; but to them that rebuke him\n shall be delight, and a good blessing shall come upon them\u201d (xxiv.\n 24, 25).\n\n \u201cFaithful are the wounds of a friend, but the kisses of an enemy\n are like smoke\u201d (xxvii. 6).\n\n \u201cWhen there is no wood the fire goeth out; so when there is no\n tale-bearer strife ceaseth\u201d (xxvi. 20).\n\n \u201cA kind man doth good to his soul, and a cruel man troubleth his\n flesh\u201d (xi. 17).\n\n \u201cRejoice not when thine enemy falleth, and let not thy heart be\n glad when he stumbleth, lest the Lord see it and it displease Him,\n and He turn away His wrath from him\u201d (xxiv. 17, 18).\n\n \u201cThe righteous knoweth the feelings of his cattle, but the heart of\n the wicked is cruel\u201d (xii. 10).\n\n \u201cHe who curseth his father and his mother, his lamp shall be put\n out in obscure darkness\u201d (xx. 20).\n\n \u201cChildren\u2019s children are the crown of old men, and the glory of\n children are their fathers\u201d (xvii. 6).\n\n \u201cThe eye that mocketh at his father, and despiseth to obey his\n mother, the ravens of the valley shall pick it out, and the young\n eagles shall eat it\u201d (xxx. 17).\n\n \u201cWhere there is the instruction of the father, there is a wise son;\n but a mocker will he be who heard no rebuke\u201d (xiii. 1).\n\n \u201cHe who spareth his rod hateth his son, and he who loveth him\n chastiseth him early\u201d (xiii. 24).\n\n \u201cChastise thy son while there is hope, and let not thy soul turn to\n his crying\u201d (xix. 18).\n\n \u201cTrain the lad in his way, and when he is old he will not depart\n from it\u201d (xxii. 6).\n\n \u201cFoolishness is bound in the heart of a child, but the rod of\n correction shall drive it far from him\u201d (xxii. 15).\n\n \u201cWithhold not correction from the child; for if thou beatest him\n with the rod, he shall not die. Thou shalt beat him with the rod,\n and shalt deliver his soul from death\u201d (xxiii. 13, 14).\n\n \u201cThe benevolent shall be blessed, for he hath given of his bread to\n the poor\u201d (xxii. 9).\n\n \u201cThe liberal soul shall be made fat, and he that stilleth the\n thirst of others shall also have his thirst stilled\u201d (xi. 25).\n\n \u201cHe who despiseth his neighbour sinneth, but whoso is gracious to\n the poor is happy\u201d (xiv. 24).\n\n \u201cIn the multitude of people is the glory of the king; but in the\n want of people is the destruction of the prince\u201d (xiv. 28).\n\n \u201cThe king\u2019s wrath is like messengers of death; but a wise man will\n pacify it\u201d (xvi. 14).\n\n \u201cThe heart of a king is in the hand of the Lord like brooks of\n water; He turneth it whithersoever He liketh\u201d (xxi. 1).\n\n\nOn miscellaneous subjects:\u2014\n\n\n \u201cThere is that maketh himself rich, yet hath nothing; there is that\n maketh himself poor, yet hath great riches\u201d (xiii. 7).\n\n \u201cThe heart knoweth its own bitterness, and a stranger doth not\n intermeddle with its joy\u201d (xiv. 10).\n\n \u201cIf care is in the heart of man, let him still it; if a good thing,\n let him brighten it up\u201d (xii. 25).\n\n \u201cHe is a guide to life who keepeth instruction, but he that\n refuseth reproof misleadeth\u201d (x. 17).\n\n \u201cBoast not thyself of to-morrow; for thou knowest not what a day\n may bring forth\u201d (xxvii. 1).\n\n \u201cAll the ways of man are clean in his own eyes; but the Lord\n weigheth the spirits\u201d (xvi. 2).\n\n\n\nJob, \u200f\u05d0\u05d9\u05d5\u05d1\u200e\u2014The Book of Job consists of the following three parts:\u2014\n\n(a.) Introduction (i. and ii.).\u2014God is figuratively represented as\npresiding over a council of ministers (\u200f\u05d1\u05e0\u05d9 \u05d4\u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201csons of God\u201d),\namongst whom also the accuser (\u200f\u05d4\u05e9\u05d8\u05df\u200e \u201cthe hinderer,\u201d one who is\nhostile to the word of God) appears. While God praised the piety of\nJob, the accuser doubted the purity of his heart, and suggested that if\nany adversity were to befall Job he would no longer be pious; Job,\nexposed to hard trials, remained firm in his faith in God. \u201cNaked came\nI forth from my mother\u2019s womb, and naked shall I return thither; the\nLord hath given, and the Lord hath taken: let the name of the Lord be\npraised\u201d (i. 21). \u201cSkin for skin,\u201d said the accuser, \u201cand everything\nthat man hath, he giveth for his soul; but stretch now forth thy hand\nand touch his bone and his flesh: surely he will take leave of thee in\nthy presence\u201d (ii. 5). The trial was granted. And when Job\u2019s wife was\nsurprised that Job was still holding to his integrity, adding \u201cTake\nleave of God and die,\u201d he replied, \u201cThou speakest like the speaking of\none of the wicked women. Are we to accept of God the good, and shall we\nnot accept the evil?\u201d\u2014\u201cIn all this did Job not sin with his lips, and\ndid not find fault with God\u201d (i. 22). His friends came to see him, but\nfelt so distressed that they sat with him for seven days without\nuttering a word.\n\n(b.) Discussion between Job and his friends Eliphaz, Bildad, Zophar,\nand Elihu; Job asserting his innocence, and consequent inability to see\nthe justice of his afflictions; his friends contending that he has\nsinned, and has been justly punished; Elihu attempts to justify Job\u2019s\nsufferings, on the plea that they are merely a reminder sent by God\nthat Job has sinned, and must seek reconciliation with God, who is\nAll-wise, All-good, and All-powerful; God addresses Job, and shows him\nman\u2019s inability to comprehend the Divine power and wisdom in the\ncreation and in the ruling of the universe; whereupon Job repents.\n\n(c.) Conclusion.\u2014God rebukes the friends of Job, that they have not\nspoken rightly like His servant Job (xlii. 7), and richly compensates\nJob for his sufferings and losses.\n\nThe book has no heading, and therefore we do not know by whom or when\nit was written. There is, however, a tradition, mentioned in the Talmud\n(Baba Bathra, p. 14b), that Moses wrote the Book of Job. Even about Job\nhimself it is impossible to ascertain at what time he lived. But the\ndescription of his riches and the length of his life leads us to think\nof the time of the patriarchs. His name is mentioned only in one other\nbook of the Bible. The prophet Ezekiel names him together with Noah and\nDaniel as a righteous man who would, by his piety, save himself in the\ntime of general calamity, though he would not be able to save his\ngeneration (Ezek. xiv. 14). There is also an opinion that Job never\nexisted at all. \u200f\u05d0\u05d9\u05d5\u05d1 \u05dc\u05d0 \u05d4\u05d9\u05d4 \u05d5\u05dc\u05d0 \u05e0\u05d1\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d0\u05dc\u05d0 \u05de\u05e9\u05dc \u05d4\u05d9\u05d4\u200e \u201cJob never lived;\nnor has he had any existence; the story is all only an allegory\u201d\n(Babyl. Talm. Baba Bathra, 15a). This dictum can only refer to the\ndetailed account of the manner in which the misfortune came upon Job,\nand the poetical discussion of Job and his friends. But it is\nundeniable that a pious man of the name of Job lived, and escaped from\na calamity to which others succumbed; since it is clear that Ezekiel\nrefers to real and not to imaginary personages. Job and his friends\nwere not Israelites. The patriarch lived in the land of Uz in Arabia;\nthe friends came from Teman, Shuah, Naamah, and Buz, in the south,\neast, west, and north of Uz. Like the Book of Jonah, this book conveys\nthe lesson, \u200f\u05d7\u05e1\u05d9\u05d3\u05d9 \u05d0\u05d5\u05de\u05d5\u05ea \u05d4\u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd \u05d9\u05e9 \u05dc\u05d4\u05dd \u05d7\u05dc\u05e7 \u05dc\u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd \u05d4\u05d1\u05d0\u200e \u201cThe pious of all\nnations have a portion in the world to come\u201d (Maim., Mishneh-torah I.\nHilchoth Teshubah, iii. 5). God rewards the righteous of all nations,\npunishes those among them who deserve punishment, and pardons the\npenitent.\n\nThe introduction and conclusion are written in prose, but the principal\npart of the book is poetical, and consequently parallelism is a\npredominant feature of the book.\n\nThe following are a few sentences from the book:\u2014\n\n\n \u201cShall we receive good at the hand of God, and shall we not receive\n evil?\u201d (ii. 10).\n\n \u201cThe small and great are there (in the grave), and the servant is\n free from his master\u201d (iii. 19).\n\n \u201cShall mortal man be more just than God? shall a man be more pure\n than his Maker?\u201d (iv. 17).\n\n \u201cBehold, happy is the man whom God correcteth: therefore despise\n not thou the chastening of the Almighty\u201d (v. 17).\n\n \u201cIs there not an appointed time to man upon earth? are not his days\n also like the days of an hireling?\u201d (vii. 1).\n\n \u201cHe is wise in heart, and mighty in strength; who hath hardened\n himself against him, and hath prospered?\u201d (ix. 4).\n\n \u201cThough he slay me, yet will I trust in him\u201d (xiii. 15).\n\n \u201cFor I know that my Redeemer liveth, and he will rise in the end\n over the dust\u201d (xix. 25).\n\n \u201cAnd when my skin is gone, when worms have destroyed this body, and\n when my flesh is no more, yet shall I see God\u201d (xix. 26).\n\n \u201cAnd unto man he said, Behold, the fear of the Lord, that is\n wisdom; and to depart from evil, that is understanding\u201d (xxviii.\n 28).\n\n\nThe following passages are noteworthy, on account of both their lofty\nthought and their poetical form:\u2014\n\n\n Eliphaz mildly rebukes Job, exhorting him to repentance (iv.).\n\n Job\u2019s charge against the cruelty of his friends (v. 12\u201330).\n\n Bildad\u2019s view of God\u2019s justice (viii. 3\u201313).\n\n Job\u2019s conception of God\u2019s Omnipotence (ix. 2\u201312).\n\n Zophar\u2019s explanation of God\u2019s justice (xi. 2\u20137, 10\u201315).\n\n Job\u2019s declaration of his faith in God (xiii. 6\u201316; xix. 23\u201327;\n xxiii. 3\u201312).\n\n Job\u2019s confession of man\u2019s dependence on God\u2019s wisdom (xxviii. 1, 2,\n 12\u201328).\n\n Job\u2019s defence of his innocence (xxxi.).\n\n Elihu\u2019s defence of God\u2019s justice (xxxiii. 8, 9, 12\u201330).\n\n Job is shown his ignorance (xxxviii. 3\u201324); his impotence (xl.\n 9\u201314).\n\n Job\u2019s contrition (xlii. 2\u20136).\n\n\nThe three books, Psalms, Proverbs, and Job, are distinguished from the\nrest of the Bible by their peculiar accents, which are on this account\ncalled \u200f\u05de\u05e2\u05de\u05d9 \u05d0\u05de\u05f4\u05ea\u200e \u201cthe accents of the books, \u200f\u05ea\u05d4\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd\u200e, \u200f\u05de\u05e9\u05dc\u05d9\u200e and\n\u200f\u05d0\u05d9\u05d5\u05d1\u200e.\u201d\n\n\n\nThe Song of Solomon, \u200f\u05e9\u05d9\u05e8 \u05d4\u05e9\u05d9\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e (lit., The Song of Songs = the most\npoetical song).\u2014The faithfulness of the beloved to her lover, her\nresistance to all temptation, and the concentration of all her thoughts\non the well-being of her lover, form the theme of the book. The\nrelation between lover and beloved has been interpreted allegorically\nas representing the relation between God and Israel. The latter remains\nfaithful to his God, throughout all vicissitudes of fortune. \u201cI am for\nmy lover, and my lover is for me,\u201d is the centre of this feeling of\nfaith. According to the heading and the tradition, King Solomon is the\nauthor of the book.\n\n\n\nRuth, \u200f\u05e8\u05d5\u05ea\u200e\u2014The book contains the history of Ruth, a Moabite woman,\nwho, by her marriage with Boaz, became the founder of the house of\nDavid. Elimelech of Beth-lehem in Judah, with his wife Naomi and his\ntwo sons, left his country in time of famine in order to stay in the\nland of Moab. There the two sons marry Moabite women, Orpah and Ruth.\nElimelech and the two sons die. Naomi returns to Judah; Orpah, at the\nrequest of Naomi, remains in Moab and goes back to her family, but Ruth\ninsists on accompanying Naomi, saying, \u201cWhither thou goest I will go,\nand where thou lodgest I will lodge; thy people shall be my people, and\nthy God my God: where thou diest will I die, and there will I be\nburied: so the Lord do to me, and more also, if ought but death will\npart thee and me\u201d (i. 16, 17).\n\nNaomi having lost her property, Ruth was obliged to glean ears of corn\nin the fields in order to maintain herself and her mother-in-law. She\nhappened to glean in the field of Boaz, a near relative of Elimelech.\nBoaz having noticed her, and having heard of her conduct toward Naomi,\nmarried her; his son was Obed; the son of the latter was Jesse, the\nfather of David. Thus the virtues of Ruth, modesty, faithfulness, and\nindustry, were rewarded; this is one of the lessons derived from the\nbook. The principal object of the book, however, is to show the origin\nof the house of David.\n\n\n\nThe Lamentations of Jeremiah, \u200f\u05d0\u05d9\u05db\u05d4\u200e\u2014The name of the author is not\nmentioned in the book, but tradition informs us that the prophet\nJeremiah composed these lamentations. The first four chapters are\nalphabetical; in the third chapter there are three verses for each\nletter; the fifth chapter is not alphabetical. The cause of the\nlamentations is the catastrophe of the kingdom of Judah through the\nvictories of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, although neither\nNebuchadnezzar nor Babylon is mentioned in the book.\n\n\n\nEcclesiates, \u200f\u05e7\u05d4\u05dc\u05ea\u200e\u2014This book contains reflections on the vanity of\nman\u2019s labours and plans; whatever man aims at as the source of his\nhappiness and blessing proves in the end useless and deceptive. Man is\ndisappointed to find everything transient; he discovers just people in\nmisery, and wicked people in apparent comfort; he begins to doubt\nwhether virtue and wisdom are really conducive to true happiness. Thus\nman, left to himself, is at a loss to find the right way to happiness.\nThe author therefore concludes his reflections with the exhortation:\n\u201cThe end of the word in which everything is heard is, Fear God, and\nkeep His commandments, for that is the whole of man. For every deed\nwill God bring to account, together with every hidden thought, whether\ngood or bad\u201d (xii. 13, 14).\n\nKoheleth mentioned in the heading is King Solomon. The philosophical\nreflections are frequently intermixed with proverb-like lessons and\nmaxims, of which the following are a few examples:\u2014\n\n\n \u201cFor in much wisdom is much grief; and he that increaseth knowledge\n increaseth sorrow\u201d (i. 18).\n\n \u201cTo every thing there is a season, and a time to every purpose\n under the heaven\u201d (iii. 1).\n\n \u201cThe fool foldeth his hands together, and eateth his own flesh\u201d\n (iv. 5).\n\n \u201cBetter is an handful with quietness, than both the hands full with\n travail and vexation of spirit\u201d (iv. 6).\n\n \u201cKeep thy foot when thou goest to the house of God, and readiness\n to hear is better than the fools\u2019 giving of sacrifice; for they\n consider not that they do evil\u201d (iv. 17).\n\n \u201cBe not rash with thy mouth, and let not thine heart be hasty to\n utter any thing before God: for God is in heaven, and thou upon\n earth; therefore let thy words be few\u201d (v. 1).\n\n \u201cWhen thou vowest a vow unto God, defer not to pay it; for He hath\n no pleasure in fools: pay that which thou hast vowed\u201d (v. 3).\n\n \u201cA good name is better than precious ointment; and the day of death\n better than the day of one\u2019s birth\u201d (vii. 1).\n\n \u201cBe not hasty in thy spirit to be angry; for anger resteth in the\n bosom of fools\u201d (vii. 9).\n\n \u201cBe not righteous over much; neither make thyself over wise: why\n shouldst thou destroy thyself?\u201d (vii. 16).\n\n \u201cBe not over much wicked, neither be thou foolish: why shouldst\n thou die before thy time?\u201d (vii. 17).\n\n \u201cThere is not a just man upon earth, that doth good, and sinneth\n not\u201d (vii. 20).\n\n \u201cLet thy garments be always white; and let thy head lack no\n ointment\u201d (ix. 8).\n\n \u201cA wise man\u2019s heart is at his right hand; but a fool\u2019s heart at his\n left\u201d (x. 2).\n\n \u201cHe that diggeth a pit shall fall into it; and whoso breaketh an\n hedge, a serpent shall bite him\u201d (x. 8).\n\n \u201cHe that observeth the wind shall not sow; and he that regardeth\n the clouds shall not reap\u201d (xi. 4).\n\n \u201cRemember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth, while the evil\n days come not, nor the years draw nigh when thou shalt say, I have\n no pleasure in them\u201d (xii. 1).\n\n \u201cThen shall the dust return to the earth as it was, and the spirit\n shall return to the God who gave it\u201d (xii. 7).\n\n\n\nEsther, \u200f\u05d0\u05e1\u05ea\u05e8\u200e\u2014The history of the conception and frustration of the\nwicked plans of Haman against Mordecai and the Jews is described in\nthis book. Ahasuerus, king of Persia, sent Vashti, his wife, away, and\nmarried Esther, a cousin of Mordecai. Haman, enraged against the Jews\nbecause Mordecai did not bow before him, planned to kill the Jews on\nthe thirteenth of Adar; but Esther frustrated Haman\u2019s design; Haman\nhimself and his ten sons were killed; and the Jews were allowed to take\nup arms against those who attacked them. The Jews defended themselves\nvictoriously on the thirteenth of Adar; in Shushan, the capital, also\non the fourteenth. This deliverance was the cause of the institution of\nPurim.\n\nThe name of the author is not mentioned; the book was probably written\nby Mordecai and Esther (comp. Esther ix. 29).\n\n\n\nDaniel, \u200f\u05d3\u05e0\u05d9\u05d0\u05dc\u200e\u2014The author of this book is not named. The book is\ncalled Daniel because it contains the history and the visions of\nDaniel. According to a tradition mentioned in the Babylonian Talmud\n(Baba Bathra, 15a), the men of the Great Synagogue wrote or edited the\nbook probably from trustworthy traditions, partly written, partly oral.\nThe last six chapters seem to have been written by Daniel himself; he\nspeaks in them of himself in the first person.\n\nThe object of the book is to show that God is the Ruler of the\nUniverse. The author, therefore, gives, on the one hand, examples of\nmen of great piety and genuine faith in God\u2014Daniel and his friends;\nand, on the other hand, examples of men of great\nwickedness\u2014Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar; the former enjoyed glorious\nvictories, the latter received their due punishment. The style is\nthroughout bold and emphatic; the frequent heaping of synonyms is to\nserve the purpose of emphasis. In the last chapters the author shows\nthat the misdeeds of the wicked and the sufferings of the pious are\nforeseen by God, and that both the punishment of the former and the\nredemption of the latter form part of the Divine plan in the government\nof mankind. We are thus exhorted to remain firm in our faith in time of\noppression, and to wait patiently for deliverance, which is sure to\ncome.\n\nAlthough Daniel belonged to those distinguished men to whom God\ncommunicated coming events in visions, he is not classed among the\nprophets, because he had no Divine message to bring to his fellow-men,\nand he was not charged to address them in the name of God. Daniel was\nbrought to Babylon, together with other captives, in the third year of\nJehoiakim, and remained there during the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar,\nBelshazzar, Darius the Mede, and the first years of Cyrus the Persian.\nHe distinguished himself by great piety and wisdom, so that in a\nprophecy of Ezekiel (xiv. 14), in the sixth year of the exile of King\nJehoiachin, he is mentioned, together with Noah and Job, as famous for\npiety, as one of those whom God protects from danger because of their\nrighteousness, although their piety could not save their fellow-men.\nThe same prophet mentions him as a wise man (xxviii. 3).\n\nThe book is divided into two parts: (A.) An account written in Chaldee\nof Daniel\u2019s wisdom and piety, with a Hebrew Introduction (i. to vi.).\n(2.) The visions of Daniel in Chaldee and Hebrew (vii. to xii.). In the\nintroductory chapter the author narrates the principal facts of the\ntraining of Daniel in Babylonian wisdom, and his great success at the\ncourt of Nebuchadnezzar. Then follows the Chaldee portion, including\nthe following subjects:\u2014\n\n(1.) Nebuchadnezzar\u2019s Dream.\u2014The king demands that the sages initiated\nin Babylonian wisdom shall tell him his dream, which he himself has\nforgotten, and its interpretation. They cannot do it, and many of them\nare put to death. Daniel arrests the slaughter; for he prays to God,\nand God reveals to him the king\u2019s dream.\n\nWhen Daniel appeared before the king he began thus: \u201cThe secret which\nthe king wants to know, no wise men can tell. But there is a God in\nheaven, the revealer of secrets, and He has let King Nebuchadnezzar\nknow what will come to pass in the remote future\u201d (ii. 27, 28). The\ndream was this: He saw a big statue, its head of gold, breast and arms\nof silver, belly and thighs of brass, legs and feet of iron and clay. A\nlarge stone fell upon the legs of the statue, broke them, and the whole\nstatue fell together and was crushed into pieces; then the stone grew\nlarger, and filled the whole earth. The following was the\ninterpretation of the vision: The statue represented a series of\nearthly kingdoms; the gold was Nebuchadnezzar, the silver referred to\nhis successors, the brass to the Persian government, the iron to the\nGreek, and the mixture of iron and clay to the kingdoms that would then\nfollow, all of which would ultimately be overthrown, and the Divine\nkingdom would then be recognised by all. Daniel was greatly rewarded;\nhe and his friends received high positions in the government of the\nempire.\n\n(2.) Nebuchadnezzar erected a large statue, and commanded that at\ncertain times all should worship it; disobedience was to be punished\nwith death. Daniel\u2019s friends did not bow before it, and were accused\nbefore the king. They said to the king, \u201cThere is a God whom we\nworship; He can save us from the burning furnace and from thy hand, O\nking. And if He does not save us, let it be known to thee, O king, that\nwe shall not worship thy god, and not bow down before the golden image\nwhich thou hast set up\u201d (iii. 17, 18).\n\nThey were thrown into the furnace, and miraculously saved. Thereupon\nNebuchadnezzar sends letters to all the peoples of his empire,\ntestifying to the greatness of God, and narrating what wonderful thing\nhad occurred to him. He had a strange dream, and none but Daniel was\nable to interpret it; the dream was literally fulfilled according to\nDaniel\u2019s interpretation. The dream, which, after the manner of such\nphenomena, introduced and mingled together diverse elements, was this:\nHe saw a high tree with many branches and much foliage. Suddenly an\nangel from heaven came, and ordered the tree to be cut down, but the\nroot to be left for seven seasons, bound with fetters of iron and\nbrass, in the midst of the grass of the field. The heart of man was to\nbe taken from it, and replaced by a heart of beasts. The interpretation\nwas, that the mighty Nebuchadnezzar would be removed from the society\nof man, and live like a beast with beasts for seven seasons. This\nhappened to him just when he was boasting of his greatness and said,\n\u201cIs this not great Babylon which I have built for the royal house, in\nmy great power, and to my great glory?\u201d (iv. 27). He was humbled,\nrecognised the dominion of God over the whole universe, and was again,\nafter seven seasons, restored to his former power and dignity. \u201cPraised\nbe God,\u201d he exclaimed, \u201cwhose deeds are all truth, and whose ways are\njustice, and who can humble those who walk in pride\u201d (Ibid. 34).\n\n(3.) King Belshazzar, in the midst of a banquet, at which the holy\nvessels of the Temple in Jerusalem were used, perceived a hand writing\non the wall opposite him strange signs which none could read. Daniel\nwas called, and read the writing: \u201cMene, mene, tekel upharsin,\u201d and\nexplained it thus: The days of thy government are counted and brought\nto a close; thou hast been weighed and found wanting; thy kingdom is\ndivided, and given to the Medes and Persians (v. 25\u201328). That same\nnight King Belshazzar was killed, and the Mede Darius was made king (v.\n30\u2013vi. 1).\n\n(4.) King Darius, advised by his officers, who sought to find an\nopportunity for overthrowing Daniel, issued an order, that within\nthirty days no god or other being except Darius should be prayed to,\nand that transgressors against this decree should be punished with\ndeath. Daniel prayed to God three times a day at his open window. He\nwas thrown into the lions\u2019 den; but God protected him from the mouths\nof the lions. When he was taken out of the den, his accusers were\nthrown into it, and the lions immediately devoured them. Thus Darius\nwas forced publicly to recognise the Omnipotence of God.\n\n(5.) A dream of Daniel is related by the author in Daniel\u2019s own words,\nwho had written down the dream, and explained the chief points. [10]\nThe following is the dream:\u2014He saw four beasts, viz., a lion, a bear\nwith three ribs in its mouth, a leopard with four wings and four heads,\nand a fourth beast with iron teeth and ten horns, one of the horns\nbeing small, but having \u201ca mouth speaking haughtily.\u201d In a court of\njustice the latter beast was sentenced to death, and the other beasts\nwere to be deprived of their power; but respite was granted to them for\na time and a season. The royal power was given to one who approached\nthe judge appearing like a human being, and not like any of the beasts.\nHis rule was to remain for ever. The interpretation of the dream is\nthis: There will be four different kingdoms; out of the fourth ten\ndifferent kingdoms will be formed. One of these will haughtily presume\nto oppose the Will of God, and to abolish the festivals and the\nreligion of the holy ones. It will succeed for \u201ca season, seasons, and\nhalf a season,\u201d and will then be utterly destroyed, whilst the rule of\n\u201cthe holy ones\u201d [11] will in the end be firmly established and continue\nfor ever.\n\nThe indefinite character of the vision shows that it was intended to\napply to all those oppressors of the Jews who at different times have\npresumed, or still presume, to be able to abolish the religion of \u201cthe\nholy ones.\u201d Whether the oppression lasts a \u201cseason of seasons\u201d (or \u201ca\nseason and seasons\u201d), i.e., a very long time, or \u201chalf a season,\u201d i.e.,\na very short time, the holy ones are exhorted to remain firm in their\nfaith in God\u2019s justice. The truth of this vision is especially\nillustrated by the failure of the attempts of Antiochus Epiphanes after\na temporary success. More definite are the numbers 2300\n\u201cevening-mornings\u201d (viii. 14), 1290 days and 1335 days (xii. 11, 12);\nbut the absence of any further description as to the date of the first\nof these days leaves even to these numbers a certain degree of\nindetermination. From the context we learn that they are somehow\nconnected with the persecution to which the Jews were subjected by\nAntiochus Epiphanes. 2300 days (or 6 years 110 days) passed between the\ndecree of the Syrian king enforcing idolatry and the peace with Lysias\ngranting religious liberty; there were 1290 days between the decree\nforbidding the practice of the holy religion and the enforcement of\nidolatry in the Temple of Jerusalem, and 1335 days is the period\nbetween the latter event and the death of Antiochus.\n\n\n\n(B.) The second part contains visions of Daniel as written down by\nhimself.\n\n(1.) In the third year of Belshazzar, Daniel had the following\nvision:\u2014Being in Susan, in the province of Elam, near the river Ulai,\nhe saw a ram with two unequal horns pushing towards west, north, and\nsouth. From the west came a goat with one horn, and overthrew the ram;\nin the place of the one horn four horns grew up in all directions;\nthere was one small horn which pushed on against the south, the east,\nand Palestine; it rose even against the host of heaven and the chief of\nthe host, and destroyed his holy place. Daniel heard one holy one\nsaying to another, \u201cThis state of things will last till\n\u2018evening-morning 2300.\u2019\u201d The angel Gabriel gave him the interpretation\nof the vision: The ram represented the empire of the Medes and the\nPersians, the goat that of the Greeks, out of which four kingdoms would\nbe formed; in one of these a wicked king would venture to rise against\nthe Prince of princes, but his power would in the end be destroyed.\nDaniel was told to keep the vision secret, for it referred to a distant\nfuture (viii. 26).\n\n(2.) In the first year of Darius, son of Ahasuerus, of the seed of the\nMedes, Daniel reflected on the seventy years of exile foretold by\nJeremiah, and fervently prayed to God for pardon and the restoration of\nJerusalem. At the end of his prayer the angel Gabriel appeared to him,\nand told him that the hoped-for restoration would not take place before\nthe lapse of seventy weeks of trouble and anxiety. There would elapse\nseven weeks before the \u201cprincely anointed\u201d (\u200f\u05de\u05e9\u05d9\u05d7 \u05e0\u05d2\u05d9\u05d3\u200e) led the Jews\nback to Palestine; sixty-two weeks of trouble and anxiety were\npredicted for the time of the rebuilding of Jerusalem and the Temple;\nand one week\u2019s misery on the arrival of a new prince or governor, who\nwould strengthen the covenant of the enemies and entirely suspend the\nDivine Service in the Temple for a short time. [12]\n\n(3.) In the third year of Cyrus, king of Persia, Daniel, after three\nweeks\u2019 mourning and fasting, had the following vision on the\ntwenty-fourth day of the first month:\u2014He saw near the river Tigris\n(Hiddekel) a man of extraordinary appearance, who told him that he came\nin answer to his prayers; that for twenty-one days (x. 13) he was\nopposed by the prince of the kingdom of Persia, and had on his side\nonly one of the princes, Michael. Future events are foretold: the fall\nof Persia, the division of the Greek kingdom, the wars between the\nNorthern country (Syria) and the Southern (Egypt), the troubles of the\nJews, the ultimate deliverance of the Jews out of danger, and the\nglorious victory of the teachers \u201cwho taught many, and led them to\nrighteousness\u201d (\u200f\u05d4\u05de\u05e9\u05d1\u05d9\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd \u05d5\u05de\u05e6\u05d3\u05e7\u05d9 \u05d4\u05e8\u05d1\u05d9\u05dd\u200e xii. 3). When Daniel asked,\n\u201cTill when have we to wait for the end of these wondrous things?\u201d (\u200f\u05e2\u05d3\n\u05de\u05ea\u05d9 \u05e7\u05e5 \u05d4\u05e4\u05dc\u05d0\u05d5\u05ea\u200e Ibid. 6), he was told, \u201cAfter a season, seasons, and a\nhalf (\u200f\u05dc\u05de\u05d5\u05e2\u05d3 \u05de\u05d5\u05e2\u05d3\u05d9\u05dd \u05d5\u05d7\u05e6\u05d9\u200e Ibid. 7) [13] all these things will come to\nan end.\u201d He further asks, \u201cWhat then?\u201d He is told, \u201cThe things must\nremain sealed till the time of the end (\u200f\u05e2\u05d3 \u05e2\u05ea \u05e7\u05e5\u200e Ibid. 9), when the\nwise and good (\u200f\u05de\u05e9\u05db\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd\u200e) will understand them.\u201d The vision ends with\nthe words addressed to Daniel: \u201cBut thou go toward the end, and thou\nwilt rest, and rise for thy lot at the end of the days\u201d (xii. 13).\n\n\n\nEzra, \u200f\u05e2\u05d6\u05e8\u05d0\u200e\u2014The Book of Ezra relates the first return of the Jews\nunder Zerubbabel from Babylon to Palestine by the permission of King\nCyrus (\u200f\u05db\u05d5\u05e8\u05e9\u200e) of Persia, the construction of the altar, the foundation\nand the building of the Temple by permission of King Darius. It also\ndescribes the second settlement of Jews from Babylon in Palestine under\nEzra, the Scribe, in the reign of Artaxerxes, and his energy in\npurifying the community from intermarriages with heathen people. The\nbook is written in Hebrew, with the exception of iv. 8\u2013vii. 27, which\nincludes several documents written in Chaldee by the Persian kings. The\nauthor of the book is probably Ezra; he speaks of himself in the first\nperson (vii. 28; viii. 1, &c.); he is also named as the author of the\nbook in the Babylonian Talmud; and lastly, the name of the book is\nEzra, although Ezra is only mentioned in the second half of the book.\nThe special merit of Ezra was the promotion of the study of the Law;\nhis name is followed by the title, \u201cA ready scribe of the Law of Moses\u201d\n(\u200f\u05e1\u05d5\u05e4\u05e8 \u05de\u05d4\u05d9\u05e8 \u05d1\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05ea \u05d4\u05f3\u200e vii. 6), and \u201cScribe of the words of the\ncommandments of the Lord and His statutes for Israel\u201d (\u200f\u05e1\u05e4\u05e8 \u05d3\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9 \u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea\n\u05d4\u05f3 \u05d5\u05d7\u05e7\u05d9\u05d5 \u05e2\u05dc \u05d9\u05e9\u05e8\u05d0\u05dc\u200e vii. 11); the task he set to himself was \u201cto study\nthe Law of God (\u200f\u05dc\u05d3\u05e8\u05d5\u05e9 \u05d0\u05ea \u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05ea \u05d4\u05f3\u200e), and to practise it, and to teach\nin Israel Law and judgment\u201d (vii. 10).\n\n\n\nNehemiah, \u200f\u05e0\u05d7\u05de\u05d9\u05d4\u200e\u2014The heading probably indicates the author, \u201cWords of\nNehemiah, son of Hachaliah.\u201d [14] The book contains the history of\nNehemiah\u2019s visit to Jerusalem by the permission of King Artaxerxes, and\nthe building of the walls of Jerusalem under Nehemiah\u2019s supervision, in\nspite of the opposition of Sanballat and Tobiah the Ammonite; his\nexample of disinterestedness and of liberality towards the poor, which\nis followed by the princes and the rich; the reading and expounding of\nthe Law by Ezra; the celebration of the festival of the first of Tishri\nand of Tabernacles; the renewal of the covenant \u201cto walk in the Law of\nGod, which was given through Moses the servant of God,\u201d to keep\nSabbath, to abstain from intermarrying with the heathen, and to\ncontribute towards maintaining the Sanctuary; the provision for filling\nJerusalem with inhabitants by selecting by lot one-tenth of the general\npopulation to dwell in the holy city; the dedication of the walls of\nJerusalem; and Nehemiah\u2019s energy in enforcing the laws of Sabbath and\nof marriages. The two books Ezra and Nehemiah are also called by some\n\u201ctwo books of Ezra,\u201d and by some \u201cthe book of Ezra.\u201d Nehemiah is\nwritten in Hebrew.\n\n\n\nThe Chronicles, \u200f\u05d3\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9 \u05d4\u05d9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd\u200e\u2014The two books of Chronicles contain the\nfollowing three parts: (1) Genealogical tables (I., i.\u2013ix.); (2) the\nhistory of the death of King Saul, the history of David and Solomon\n(I., x.\u2013II., ix.); (3) the history of the kingdom of Judah from\nRehoboam till the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar (II.,\nx.\u2013xxxvi.). Special attention has been given by the author to the\narrangements made at various periods for the Temple-service, by King\nDavid (I., xxiii. sqq.), King Hezekiah (II., xxix.), and King Josiah\n(II., xxxiv., xxxv.).\n\nThe author is not named in the book; according to the tradition it is\nEzra. As the genealogical tables give six generations after Zerubbabel\n(I., iii. 19\u201324), we may assume that the author wrote about fifty years\nafter Zerubbabel; that is, the last years of Ezra and Nehemiah.\n\nThe sources from which the author derived his information were, besides\nthe Biblical books, the following:\u2014The book of the kings of Judah; the\nbook of the kings of Israel, registers probably kept in the Temple\narchives; the histories of Samuel the Seer, Nathan the prophet, and Gad\nthe Seer; the prophecy of Ahijah of Shilo; the visions of Jedo; the\nMidrash of the prophet Iddo; the history of Jehu, son of Hanani; the\nhistory of Isaiah, son of Amoz, and the history of Hozai.\n\nThis is the last book of the series of Holy Writings. Books that were\nwritten later, whatever their intrinsic value may be, were not\nconsidered holy, and were not received into this collection. There are\na number of books known as Apocrypha (\u200f\u05d2\u05e0\u05d5\u05d6\u05d9\u05dd\u200e), lit. \u201cHidden things\u201d\nor \u201cput aside,\u201d that is, kept separate from the Holy Scriptures. They\nwere not considered as genuine, as they consisted of a mixture of fact\nand fiction, truth and error. They were, however, not suppressed or\nforbidden; in the Talmud several quotations from these books are met\nwith. The following are the principal books belonging to the\nApocrypha:\u2014\n\n(1.) The Book of Wisdom, or the Wisdom of Solomon. Wisdom based on the\nfear of God, and guided by it, is the source of man\u2019s true happiness,\nand if wisdom and virtue are not rewarded by success in mundane\naffairs, the reward is sure to come in the future world. This is the\nquintessence of the lessons taught in this book. The kings and\npotentates of the earth are frequently exhorted to be just and kind\ntowards their people, and to remember that they are but human beings,\nweak and mortal, like the rest of mankind; wisdom alone can raise them\nto higher perfection and happiness.\n\n\n \u201cFor the very true beginning of her is the desire of discipline,\n and the care of discipline is love. And love is the keeping of her\n laws; and the giving heed unto her laws is the assurance of\n incorruption. And incorruption maketh us near God. Therefore the\n desire of wisdom bringeth to a kingdom. If your delight be then in\n thrones and sceptres, O ye kings of the people, honour wisdom, that\n ye may reign for evermore\u201d (vi. 17\u201321).\n\n \u201cFor regarding not wisdom, they got not only this hurt, that they\n knew not the things which were good, but also left behind them to\n the world a memorial of their foolishness, so that in the things\n wherein they offended they could not so much as be hid. But wisdom\n delivered from pain those that attended upon her. When the\n righteous fled from his brother\u2019s wrath, she guided him into right\n paths, shewed him the kingdom of God, and gave him knowledge of\n holy things that made him rich in his travels, and multiplied the\n fruit of his labours\u201d (x. 8\u201310).\n\n\n(2.) The Wisdom of Jesus, son of Sirach.\u2014Proverbs, maxims, and moral\nlessons collected by Joshua (Jesus), son of Sirach of Jerusalem. After\nhaving studied the Law, the Prophets, and the other Holy Writings, he\nthought it advisable to write a book on knowledge and wisdom for those\nwho seek instruction, in order to lead them to greater obedience to the\nLaw. Joshua\u2019s grandson migrated from Palestine to Egypt, and translated\nthe work of his grandfather into Greek for those who could not read the\nHebrew original. The translation was made in the thirty-eighth year of\nKing Euergetes II. of Egypt (3888 A.M.).\n\nThe contents of the book are similar to those of the Proverbs of\nSolomon: the author recommends the acquisition of wisdom, patience,\nfaith in God, meekness, obedience of children to parents, charity,\ncautiousness in the use of the tongue, temperance, honesty, and the\nlike. As models of piety and wisdom the principal heroes in the Bible,\nfrom Adam to Joshua, son of Jehozadak, are named, and in addition to\nthese Simon the high priest.\n\n\n \u201cMy son, if thou come to serve the Lord, prepare thy soul for\n temptation. Set thy heart aright, and constantly endure, and make\n not haste in time of trouble. Cleave unto him, and depart not away,\n that thou mayest be increased at thy last end. Whatsoever is\n brought upon thee take cheerfully, and be patient when thou art\n changed to a low estate. For gold is tried in the fire, and\n acceptable men in the furnace of adversity. Believe in him, and he\n will help thee: order thy way aright, and trust in him\u201d (ii. 1\u20136).\n\n \u201cBut he that giveth his mind to the law of the Most High, and is\n occupied in the meditation thereof, will seek out the wisdom of the\n most ancient, and be occupied in prophecies. He will keep the\n sayings of most renowned men, and where subtle parables are, He\n will be there also. He will seek out the secrets of grave\n sentences, and be conversant in dark parables\u201d (xxxix. 1\u20133).\n\n\n(3.) Baruch.\u2014The book may be divided into two parts. In the first part\nBaruch, son of Nerijah, the amanuensis of the prophet Jeremiah,\naddresses, in Babylon, Jehoiachin, the captive king of Judah, and the\nother captive Jews; they send money to Jerusalem for sacrifices, with a\nletter exhorting their brethren to return to God, and comforting them\nwith the prospect of a glorious future. The second part contains a\nletter of Jeremiah to his brethren in Jerusalem denouncing idolatry.\n\nThe letters are probably not genuine, not being in harmony with the\nfacts related in the books of Jeremiah and Kings.\n\n(4.) The Book of Tobit.\u2014Tobit, of the tribe of Naphtali, a good and\npious man, was one of those who were carried away into the Assyrian\ncaptivity. One of the charitable acts to which he devoted himself with\nspecial zeal was the burying of the dead. Twice was misfortune brought\nupon him for practising this deed of piety. Once he had to flee, and to\nremain away from his family in misery and want, and a second time\nsomething fell into his eyes, and he became blind. In both cases he was\nsaved out of his trouble, and was greatly rewarded for his patience,\nhis faith in God, and his perseverance in the performance of the Divine\ncommandments. The author of the book is not known.\n\n(5.) Judith.\u2014An incident of Jewish history during the Persian rule.\nJudith is set forth as an ideal of piety, beauty, courage, and\nchastity. Holofernes, a general in the service of Nebuchadnezzar, king\nof Assyria, conquers many lands, but meets with vigorous resistance in\nJudea; he besieges Bethulia and endeavours to suppress the Jewish\nreligion. He falls by the hands of Judith. Thus the stratagem and the\ncourage of the Jewish heroine, combined with the plans of Divine\njustice, frustrated the wicked plans of the heathen conqueror, and\ndelivered the besieged city.\n\n(6.) Additions to the Books of Daniel and Ezra, containing\u2014\n\n(a.) The song of the three men in the furnace (Dan. iii.).\n\n(b.) The false charges brought against Susanna, and her deliverance\nthrough Daniel.\n\n(c.) Bel and the Dragon. Cyrus, the Persian, worshipped these idols,\nbut was convinced by Daniel that they had no claim whatever to man\u2019s\nworship.\n\n(d.) The apocryphal Book of Esdras, containing portions of the Books of\nChronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah; only chaps. iii. and iv. being\noriginal. In these it is related how Zerubbabel distinguished himself\nbefore King Darius in describing Woman and Truth as the mightiest\nrulers of mankind, and thus obtained permission to return to Palestine\nand rebuild the Temple. A second apocryphal Book of Esdras is named, in\nwhich Ezra is represented as a prophet addressing his brethren in the\nname of God, and telling them the visions he had.\n\n(7.) The Books of the Maccabees.\u2014Three books containing the history of\nthe Maccabees, and various episodes of the wars against the Syrian\noppressors, both legendary and historical.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSixth Principle.\u2014\u201cI firmly believe that all the words of the Prophets\nare true.\u201d\n\nBy \u201cthe Prophets\u201d the prophets thus designated in the Bible are to be\nunderstood who have proved themselves to be the true messengers of God,\nand were accepted as such by the people. They either counselled the\npeople what to do under various circumstances, in times of peace and in\ntimes of war, in times of security and in times of danger, or they\nannounced the coming catastrophe as a punishment sent by the Almighty\nfor disobedience, and foretold future happiness and prosperity in case\nof improvement and return to God. Those prophecies that referred to the\nproximate future have been verified by subsequent events, and so also\nwill those prophecies that refer to the remote future and have not yet\nbeen fulfilled.\n\n\u201cA prophet out of thy midst, of thy brethren, like unto me, will the\nLord thy God raise up unto thee; unto him ye shall hearken\u201d (Deut.\nxviii. 15). \u201cThe former things, behold, they are come to pass, and new\nthings do I declare; before they will spring forth, I shall let you\nhear\u201d (Isa. xlii. 9). \u201cI have also spoken unto the prophets, and I have\nmultiplied visions, and by the ministry of the prophets have I used\nsimilitudes\u201d (Hosea xii. 11). \u201cAnd by a prophet the Lord brought Israel\nout of Egypt, and by a prophet was he preserved\u201d (Ibid. 14).\n\nIn the sixth article we declare our belief in the fact that the\nAlmighty has communicated His Will to human beings, although we are\nincapable of forming a clear and definite idea of the manner in which\nsuch communication took place. The selection of the individual for the\noffice of a prophet, as well as of the time, the place, and the object\nof the Divine communication, is dependent solely on the Will of God,\nwhose Wisdom and Plan no mortals are able to fathom. We know only the\nfact that Malachi closed the series of Prophets, but are ignorant of\nthe reason why since Malachi no human being has \u201cfound a vision from\nthe Lord.\u201d Mankind is, however, not altogether deprived of the benefit\nof prophecy; the holy book need only be opened, and the message of the\nprophets is heard once more.\n\nSeventh Principle.\u2014\u201cI firmly believe that the prophecy of Moses was a\ndirect prophecy, and that Moses was the chief of the prophets, both of\nthose who preceded him and of those who followed him.\u201d\n\nAll that has been said with regard to the sixth article applies to the\nprophecy of Moses. There is, however, this distinction between the\nwords of Moses and the words of other prophets:\u2014whilst other prophets\nchiefly addressed their own generation, blaming their brethren for\ndisobedience to the Divine Law, threatening with punishments and\ncomforting with blessings of which experience was to be made in the\nremote future, Moses addresses all times and generations, communicating\nto them laws \u201cfor all generations,\u201d \u201ceverlasting statutes,\u201d \u201cthe things\nwhich have been revealed for us and our children for ever.\u201d He is\ntherefore proclaimed by the Almighty as the greatest prophet. When\nMiriam and Aaron had spoken against Moses, God rebuked them, saying,\n\u201cIf there be among you a prophet of the Lord, I will make myself known\nunto him in a vision, I will speak with him in a dream. My servant\nMoses is not so; he is faithful in all my house; with him will I speak\nmouth to mouth, even manifestly, and not in dark speeches; and the form\nof the Lord shall he behold\u201d (Num. xii. 6\u20138). The Torah concludes with\nthe praise of Moses, as follows: \u201cAnd there hath not arisen a prophet\nsince in Israel like unto Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face: in\nall the signs and the wonders, which the Lord sent him to do in the\nland of Egypt, to Pharaoh, and to all his servants, and to all his\nland; and in all the mighty hand, and in all the great terror, which\nMoses wrought in the sight of all Israel\u201d (Deut. xxxiv. 10\u201312).\n\nThe phrase \u201cknew God face to face,\u201d or \u201cI will speak with him mouth to\nmouth,\u201d and the like, denotes figuratively \u201cthe clearest, most direct,\nand most simple communication,\u201d the figure being taken from the way in\nwhich men communicate to each other things when they desire to be\nclearly understood, and to leave no doubt as to the truth and the\nmeaning of the communication.\n\nEighth Principle.\u2014\u201cI firmly believe that the Law which we possess now\nis the same which has been given to Moses on Sinai.\u201d\n\nThe whole Torah, including both history and precepts, is of Divine\norigin; nothing is contained in the Torah that was not revealed to\nMoses by the Almighty, although we do not know in what manner Moses\nreceived the information. The history of preceding generations was\nprobably handed down to his time by tradition; in part it may have been\ncontained in documents then extant, as is likely to have been the case\nwith the various genealogies mentioned in the Pentateuch. But it was by\nDivine inspiration that Moses knew to distinguish between truth and\nerror, between fiction and reality. The events recorded in the\nPentateuch are to demonstrate and to keep constantly before our eyes\nthe fact that there is a higher Power that ordains the fate of men and\nnations according to their deeds. Everything is described in a simple\nand objective manner. Although the whole Torah is the work of Moses,\nthe great prophet speaks of himself everywhere in the third person,\nexcept in the Book of Deuteronomy, in which he records his addresses to\nthe people in the last year of his life.\n\nThe last few verses, which describe the death of Moses, the mourning of\nthe Israelites for the death of their teacher, and his exaltation above\nall other prophets, have been added to the Torah by Joshua the son of\nNun, the leader of the Israelites after the death of Moses. Thus, from\nthat day until the present the Torah, in its integrity, has been in the\nhands of the children of Israel. It was guarded as the most valuable\nnational treasure, and although there have been not a few generations\nwhich were corrupt and idolatrous, Israel has never been entirely\nbereaved of pious and faithful worshippers of the true God; and when in\none generation or period the study and the practice of the Torah were\nneglected, they were resumed with greater vigour and zeal in the next.\n\nThere is a tradition recorded in the Talmud that after the Babylonian\nexile Ezra, the Scribe, replaced the ancient Hebrew characters in which\nthe Torah had originally been written by the square characters still in\nuse. Nothing, however, was omitted from or added to the contents of the\nTorah, when the present forms of the letters were introduced by Ezra.\nIn the scrolls of the Law the letters were not provided with\nvowel-points and accents; the manner in which the words, phrases, and\nsentences were to be read was a subject of oral teaching. Also many\nexplanations and details of the laws were supplemented by oral\nteaching; they were handed down by word of mouth from generation to\ngeneration, and only after the destruction of the second Temple were\nthey committed to writing. The latter are, nevertheless, called Oral\nLaw (\u200f\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4 \u05e9\u05d1\u05e2\u05dc \u05e4\u05d4\u200e), as distinguished from the Torah or Written Law\n(\u200f\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4 \u05e9\u05d1\u05db\u05ea\u05d1\u200e), which from the first was committed to writing. Those\noral laws which were revealed to Moses on Mount Sinai are called \u200f\u05d4\u05dc\u05db\u05d4\n\u05dc\u05de\u05e9\u05d4 \u05de\u05e1\u05d9\u05e0\u05d9\u200e \u201cLaws given to Moses on Mount Sinai.\u201d There are several\npassages in the Bible from which it appears that a certain unwritten\nlaw must have supplemented the written Law; e.g., when a man was found\nin the wilderness gathering sticks on the Sabbath-day, the persons who\ndiscovered him brought him to Moses. They must have been taught before,\nthat the gathering of sticks constituted a \u200f\u05de\u05dc\u05d0\u05db\u05d4\u200e, labour prohibited\non the Sabbath-day, although this had not been distinctly stated in the\nwritten Sabbath-laws. Had this not been the case the Sabbath-breaker\ncould not have been put to death, since he would have committed the sin\nin ignorance. The same can be said of the man who cursed the name of\nGod; he must have known that cursing the name of God was a capital\ncrime; for he would not have been put to death if the Israelites had\nnot yet been taught that death would be inflicted for such an act. The\nquestion which the prophet Haggai (ii. 11) addressed to the priests,\nand the answers which the priests gave, lead to the conclusion that the\ndetails of the laws on uncleanness and cleanness (\u200f\u05d8\u05d5\u05de\u05d0\u05d4 \u05d5\u05d8\u05d4\u05e8\u05d4\u200e) must\nhave been known to the priests and the prophets to a greater extent\nthan has been explained in the written Law. Besides, there were many\nprecepts that came at once into force. These must have been fully\nexplained to the people, who were anxious to obey the word of God.\n\nAll these explanations and the detailed rules with regard to the\nwritten Divine precepts of the Pentateuch, together with laws and\ninstitutions established in the course of time by the highest\nauthorities of the nation in obedience to the dictates of the\nPentateuch, form the contents of the Oral Law.\n\nThe Oral Law or the Tradition has been handed down in two different\nforms: (a) in the form of a running Commentary on the Pentateuch; such\nCommentaries were called Midrashim; (b) arranged according to the\ndifferent subjects, and treated independently of the text of the Torah.\nThis is done in the Talmud (\u201clesson,\u201d \u201ctradition\u201d).\n\nThe principal Midrashim are: Mechilta (lit. \u201cmeasure\u201d) on Exodus; Sifra\n(\u201cbook\u201d) on Leviticus; Sifre (\u201cbooks\u201d) on Numbers and Deuteronomy.\nRabboth on the Pentateuch and the five Megilloth. Yalkut (\u201ccollection\u201d)\non all the books of the Bible.\n\nThe Talmud\u2014which exists in two different recensions, viz., the\nJerusalem Talmud and the Babylonian Talmud\u2014consists of two elements,\nwhich have to each other the relation of text and commentary, and are\ncalled Mishnah (\u200f\u05de\u05e9\u05e0\u05d4\u200e \u201clearnt by heart\u201d), and Gemara (\u200f\u05d2\u05de\u05e8\u05d0\u200e lit.\n\u201ccompletion,\u201d \u201ca thing settled\u201d); the former contains the traditional\nlaws mostly without argumentation; in the latter these laws are further\ndiscussed, examined, and finally settled. Following the example of the\nPentateuch, the Talmud includes two elements: laws and narratives, or\nHalachah (\u200f\u05d4\u05dc\u05db\u05d4\u200e) and Agada (\u200f\u05d0\u05d2\u05d3\u05d4\u200e); the latter, the Agada, contains\nhistory, fables, allegory, meditations, prayers, reflections,\nphilosophical and religious discussions, and a large number of moral\nsayings. The Midrashim likewise include these two elements.\n\nThe Mishnah is divided into the following six orders or sections\n(\u200f\u05e1\u05d3\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e): [15]\u2014\n\n\n 1. \u200e\u200f\u05d6\u05e8\u05e2\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cSeeds.\u201d Laws referring to agriculture; preceded by\n laws on Divine Worship.\n 2. \u200e\u200f\u05de\u05d5\u05e2\u05d3\u200e \u201cSeasons.\u201d On Sabbath and Festivals.\n 3. \u200e\u200f\u05e0\u05e9\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cWomen.\u201d Marriage Laws.\n 4. \u200e\u200f\u05e0\u05d6\u05d9\u05e7\u05d9\u05df\u200e \u201cDamages.\u201d Civil and criminal legislation; the\n Government.\n 5. \u200e\u200f\u05e7\u05d3\u05e9\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cHoly things.\u201d On Sacrifices.\n 6. \u200e\u200f\u05d8\u05d4\u05e8\u05d5\u05ea\u200e \u201cPurity.\u201d On the distinction between clean and unclean.\n\n\nThe laws taught in the Talmud are: (i) those which are directly or\nindirectly derived from the text of the Pentateuch; they are called\n\u201claws derived from the Torah\u201d (\u200f\u05de\u05df \u05d4\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e or \u200f\u05de\u05d3\u05d0\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9\u05d9\u05ea\u05d0\u200e); (2) those\nwhich trace their origin to the time of Moses, or, in general, to the\nremote past; they are called \u200f\u05d4\u05dc\u05db\u05d4 \u05dc\u05de\u05e9\u05d4 \u05de\u05e1\u05d9\u05e0\u05d9\u200e \u201cLaw given to Moses on\nSinai;\u201d (3) those laws which originated between the period of the\nPentateuch and the close of the Bible; they are called \u200f\u05d3\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9 \u05e7\u05d1\u05dc\u05d4\u200e\n(\u201cwords of tradition\u201d); (4) those which have been introduced in\npost-Biblical times; they are laws \u200f\u05de\u05d3\u05e8\u05d1\u05e0\u05df\u200e \u201claws introduced by our\nteachers.\u201d These are either preventives against breaking any of the\nDivine precepts, and are then called \u200f\u05de\u05e8\u05d5\u05ea\u05d2\u05d6\u05e8\u05d5\u05ea\u200e or \u200f\u05e1\u05d9\u05d2\u200e \u201ca fence,\u201d or\ntekanoth (\u200f\u05ea\u05e7\u05e0\u05d5\u05ea\u200e \u201cinstitutions\u201d or \u201cregulations\u201d) made in order to\nensure obedience to the Law and improvement of conduct, to remove\nabuses and prevent error and misunderstanding; (5) Minhag, \u201cCustom\u201d\n(\u200f\u05de\u05e0\u05d4\u05d2\u200e); religious practices which have not been introduced by any\nauthority or based on a particular Biblical text, but in consequence of\nlong usage have become as sacred as a law established by the proper\nauthority.\n\nThese laws, as finally settled, were again codified, in various works,\nthe most important of which are the following two: (1) Mishneh-torah\n(\u200f\u05de\u05e9\u05e0\u05d4 \u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e or \u200f\u05d9\u05d3 \u05d4\u05d7\u05d6\u05e7\u05d4\u200e [16] lit. \u201cCopy of the Law,\u201d or \u201cStrong\nHand\u201d), by Moses Maimonides (twelfth century) in fourteen books; (2)\nShulchan-aruch (\u200f\u05e9\u05dc\u05d7\u05df \u05e2\u05e8\u05d5\u05da\u200e, lit. \u201cTable-arranged\u201d), by Rabbi Joseph\nCaro (sixteenth century).\n\nNinth Principle.\u2014\u201cI firmly believe that this Law will not be changed,\nand that there will not be any other Law given by the Creator, blessed\nbe His Name.\u201d\n\nIn this article we pronounce our belief in the immutability of the Law.\nOver and over again the phrase \u201can everlasting statute\u201d (\u200f\u05d7\u05e7\u05ea \u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd\u200e)\noccurs in the Pentateuch. It is true that the Hebrew term \u200f\u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd\u200e is\nused in the Bible in the sense of \u201ca very long time,\u201d but in the phrase\n\u200f\u05d7\u05e7\u05ea \u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd\u200e the word cannot have that meaning. Some indication would\nhave been necessary to inform the people when the laws would cease to\nbe in force. On the contrary, the test of a prophet addressing his\nbrethren in the name of God, as a Divine messenger, consists in the\nharmony of his words with the precepts of the Pentateuch. A prophet\nwho, speaking in the name of God, abrogates any of the laws of the\nPentateuch is a false prophet. \u201cIf there arise in the midst of thee a\nprophet or a dreamer of dreams, and he give thee a sign or a wonder,\nand the sign or wonder come to pass whereof he spake unto thee, saying,\nLet us go after other gods which thou hast not known, and let us serve\nthem: thou shalt not hearken unto the words of that prophet or unto\nthat dreamer of dreams.... Ye shall walk after the Lord your God, and\nfear him, and keep his commandments, and obey his voice, and ye shall\nserve him, and cleave unto him. And that prophet or that dreamer of\ndreams shall be put to death; because he hath spoken rebellion against\nthe Lord your God, which brought you out of the land of Egypt, ... to\ndraw thee aside out of the way which the Lord thy God commanded thee to\nwalk in\u201d (Deut. xiii. 2\u20136). Moses distinctly says, \u201cThe things that are\nrevealed belong unto us and to our children for ever, that we may do\nall the words of this law\u201d (Ibid. xxix. 28).\n\nThere is also an express commandment given: \u201cYe shall not add unto the\nword which I command you, neither shall you diminish from it, that ye\nmay keep the commandments of the Lord your God which I command you\u201d\n(Ibid. iv. 2). In two ways this law may appear to have been\ndisregarded: there are certain sections of the Law which are at present\nnot in force; and, on the other hand, there are many apparently new\nprecepts at present in force which have been introduced in the course\nof time by the religious authorities of the nation. But these are only\napparent exceptions; in reality they are entirely in harmony with the\nPentateuch.\n\nAs to the first class, there are many of the Divine commandments the\nfulfilment of which depends on certain conditions; e.g., the existence\nof the Tabernacle or of the Temple and its service, the possession of\nPalestine by the Israelites, the independence of the Jewish State. In\nthe absence of these conditions such laws cannot be fulfilled. The laws\nof sacrifices belong to this class. We are, in reference to these laws,\nin the same condition as a person who is physically prevented from\ndoing what he is commanded to do, and what he is actually longing to\ndo. The Law is not altered; our circumstances demand a temporary\nsuspense of such laws and not their abrogation.\n\nThe second class contains all those precepts which are known as \u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea\n\u05d3\u05e8\u05d1\u05e0\u05df\u200e \u201cRabbinical precepts,\u201d \u200f\u05ea\u05e7\u05e0\u05d5\u05ea\u200e and \u200f\u05de\u05e0\u05d4\u05d2\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cInstitutions\u201d and\n\u201cCustoms.\u201d But these imply no addition to the Torah; they are merely\nbyelaws and regulations as regards the method of carrying out the laws\nof the Pentateuch, and are designed to facilitate or ensure their\nfulfilment, and to prevent ourselves from forgetting or disregarding\nthem. Our teachers, the Rabbis, made it a matter of conscience to\ndescribe their own regulations as \u200f\u05d3\u05e8\u05d1\u05e0\u05df\u200e non-Pentateuchical, and\nthroughout the Oral Law and the entire Talmudic literature the\ndistinction between \u200f\u05d3\u05e8\u05d1\u05e0\u05df\u200e and \u200f\u05de\u05df \u05d4\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e is noted and scrupulously\nupheld.\n\nIt is useless to investigate whether it would be in harmony with the\nimmutability of the Divine Being to change the laws or any of them, or\nto grant a new revelation. Certainly the words \u201cI, the Lord, have not\nchanged\u201d (Mal. iii. 6) have great weight; so also, \u201cFor God is not a\nson of man that he should change his mind\u201d (Num. xxiii. 19). But the\nfact that the laws were given by God as \u201can everlasting statute for all\ngenerations\u201d makes all philosophical speculation on that point\nsuperfluous. Persons who address us in the name of God as His\nmessengers, and bid us turn away from any of the laws commanded in the\nPentateuch, are in our eyes impostors, who, knowingly or unknowingly,\ngive forth their own opinions as Divine inspirations.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n3. REWARD AND PUNISHMENT, \u200f\u05e9\u05db\u05e8 \u05d5\u05e2\u05d5\u05e0\u05e9\u200e.\n\n\u201cBehold I have set before thee this day life and good, and death and\nevil: in that I command thee this day to love the Lord thy God, to walk\nin his ways, and to keep his commandments and his statutes and his\njudgments, that thou mayest live and multiply, and that the Lord thy\nGod may bless thee in the land whither thou passest over Jordan to go\nin to possess it\u201d (Deut. xxx. 15). \u201cI call heaven and earth to witness\nagainst you this day, that I have set before thee life and death, the\nblessing and the curse: therefore choose life, that thou mayest live,\nthou and thy seed: to love the Lord thy God, to obey his voice, and to\ncleave unto him: for that is thy life and the length of thy days\u201d\n(Ibid. xxx. 19, 20).\n\nThe doctrine taught in this passage is the alpha and the omega of the\nsacred literature. The whole history related in the Bible from the\nCreation to the Babylonian captivity and the restoration of the Jews to\ntheir land is but one continuous series of illustrations of this\ndoctrine. Obedience to God\u2019s word is followed by His blessings, while\ndisobedience is the cause of ruin and misery. Thus, in Lamentations the\npoet exclaims in the name of his nation, \u201cJust is the Lord, for I\nrebelled against his commandment\u201d (Lam. i. 18). Moses, in his last song\nexhorting the people to obedience to the Almighty, begins his address\nwith a praise of God\u2019s justice, saying, \u201cThe Rock, his work is perfect,\nfor all his ways are judgment: a God of faithfulness, and without\nwrong, just and right is he\u201d (Deut. xxxii. 4). Even those who doubted\nthe Divine justice, in respect to the fate of individual persons or\nnations, admitted, \u201cSurely I know that it shall be well with them that\nfear God, which fear before him: but it shall not be well with the\nwicked, neither shall he prolong his days, which are as a shadow:\nbecause he feareth not before God\u201d (Eccles. viii. 12, 13). Job,\nwondering why he should be subjected to the greatest trials, cannot\nhelp confessing, \u201cEven he will be to me an help, for there shall not\ncome before him an hypocrite\u201d (Job xiii. 16). God is therefore called\n\u201cGod of judgment,\u201d \u200f\u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9 \u05d4\u05de\u05e9\u05e4\u05d8\u200e (Mal. ii. 17); \u200f\u05d3\u05d9\u05df\u200e \u201cJudge\u201d (1 Sam.\nxxiv. 15); \u200f\u05e6\u05d3\u05d9\u05e7\u200e \u201cjust,\u201d \u200f\u05e9\u05d5\u05e4\u05d8 \u05e6\u05d3\u05d9\u05e7\u200e \u201cjust Judge\u201d (Ps. vii. 12); \u200f\u05d0\u05dc\n\u05e7\u05e0\u05d0\u200e \u201ca jealous God\u201d (Exod. xx. 5); \u200f\u05d0\u05dc \u05e0\u05e7\u05de\u05d5\u05ea\u200e \u201cGod of vengeance\u201d (Ps.\nxciv. 1); \u200f\u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cGod\u201d in the sense of \u201cJudge.\u201d The rejection of this\nbelief by the wicked is expressed by the phrase \u200f\u05d0\u05d9\u05df \u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cThere is\nno God.\u201d Thus David exclaims, \u201cThe fool hath said in his heart, There\nis no God; they are corrupt; they have done abominable things; there is\nnone that doeth good\u201d (Ps. xiv. 1). In post-Biblical literature we find\nthis unbelief, which is characterised as the source of all corruption\nand wickedness, expressed by the phrase, \u200f\u05dc\u05d9\u05ea \u05d3\u05d9\u05df \u05d5\u05dc\u05d9\u05ea \u05d3\u05d9\u05e0\u05d0\u200e \u201cThere is\nno judgment, and there is no judge\u201d (Targ. Ps. Jonathan, Gen. iv. 8).\n\nThere are two different sources from which such unbelief springs\nforth\u2014limitation of God\u2019s powers and limitation of man\u2019s capacities.\nThe one of these sources leads to a denial of God\u2019s Omniscience, whilst\nthe other deprives man of his freewill. There are some who argue that\nGod is too high to notice the ways and the acts of individual men, and\nthat these must be utterly insignificant in comparison with God\u2019s\ngreatness. \u201cThey crush thy people, O Lord, and afflict thine heritage.\nThey slay the widow and the stranger, and murder the fatherless. And\nthey say, The Lord shall not see, neither shall the God of Jacob\nconsider\u201d (Ps. xciv. 5\u20137). \u201cAnd thou sayest, What doth God know? Can he\njudge through the thick darkness? Thick clouds are a covering to him,\nthat he seeth not; and he walketh in the sphere of heaven\u201d (Job xxii.\n13, 14). The very words which the Psalmist addresses to God with a\nheart full of gratitude, \u201cWhat is man that thou art mindful of him, and\nthe son of man that thou visitest him?\u201d (Ps. viii. 5), are uttered in a\nrebellious spirit by the unbeliever, who thus \u201csets limits to the Holy\nOne of Israel\u201d (Ps. lxxviii. 41). But the power of God is not limited,\nnor is His wisdom or His goodness; He is not only \u201cthe God of heaven,\u201d\nbut also \u201cthe God of the earth.\u201d He who has created everything has\ncertainly a knowledge of everything. \u201cLift up your eyes on high and see\nwho hath created these things. He who bringeth forth by number their\nhost, calleth all of them by name; not one of them escapeth the\nknowledge of him who is great in might and strong in power\u201d (Isa. xl.\n26). The Psalmist thus replies to those who deny God\u2019s Omniscience:\n\u201cConsider, ye brutish among the people; and ye fools, when will ye be\nwise? He that planted the ear, shall he not hear; he that formed the\neye, shall he not see? He that chastiseth the nations, shall he not\ncorrect, even he that teacheth man knowledge? The Lord knoweth the\nthoughts of man, however vain they be\u201d (Ps. xciv. 8\u201311). It would\nindeed be absurd to imagine that the Creator of all things should not\ntake notice of everything that His hands have made. What difference can\nit make to the Almighty whether He provides for the whole human race or\nfor one individual man? It would be attributing to the Divine Being\nhuman weakness and false pride if we assumed that He is too great to\ntake notice of any single creature of His! Rabbi Jochanan said wherever\nin the Bible we find a description of the greatness of God, there we\nfind His meekness. Thus, e.g., it is said in the Torah: \u201cFor the Lord,\nyour God, he is the God of gods and the Lord of lords, the mighty, the\ngreat, the strong, and the terrible, who regardeth not persons, nor\ntaketh reward. He doth execute the judgment of the fatherless and\nwidow, and loveth the stranger in giving him food and raiment\u201d (Deut.\nx. 17, 18).\n\nThat man is not insignificant in the eyes of God is clearly expressed\nin the account of the Creation, where we are taught that man was made\nby God ruler \u201cover the fish of the sea and over the fowl of the air,\nand over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping\nthing that creepeth upon the earth\u201d (Gen. i. 26). \u201cMan is loved by the\nAlmighty,\u201d say our Sages, \u201cbecause he is created in the image of God;\nbut it was by a love still greater that it was made known to him that\nhe was created in the image of God\u201d (Mishnah Aboth, iii. 18).\n\nOne of the chief blessings man received at the hands of his Creator is\nfreewill. Within certain limits man can determine his own actions. When\nhe is about to do a thing, he can reflect on it, examine its nature,\ninvestigate into its consequences, and accordingly either do it or\nrefrain from doing it. God said to the Israelites, \u201cI call heaven and\nearth to witness against you this day, that I have set before thee life\nand death, the blessing and the curse; and thou shalt choose life\u201d\n(Deut. xxx. 19). Our freedom, however, is not unlimited. There are\nvarious causes that prevent us from remaining firm to our will. If we\nresolve to do what is beyond our physical condition, we cannot carry it\nout. Again, if a man chooses to do what would interfere with the will\nof his fellow-men, he will frequently be compelled to abandon or change\nhis own determination; especially as he is in most cases ignorant of\nthe thoughts and plans of his fellow-men. In a still higher degree this\nis the case with regard to the designs of the Supreme Being. Hence the\ngreat difference between our will and our actual deeds. We have,\nhowever, the conviction that \u200f\u05d1\u05d0 \u05dc\u05d8\u05d4\u05e8 \u05de\u05e1\u05d9\u05d9\u05e2\u05d9\u05df \u05dc\u05d5 \u05de\u05df \u05d4\u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd \u05d1\u05d0 \u05dc\u05d8\u05de\u05d0\n\u05e4\u05d5\u05ea\u05d7\u05d9\u05df \u05dc\u05d5\u200e \u201cHe who wishes to purify himself is helped by Heaven towards\nhis aim, while he who desires to defile himself will find the means\nthereto\u201d (Babyl. Tal. Shabbath, p. 104).\n\nWe admit that there are influences over which man has no control, and\nwhich, on the contrary, help to shape his will. No man is so isolated\nas to be entirely inaccessible to outward influences. Man inherits\ncertain ideas and habits from his parents; others are forced upon him\nby his surroundings, especially in his earliest youth; society and the\nState compel him to conform to certain notions and laws; climate and\ntemperature also have no small share in the formation of man\u2019s will.\nBut in spite of all these influences man\u2019s will is free, and it is by\nreason of his free-will that he chooses to conform to the rules of\nsociety and the laws of the State. Hence it happens that individuals,\nsubject to almost the same influences, still vary greatly in their\nresolutions. What the one praises is an abhorrence to the other; what\nrepels the one attracts the other; what is recommended by the one is\ndenounced by the other.\n\nAlthough there may be many who profess to believe in predestination or\nfate, as a matter of fact all nations, ancient and modern, have based\ntheir constitutions on the belief in man\u2019s responsibility for his\nactions. Every State has its laws, its system of reward and punishment.\nA principle so general and so essential for the safety and welfare of\nsociety, as well as of each individual, cannot be a mere illusion; its\ngood effect has been tested and is generally recognised.\n\nIn case of criminals and sinners, we make allowance for the possible\noutward influences under which the offender may have fallen; we assume\nthe broad principle, \u200f\u05d0\u05d9\u05df \u05d0\u05d3\u05dd \u05d7\u05d5\u05d8\u05d0 \u05d0\u05dc\u05d0 \u05d0\u05dd \u05db\u05df \u05e0\u05db\u05e0\u05e1 \u05d1\u05d5 \u05e8\u05d5\u05d7 \u05e9\u05d8\u05d5\u05ea\u200e \u201cNo one\nsinneth unless the spirit of folly has entered into him\u201d (Babyl. Talm.\nSotah, 3a); but no one would go so far as to acquit the sinner\naltogether from blame. We pity him and try to teach him how to return\nto the right path, and how to overcome outward evil influences. When\nDavid had become aware of the greatness of his sin and sincerely\nrepented, he prayed, \u201cCreate in me a clean heart, O God; and renew a\nright spirit within me. Cast me not away from thy presence; and take\nnot thy holy spirit from me. Restore unto me the joy of thy salvation;\nand uphold me with a willing spirit. Then will I teach transgressors\nthy ways; and sinners shall return unto thee\u201d (Ps. li. 10\u201313). Both\nelements are here harmoniously united. God\u2019s interference is asked for;\nHe helps man to carry out his good resolution; but man has free-will,\nand the author of the psalm, in seeking the assistance of God, feels\nnevertheless the weight of his own responsibility.\n\nTenth Principle.\u2014\u201cI firmly believe that the Creator, blessed be His\nname, knoweth all the actions of men and all their thoughts, as it is\nsaid, \u2018He that fashioneth the hearts of them all, He that considereth\nall their works\u2019 (Ps. xxxiii. 15).\u201d\n\nIn the rhymed form of the Creed (\u200f\u05d9\u05d2\u05d3\u05dc\u200e) this article is expressed\nthus: \u201cHe watcheth and knoweth our secret thoughts; He beholdeth the\nend of a thing in its beginning.\u201d Here the author proclaims not only\nthe Omniscience of God, but also His foresight; His knowledge is not\nlimited, like the knowledge of mortal beings, by space and time. The\nentire past and future lies unrolled before His eyes, and nothing is\nhidden from Him. Although we may form a faint idea of the knowledge of\nGod by considering that faculty of man that enables him, within a\nlimited space of time, to look backward and forward, and to unroll\nbefore him the past and the future, as if the events that have happened\nand those that will come to pass were going on in the present moment,\nyet the true nature of God\u2019s knowledge no man can conceive. \u201cGod\nconsidereth all the deeds of man,\u201d without depriving him of his\nfree-will; he may in this respect be compared to a person who observes\nand notices the actions and the conduct of his fellow-men, without\ninterfering with them. It is the Will of God that man should have\nfree-will and should be responsible for his actions; and His foresight\ndoes not necessarily include predetermination. In some cases the fate\nof nations or of individual men is predetermined; we may even say that\nthe ultimate fate or development of mankind is part of the design of\nthe Creation. But as the actual design in the Creation is concealed\nfrom man\u2019s searching eye, so is also the extent of the predetermination\na mystery to him. To solve this problem is beyond the intellectual\npowers of short-sighted mortals; it is one of \u201cthe hidden things that\nbelong to the Lord our God.\u201d\n\nDavid, in Ps. cxxxix. 1\u201312, describes the Omniscience and the\nOmnipresence of God in the following way: \u201cO Lord, thou hast searched\nme, and known me. Thou knowest my down-sitting and mine up-rising; thou\nunderstandest my thoughts afar off. Thou searchest out my path and my\nlying down, and art acquainted with all my ways. For there is not a\nword in my tongue, but lo, O Lord, thou knowest it altogether. Thou\nhast beset me behind and before, and laid thine hand upon me. Such\nknowledge is too wonderful for me; it is high, I cannot attain unto it.\nWhither shall I go from thy spirit? or whither shall I flee from thy\npresence? If I ascend up into heaven, thou art there; if I make my bed\nin the grave, behold, thou art there. If I take the wings of the\nmorning, and dwell in the uttermost parts of the sea: even there shall\nthy hand lead me, and thy right hand shall hold me. If I say, Surely\nthe darkness shall cover me, and the light about me shall be night;\neven the darkness hideth not from thee; but the night shineth as the\nday; the darkness and the light are both alike to thee.\u201d\n\nOur belief in God\u2019s Omniscience is beautifully expressed in the Musaph\nprayer of New-year: \u201cThou rememberest the work of bygone times, and\nthinkest of all the imaginations of former days; all hidden things are\nrevealed before thee; also all the multitude of hidden things which are\nfrom the beginning. For there is no forgetting before the throne of thy\nglory, and nothing is concealed from thine eye. Thou rememberest every\ndeed, and no thought is hidden from thee. Everything is revealed and\nknown before thee, O Lord our God, who beholdest and seest to the end\nof all generations.\u201d\n\nEleventh Principle.\u2014\u201cI firmly believe that the Creator, blessed be He,\nrewards those who keep His commandments, and punishes those who\ntransgress His commandments.\u201d\n\nThe immediate reward and punishment for our conduct we receive in the\npleasure and happiness we experience in doing something good, and in\nthe grief and remorse we ought to feel on learning that we have\ndispleased the Almighty by our conduct. As a rule, every good act leads\nto further good acts, and every sin to further sins; and our Sages say\ntherefore: \u201cThe reward of a good act (\u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05d4\u200e) is another good act, and\nthe punishment for a transgression is another transgression.\u201d\n\nBut when we speak of the principle of Retribution, we generally mean\nsuch reward and punishment as is given in addition to the feeling of\nhappiness or unhappiness inseparable from our actions.\n\nThis principle of retribution has been proclaimed in the grand\nRevelation made to all Israel on Mount Sinai, in the Decalogue which\nhas been accepted by all civilised nations as the basis of religion: \u201cI\nthe Lord thy God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers\nupon the children, upon the third and upon the fourth generation of\nthem that hate me; and showing mercy unto thousands of them that love\nme and keep my commandments\u201d (Exod. xx. 5, 6). We understand the\ndoctrine of retribution only in its general outlines; we are convinced\nof the truth of the Divine words, \u201cThere is no peace to the wicked\u201d\n(Isa. lvii. 21); but how the law is applied in every single case is\nknown to God alone. It is presumptuous on the part of short-sighted man\nto criticise God\u2019s judgments, and to find injustice in the seeming\nprosperity of the wicked and the seeming misery of the righteous. What\nman is able to estimate the merits of his neighbour fully and\ncorrectly? \u201cFor the Lord seeth not as man seeth; for man looketh on the\noutward appearance, but the Lord looketh on the heart\u201d (1 Sam. xvi. 7).\nThis our inability of rightly estimating the merits of our neighbour\u2019s\nactions, is illustrated by the Biblical narrative of Cain and Abel.\nBoth brought sacrifices to the Lord; and we cannot discover any\ndifference in their actions, and yet the sacrifice of Cain was rejected\nby God and that of Abel was accepted. Some important element there must\ntherefore be in man\u2019s deeds which is hidden from his neighbour\u2019s eye,\nbut is known to the Almighty. The inability of man to penetrate into\nthe secret of God\u2019s rule is also illustrated by the prophet Habakkuk.\nHe asked, \u201cWherefore lookest thou upon them that deal treacherously,\nand holdest thy peace when the wicked swalloweth up the man that is\nmore righteous than he; and makest men as the fishes of the sea, as the\ncreeping things that have no ruler over them?\u201d Whereupon he receives\nthe Divine answer: \u201cWrite the vision, and make it plain upon tables,\nthat he may run that readeth it.... Behold, there is crookedness in the\neyes of him whose soul is not straight; but the just will live by his\nfaith\u201d (Hab. i. 13, 14, and ii. 2, 4).\n\nOne of the Psalmists (Asaph; Ps. lxxiii. 2 seq.) confesses that this\nproblem had greatly troubled him and endangered his faith. He says: \u201cAs\nfor me, my feet were almost gone; my steps had well nigh slipped. For I\nwas envious of the arrogant, when I saw the prosperity of the wicked.\nFor there are no bands in their death; but their strength is firm. They\nare not in trouble as other men; neither are they plagued like other\nmen.... Therefore his people return hither: and waters of a full cup\nare wrung out by them. And they say, How doth God know? and is there\nknowledge in the Most High? Behold, these are the wicked, and being\nalways at ease, they increase in riches. Surely in vain have I cleansed\nmy heart, and washed my hands in innocency; for all the day long have I\nbeen plagued, and chastened every morning. If I had said, I will speak\nthus; behold, I had dealt treacherously with the generation of thy\nchildren. When I think how I might know this, it is trouble in mine\neyes: until I come into the sanctuary of God; then shall I consider\ntheir latter end.\u201d The temporary success and seeming prosperity of the\nwicked does not shake the firm belief of the singer in the justice of\nGod; his communion with God, his coming into the sanctuaries of God, is\na blessing which the soul of the pious yearns for, and in comparison\nwith which all the wealth and power of the wicked is but a deceitful\nshadow.\n\nThe Book of Job illustrates the vanity of man\u2019s attempts to lift the\nveil that conceals the plan of God\u2019s decrees. The reader is informed\nbeforehand why Job is afflicted with pains and troubles. But Job and\nhis friends have not been informed. Job desires to know what act of his\nhas brought upon him that terrible calamity, if it is to be endured as\na punishment; he protests his innocence, and criticises the justice of\nthe Almighty. The three friends declare with certainty that Job\u2019s\nsufferings are a punishment for sins committed, and are angry that Job\ndoes not accept their view.\n\nGod appears, rebukes Job for his presumption, but declares that the\nview expressed by his friends, insinuating sinful conduct to Job, was\nwrong, and that Job, who contended that he did not know the cause of\nthe suffering, spoke more rightly than his friends. For Job had not\nbeen afflicted because of his sins, and this was shown to the friends\nof Job by the compensation which God gave Job for all that he had lost\nand suffered.\n\nKoheleth likewise shows the futility of man\u2019s endeavour to find\nindependently of Divine revelation the aim and object of man\u2019s life on\nearth, or the share his free-will has in the performance of his actions\nand the determination of his fate. Man is lost in a labyrinth of\nproblems, out of which he can extricate himself only by faith in God\nand His guidance. The result to which the investigations of Koheleth\nled him is expressed thus: \u201cFear God, keep his commandments; for this\nis the whole of man\u2019s duty. For every action God will bring to judgment\ntogether with all hidden thoughts, whether good or evil\u201d (Eccles. xii.\n13).\n\nThe acts of Divine justice recorded in the sacred literature serve as a\nwarning to the evil and an encouragement to the good. They are all of a\nmaterial character, as only in this shape can they be perceived by man.\nBut by no means do they exhaust all the ways of God. The Divine\nretribution so frequently referred to in the Law points mostly to the\ngood or evil consequences which the conduct of the Israelites will\nbring upon the whole community or state, because the whole community is\nbenefited by the virtues and injured by the misconduct of each of the\nmembers composing it; it is the duty of the authorities, by\nwatchfulness and by well-defined punishments, to prevent the spread of\ndisobedience to the Divine Law. What other rewards or punishments await\nthe individual in this life or after death we do not know. But there\nare, especially in the Psalms, numerous indications that the pious\nsufferer was sure that everlasting happiness would more than compensate\nfor the absence of material and transient success in this life. The\nfollowing passages may serve as an illustration:\u2014\n\n\u201cMany sorrows shall be to the wicked, but he that trusteth in the Lord,\nmercy shall compass him about\u201d (Ps. xxxii. 10).\n\n\u201cHow precious is thy loving-kindness, O God! and the children of men\ntake refuge under the shadow of thy wings. They shall be abundantly\nsatisfied with the fatness of thy house; and thou shalt make them drink\nof the river of thy pleasures. For with thee is the fountain of life:\nin thy light shall we see light\u201d (xxxvi. 8\u201310).\n\n\u201cFor evil-doers shall be cut off: but those that wait upon the Lord,\nthey shall inherit the land\u201d (xxxvii. 9).\n\n\u201cFor the Lord loveth judgment, and forsaketh not his saints; they are\npreserved for ever: but the seed of the wicked shall be cut off\u201d (Ibid.\n28).\n\n\u201cMark the perfect man; and behold the upright: for the latter end of\nthat man is peace. As for transgressors, they shall be destroyed\ntogether; the latter end of the wicked shall be cut off\u201d (Ibid. 37,\n38).\n\nIn these and similar passages the pious and enthusiastic singer has in\nhis mind something more durable and permanent than this short life, or\notherwise the conflict between his hopes and the reality would have\nshaken his faith.\n\nTwelfth Principle.\u2014\u201cI firmly believe in the coming of Messiah; and\nalthough he may tarry, I daily hope for his coming.\u201d\n\nWhen Abraham was chosen by God to be the founder of a nation\nproclaiming the Unity of God, when he was commanded to separate from\nhis relatives and friends and to travel a stranger in a foreign land,\nthe blessing promised to him was not to be enjoyed by him in the\npresent, but by his descendants in remote future: \u201cAll the families of\nthe earth shall be blessed in thee\u201d (Gen. xii. 3). The same promise was\nrepeated when Abraham stood the trial, and was ready to bring any\nsacrifice in obedience to the Will of the Supreme Being: \u201cAll the\nnations of the earth shall bless themselves in thee\u201d (Ibid. xxii. 18).\nThe conviction that the seed of Abraham have the distinction and the\nmission to become a source of a blessing to all mankind was transmitted\nfrom generation to generation; from Abraham through Isaac to Jacob or\nIsrael, whose descendants, the Israelites, guarded the inherited\ncharge, as their peculiar treasure. Before receiving the Decalogue on\nMount Sinai, the Israelites were reminded of this their mission in the\nwords, \u201cAnd ye shall be unto me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation\u201d\n(Exod. xix. 6). It was not by force of arms or by persuasion that they\nwere to influence the whole earth, but by setting an example of noble,\npure, and holy conduct. A special spot was selected for them where they\nshould, in seclusion from the rest of the world, be trained in the true\nworship of God and in the practice of virtue. Zion and Jerusalem became\nin course of time the religious centre from which \u201cinstruction came\nforth and the word of the Lord.\u201d The Israelites became negligent in\ntheir mission and faithless to their holy charge. Instead of leading\nother nations to the true worship of God, they allowed themselves to be\nmisled by them to idolatry; instead of living a pure life of justice\nand righteousness, they yielded to luxury and lust, and committed acts\nof injustice and oppression. They were punished. Troubles followed\ntroubles; they lost their independence and their religious centre. The\nmen of God, the prophets, from Moses to the last of the prophets,\nMalachi, foretold the catastrophe, but at the same time added words of\ncomfort and encouragement, pointing to a distant future, when \u201cher\nappointed time of trouble will be complete, and her guilt atoned for;\u201d\nwhen Israel will be restored to his land, and under the guidance of\nMessiah, \u201cthe Anointed of the Lord,\u201d he will be filled with the fear of\nthe Lord and an earnest desire to do that which is just and right.\nMoses, in one of his last addresses to Israel, said, \u201cAnd it shall come\nto pass, when all these things have come upon thee, the blessing and\nthe curse, which 1 have set before thee; and thou shalt call them to\nmind among all the nations whither the Lord thy God hath driven thee,\nand shalt return unto the Lord thy God, and shalt obey his voice,\naccording to all that I command thee this day, thou and thy children,\nwith all thine heart, and with all thy soul; that the Lord thy God will\nreturn thy captivity, and have compassion on thee, and will return, and\ngather thee from all the peoples whither the Lord thy God hath\nscattered thee. If any of thy outcasts be in the uttermost parts of\nheaven, from thence will the Lord thy God gather thee, and from thence\nwill he fetch thee,\u201d &c. (Deut. xxx. 1\u20133). The glorious times of\nMessiah are described by Isaiah in the following words: \u201cAnd it shall\ncome to pass in the end of days, that the mountain of the Lord\u2019s house\nshall be established in the top of the mountains, and shall be exalted\nabove the hills, and all nations shall flow unto it. And many peoples\nshall go and say, Come ye, and let us go up to the mountain of the\nLord, to the house of the God of Jacob, and he will teach us of his\nways, and we will walk in his paths, for out of Zion shall go forth the\nLaw, and the word of the Lord from Jerusalem. And he shall judge among\nthe nations, and shall reprove many peoples; and they shall beat their\nswords into plough-shares, and their spears into pruning-hooks: nation\nshall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war\nany more\u201d (Isa. ii. 2\u20134). The same has been prophesied in almost\nidentical words by Micah (iv. 1\u20134), a contemporary of Isaiah. The peace\nof the Messianic period is figuratively described by Isaiah in the\nfollowing verses: \u201cAnd the wolf shall dwell with the lamb, and the\nleopard shall lie down with the kid; and the calf, and the young lion,\nand the fatling together; and a little child shall lead them. And the\ncow and the bear shall feed: their young ones shall lie down together,\nand the lion shall eat straw like the ox. And the sucking child shall\nplay on the hole of the asp, and the weaned child shall put his hand on\nthe basilisk\u2019s den. They shall not hurt nor destroy in all my holy\nmountain; for the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the Lord, as\nthe waters cover the sea\u201d (Isa. xi. 6\u20139). In the days of Messiah all\npeople will unite in the proclamation of the Unity of God and in His\nworship: \u201cAnd the Lord shall be King over all the earth: in that day\nshall the Lord be one, and his name one\u201d (Zech. xiv. 9). \u201cThen will I\nturn to the peoples a pure language, that they may all call upon the\nname of the Lord, to serve him with one consent\u201d (Zeph. iii. 9).\n\nThe distinction given to Israel and to his land will again appear in\nall its glory. Israel is punished, deprived of independence, even\ndespised and ill-treated at times; but with all this he is loved by\nGod, and not rejected by Him for ever. Isaiah prophesies as follows:\n\u201cRemember these things, O Jacob and Israel, for thou art my servant: I\nhave formed thee; thou art my servant; O Israel, thou shalt not be\nforgotten of me\u201d (Isa. xliv. 21). \u201cFor the mountains shall depart, and\nthe hills be removed; but my kindness shall not depart from thee,\nneither shall my covenant of peace be removed, saith the Lord that hath\nmercy on thee\u201d (Ibid. liv. 10). Comp. lix. 20, 21; lx. 19\u201321; lxvi. 22;\nJer. xxxiii. 25, 26; Hos. ii. 21, 22.\n\nThose who during the years of Israel\u2019s punishment have despised and\nill-treated him will repent of their conduct when they witness his\nwonderful redemption. Their repentance is beautifully depicted by\nIsaiah in the passage beginning, \u201cBehold, my servant will be\nsuccessful\u201d (lii. 13). Israel, the servant of God, patiently bears\ninsults and persecution, faithfully waiting for the fulfilment of the\nDivine promise. Israel\u2019s oppressors will then, on seeing how God loves\nhim, confess their wrong and own that Israel has innocently suffered at\ntheir hands. With the redemption of Israel is connected the restoration\nof the throne of David. \u201cA branch of the house of David\u201d will be at the\nhead of the nation, upon whom \u201cthe spirit of the Lord will rest, the\nspirit of wisdom and understanding, the spirit of counsel and might,\nthe spirit of knowledge, and of the fear of the Lord\u201d (Isa. xi. 2).\nThus Jeremiah prophesies: \u201cBehold, the days come, saith the Lord, that\nI will raise unto David a righteous branch, and he shall reign as king,\nand deal wisely, and shall execute judgment and justice in the land. In\nhis days Judah shall be saved, and Israel shall dwell safely: and this\nis his name, whereby he shall be called, The Lord is our righteousness\u201d\n(xxiii. 5, 6). All the attributes of Messiah are those of a human being\nin his highest possible perfection. No superhuman qualities are\nascribed to him; all his glory, all his success, is dependent on the\nWill of God. He is an ideal man, and an ideal king, but not more; if\nmiracles are to be wrought, it is not Messiah who will perform them,\nbut God, who will act wondrously for Messiah and Israel. The advent of\nMessiah is not expected to change the nature of man, much less the\ncourse of the world around us. The only change we expect is, that the\nUnity of God will be acknowledged universally, and that justice and\nrighteousness will flourish over all the earth. Those who believe in a\nsuperhuman nature of Messiah are guilty of idolatry. Our Sages express\nthis principle in the words, \u200f\u05d0\u05d9\u05df \u05d1\u05d9\u05df \u05d4\u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd \u05d4\u05d6\u05d4 \u05dc\u05d9\u05de\u05d5\u05ea \u05d4\u05de\u05e9\u05d9\u05d7 \u05d0\u05dc\u05d0 \u05e9\u05e2\u05d1\u05d5\u05d3\n\u05de\u05dc\u05db\u05d9\u05d5\u05ea \u05d1\u05dc\u05d1\u05d3\u200e, \u201cThere is no other difference between the present time\nand the days of Messiah but the restoration of Israel\u2019s independence.\u201d\n\nAn opinion is mentioned in the Talmud in the name of a Rabbi Hillel\u2014not\nthe great Hillel, the Babylonian\u2014that \u201cthere is no Messiah for the\nIsraelites, because they have already enjoyed the blessings of Messiah\nin the reign of Hezekiah\u201d (Babyl. Talm. Sanhedrin, 98b). This can only\nrefer to the miraculous defeat of the enemy, and the direct benefits\nderived therefrom by the Israelites. But the Rabbi by no means rejects\nour belief that Messiah will come, and with him the universal worship\nof the One God, the universal practice of virtue in all its forms, and\nuniversal peace and prosperity. [17] Hillel, however, found no support\nfor his view; on the contrary, his error is at once shown to him, that\nhe forgot the prophets who prophesied after Hezekiah.\n\nThere are some theologians who assume the Messianic period to be the\nmost perfect state of civilisation, but do not believe in the\nrestoration of the kingdom of David, the rebuilding of the Temple, or\nthe repossession of Palestine by the Jews. They altogether reject the\nnational hope of the Jews. These theologians either misinterpret or\nwholly ignore the teaching of the Bible, and the Divine promises made\nthrough the men of God.\n\nThe hopes with which our religion inspires us can never lead us to\nintrigues, political combinations, insurrection, or warfare for the\npurpose of regaining Palestine and appointing a Jewish Government. On\nthe contrary, our religion teaches us to seek the welfare of those\nnations in whose midst we live, and to conscientiously take part in the\nwork for their national progress and prosperity, whilst patiently\nwaiting for the miraculous fulfilment of the prophecies. Even if a band\nof adventurers were to succeed in reconquering Palestine for the Jews\nby means of arms, or reacquiring the Holy Land by purchasing it from\nthe present owners, we should not see in such an event the consummation\nof our hopes.\n\nDoes the advent of Messiah and the rebuilding of the Temple in\nJerusalem imply the restoration of the Sacrificial Service? The last of\nthe prophets, Malachi, declares that \u201cthen the offering of Judah and\nJerusalem shall be pleasant unto the Lord, as in the days of old, and\nas in ancient years\u201d (Mal. iii. 4). In the same spirit all the prophets\nspoke, and when in some cases prophets denounce sacrifices, it is only\nthe sacrifices of the wicked that they denounce. Sacrifices must be\npreceded by purification of the heart, and by the earnest resolve to\nobey the word of God, otherwise they constitute an increase of sin.\nWhen we express our longing for the rebuilding of the Temple and the\nrestoration of the Temple-Service\u2014the return of the priests to their\nservice, and the Levites to their song and music\u2014it is solely our\ndesire for the opportunity of serving God according to His Will and\ncommand, and is not a feeling that should be modified by fashion or\ntaste. It is because of our sins that we have been deprived of our\nTemple; the rebuilding of the Temple and the restoration of the\nSacrificial Service will be the result of our own purification, and the\nconsequent Divine pardon.\n\nWhen will this take place? We do not know, and are content to bear in\nmind that the time of our redemption is one of the \u201chidden things which\nare the Lord our God\u2019s;\u201d \u201cIf it tarries,\u201d says Habakkuk, \u201cwait for it,\nfor it will surely come, and not later than the time fixed\u201d (ii. 3).\nCertain numbers of days and weeks are mentioned in Daniel, [18] but it\nis not stated how these are to be counted; to which period they are\nintended to apply; whether to the time of the restoration under\nZerubbabel, to the period of the Maccabees, to the destruction of the\nsecond Temple, or to the future and final redemption. It is also\npossible that these numbers have some symbolic signification. In\nreference to these mysterious numbers Daniel says (xii. 8\u201310): \u201cAnd I\nheard, but I understood not; then said I, O my lord, what shall be the\nissue of these things? And he said, Go thy way, Daniel; for the words\nare shut up and sealed till the time of the end. Many shall purify\nthemselves and make themselves white, and be refined; but the wicked\nshall do wickedly, and none of the wicked shall understand; but they\nthat be wise shall understand.\u201d These words of Daniel are a warning to\nall those who are inclined to compute by means of the numbers given in\nDaniel the exact year of Messiah. Many have disregarded the warning and\nhave fallen into gross error. It is the duty of the pious Israelite to\nhave faith in God\u2019s wisdom, goodness, and power: \u201cThe righteous shall\nlive in his faith\u201d (Hab. ii. 4).\n\nThirteenth Principle.\u2014\u201cI firmly believe that there will take place a\nrevival of the dead at a time which will please the Creator, blessed be\nHis name and exalted His memorial for ever and ever.\u201d\n\nAs imperfect as is our conception of a creation from nothing, so\nimperfect is our notion of the resurrection of the dead. We only\nperceive the dissolution of the body into its elements, which enter\ninto new combinations and form new bodies; and it is almost impossible\nfor us to imagine a reconstruction of the original body out of its own\nelements. There is no doubt that the Almighty produces fresh life from\ndeath\u2014we need only observe the action of Nature in the world around us\nto convince ourselves that God is \u200f\u05de\u05d7\u05d9\u05d4 \u05d4\u05de\u05ea\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cthat he gives life to\nthings dead.\u201d But how this will be done in reference to our own selves,\nwhether we shall enjoy the same life, whether our future life will be\nan improved edition of the present one, whether all will be restored to\nlife, or whether the new life after death will be enjoyed by the soul\nalone, or by body and soul jointly: these and similar questions\ntranscend the bounds of human knowledge. We know nothing but the bare\nfact that God can restore to life that which is dead, and that a\nresurrection will take place. But all further description of this event\nrests on man\u2019s imaginative powers. The fact itself is stated by Daniel\n(xii. 2): \u201cAnd many of them that sleep in the dust of the earth shall\nawake, some to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting\ncontempt;\u201d it is indicated in the Pentateuch in the words, \u201cI shall\nkill and I shall make alive; I have wounded and I shall heal\u201d (Deut.\nxxxii. 39). According to Maimonides, the author of the Thirteen\nPrinciples, the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead is identical\nwith that of the immortality of the soul, calling the life of the soul\nafter separation from the body, resurrection; the verse quoted from\nDaniel is accordingly interpreted in a figurative sense. The belief in\n\u200f\u05ea\u05d7\u05d9\u05ea \u05d4\u05de\u05ea\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cthe resurrection of the dead,\u201d emphatically enjoined in\nthe Talmud, was thus restricted by Maimonides to the separate life of\nman\u2019s soul after his death, because the immortality of the soul\nappeared to him more rational and more acceptable to thinking man. This\nmay be the case, but we, human beings, a combination of soul and body,\nare, in reality, as unable to conceive the separate existence of our\nsoul as we are to comprehend the resurrection of our body. We are\ntaught that there exists for us a life beyond the present one. But any\nattempt to describe that life must be considered merely as an act of\nimagination rather than of knowledge. It is probably for this reason\nthat no distinct ordinance in the Pentateuch sanctioned the belief in\nfuture life, or in the immortality of the soul. The belief,\nnevertheless, existed among the Israelites, and found expression in\nseveral passages of the Bible. Foremost among these is the following\nverse of Koheleth (xii. 7): \u201cAnd the dust shall return to the earth as\nit was, and the spirit shall return unto God who gave it.\u201d David also\ngives frequent expression to this belief in his Psalms. In the\nSeventeenth Psalm, e.g., he speaks with contempt of the wealth and the\nsuccess of the wicked, and says of himself: \u201cAs for me, I shall see thy\nface in righteousness; I shall be satisfied, when I awake, with\nbeholding thy likeness\u201d (Ps. xvii. 15). Similarly he says in Ps. xvi.\n8\u201311: \u201cI have set the Lord always before me; because he is at my right\nhand, I shall not be moved. Therefore my heart is glad and my glory\nrejoiceth: my flesh also shall dwell in safety. For thou wilt not leave\nmy soul to death, neither wilt thou suffer thine holy one to see\ncorruption. Thou wilt show me the path of life; in thy presence is\nfulness of joy, in thy right hand there are pleasures for evermore.\u201d In\nthe Book of Proverbs (xii. 28) we read: \u201cIn the path of righteousness\nthere is life, and a smoothed way where there is no death.\u201d These and\nsimilar verses show that the belief in the immortality of the soul was\nfirmly established among the Israelites, and found frequent expression\nin the words of the men of God.\n\nThe belief in the Resurrection assists us in our endeavour of\nreconciling the apparent contradictions between the justice of God and\nour own experience. The latter comprises only the transient pleasures\nof the wicked and the sufferings of the just in this short life, and\ncannot be compared with the pleasure of the good and the suffering of\nthe bad in the future, eternal life. Another benefit derived from this\nbelief consists in its raising us above the ordinary sphere of earthly\ngains and losses; it turns our minds to higher aims; it purifies our\nheart and elevates it.\n\nOpponents of this belief quote some passages from Job in support of\ntheir view; e.g.: \u201cBefore I go whence I shall not return, even to the\nland of darkness and of the shadow of death\u201d (x. 21). \u201cAs the cloud is\nconsumed and vanishes away, so he that goeth down to the grave shall\ncome up no more\u201d (vii. 9). These and similar words were uttered by Job\nwhen he suffered great pain, and wished, as many would wish under\nsimilar circumstances, to be relieved by death from his momentary\ntroubles, unconcerned as to what might happen in distant future.\nBesides, Job is not an Israelite; he is described as a man just and\nupright, but need not have had the same convictions and beliefs as the\nIsraelites. How little the above verses represent the exact view of Job\nmay be learnt from the fact that he gives also expression to the\nopposite belief: \u201cIf a man dieth, will he live again? All the days of\nmy appointed time will I wait, till my relief cometh\u201d (xiv. 14). \u201cAnd\nwhen my skin is gone, when worms have destroyed this body, and when my\nflesh is no more, yet shall I see God\u201d (xix. 26).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNOTES.\n\n\nOn page 19 sqq.\n\nThe Number of the Principles of our Creed.\u2014The contents of our Creed\nhas its source in the Bible; there the Principles are taught, some\ndirectly, others indirectly; but they are neither formulated nor\nenumerated. The most ancient declaration of faith is contained in the\nverse: \u201cHear, O Israel, the Lord is our God; the Lord is One\u201d (Deut.\nvi. 4). There is even a tradition (Midrash Rabboth Gen. ch. xcviii.)\nthat these words were first uttered by the sons of Jacob, when their\nfather, in the last hour of his life, wished to know whether all his\nchildren were faithful to the inherited religion. We repeat these words\nthrice a day, in the morning and in the evening; with these words on\ntheir lips the martyrs of our nation suffered death; these words are\nthe last which the pious Israelite utters before \u201chis spirit returneth\nto him who hath given it.\u201d When the Israelites took possession of\nPalestine, at the solemn assembly between the mountains of Gerizim and\nEbal, they were not commanded to recite or sign a series of articles of\nfaith, but to declare their determination to obey the Will of God as\nexpressed in the Torah. This was also done by our forefathers when\nstanding round Sinai. They declared, \u201cAll that the Lord hath said, will\nwe do and hear\u201d (Exod. xxiv. 7). When Elijah on Mount Carmel had\ndemonstrated the perverseness of the Baal-worship, the Israelites\ndeclared, \u201cThe Lord, he is God.\u201d Jonah describes himself thus: \u201cI am a\nHebrew; and I fear the Lord, the God of the heavens, who hath made the\nsea and the dry land\u201d (Jonah i. 9).\u2014Also, after the Restoration in the\ndays of Zerubbabel, Ezra, and Nehemiah, the Jews were exhorted to act\naccording to the words of the Torah, and they renewed their covenant\nwith God in this respect, but nothing is known of a declaration of\nbelief, of reciting or signing articles of faith.\u2014The struggle with the\nSamaritans produced special legislation with regard to certain\nreligious observances, but there was no need for the formulation of a\ncreed. But care has been taken that the principles of our faith should\nfind expression in our daily prayers. Thus the sections which precede\nand follow the Shema contain an indirect declaration of the three\nfundamental principles of our religion, the Existence of the Creator,\nRevelation, and Divine Justice. The first section, called \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05ea \u05d9\u05d5\u05e6\u05e8\u200e\npraises God as the sole source of everything, of light and darkness, of\ngood and evil. In the second section (\u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05ea \u05d0\u05d4\u05d1\u05d4\u200e) we acknowledge in\ngratitude the benefits of Revelation; and in the third (\u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05ea \u05d2\u05d0\u05d5\u05dc\u05d4\u200e)\nwe thank God for the redemption of our forefathers from Egypt, by\ninflicting punishment on our oppressors. Although much stress is laid\non faith (\u200f\u05d0\u05de\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4\u200e), and he who was found wanting in faith was\nstigmatised as \u200f\u05db\u05d5\u05e4\u05e8\u200e or \u200f\u05db\u05d5\u05e4\u05e8 \u05d1\u05e2\u05d9\u05e7\u05e8\u200e unbeliever or infidel, yet no\ncreed was officially formulated. Even the discussions between the\nSadducees and Pharisees, which concerned also the principles of faith,\nbrought only about certain changes in the prayer\u2014such as the\nsubstitution of \u200f\u05de\u05df \u05d4\u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd \u05d5\u05e2\u05d3 \u05d4\u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd\u200e for \u200f\u05e2\u05d3 \u05e2\u05d9\u05dc\u05dd\u200e in the responses of\nthe congregation during the public service, in order to establish the\nbelief in the existence of another world and another life beyond the\ngrave.\n\nThe necessity of formulating the principles of faith arose when the\ncontact and intercourse with other religious communities gave frequent\noccasion to discussions on these and similar subjects. Without some\nfixed basis, it was feared, disorder and confusion would disturb the\npeace in the camp of Israel.\n\nThus Saadiah says in Emunoth Ve-deoth: \u201cI have seen men drowned, as it\nwere, in the sea of doubts, covered by the waves of error, and there\nwas no diver to bring them up from the depth, nor any swimmer to take\nhold of them and draw them out. As I possessed enough of what God\ntaught me to support them, and had the power for upholding them granted\nto me, I considered it my duty to assist and guide my fellow-men\naccording to the best of my abilities.\u201d In ten chapters Saadiah\ndiscusses the various theological problems, and defends the following\narticles of faith: Existence of God; His Unity; Revelation; Free-will;\nImmortality of the Soul; Resurrection of the Dead; Final Redemption of\nIsrael; Reward and Punishment. Although these principles do not seem to\nhave been shaped into the form of a solemn declaration or embodied in\nthe prayer, they are treated as themes familiar to the reader, and as\nelements essential in the Jewish faith (\u200f\u05d0\u05e9\u05e8 \u05d0\u05e0\u05d7\u05e0\u05d5 \u05de\u05d7\u05d5\u05d9\u05d1\u05d9\u05dd \u05dc\u05d4\u05d0\u05de\u05d9\u05df\u200e).\n\nRabbi Abraham ben David (Rabad, \u200f\u05e8\u05d0\u05f4\u05d1\u05d3\u200e), in his Haemunah haramah (\u201cThe\nLofty Faith\u201d), seems to assume three principles: Existence of God,\nProphecy, and Reward and Punishment, which to defend from the attacks\nof the unbeliever, he considers as the first duty of the Jewish scholar\n(\u200f\u05d4\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05e0\u05d9\u200e); but he does not follow this decision in his book. He\ncomprises all religious truths which he has to demonstrate under six\nheads (\u200f\u05e2\u05d9\u05e7\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e). The first of them he calls \u201cRoot of the faith;\u201d it\nexpresses the conviction that all things in the universe owe their\nexistence to a \u201cFirst Cause\u201d\u2014God. Next comes \u201cUnity of God,\u201d which is\nfollowed by \u201cAttributes of God,\u201d \u201cThe intermediate causes of natural\nchanges.\u201d \u201cProphecy\u201d\u2014or \u200f\u05d4\u05d0\u05de\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4 \u05d4\u05d0\u05d7\u05e8\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4\u200e, \u201cthe subsequent belief,\u201d\ni.e., the belief which follows the belief in God\u2014and \u201cDivine\nProvidence.\u201d\n\nRabbi Jehudah ha-levi explains to the Kuzarite king his faith as\nfollows: \u201cWe believe in the God of our forefathers, who brought the\nIsraelites forth from Egypt by signs and miracles, sustained them in\nthe wilderness with manna, divided for them the sea and Jordan, gave\nthem the Law through Moses, exhorted them through His prophets to obey\nHis commandments: in short, we believe all that is written in the\nTorah\u201d (Kuzari, i. 8). He then explains philosophically \u201cthe root of\nthe faith\u201d in the following ten propositions: (1) The universe is\nfinite; (2) it had a beginning; (3) the time of the beginning had to be\ndetermined by the Divine Being; (4) God is without a beginning; (5) God\nis eternal (i.e., without an end); (6) incorporeal; (7) omniscient; (8)\nall-wise, all-powerful, living; (9) free in His actions; (10) without\nchange. To these must be added the belief in prophecy, in the truth of\nthe prophecies, and in man\u2019s free-will, which he fully discusses in the\ncourse of the book.\n\nRabbenu Bachya, in his \u201cDuties of the Hearts\u201d (\u200f\u05d7\u05d5\u05d1\u05d5\u05ea \u05d4\u05dc\u05d1\u05d1\u05d5\u05ea\u200e),\nconsiders also faith as one of these duties, and expresses it in the\nmost simple form, \u201cBelief in God and in His Law.\u201d He does not, however,\ndevote a special chapter to faith. The first chapter treats of the\ndistinctively Jewish creed of God\u2019s Unity, but less as a duty of belief\nthan as a duty of research and study for the purpose of philosophically\nestablishing that God is One. The author states only briefly in the\nprefatory notes to the first chapter, that it is our duty to believe in\nthe Existence, Providence, and Unity of God, as commanded in the verse,\n\u201cHear, O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One.\u201d\n\nMaimonides comprehended our belief in thirteen articles, known as the\nThirteen Principles of our Creed. He insists on the fact that these\narticles are not the product of chance; they are the result of long\nstudy and deep research. Every one of them is essential, and he who\nrejects any of them is an infidel (\u200f\u05db\u05d5\u05e4\u05e8\u200e), and puts himself by such\nrejection outside the Jewish community (\u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05e6\u05d0 \u05de\u05db\u05dc\u05dc \u05d9\u05e9\u05e8\u05d0\u05dc\u200e).\n\nRabbi Joseph Albo criticised Maimonides\u2019 thirteen articles of faith\n(\u200f\u05e2\u05d9\u05e7\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e). Whilst recognising all of them as true, he would make a\ndifference between fundamental principles (\u200f\u05e2\u05d9\u05e7\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e) and secondary\nbeliefs (\u200f\u05e9\u05e8\u05e9\u05d9\u05dd\u200e). The former are all those dogmas by which Judaism\nfalls and stands, without which Jewish faith cannot be imagined; the\nlatter are those principles which are actually true, but Judaism can be\nconceived without them. To the former he counts, e.g., the belief in\nthe existence of God, to the latter the belief that to Him alone prayer\nis to be offered. For Judaism cannot be conceived without the belief in\nGod\u2019s existence, but could be conceived without the belief that only\nGod is to be prayed to. Albo further finds fault with Maimonides for\nnot having embodied in the Creed the belief in man\u2019s free-will, in the\ntruth of the Biblical account of the miracles, in the Creatio ex\nnihilo, and the like. To these objections Maimonides would reply, that\nthe articles enumerated by him were all actually fundamental, the\nquestion whether Judaism could be imagined without this or that\nprinciple being of no importance whatever; and that the dogmas named by\nAlbo as omitted, were implied in the Thirteen Principles. According to\nAlbo there are three fundamental principles (\u200f\u05e2\u05d9\u05e7\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e): Existence of\nGod, Revelation, and Reward and Punishment. The first includes four\narticles (\u200f\u05e9\u05e8\u05e9\u05d9\u05dd\u200e): Unity of God, His Incorporeality, Eternity, and\nPerfection; the second implies three: God\u2019s Omniscience, Divine\ninspiration, and Divine messengers (prophets); the third only one:\nProvidence. Albo\u2019s criticisms on Maimonides have passed away without\neffect. The Principles of Faith as formulated by Maimonides have found\ntheir way into the daily Prayer-book in prose and poetry, and have\nsince formed an essential element in every text-book of Jewish\nreligion. Modern theologians erroneously quote Albo in favour of\nrejecting some of the articles, because he speaks of three fundamental\nprinciples; but they forget that Albo never rejects any of the thirteen\nprinciples; he only insists on making a difference between those which\nare more and those which are less fundamental.\n\n\n\nOn the First Principle, pp. 22 sqq.\n\nMaimonides does not mention the term Creator except in the beginning of\neach paragraph as a substitute for \u201cGod.\u201d He employs the philosophical\nterm \u201cFirst Cause\u201d in defining the existence of God. In the sixty-ninth\nchapter of the first book of \u201cThe Guide\u201d we find the explanation\nthereof. He says: \u201cThe philosophers, as you know, call God the First\nCause (\u200f\u05e2\u05b4\u05dc\u05b8\u05bc\u05d4\u200e and \u200f\u05e1\u05b4\u05d1\u05b8\u05bc\u05d4\u200e); but those who are known by the name\nMutakallemim (Mohammedan theologians) are very much opposed to the use\nof that name, and prefer to call Him \u2018Maker\u2019 (\u200f\u05e4\u05bc\u05d5\u05b9\u05e2\u05b5\u05dc\u200e), believing that\nthere is a great difference whether we use the one term or the other.\nThey argue thus: Those who say that God is the Cause, implicitly assume\nthe coexistence of the Cause with that which was produced by that\nCause, and believe that the universe is eternal, and that it is\ninseparable from God. Those, however, who say that God is the Maker do\nnot assume the coexistence of the maker with his work; for the maker\ncan exist anterior to his work; we cannot even imagine how a maker can\nbe in action unless he existed before his own work. This is an argument\nadvanced by persons who do not distinguish between the potential and\nthe actual. For there is no difference whether we say \u2018cause\u2019 or\n\u2018maker;\u2019 \u2018cause\u2019 as a mere potentiality precedes its effect; and\n\u2018cause\u2019 as actuality coexists with its effect. The same is the case\nwith \u2018maker;\u2019 so long as the work is not done, he is a maker\npotentially, and exists before his work; he is an actual maker when the\nwork is done, and then he coexists with his work.\u201d\n\n\u201cThe reason why the philosophers called God \u2018the Cause\u2019 and did not\ncall Him \u2018the Maker\u2019 is not to be sought in their belief that the\nuniverse is eternal, but in other principles, which I will briefly\nexplain to you. Everything owes its origin to the following four\ncauses: the substance, the form, the agens, the final cause. The\nphilosophers believe\u2014and I do not differ from them\u2014that God is the\nagens, the form, and the final cause of everything; in order to express\nthis, they call God \u2018the Cause\u2019 of all things. Every one of these three\ncauses leads, through a chain of causes, to God as the First Cause.\u201d\nMaimonides further points out in this chapter that the choice of the\nterm by no means decides the question whether the universe has had a\nbeginning or not.\n\nMaimonides has been severely criticised by his successors for the\nabsence of the belief in \u201cCreation from nothing\u201d from the Creed. In\n\u201cThe Guide\u201d Maimonides distinctly states that the arguments for\n\u201cCreation from nothing\u201d and the arguments against it are equi-balanced,\nand that for this reason he follows the literal interpretation of the\nScripture as regards Creation. Were the arguments in favour of the\neternity of the universe stronger, he would not have found any\ndifficulty in interpreting Scripture accordingly. Such being the view\nof our great philosopher, he could not make the belief in Creation part\nof the Creed, or declare that all who denied the Creation from nothing\nwere unbelievers.\n\nHowever strange this argumentation of Maimonides may appear, and\nhowever arbitrary his treatment of Scriptural teaching, his view is not\nwithout justification. It seems strange that, in spite of all his\nreverence for the Bible, he should have entrusted himself entirely to\nthe guidance of his own reason, and forced, as it were, the Bible by\npeculiar interpretations to follow his reasoning. In truth, however,\nthe method of Maimonides is neither strange nor arbitrary. There is no\ndoubt that figurative language is extensively used in the Scriptures,\nespecially in the poetical and the prophetical books. Whether a certain\nexpression or phrase was to be understood in its literal meaning or in\na figurative sense must be learnt from the context; in some cases\u2014as,\ne.g., in the exhortation, \u201cYe shall circumcise the foreskin of your\nheart\u201d (Deut. x. 16)\u2014the figurative sense is accepted by all, whilst in\nother cases opinions are divided. Our decision in favour of the one\ninterpretation or the other is based on our conviction that the Bible\ncontains nothing but truth. When we discover a contradiction between a\nBiblical statement and the dictates of our reason, we are sure that we\nhave erred either in the right understanding of the words of the Bible\nor in our reasoning. On finding the mistake in our reasoning we abandon\nwhat we have hitherto considered as fully established; but so long as\nwe are unable to discover where our reasoning is faulty, we either\nsuspend our judgment for the present and consider the question as one\nof the problems which we have not yet been able to solve\nsatisfactorily, or, whenever possible, we attempt to reconcile by\nfigurative interpretation the teaching of the Bible with the results of\nour research. Maimonides is therefore justified in saying that so long\nas reason does not decide against the teaching of the Bible in its\nliteral sense he would adhere to the latter, and only if reason were to\ndecide against the Creatio ex nihilo, he would follow reason and\ninterpret Scripture accordingly.\n\nIt cannot be denied that Maimonides travelled here on rather slippery\nground, and set a dangerous example when he admitted that he would\ninterpret Scripture according to his preconceived view of the world\u2019s\nbeginning. But, on the other hand, it must be owned that many passages\nof the Bible admit of a figurative interpretation, and the reader must\nfollow his own reason and discretion in deciding in each particular\ncase which of the two interpretations is the correct one. Maimonides\nhas not made excessive use of this license.\n\nSaadiah in his Emunoth Ve-deoth devotes the first chapter to the\nproblem of the Creation. It is headed \u200f\u05d7\u05d3\u05d5\u05e9\u200e \u201cCreation,\u201d and examines\nthirteen different opinions as to the origin of the universe. In the\nconclusion of this chapter he makes the following remarks: \u201cPerhaps\nsome one might ask in what manner something was produced from nothing.\nTo this we reply as follows: If we were able to understand this, we\nshould not have ascribed the creative act to God alone. But we declare\nGod as the only Creator, because we can form no idea as to the manner\nin which something is created from nothing. Those who desire us to show\nthem how to do this, desire, in fact, that we should make them and\nourselves creators. We only conceive in our mind the fact of the\nCreation, but cannot form an idea or image of the process itself....\nThere may be some who think little of the universe, and wonder that\nthis should be the result of all the power and wisdom of God. We reply\nthat He created as much as, according to His knowledge, would be within\nthe range of man\u2019s observation and perception, and would be sufficient\nto teach man the existence of God.... How can we conceive the idea that\nthe universe counts only 4633 years? But the universe has been created,\nas we believe, and must have had a beginning at a certain time. Suppose\nwe had been living in the year 100; we should then not have been\nsurprised: why should we be surprised now?\u201d The question as to the\npurpose for which the universe was created, Saadiah makes three\nattempts to answer. Maimonides, however, in \u201cThe Guide,\u201d more\ncorrectly, shows that the question is unanswerable and superfluous.\nFor, whatever purpose we assume, we must always further inquire what is\nthe purpose of this purpose, and so on ad infinitum, till we arrive at\nthe answer, it was the Will of God. If the prophet declares that God\n\u201chath not created it in vain, but hath formed it for dwelling,\u201d he\nlikewise says implicitly it was the Will of God that the earth should\nbe for a dwelling.\n\nThe question, however, arises whether the Biblical account of the\nCreation harmonises in all its parts with the results of scientific\nresearch. To prove the existence of harmony between the two discordant\nelements has been since days of old the task which theologians proposed\nto themselves; philosophic culture forced them to accept the doctrines\nof a certain school of thought as established truths, whilst religious\nfeeling would not allow them to abandon the teaching of the inspired\nwriters. But the search after this harmony was superfluous, and the\nharmony found was illusory. For, whilst the teaching of the Bible\nremains unchanged, the systems of philosophy and science, like\neverything human, have no claim to permanency; each system has its\nseason; it begins to shine, and rises higher and higher; and when it\nhas reached the zenith, it begins steadily to decline till it\ndisappears beneath the horizon of science. So long as Aristotle and\nPtolemy were dominant, theologians exerted themselves to show that the\naccount contained in the first chapter of Genesis fully harmonises with\nAristotle and Ptolemy. When these princes were dethroned, and their\nplaces were occupied by others, the old harmony was gone, and a new\nmethod had to be invented. Maimonides has clearly pointed out how the\nconflict between reason and faith, where it existed, could best be\nbrought to a conclusion. Such of the laws of nature as have been\nestablished by human acumen and human observation have been discovered\nin the phenomena of existing nature; but the phenomenon of creation has\nnever been observed in nature from which we could learn the laws of\ncreation.\n\nIn the seventeenth chapter of the Second Book of \u201cThe Guide\u201d Maimonides\nsays as follows: \u201cEverything produced comes into existence from\nnon-existence; even when the substance of a thing has been in\nexistence, and has only changed its form, the thing itself which has\ngone through the process of genesis and development, after having\narrived at its final state, has properties different from those which\nit possessed at the commencement of the transition from potentiality to\nreality or before that time.... It is quite impossible to infer from\nthe qualities which a thing possesses after having passed through all\nthe stages of its development what its condition was at the moment when\nthis process commenced; nor does the condition of a thing at that\nmoment show what its previous condition had been. If you make this\nmistake, and attempt to prove the nature of a thing in potential\nexistence by its properties when actually existing, you will fall into\ngreat confusion; you will reject evident truth and admit false\nopinions.... If philosophers would consider this well, and reflect on\nit, they would find that it represents exactly the dispute between\nAristotle and ourselves. We, the followers of Moses, our teacher, and\nof Abraham, our father, believe that the universe has been produced\nfrom nothing, and has developed in a certain manner, and that it has\nbeen created in a certain order. The Aristotelians oppose us, and found\ntheir objections on the properties which the things in the universe\npossess when in actual existence and fully developed. We admit the\nexistence of these properties, but hold that these properties\nthemselves have come into existence from absolute non-existence. The\narguments of our opponents are thus refuted; they have demonstrative\nforce only against those who hold that the nature of things as at\npresent in existence proves the Creation. But this is not my opinion.\u201d\n\nThis reasoning holds good with regard to the modern theory of\nEvolution. We may be able to discover numerous facts in evidence of\nthis theory, we may well conceive the idea of a protoplasm developing\ninto a whole system of worlds, and yet our belief in the truth of the\nBiblical account of the Creation is not shaken in the least. The laws\nof Evolution are the result of the creative act of the Almighty, and\nnot its causes; they include nothing that could disprove the\ncorrectness of the theory of Creatio ex nihilo.\n\nRabbi S. R. Hirsch, in his \u201cCommentary on Genesis\u201d (i.) says: \u201cThe word\n\u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9\u05d9\u05ea\u200e \u2018in the beginning,\u2019 teaches that nothing preceded the act of\nCreation; that there was a Creatio ex nihilo. This truth forms the\nfoundation of the faith which the Divine Law is intended to establish\nin our hearts. The opposite theory is the doctrine of the eternity of\nthe substance, a theory which leaves to the Creator nothing but the\nfunction of giving form to the substance that has existed already from\neternity, and which has been the basis of the heathen belief up to the\npresent day.... The first word of the Torah dispels the darkness of\nthis false belief; and the words, \u2018The opening of thy word giveth\nlight\u2019 (Ps. cxix. 130), have in the Midrash correctly been applied to\nthe word \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9\u05d9\u05ea\u200e. Everything, the matter and the form of all beings,\nis the result of the free will of the Creator, who continues to rule\nmatter and form, and to determine both the natural forces and the laws\nof their action. For it is His free will that created matter, endowed\nit with certain forces, and fixed the laws by which the forces impress\nthe different forms on it.\u201d\n\nThe idea of development and evolution is not entirely excluded from the\naccount of the Creation. Not in one moment or in one day was the\nuniverse produced, but in six days by successive creations of a\nsystematic order. In Mishnah Aboth (v. 1) this is expressed in the\nfollowing way: \u201cBy ten words (\u200f\u05de\u05d0\u05de\u05e8\u05d5\u05ea\u200e) the universe was created,\nalthough this could have been done by one word.\u201d Commentators have\nvariously attempted to explain this fact, and to show that the order\nobserved in the Creation was determined by the nature of the things\nthemselves. Thus Ibn Ezra believes that the successive creations were\nthe results of the continued action of light and heat. [19] But it is\nby no means necessary to reconcile the Biblical account with every\ntheory that happens to be considered by some scholar or school as the\nright one. There may be found in nature and in the working of the\nnatural laws some facts analogous to certain acts of the creation; but\na perfect equality of two such incongruent things as the creation from\nnothing and development of created beings is impossible. By forcing the\ntext of the Bible into such harmony we deprive the account of its\npoetry and beauty, and weaken the force of its teaching.\n\nScience teaches that millions of millions of years must have elapsed\nbefore the earth received its present form; that it took millions of\nyears before the light of certain stars could reach the earth. In all\nthese calculations one important factor is ignored, viz., that for\nevery development something must be given, which is subject to the\nprocess of developing; to determine in what condition that something\nwas, when it passed from the passive state of creation to the active\nstate of developing, is a problem for the solution of which there is no\nanalogy in nature. He who could create a germ endowed with all the\nnatural forces required for development and differentiation into the\ngreat variety of forms which we perceive at present, must certainly\nhave been able to create the things actually endowed with these forms.\nThus, also, the various strata of the earth, whatever forms they\ncontain, cannot with certainty be described as the results of\ndevelopment; they may just as well have come directly from the hand of\nthe Creator.\n\nMaimonides (The Guide, xxx.) says in reference to this question: \u201cYou\nshould also know the dictum of our Sages\u2014\u2018All the beings of the work in\nthe beginning (\u200f\u05de\u05e2\u05e9\u05d4 \u05d1\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9\u05d9\u05ea\u200e) were created in their full height, their\nfully developed reason, and endowed with the best of properties.\u2019 Note\nthis, for it involves an important principle.\u2014The work of the Creation\nwent on for six days; every day brought to light a new force, a new\nresult of a creative action, but on the seventh day \u2018God declared [20]\nthe work which He had done as finished,\u2019 as endowed with the properties\nand forces required for their further development\u201d (The Guide, I.\nlxvii.).\n\nScience has proved, it is maintained, that the earth does not form the\ncentre of the universe, and that man does not form the principal object\nin nature, in opposition to the teaching of the Scriptures that the\nearth is the centre round which the whole universe revolves, and that\nman on earth is the lord of the creation. Whatever view the authors of\nthe Biblical books held as regards the systems of the universe, whether\nthey placed the earth in the centre or not, whether all the stars and\nsystems of stars existed, in their opinion, only for the sake of the\nearth or for the benefit of man, their object was to address man, to\ninstruct him, and to teach him the omnipotence, wisdom, and goodness of\nGod. For this reason the account of the Creation is given in such a\nmanner that man should be able to reproduce in his mind the work of\neach day of the Creation, to view it from his standpoint, and to\nrecognise the benefits each day\u2019s work bestowed on him. The fact that\nother beings are benefited at the same time, and that the benefit they\nderive is likewise part of the Creator\u2019s design, is by no means denied\nby those who believe that the well-being of man was included in the\ndesign of the Creator. It is part of our duty of gratitude to ascribe\nthe benefits we enjoy to their Author. The prophets and the inspired\nsingers knew well the place which weak and mortal man occupies in the\nuniverse; but they did not ignore the dignity and importance with which\nthe Creator endowed him in spite of all his weakness and apparent\ninsignificance. \u201cWhat is man,\u201d exclaims the Psalmist, \u201cthat thou art\nmindful of him? and the son of man, that thou visitest him? And yet\nthou hast made him a little lower than angels, and hast crowned him\nwith glory and honour\u201d (Ps. viii. 5, 6).\n\n\n\nOn the Fifth Principle, p. 44.\n\nThe principle that no other being but God is worthy of being addressed\nin prayer implies the belief that God can fulfil our petitions. We\nbelieve in the efficacy of prayer. It is true that when we communicate\nour wishes to the Most Holy, our just Lord and our loving Father, we\nare eo ipso reminded to examine our desires, whether they contain\nanything unholy, anything unjust or ignoble. Prayer to God has\ntherefore the salutary effect of purifying, refining, and ennobling our\nheart. It banishes evil thoughts, and thus saves us much pain and\nsorrow. This effect may have been designed by the Creator, and it may\nbe for this purpose that He has endowed us with a natural impulse to\npray, and has taught us to pray in His Holy Word. But this cannot be\nthe direct object of prayer. The immediate effect sought to be obtained\nby this act is the fulfilment of our wishes. Every such fulfilment\nimplies a miracle, a deviation from the regular course of nature. We\nare not in the habit of praying for things which we expect as the sure\nresult of the natural laws; we may praise and admire nature in its\nworkings, but we shall never ask nature for the fulfilment of our\ndesires. Only those things which we believe to be dependent solely on\nthe free decision of the Supreme Being can form the substance of our\npetitions; and since we believe that everything, the regular working of\nthe natural laws not excepted, depends on the Will of God, we include\nin the objects of prayer whatever concerns the well-being of individual\nman and society at large.\n\nThere have been thinkers that formed such an idea of God that they were\ncompelled to deny Him every direct influence on human affairs. Some\nthought it incompatible with the notion of God\u2019s Unity and Immutability\nthat He should be moved by man\u2019s prayer to do something which otherwise\nHe would not have done. Again, others believe that the laws of\nnature\u2014whether given by God or not\u2014are so permanent that they never\nchange under any circumstances. Prayer has therefore been explained to\nbe of a purely subjective character, and to effect only the\nabove-mentioned improvement of man\u2019s heart. But could we really pray to\nGod to grant us the one thing or the other if we were convinced that He\ncannot grant us anything, but must allow nature to take its course? Can\na prayer offered in such a frame of mind be called a \u201cprayer without\nlips of deceit\u201d? In opposition to such theories our teachers purposely\nintroduced into the daily prayer here and there a reminder of the true\ntheory in words like the following: \u200f\u05d4\u05de\u05d7\u05d3\u05e9 \u05d1\u05d8\u05d5\u05d1\u05d5 \u05d1\u05db\u05dc \u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05ea\u05de\u05d9\u05d3 \u05de\u05e2\u05e9\u05d4\n\u05d1\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9\u05d9\u05ea\u200e \u201cWho repeateth anew every day regularly the work of the\nCreation.\u201d He is constantly \u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05e6\u05e8 \u05d0\u05d5\u05e8\u200e, \u200f\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d7\u05e9\u05da\u200e, \u200f\u05de\u05d7\u05d9\u05d4 \u05d4\u05de\u05ea\u05d9\u05dd\u200e; He\nconstantly \u201cformeth light,\u201d \u201ccreateth darkness,\u201d \u201cgiveth life to the\ndead,\u201d &c.; they have expressed our gratitude to God \u200f\u05e2\u05dc \u05e0\u05e1\u05d9\u05dd \u05e9\u05d1\u05db\u05dc \u05d9\u05d5\u05dd\n\u05e2\u05de\u05e0\u05d5 \u05d5\u05e2\u05dc \u05e0\u05e4\u05dc\u05d0\u05ea\u05d9\u05da \u05d5\u05d8\u05d5\u05d1\u05ea\u05d9\u05da \u05e9\u05d1\u05db\u05dc \u05e2\u05ea\u200e \u201cfor His miracles which in our behalf\nHe performs every day, and for His wonders and kindnesses shown at all\ntimes.\u201d\n\n\u201cThis idea of God\u2019s real and active rule in the universe is the basis\nof prayer. It is not only the belief in the truth of the Biblical\naccount of miracles that enables us to pray to our Father, but the\nconviction that wonders and miracles are constantly wrought by Him. In\nthe Talmud and in the Midrash man\u2019s earning his daily bread (\u200f\u05e4\u05e8\u05e0\u05e1\u05d4\u200e)\nis declared to be a miracle by no means inferior to the miracles\nwrought for the deliverance of the Israelites from Egypt.\u2014\u2018Is need\ngreatest, is God nearest,\u2019 is a well-known saying, the truth of which\nmany have experienced in the course of their life. Those who have been\ndangerously ill, and after having found that man, with all his science\nand resources, was incapable of affording relief, gradually recover\ntheir former health; those who have shared with others a common danger,\nand while their companions, under exactly the same circumstances,\nperished, were themselves saved; those who, having exhausted every\nmeans conceivable to them of obtaining a livelihood, at length find a\nnew path of subsistence opened to them: all these have experienced the\nDivine help and His nearness in their distress; they have learnt to\nrecognise the miraculous power of Providence. But it is not only in\nsuch extraordinary events that the finger of God is seen; to him who\nhas eyes to see they appear daily and hourly. We are exposed to many\ndangers, the existence of which we frequently only learn when we are\nsafe; we escape them by a miracle.\u201d [21]\n\nThe Immutability of God and of His decrees is frequently insisted upon\nin Scripture. \u201cI, the Lord, I change not\u201d (Mal. iii. 6). \u201cGod is not a\nman, that he should lie; neither the son of man, that he should repent\u201d\n(Num. xxiii. 19). \u201cThe Strength of Israel will not lie nor repent; for\nhe is not a man, that he should repent\u201d (1 Sam. xv. 29). \u201cAnd he hath\nestablished them for ever and ever: he hath made a decree, and it shall\nnot pass away\u201d (Ps. cxlviii. 6).\u2014This immutability, however, does not\ninterfere with the free-will of man and its consequences. The teaching\nof the Bible is beautifully expressed in the well-known sentence:\n\u200f\u05ea\u05e9\u05d5\u05d1\u05d4 \u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d4 \u05d5\u05e6\u05d3\u05e7\u05d4 \u05de\u05e2\u05d1\u05d9\u05e8\u05d9\u05df \u05d0\u05ea \u05e8\u05e2 \u05d4\u05d2\u05d6\u05e8\u05d4\u200e \u201cRepentance, prayer, and good\ndeeds remove the evil of the divine decree\u201d (Musaf of Rosh ha-shanah);\nwhatever a man has forfeited by evil deeds, he may recover by prayer\nand improved conduct. This lesson is taught in the Bible on every page,\nand is illustrated by the history of Israel. For this reason the\nprophets were sent to the people of Israel to exhort them, and to show\nthem how they could, by means of repentance, ward off the impending\ncatastrophe. To non-Israelites the same mercy was extended, as is shown\nby the history of the mission of the prophet Jonah.\u2014Mishnah Aboth (iv.\n13) therefore declares, \u201cRepentance and good deeds are like a shield\nagainst punishment,\u201d \u200f\u05ea\u05e9\u05d5\u05d1\u05d4 \u05d5\u05de\u05e2\u05e9\u05d9\u05dd \u05d8\u05d5\u05d1\u05d9\u05dd \u05db\u05ea\u05e8\u05d9\u05e1 \u05d1\u05e4\u05e0\u05d9 \u05d4\u05e4\u05e8\u05e2\u05e0\u05d5\u05ea\u200e.\n\nThe seeming incongruity of the two principles, God\u2019s immutability and\nman\u2019s hope for mercy and pardon from God, has to some extent occupied\nthe attention of our ancient teachers. \u201cIf our condition for a whole\nyear is determined in advance, what is the good of our daily prayers\nand our supplication for God\u2019s help in times of trouble?\u201d Such is the\nquestion asked in the Babylonian Talmud, Rosh ha-shanah (16a), and the\nanswer is given, \u200f\u05d9\u05e4\u05d4 \u05e6\u05e2\u05e7\u05d4 \u05e7\u05d5\u05d3\u05dd \u05d2\u05d6\u05e8\u05d4 \u05d5\u05d0\u05d7\u05e8 \u05d2\u05d6\u05e8\u05d4\u200e \u201cPrayer is of good\neffect both before the decree and afterwards.\u201d It is always in the\npower and in the will of the Almighty to accede to our petitions and to\nfulfil our wishes. The question has since been repeated frequently, but\nno better solution has as yet been supplied.\n\nAbraham, who was the first teacher of monotheism, has also been made by\ntradition the father of prayer. In the Biblical account he is the first\nwho uttered a prayer; a prayer in the true sense of the word, not for\nhimself, but for his fellow-men. The words of Cain, \u200f\u05d2\u05d3\u05d5\u05dc \u05e2\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9 \u05de\u05e0\u05e9\u05d0\u200e\n\u201cMy punishment is greater than I can bear,\u201d have not the character of\nprayer, nor can the \u201ccalling by the name of God\u201d in the age of Enosh be\nconsidered with certainty as an expression of prayer. Tradition\nrelates, therefore, that before Abraham there was no one that called\nGod by the name \u200f\u05d0\u05d3\u05d5\u05df\u200e \u201cLord.\u201d Abraham was the first who recognised God\nas Lord of man, in whose hand his fate lies,\u2014the condition sine qu\u00e2 non\nof prayer. From Abraham onwards prayer remained the chief refuge in\ndanger, and the best, solace and relief in time of trouble.\n\nWhilst, however, insisting on the belief in the efficacy of prayer, our\nSages teach us that it would be wrong to expect that every petition\nuttered before God must be granted. We pray to the Almighty, being\nconvinced that it is in His power to grant what we pray for; but we\nmust trust in the wisdom and mercy of God, that the rejection of our\npetition is also for our good. \u201cHe is near to all those who call on\nhim, to all those that call on him in truth,\u201d who continue to trust in\nHim and His goodness even when their wishes are not fulfilled. It would\nbe almost equal to superstition to believe that any words, however\nearnest and devout, uttered by us will infallibly have the desired\neffect. The Mishnah (Aboth ii. 13) therefore teaches: \u200f\u05d0\u05dc \u05ea\u05e2\u05e9 \u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05ea\u05da \u05e7\u05d1\u05e2\n\u05d0\u05dc\u05d0 \u05e8\u05d7\u05de\u05d9\u05dd \u05d5\u05ea\u05d7\u05e0\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cDo not make thy prayer a fixed claim or demand,\nwhich must be fulfilled, but a supplication for mercy, which may or may\nnot be granted.\u201d The belief that the prayer will undoubtedly be\nfulfilled is denounced in the Talmud as \u200f\u05e2\u05d9\u05d5\u05df \u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d4\u200e \u201cLooking out with\ncertainty for the effect of the prayer.\u201d [22] Since the principal\nobject of prayer is the granting of our petitions, prayer will be\nsuperfluous when no wants will any longer be felt, \u200f\u05dc\u05e2\u05ea\u05d9\u05d3 \u05dc\u05d1\u05d5\u05d0 \u05d4\u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d5\u05ea\n\u05d1\u05d8\u05dc\u05d5\u05ea\u200e \u201cIn future prayers will be discontinued;\u201d only \u200f\u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05ea \u05ea\u05d5\u05d3\u05d4 \u05d0\u05d9\u05e0\u05d4\n\u05d1\u05d8\u05dc\u05d4 \u05dc\u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd\u200e \u201cThe prayer of thanksgiving will never be discontinued.\u201d\n\u201cIn the enjoyment of the purest blessings our feelings of gratitude\nwill never die out\u201d (Yalkut on Ps. lvi.).\n\nRabbi Joseph Albo, in the book Ikkarim, says (IV. xvi.): \u201cAlthough\nPrayer is not one of the principles of our Torah, it is intimately\nconnected with the belief in Providence, and every one who believes in\nProvidence ought to believe in the efficacy of prayer. For he who does\nnot pray to God in time of trouble either does not believe in Divine\nProvidence, or if he does believe, he doubts whether God is able to\nsupply his wants; in both cases man is an unbeliever. It is also\npossible that a person who believes in Divine Providence and in God\u2019s\nOmnipotence doubts whether he deserves that his prayer should be\ngranted\u2014a feeling of humility which ought indeed to fill the heart of\nevery person\u2014but this idea must not prevent him altogether from praying\nto God concerning his wants. If he does not pray from this reason, he\nmay believe in God\u2019s justice, but he does not believe in His mercy and\nkindness. It is also contrary to the teaching of the Bible. \u2018Not\nrelying on our righteousness do we offer our supplication before you,\nbut on your great mercy!\u2019 For the benefits bestowed by God on His\ncreatures are acts of love, not of recompense.... Man receives\nbenefits, whether he is entitled to them or not, because prayer gives\nhim a qualification which he does not possess by nature, and enables\nhim to receive such good things as could not be obtained from any other\nbeing or through any other means....\n\n\u201cThere are some who doubt the efficacy of prayer; they argue thus: We\nmust assume that a certain good thing has been either decreed or not\ndecreed in favour of a certain person: if it has been decided, prayer\nis not wanted; and if it has not been decided, how can prayer effect a\nchange in the Will of God, who is unchangeable? Neither righteousness\nin action, nor prayer, is of any avail in procuring any good thing that\nhas not been ordained, or in escaping any evil that has been decreed.\nThis is also the argument of Job in chap. xxi. But the answer to these\narguments is this: Whatever may have been decreed, certain conditions\nmust be fulfilled before the decree is executed. If a good harvest is\ndecreed to a certain person, he must plough and sow before he can\nsecure such a harvest; if punishment is decreed against him, the\npunishment is not inflicted in the absence of continued and repeated\nsinning. The history of King Ahab shows that the evil decreed against\nany sinner takes no effect if the sinner repents and is turned into\nanother man. The change that takes place in man himself is the direct\neffect of prayer and righteousness; it prepares and qualifies him for\nreceiving benefits and protection from evil. Our Sages say therefore:\nPrayer has its good effect both before and after the Divine decree. The\nImmutability of God is not less consistent with Efficacy of Prayer than\nit is with His knowledge of things which are possible, and may happen\nor may not happen. God and His knowledge being unchangeable, everything\nmust be certain and nothing merely possible. And yet we are convinced\nof the existence of these things, and believe at the same time in the\nImmutability of God\u2019s knowledge. In the same manner we are convinced of\nthe Efficacy of Prayer without doubting the Immutability of God\u2019s\nWill.\u201d\n\n\n\nOn Revelation, p. 46.\n\nThe term \u200f\u05e0\u05d1\u05d9\u05d0\u200e \u201cprophet\u201d only expressed the prophet\u2019s function of\naddressing his fellow-men when inspired and impelled by the Spirit of\nthe Lord. The verb \u201cto prophesy\u201d is therefore in Hebrew expressed by\nthe nifal or passive. In so far as the Word of God has been revealed to\nhim he is called \u200f\u05e8\u05d0\u05d4\u200e, \u200f\u05d7\u05d5\u05d6\u05d4\u200e and \u200f\u05e6\u05e4\u05d4\u200e \u201cSeer,\u201d \u200f\u05d0\u05d9\u05e9 \u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cMan of\nGod,\u201d \u200f\u05d0\u05d9\u05e9 \u05d4\u05e8\u05d5\u05d7\u200e \u201cThe inspired.\u201d In the time of Samuel the title \u200f\u05e8\u05d0\u05d4\u200e\nwas generally given to the prophet instead of \u200f\u05e0\u05d1\u05d9\u05d0\u200e (1 Sam. ix. 9), as\nhis advice was also sought by many who believed him to be able to\nforesee coming events and to know everything. As, however, the word\n\u200f\u05e0\u05d1\u05d9\u05d0\u200e only describes the prophet as addressing his fellow-men, it is\nused both of the true and the false prophets, and also of teachers and\npreachers generally. The Targum on the Prophets (Jer. xxix. 15; Isa.\nxxix. 10) renders, therefore, the term \u200f\u05e0\u05d1\u05d9\u05d0\u200e in some instances:\n\u200f\u05de\u05dc\u05e4\u05d9\u05df\u200e \u201cteachers,\u201d \u200f\u05e1\u05e4\u05e8\u05d9\u05d0\u200e \u201cscholars.\u201d\n\nThe enthusiasm manifested by the prophet in his mode of address, or in\nhis endurance of insult and ill-treatment, made him sometimes appear in\nthe eyes of the public as though he were struck with madness, so that\nscoffers used \u200f\u05e0\u05d1\u05d9\u05d0\u200e and \u200f\u05de\u05e9\u05d2\u05e2\u200e \u201cmad,\u201d as synonyms (Jer. xxix. 26), and\n\u200f\u05de\u05ea\u05e0\u05d1\u05d0\u200e is both one who acts as a prophet and one who imitates the\nappearance of a prophet (1 Sam. xviii. 10).\n\nThe false prophets are divided by Jeremiah into three classes: there\nwere those who were guilty of a direct plagiarism, preaching the Divine\nmessages of the true prophets and describing them as their own\ninspiration. There were others who plagiarised and reproduced true\nprophecies in a form and style of their own, and others again who\naltogether invented dreams and visions. The principal test for\ndistinguishing between the true and the false prophets was the purity\nof moral and religious conduct. In matters wholly indifferent as\nregards morality and religion the prophet was believed after having\nestablished his trustworthiness in some way or other, and his advice\nwas acted upon. The prophet himself could easily detect the fraud of a\nfalse prophet; for what he was commanded by God to do, another prophet\ncould not, speaking in the name of the same God, order not to be done.\nThe prophet, therefore, who deceitfully induced \u201cthe man of God\u201d to\nreturn to Beth-el by the very way which the word of God had forbidden\nhim to go again (1 Kings xiii. 18), could not have been a true prophet,\nalthough he was subsequently entrusted with a Divine message for \u201cthe\nman of God.\u201d Bileam was likewise for a certain purpose made the bearer\nof God\u2019s words, although he was by no means a good man. In either case\nthe sinful intention of the false prophet was stigmatised as contrary\nto the Will of the Most High, and both had, as it were, to own the\nwickedness of their intention or the wrong of their actions.\n\nThe subject-matter of the prophecy is called \u201cthe vision,\u201d \u201cthe word of\nGod,\u201d or \u201cthe burden of the word of God.\u201d In the days of Jeremiah the\nterm \u201cburden of the Lord\u201d seems to have been used contemptuously of the\nprophetic utterances in the sense of \u201ctrouble\u201d and \u201cstrife\u201d (comp.\nDeut. i. 12), and the prophet was ironically asked by the people, \u201cWhat\nis the burden of the Lord?\u201d Jeremiah exhorts them to say, \u201cWhat hath\nthe Lord answered thee?\u201d or \u201cWhat hath the Lord spoken?\u201d \u201cBut the\nburden of the Lord shall ye remember no more; for the burden shall be\nthe man\u2019s to whom His word is brought\u201d (Jer. xxiii. 36).\n\n\n\nOn the Sixth Principle, p. 131.\n\nSaadiah in Emunoth ve-deoth iii. says: \u201cSome men believe that we have\nno need of prophets, our reason being able to distinguish between good\nand evil. But if this were the case, God would not have sent messengers\nto us, because He does not do a thing that is purposeless. I considered\nthe question thoroughly, and found that the mission of the prophets was\nnecessary, not only for the promulgation of categorical commands, but\nalso for that of rational precepts. Thus the duty of thanksgiving to\nGod for His goodness is dictated by our own reason, but the Divine\nmessengers had to fix the time and the form of thanksgiving. Again,\nadultery is rejected by our reason as a crime; but the Divine teaching\ndetermines the conditions of the bond that unites man and wife....\n\n\u201cAs a test of the prophet\u2019s truthfulness and trustworthiness a sign is\ngiven, which consists of an act implying a deviation from the ordinary\nlaws of nature (comp. Exod. iii. and iv.). The Israelites are therefore\nfrequently reminded of \u2018the great wonders which their eyes saw\u2019 (Deut.\nvii. 19). Those who believed after the sign was given were \u2018the\nrighteous,\u2019 whilst those who did not believe \u2018went astray.\u2019 ...\n\n\u201cThe object of \u2018the wonders\u2019 was to produce belief in the prophecies;\nexcept for such a purpose as this, the regular course of Nature is not\ndisturbed, so that man can make his plans and arrange his affairs on\nthe basis of the continuance of the laws of Nature. The messengers sent\nby God were not angels, but men like ourselves, in order that the force\nof the sign may be more apparent; for, seeing that beings like\nourselves perform things which we cannot perform, we conclude that a\nhigher Being has endowed them with extraordinary power for a special\npurpose. If, however, angels had been chosen for the task of prophets,\nwe should not have considered their performance as signs; but, not\nknowing the nature of angels, we should have thought that such acts\nwere within the regular and natural powers of angels. Prophets, like\nother human beings, cannot dispense with the regular functions of the\norgans of their body; they are subject to the different conditions of\nhealth; to poverty, ill-treatment on the part of their fellow-men, and\nto ignorance about future events, except those communicated to them by\nDivine inspiration.\u2014I found it necessary to state this here, because\nthere are people who believe that the prophet does not die like\nordinary people; others deny him the sensation of hunger and thirst;\nothers again think that he does not suffer from violence and wrong\ndirected against him, and some even believe that nothing is hidden from\nhim. These \u2018do not know the thoughts of the Lord, and do not understand\nHis counsel.\u2019\n\n\u201cIt is, further, my conviction that the prophets were satisfied, by\nsome extraordinary supernatural phenomena, that they were addressed by\nthe Almighty. (Comp. Exod. xxxiii. 9 and Ps. xcix. 7: \u2018In a pillar of\ncloud he speaketh to them.\u2019)\n\n\u201cAs to the relation of the Egyptian Magicians to Moses, we are informed\nthat ten miracles were wrought by Moses and only three by the\nMagicians. Even these three were only mentioned in order to show the\ndifference between Moses and the Magicians. Moses acted openly, the\nMagicians secretly; the effect of Moses\u2019 doing was felt throughout the\nwhole country, that of the Magicians only in a limited space....\n\n\u201cSome one might ask, \u2018How could Jonah have been chosen for his mission?\nWisdom would forbid us to appoint for an important mission a messenger\nthat is disobedient.\u2019 But I have examined the Book of Jonah, and have\nnot found any statement as regards the disobedience of Jonah. On the\ncontrary, I assume that he, like all prophets, brought the Divine\nmessage to the Ninevites. We frequently find in the Pentateuch. \u2018Speak\nto the children of Israel and tell them,\u2019 and we assume that Moses told\nthe Israelites, although this is not distinctly mentioned. The reason\nwhy Jonah fled is this: the first message which he actually brought to\nthe inhabitants of Nineveh contained simply a summons to repentance. He\nfeared that he would be again sent to threaten with punishment if they\ndid not return; and if they returned and the threatened catastrophe did\nnot occur, they might in course of time begin to doubt the veracity of\nhis words. He therefore left the land, which was distinguished as the\nland of prophecy (Jonah iv. 2).\u201d\n\nRabbi Jehudah ha-levi, in the book Cuzari (V. xii.), describes prophecy\nas an extraordinary gift granted by the Almighty to such human beings\nas are qualified for it by the highest degree of intellectual\ndevelopment, moral conduct, and an earnest desire for communion with\nGod. Such qualification is found only in a few privileged\nindividuals\u2014\u201cthe heart of mankind\u201d (\u200f\u05dc\u05d1 \u05d4\u05d0\u05d3\u05dd\u200e)\u2014who, as it were, possess\nit as an inheritance transmitted from generation to generation, but it\ncan only be possessed or acquired under certain favourable conditions,\ne.g., that the prophet live in Palestine, the land of prophecy, or have\nhis attention directed to Palestine (I. xcv.).\n\nIt was, however, necessary that mankind should derive a benefit from\nthe revelations made to the prophets. All had to learn that it was\npossible for a human being to receive a direct communication from God.\nThis lesson was given when the Israelites stood round Mount Sinai, and\nsuddenly became prophets. For, although the Israelites believed in the\nDivine mission of Moses after he had done many wonderful deeds, there\nremained yet a doubt in their minds whether God could speak to man, and\nwhether the Torah did not originate in the plans and schemes of human\nbeings, which by the help and assistance of God developed to\nperfection; for it seemed strange to them to ascribe speech, which is\ncorporeal, to a spiritual being. It is this doubt which God intended to\nremove from their hearts; they were therefore commanded to sanctify\nthemselves inwardly and outwardly, whereby they were prepared for the\ncondition of prophets and for hearing the words of God which were to be\ndirectly addressed to them. After a preparation of three days they\nreceived the Decalogue, not from any prophet or other person, but from\nGod Himself. But they felt their weakness and their inability to\nwitness such a great sight again. They were convinced that the Torah\nwas communicated by God to Moses, and was not the result of human\ninvention; that prophecy does not consist in the union of the soul of\nman with the active intellect, in his attaining to great wisdom, or in\nhis mistaking his own words for the words of God. Such erroneous\nopinions were refuted by the revelation on Mount Sinai.\u2014But, objects\nthe king of the Cuzarites, to believe that God spoke to the Israelites\nand wrote the Decalogue on the tables of stone amounts to believing in\na corporeification of the Deity.\u2014To which objection the following reply\nis given:\u2014\u201cFar be it from us to think that the Torah contains anything\ncontrary to reason. The Decalogue commences with the commandment to\nbelieve in God, and prohibits in the second commandment the\nrepresentation of God in any corporeal form. How could we, who deny\ncorporeality even to some of His creatures, attribute any corporeal\nproperty to the Supreme Being? For it is not the tongue, heart, or\nbrain of Moses that speaks to us, instructs and guides us, but his soul\nwhich is rational, incorporeal, and not subject to the relations of\nspace; we ascribe to the soul attributes of angels, of spiritual\nbeings. How much more is this the case with God! We have, therefore, no\nreason for rejecting the Biblical account of the revelation on Mount\nSinai; but we admit that we do not know how the idea became corporeal\nand was turned into audible speech, what new thing was then created or\nwhat things then in existence were annihilated. He is Almighty, and\nwhen we say that He created the tablets and covered them with His\nwriting, it was done, like the creation of the heavens, by His word;\nthat is, it was His Will that His thought should become corporeal to a\ncertain extent and assume the form of tables, and that a certain\nwriting be inscribed on them. Just as the division of the sea and the\nformation of a broad path between the walls of water was done directly\nby His Will, without using instruments or employing intermediate\ncauses, so the air that reached the ear of the prophet assumed such a\nform that sounds were perceived expressing the idea which God desired\nto communicate to the prophet or to the people\u201d (I., lxxxvii.\u2013lxxxix.).\nIn describing the different meanings of the names of God, Elohim and\nthe Tetragrammaton, [23] the author says: \u201cThe nature of Elohim can be\nperceived by reason, which teaches us that there exists a being who\ngoverns the universe. The opinions at which people arrive vary\naccording to the different modes of reasoning which they employ; the\nopinions of the philosophers have the greatest probability. But the\nidea contained in the Tetragrammaton cannot be found by reasoning, but\nis perceived intuitively by that prophetic vision during which man is\nalmost separated from his fellow-men, transformed into an angel, and\nfilled with another spirit; ... previous doubts concerning God\ndisappear, he smiles at the arguments by which men generally arrive at\nthe idea of a deity and unity; he then worships God in love, and would\nrather sacrifice his life than abandon the worship of God\u201d (IV., xv.).\n\nAbraham Ibn Ezra explains the words \u201cAnd the Lord spake to Moses\u201d as\nreferring to true speech and not to speech with the mouth, which is\nmerely a representation of the other. \u201cGod spake to Moses\u201d as man\nspeaketh to his neighbour; that is to say, directly and not through a\nmessenger (On Exod. xxxiii. 11).\u2014In commenting on the Nineteenth Psalm\nhe says: \u201cThe first part shows how the intelligent man can find in\nnature evidence for the existence and power of the Deity; but there is\na far better and more trustworthy witness: the Law, &c, called by David\n\u2018perfect,\u2019 because no other evidence is required in support of the\nDivine utterances contained in the Holy Writings\u201d (On Ps. xix. 8).\u2014Ibn\nEzra is so firm in his belief in the truth of the Divine Writings that\nhe sets aside the contrary opinions of men as absurd. \u201cWe believe in\nthe words of our God and abandon the vain opinions of the sons of man\u201d\n(On Gen. vii. 19).\u2014Whatever message they brought from God was true, and\nits realisation could be relied upon provided that the conditions were\nfulfilled, which were either expressed or implied. In other things,\nhowever, which were not contained in the Divine message they were not\ninfallible (On Exod. iv. 20). The prophets were trained for the office.\nThe sons of the prophets (or \u201cthe disciples\u201d) led a contemplative life\nof seclusion, in the hope of receiving inspiration, every one according\nto his faculty (On Exod. iii. 15). The first step in this preparation\nwas \u201cthe training in the fear of the Lord,\u201d which leads man to heed the\nnegative precepts of the Law. Then follows \u201cthe worship of God,\u201d which\nincludes the observance of all positive precepts (Yesod Mora, vii.).\n\nMaimonides (Mishneh torah, I.; Yesode ha-torah, vii. 1):\u2014\u201cOne of the\nprinciples of our faith is to believe that God inspires men. The\ninspiration can only take place in men who distinguish themselves by\ngreat wisdom and moral strength; who are never overcome by any passion,\nbut, on the contrary, overcome all passions; who possess wide and\nprofound knowledge. If those who are endowed with these various gifts,\nand, being physically perfect, enter the garden of speculation, are\nabsorbed in these great and difficult problems, have the mind to\nunderstand and to comprehend, sanctify themselves more and more,\nabandon the ways of the common people that walk in the deep darkness of\nthe time, and zealously train themselves in freeing their mind from\nuseless things, the vanities and tricks of the time, in order always to\nkeep the mind free for reflecting on higher things, on the most holy\nand pure forms, on the whole work of the Divine Wisdom from the first\nsphere to the centre of the earth, and to comprehend thereby the\ngreatness of God: then they will at once be inspired with the holy\nspirit, their soul will then be in the society of angels, they will\nbecome other beings, they will feel that they are not the same as\nbefore, that they are above other men, even above the wise. Thus it is\nsaid of Saul, \u2018And thou wilt prophesy with them, and be turned into\nanother man\u2019\u201d (1 Sam. x. 6).\n\nThe same opinion is expressed by Maimonides in his \u201cCommentary on the\nMishnah\u201d (Sanhedrin, xi. 1), and in \u201cThe Guide\u201d (III., xxxii.). In the\nlatter (l.c.) the various views on prophecy are fully discussed, and\nthe difference between the view of Maimonides and that of the\n\u201cphilosophers\u201d is given more distinctly. According to the philosophers,\nthe highest physical, moral, and intellectual development is the sole\nmeans for the acquisition of the prophetic faculty. Maimonides demands\nin addition to this the Divine Will; he reserves, as it were, for the\nSupreme Being a kind of veto, and believes that the prophetic faculty\nmay, by Divine interference, i.e., by a miracle, be withheld from a\nperson in spite of all preparation and fitness. He compares this\ninterference to the sudden paralysis and equally sudden recovery of the\nhand of King Jeroboam (1 Kings xiii. 4). Although the physical\nconditions for the motion of the hand were present, the motion could\nnot take place, because it was the Will of God that the hand should at\nthat particular time not be able to perform its natural functions.\n\nThe question naturally suggests itself, Why, then, is the number of\nprophets so exceedingly small? Why are there no prophets amongst the\nlarge host of philosophers whose intellectual faculties have been most\nhighly developed, and who apparently live in a sphere of ideals far\nabove earthly and ordinary passions? Maimonides denies the fact that\nthe conditions are fulfilled; he believes that the life of the\nphilosophers is on the whole not so pure as would qualify them for the\noffice of prophecy (II., xxxvi.).\n\nBut Bileam, Laban, and Abimelech enjoyed the privilege of Divine\ncommunication, although they had not attained to the highest degree of\nmoral sanctity. Maimonides says in reference to the dreams of Abimelech\nand Laban (ibid., chap. xli.): \u201cThe sentence, \u2018And Elohim (an angel)\ncame to a certain person in the dream of the night,\u2019 does not indicate\na prophecy, and the person to whom Elohim appeared is not a prophet;\nthe phrase only informs us that the attention of the person was called\nby God to a certain thing, and at the same time that this happened at\nnight. For just as God may cause a person to move in order to save or\nkill another, so He may cause, according to His Will, certain things to\nrise in man\u2019s mind in a dream by night. We have no doubt that the\nSyrian Laban was a wicked man and an idolater. Abimelech, though\nhimself a virtuous man, is told by Abraham, \u2018I said, Surely there is no\nfear of God in this place\u2019 (Gen. xx. 11). And yet of both it is said\nthat Elohim appeared to them in a dream. Note and consider the\ndistinction between the phrases \u2018Elohim came\u2019 and \u2018Elohim said;\u2019\nbetween \u2018in a dream by night\u2019 and \u2018in a vision by night.\u2019 In reference\nto Jacob it is said, \u2018And an angel said to Israel in visions by night\u2019\n(Gen. xlvi. 2), whilst in reference to Abimelech and Laban it is said,\n\u2018Elohim came to Abimelech (or to Laban) in the dream by night\u2019 (Ibid.\nxx. 3 and xxxi. 24). Onkelos therefore renders this phrase: \u2018A word\ncame from the Lord,\u2019 and not \u2018God revealed himself.\u2019\u201d\n\nBileam is, according to Maimonides, in some respect like Laban and\nAbimelech; what God told him in a dream by night was not a prophecy. In\nother respects he is described by this philosopher as a person endowed\nwith \u200f\u05e8\u05d5\u05d7 \u05d4\u05e7\u05d3\u05e9\u200e \u201cthe holy spirit;\u201d i.e., he felt that some influence\nhad come upon him, and that he had received a new power which\nencouraged him to speak for a certain object (The Guide, xlv.).\nMaimonides adds that at that time Bileam was still a virtuous man.\u2014This\nview of the position which Bileam occupies in the class of inspired men\nis different from the place assigned to him in the Midrash, where the\nfollowing passage occurs: \u201c\u2018There arose no prophet again in Israel like\nMoses;\u2019 that is to say, in Israel none arose, but among other nations\nthere was a prophet as great as Moses, namely, Bileam\u201d (Sifre, Deut.\nxxxiv. 10). Whatever may be the meaning of these words\u2014whether they are\nmeant as a satire or not\u2014they seem to indicate that Bileam possessed a\nhigh degree of prophetic faculty. But comparing the deeds of Bileam\nwith those of Moses, we find that the latter guided the Israelites and\nled them to good deeds and to a virtuous life, whilst Bileam misled\nthose who followed his guidance to sin and vice.\n\nThe view of Maimonides, that man after due preparation and training may\nstill be debarred from the rank of prophet, is severely criticised by\nthe Commentators of the Guide. They maintain that God, after having\ninvited and encouraged man to approach Him, would not then thwart the\nvery hope He had implanted. According to their opinion, God\u2019s hand is\nextended to all; every one may acquire the prophetic faculty, and those\nwho have not acquired it have not been duly qualified for it. (Comp.\nthe Comm. of Ephodi, Narboni a. o. on \u201cThe Guide,\u201d II., xxxii.).\n\nAlbo (Ikkarim, III., vii. sqq.) likewise admits that it is impossible\nto imagine a prophet who has not attained a high degree of moral and\nintellectual perfection. But he does not consider the prophetic faculty\nas a natural development of man\u2019s intellectual faculties. It is solely\nand directly due to Divine inspiration (\u200f\u05e9\u05e4\u05e2 \u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9\u200e), by means of which\nman acquires a knowledge of things which are otherwise beyond the\nlimits of human intellect. Of what nature the inspiration is, how it\ngives certitude to the prophet, and by what psychical process it is\naccomplished, only the prophet himself can fully comprehend. Albo, like\nMaimonides, assumes different degrees of inspiration from the\ninspiration (\u200f\u05e8\u05d5\u05d7 \u05d4\u05f3\u200e) which moved Samson to heroic deeds and David to\nsacred songs, to the prophetic communion of Moses with God \u201cface to\nface.\u201d The clearness of the prophet\u2019s utterances varies according to\nthe different degrees of his prophetic faculty, although all are\nequally true.\n\n\n\nOn the Seventh Principle, p. 133.\n\nThe words \u200f\u05e9\u05e0\u05d1\u05d5\u05d0\u05ea \u05de\u05e9\u05d4 \u05e8\u05d1\u05e0\u05d5 \u05e2\u05f3\u05f3\u05d4 \u05d4\u05d9\u05ea\u05d4 \u05d0\u05de\u05ea\u05d9\u05ea\u200e have been wrongly\ntranslated \u201cthat the prophecy of Moses was true,\u201d because this is\ncontained in the sixth principle, which applies equally to Moses and to\nall other prophets. The term \u200f\u05d0\u05de\u05ea\u05d9\u05ea\u200e does here not denote \u201ctrue,\u201d but\n\u201creal,\u201d \u201cperfect,\u201d or \u201cdirect;\u201d and the difference between the Divine\ninspiration of Moses and that of other prophets is expressed in the\nabove phrase, in accordance with the distinction made in the Pentateuch\n(Num. xii. 8). It has been considered necessary to formulate this\ndistinction between Moses and other prophets in a separate article,\nbecause it is of great importance in the proof of the Immutability of\nthe Law.\n\nMaimonides in \u201cThe Guide\u201d (chap. xxxv.) and Mishneh torah (I., Hilchoth\nYesode ha-torah vii. 6) fully describes the difference between Moses\nand other prophets. He enumerates four points:\u2014(1.) Other prophets\nreceived the Divine message in a vision or a dream, whilst Moses\nreceived it in a state of complete consciousness, being awake, and\napprehending the words like those spoken by a man to his fellow-men.\n(2.) Other prophets received the message in images, which they had\nfirst to interpret before communicating it to their fellow-men; Moses\nwas addressed by God in clear words and not in figurative speech. (3.)\nOther prophets were overcome by the sight, and were in a state of fear\nand trembling; Moses experienced nothing of this kind. (4.) Moses was\nsure to receive a Divine reply whenever he sought it; not so the other\nprophets.\n\nMaimonides comes thus to the conclusion that the term \u201cprophet\u201d when\napplied to Moses cannot have the same meaning as it has when applied to\nother Divine messengers; and the prophecy of Moses differs from that of\nother prophets not only in degree, but in kind. There are, however,\nother theologians who hold that the prophecy of Moses is of the same\nkind as that of other prophets, and excels the rest only by a higher\ndegree of prophetic faculty. (Comp. Albo Ikkarim, III., xvii.)\n\n\n\nOn the Eighth Principle, p. 134.\n\nThe integrity and authenticity of the Pentateuch has been subjected to\nall kinds of tests by critics of every age. The Massoretic remarks, to\nwhich allusions are found in the Talmud, seem to include the result of\ncritical examination of the text of the Bible. Thus we read in the\ntreatise Aboth di-Rabbi Nathan (chap. xxxiv.): \u201cThere are ten passages\nin the Pentateuch which are provided with points on the top of the\nletters, namely, Gen. xvi. 5; xviii. 9; xix. 33; xxxiii. 4; xxxvii. 12;\nNum. iii. 39; ix. 10; xxi. 30; xxix. 15; Deut. xxix. 28. What is the\nmeaning of these points? Ezra\u2014who is supposed to have added them\u2014said,\n\u2018If Elijah should come and show me that the reading was wrong, I should\ntell him that for that reason I marked them with points; and if he\nshould say that I wrote correctly, I should remove the points.\u2019\u201d In the\ntreatise Soferim (vi. 4) the following passage occurs:\u2014\u201cRabbi Simeon\nben Lakish said, Three copies of the Pentateuch were found in the hall\nof the Temple; they are called Sefer meonah, Sefer zatute, and Sefer\nhee. In the one \u200f\u05de\u05e2\u05d5\u05df\u200e was written instead of \u200f\u05de\u05e2\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4\u200e (Deut. xxxiii.\n27), in the other \u200f\u05d6\u05d0\u05d8\u05d5\u05d8\u05d9\u200e (Exod. xxiv. 5) instead of \u200f\u05e0\u05e2\u05e8\u05d9\u200e, and in\nthe third eleven times \u200f\u05d4\u05d9\u05d0\u200e instead of \u200f\u05d4\u05d5\u05d0\u200e. The reading that was\nfound only in one of the three copies was rejected, and that of the\nother two preferred. The received text has therefore \u200f\u05de\u05e2\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4\u200e, \u200f\u05e0\u05e2\u05e8\u05d9\u200e,\nand \u200f\u05d4\u05d9\u05d0\u200e.\u201d\n\nThese instances which tradition has preserved, are evidence of the\ngreat care and conscientiousness with which Ezra the Scribe and other\nmen transcribed and multiplied copies of the Pentateuch. We learn\nfurther from these instances that the text was never altered, even\nwhere the sense did not seem quite clear; and where the reading had\nbeen changed in some cases, the Massoretic notes show the way how to\nread the word whilst the text was retained in its original form. This\nis the cause of the Keri and Kethib, \u201cHow the word is read\u201d and \u201cHow it\nis written.\u201d In the Talmud a certain number of passages are described\nas tikkun soferim, \u201cThe style of the scribes;\u201d others as ittur soferim,\n\u201cElegance of the scribes.\u201d Commentators have interpreted these terms as\nindicating alterations of the text; but the instances quoted for\nillustration do not contain any trace of such a process. An instance of\ntikkun soferim is, \u201cAnd Abraham stood yet before the Lord\u201d (Gen. xviii.\n22). These words were believed to continue the account of the Divine\nvision introduced by the words, \u201cAnd God appeared to Abraham\u201d (ibid.\nxviii. 1), and interrupted by the narrative of the visit of the three\nangels. The reader might have expected, \u201cAnd God stood yet before\nAbraham.\u201d The method of expressing the same in the above form for the\nsake of euphemism is called tikkun soferim. From the instances of ittur\nsoferim quoted in the Talm. Nedarim 37b, we infer that the occasional\nomission of the copulative vav was designated by that name. (Comp. Gen.\nxviii. 5, \u200f\u05d0\u05d7\u05e8\u200e).\n\nIn Midrashic interpretations of the Bible we frequently meet with the\nphrase \u200f\u05d0\u05dc \u05ea\u05e7\u05e8\u05d9\u200e, \u201cDo not read,\u201d seemingly implying an emendation of\nthe Biblical text. It is, however, certain that the authors of such\ninterpretations did not for a moment entertain the idea that the\npassage in question was corrupt and required correction. What was meant\nby the above phrase is this: A Jewish audience was supposed to be\nfamiliar with the text of the Bible, and it was therefore believed that\nthe lessons which the teacher or preacher desired to impart would\nbetter reach the heart of the listener, and be more easily retained in\nhis memory, if it were expressed in the words of some Biblical passage.\nIf a passage could, by a slight alteration, be made to serve this\npurpose, such alteration was adopted and introduced with the words \u200f\u05d0\u05dc\n\u05ea\u05e7\u05e8\u05d9\u200e, \u201cDo not read, ... but ...\u201d\n\nThere are also some instances in the Talmud and the Midrashim of\nBiblical quotations not in harmony with the received text. This\ndiscrepancy is either due to the fact that preachers and expounders\nquoted from memory, and may have erroneously confounded two similar\npassages, or it is due to the carelessness of the copyists. Indications\nof a Biblical text at variance with the received text are found in the\nancient Versions. But, with the exception of the Chaldee Version of the\nPentateuch by Onkelos, and that of the Prophets by Jonathan, we have no\nauthorised Version, and it is uncertain how many of the discrepancies\nhave their origin in a corrupt text in the hands of the translator, and\nhow many of them are due to the error of the translator in misreading\nor mistranslating the correct text before him. By no means are these\nfacts sufficient ground for doubting the correctness of the received\ntext, however plausible the suggested emendations may appear.\n\nSamaritans and Mohammedans have accused the Jews of having altered the\ntext of the Bible; but they have not proved the charge. (See\nEmunah-ramah, 5th Principle, chap. ii.)\n\nModern critics have impugned the authenticity of most of the Biblical\nbooks. We will discuss their opinions concerning three of these books,\nand these are the most important ones concerning which Tradition speaks\nmost decidedly, viz., the Pentateuch, the Prophecies of Isaiah, and the\nBook of Daniel.\n\nThe existence of the Pentateuch at the time when the other Biblical\nbooks were written is clear from the frequent references to the history\nand the laws contained in it. Such are, e.g.: \u201cOnly be thou strong and\nvery courageous, that thou mayest observe to do according to all the\nlaw which Moses, my servant, commanded thee,\u201d &c. \u201cThis book of the law\nshall not depart out of thy mouth,\u201d &c. (Jos. i. 7, 8). \u201cAs Moses, the\nservant of the Lord, commanded the children of Israel, as it is written\nin the book of the law of Moses,\u201d &c. \u201cAnd he wrote there upon the\nstones a copy of the law of Moses which he wrote in the presence of the\nchildren of Israel. And afterward he read all the words of the law, the\nblessing and cursing, according to all that is written in the book of\nthe law\u201d (Ibid. viii. 31, 32, 34). \u201cKeep the charge of the Lord thy\nGod, to walk in his ways, to keep his statutes and his commandments,\nand his judgments, and his testimonies, as it is written in the law of\nMoses,\u201d &c. (1 Kings ii. 3). \u201cBut the children of the murderers he slew\nnot: according unto that which is written in the book of the law of\nMoses,\u201d &c. (2 Kings xiv. 6). \u201cKeep the passover unto the Lord your\nGod, as it is written in the book of the covenant\u201d (Ibid. xxiii. 21).\n\u201cRemember the law of Moses, my servant, which I commanded unto him in\nHoreb for all Israel, statutes and judgments\u201d (Mal. iii. 16).\n\nThe authors of the other books of the Bible show familiarity with the\nwords, the phrases, and the contents of the Pentateuch. Thus Psalm civ.\nis based on the first chapter of Genesis; the flood is mentioned in Ps.\nxxix. and in the prophecies of Isaiah (liv. 9); the history of the\nPatriarchs and of the Israelites in Egypt and in the wilderness in Ps.\ncvi., lxxviii.; the history of Jacob is alluded to in Hosea xii.; the\ndestruction of Sodom and Gomorrah in Isa. i. 9, Amos iv. 11.\n\nOf the laws contained in the Pentateuch many are mentioned or alluded\nto in the books of the Prophets and the Hagiographa; the feast of\nPassover (Jos. iv.), Tabernacles (Zech. xiv. 16\u201320, Ezra iii. 4, Neh.\nviii. 14\u201318); the first day [24] of the seventh month (New-year) is\nmentioned as a \u201choly day\u201d (Neh. viii. 10). The dietary laws are\nreferred to by Isaiah (lxvi. 17); the laws of cleanness and uncleanness\nform the text of a prophecy of Haggai (ii. 10 sqq.). Such phrases as\n\u201cUncircumcised in heart\u201d (Jer. ix. 25) and \u201cThou wilt purify me with\nhyssop and I shall be clean\u201d (Ps. li. 9) show familiarity with the laws\nof the Pentateuch. Sabbath and sacrifices are frequently mentioned.\nCritics, however, assert that certain laws seem to have been unknown or\nout of practice in the period of the Judges and the Kings. There is,\ne.g., a perfect silence as to the celebration of \u201cthe Day of Blowing\nthe shofar\u201d and \u201cthe Day of Atonement,\u201d even where such mention is\nsuggested by the context, as Kings viii. 65, 66, and Nehemiah viii. But\nthe inspired historians preferred to describe the celebration of those\nfestivals that had been neglected, or those that were also of national\nand political importance by concentrating the mass of the people in the\ncapital; such festivals were Passover and Tabernacles. The Day of\nBlowing the shofar and the Day of Atonement were set aside for quiet,\nprivate devotion and meditation, the additional service in the Temple\nbeing in the hands of the priests, and the observation of these days as\nholy days in accordance with the Law was a matter of course, and was\nnot considered by the authors as a memorable event that required\nspecial notice. One of the prophecies of Isaiah (chap, lviii.) seems to\nhave reference to the Day of Atonement.\n\nThat in the days of the Judges, when \u201cevery man did what was right in\nhis eyes,\u201d and during the reign of wicked kings many laws were ignored\nor broken is not at all surprising. When the sacrifices offered up by\nSamuel and Solomon are adduced as a proof that the Law, which only\nallows priests to sacrifice, was not known in those days, the argument\nis based on a misinterpretation of the Biblical text. When laymen\nbrought sacrifices, the priests performed the service for them; the\nprincipal thing to be mentioned was in whose name or in whose presence\nthe sacrifice was brought; it was unnecessary to state that the priests\nhad to sprinkle the blood and to burn certain portions upon the altar;\nno one doubted it.\n\nAnother argument against the authenticity of the Pentateuch has been\nbased on the fact related in the second book of Kings (xxii. 8 sqq.):\n\u201cAnd Hilkiah the high priest said unto Shaphan the scribe, I have found\na book of the law in the house of the Lord. And Shaphan the scribe\nshowed the king, saying, Hilkiah the priest hath delivered me a book.\nAnd Shaphan read it before the king. And it came to pass when the king\nhad heard the words of the book of the law, that he rent his clothes.\u201d\nIt is maintained by some scholars that the book, which seems to have\nbeen an unknown thing to those who found it and to the king, had only\njust then been written. This is not what is directly stated in the\nBible. Hilkiah speaks of the Law \u200f\u05d4\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e, the well-known Torah; he\nwould not have said so if the Torah had not been in existence before.\nFurthermore, the king on hearing the words of the book rent his\ngarments, and sent to inquire of the Lord concerning the words of this\nbook; for \u201cgreat is the wrath of the Lord that is kindled against us\nbecause our fathers have not hearkened unto the words of this book.\u201d\nThese words of the king clearly show that the king was convinced of the\ndivine character of the book, and also of its existence in the time of\nhis forefathers. The fact that King Josiah accuses \u201cthe fathers\u201d\nsuggests the following explanation of the event:\u2014During the reign of\nthe wicked King Manasseh the reading of the Law was interrupted; the\nbook itself was hidden lest it should be destroyed by the idolatrous\npriests; now that it was found again, the king was reminded that the\nTorah had been neglected in the interval through the sin of the\npreceding generation. Whether there was another copy of the Law in the\nTemple, whether the one found by Hilkiah was complete, or contained\nonly a portion of the Law, perhaps Deuteronomy, chap. xxvii. and chap.\nxxviii., which are in the Pentateuch called \u201cthe words of this\ncovenant\u201d and also \u201cthe words of the curse,\u201d titles which occur also in\nreference to the above copy in the books of Kings and Chronicles; to\nthese and similar questions the Biblical account gives no decided\nanswer. Only so much is certain that the book found was not new or\nunknown to those who found it, and the king recognised it as the book\nof the Torah.\n\nFar from finding in the other books of the Bible any evidence\u2014whether\npositive or negative\u2014of the later origin of the Torah, we feel\nconvinced that their contents presuppose not only the existence of the\nTorah, but also the authors\u2019 familiarity with it. Without the Torah the\nother books are unintelligible. There is nothing in the Pentateuch that\nbetrays a post-Mosaic origin. If the Pentateuch had been written in the\nperiod of the Kings, the author would have mentioned Jerusalem as the\nappointed place for the Sanctuary; in the rebukes (\u200f\u05ea\u05d5\u05db\u05d7\u05d4\u200e), in\naddition to idolatry, the social corruption pointed out by the prophets\nwould have been mentioned; the restrictive law concerning the marriage\nof heiresses would have been superfluous, as it only applied to the\nfirst generation that entered Palestine.\n\nThe phrase \u200f\u05e2\u05d1\u05e8 \u05d4\u05d9\u05e8\u05d3\u05df\u200e has been quoted as a proof that the author of\nthe Pentateuch must have lived in Palestine, or else he could not have\ncalled the east banks of the Jordan \u201cthe other side of Jordan;\u201d but\nthis translation is wrong. The phrase only means the banks of Jordan.\n\nIn the Talmud the Pentateuch in its entirety is ascribed to Moses.\n\u201cMoses wrote his book and the book of Bileam\u201d (Babyl. Talm. Baba\nBathra, 14b). The book of Bileam is the section of Numbers which\ncontains the parables of Bileam (from xxii. 2 to xxiv.).\n\nThere is, however, a difference of opinion with regard to the last\neight verses of the Pentateuch. According to Rabbi Jehudah (or Rabbi\nNehemiah) Joshua wrote this passage. Rabbi Shimeon objected: \u201cIs it\npossible that the Torah was incomplete when Moses was told, \u2018Take this\nbook of the law?\u2019 (Deut. xxxi. 26). [25] God dictated the last eight\nverses of the Pentateuch to Moses, and the latter wrote them with\ntears.\u201d\n\nWith this exception, no doubt was entertained by any of the Rabbis as\nto the integrity of the Torah. Various, however, were the opinions as\nto the method followed by Moses in writing down the events and the\nlaws. Rabbi Jochanan, following the opinion of Rabbi Banaah, held that\nthe Torah was written by Moses piecewise at different times, just as\nthe events happened or as each law was revealed to him. Rabbi Shimeon\nben Lakish said \u201cit was given at one time in its entirety\u201d (Babyl.\nTalm. Gittin 60a).\n\nPassages of the Torah which seemed to contradict each other, or to be\ncontradicted by statements found in other books of the Bible, were\nthoroughly discussed and explained. The belief in the integrity and\ndivinity of the Torah was so strong that those who rejected either of\nthese beliefs were considered as unworthy of the blessings of the\nfuture world (Babyl. Talm. Sanhedrin 99a).\n\nWith the rise of Karaism Bible criticism received new encouragement, as\nin the warfare between Karaism and Rabbinism, or Scripturalists and\nTraditionalists, it furnished both sides with sharp weapons. Some,\nhowever, of the commentators went further, and gave utterance to all\nsorts of heterodox views. Thus a certain Yitzchaki of Spain was of\nopinion that Gen. xxxvi. 31\u201343 was a later addition, on account of the\nphrase, \u201cThese were the kings who ruled over Edom before a king ruled\nover Israel.\u201d The critics forgot that this passage is intended to point\nout the advance which Esau\u2019s descendants had made, when the prophecy,\n\u201cAnd kings shall come forth out of thee\u201d (xxxv. 11) had not yet been\nfulfilled in the case of the Israelites.\n\nOf the Commentators of the Middle Ages, Ibn Ezra is generally singled\nout as an advanced scholar who held certain passages of the Pentateuch\nas later additions. Ibn Ezra was far from such views, and he sharply\nrebuked those who entertained them. Thus he says of Yitzchaki, the\nauthor of the above criticism, \u201cEvery one who will hear this will laugh\nat him, and his book deserves to be burnt.\u201d With equal vigour he\ncriticises a grammarian who pointed out certain passages as\ngrammatically incorrect, and also another scholar who in his\ninterpretations of the Bible did not take sufficient notice of the\ntraditional accents. The error concerning Ibn Ezra has its origin in\nhis habit of adding the phrase, \u201cThe words have some deeper sense\u201d (\u200f\u05d9\u05e9\n\u05dc\u05d5 \u05e1\u05d5\u05d3\u200e), whenever the literal interpretation does not quite satisfy\nhim, or when the object of the author in adding a seemingly superfluous\nsentence is not clear to him; as, for instance, in the four passages\nreferred to in the Commentary on Deuteronomy i. 2, namely, \u201cThe\nCanaanite was then in the land\u201d (Gen. xii. 6), \u201cOn the mount of the\nLord will it appear\u201d (Ibid. xxii. 14), the repetition of the sacrifices\nof the twelve princes (Num. vii.), and the stations enumerated in\nNumbers (chap. xxxiii.), in addition to the detailed geographical\ndescription of Deut. i. 1 sqq. The meaning of this remark has been\nmisunderstood by the early expounders of Ibn Ezra\u2019s Commentary, and\nsince then the mistake has been repeated by most of the critics of the\nBible. Spinoza, in his theological treatise, quotes Ibn Ezra, with the\nusual misinterpretation, in support of his view concerning the Torah.\n\nModern critics have attempted to analyse the Pentateuch, and to assign\nto it several authors, revisers, and editors. But there is little\nharmony among the critics; the one considers as the latest addition\nwhat the other holds to be the oldest portions of the book. Numerous\nemendations are made by every one of them in order to establish his\nspecial theory. The fundamental principle of most of them is that the\nsection in which the name Elohim is prevalent could not have been\nwritten by the author of another section in which the Tetragrammaton is\nemployed. But the two names, though denoting the same Being, are not\nidentical in meaning: the one signifies the Almighty, who is the Ruler\nof the universe, the Master and Judge of all beings; the other is the\nname of the Merciful Father, who reveals Himself to man, interferes in\nhis behalf, and has especially revealed His Providence and Kindness to\nthe Israelites.\n\nA careful study of the Hebrew Bible will show that it is not the\nauthor, or the age of the author, but the contents of the passage that\ndetermined which of the Divine names was to be used. The same author\nrepeats the same account with some variation, according to the lesson\nwhich he intends to convey to the reader. The proofs which are based on\nthe differences discovered in two accounts of apparently the same\nevent, or on seeming contradictions or anachronisms, are so\nindifferently supported that they are not able to conquer the fortress\nof Faith and Tradition. The difficulties pointed out by the critics\nvanish before patient study and the earnest longing for instruction and\ncomfort offered by the Bible.\n\nThe Book of Isaiah has likewise been subjected to the analytical test\nof the critic, and it is generally believed that the prophecies\ncontained in the book have not all been written by the same author or\nin the same age. The book is divided into two large sections; the\nsecond section, from chap. xl. to chap, lxvi., is thought to have been\ncomposed shortly before the return of the Jews from Babylon. Although\nit is possible that anonymous prophecies were added to a book, the\nreasons which induced critics to make such a division are untenable.\nThe first reason is the difference in style; but we must take account\nof the difference in the contents of the two sections. The prophecies\nin the first section have mostly a threatening tendency with regard to\nimminent punishment, whilst in the second section Israel is to be\nencouraged in his faith in the Almighty and in his hopes for a better\nfuture. It is but natural that the style should not be the same in both\nsections. Another reason for ascribing the second section to a later\nprophet is the fact that Koresh (Cyrus), king of Persia, is mentioned\nby name, and the fall of Babylon and the consequent deliverance of the\nJews are described as well-known facts of the past. This and similar\narguments are based on a misunderstanding of the character of the\nprophecies. The critics ignore the essential difference between the\nwritings of inspired messengers of God and those of ordinary men. They\ndeny to the man of God the power of foreseeing and foretelling coming\nevents of which his fellow-men could not have any knowledge. By such\narguments the critics set limits to the power and wisdom of God, and\nemploy the same measure for both that which is Divine and that which is\nhuman. A Divine prophet has, by the Will of the Almighty, the future\nunrolled before him; he sees the catastrophe which is to come centuries\nlater, and perceives its effect and its end. Even when he reviews the\npresent state of affairs and takes the immediate future into\nconsideration, his eyes frequently behold scenes and events of \u201cthe end\nof the days\u201d (\u200f\u05d1\u05d0\u05d7\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea \u05d4\u05d9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd\u200e), which he points out as the goal of our\nhopes and aspirations. When he warns, advises, or encourages his\nbrethren with regard to their present wants, the virtues and the\nhappiness of the Messianic age are not rarely introduced. Earlier\nevents, though still future in time, appear then in the light of\naccomplished facts, and in their description the past tense is used\ninstead of the future. Thus it happened that the prophet Isaiah, who\nflourished during the reign of King Hezekiah, could take his standpoint\non the return of the Jews from Babylonia, look back at the exile as a\nthing of the past, and reveal to his brethren further troubles, the\nsucceeding final redemption, and the ultimate triumph of the faithful\nand God-fearing over the faithless and wicked.\n\nIt is true that it is an unusual thing for a prophet to name a king who\nis to rule centuries after the death of the prophet, unless the name is\na common noun, and has by its meaning some bearing on the prophecy. The\nname Cyrus fulfils, perhaps, this condition; according to Ktesias, it\nsignifies \u201csun,\u201d an appropriate name to be given to the king who is\ndestined to be the deliverer of a captive people. King Cyrus may have\nassumed this name when he became convinced of the mission entrusted to\nhim by Providence.\n\nThe authenticity of the Book of Daniel has likewise been impugned, and\nits advocates are, it must be admitted, at present very few. The\nnarratives which the book contains are considered as improbable or even\nimpossible, and its visions as prophecies ex facto. It was written,\naccording to these critics, in the period of the Maccabees, and the\nname of Daniel was chosen in order to give more weight to the contents\nof the book, Daniel being known as a man famous for his piety among his\nfellow-exiles. Against this we have the distinct evidence in the book,\nin which the author is described as the same Daniel that lived during\nthe Babylonian exile; Jewish tradition knew of no other author of the\nbook than Daniel. Although the Book of Daniel was not placed amongst\nthe books of the Prophets, because he was not charged with any mission\nto his fellow-men, the visions described in Daniel were nevertheless,\nin Jewish literature, considered as true and genuine prophecy. The\nnarratives have the distinct object to teach that piety and firmness in\nobedience to the word of God can conquer the rage of the most powerful\ntyrants; this tendency on the part of the author is especially noticed\nin the manner in which every circumstance bearing on this lesson is\ndepicted. This, however, does not detract the least from the truth and\ngenuineness of the facts which, by the plan of Providence, seem to have\ntaken place for this very purpose. The demand of the king that the\nmagicians should tell him his dream, which he himself had forgotten,\nand that failing to do so they should be put to death; the decree\ncommanding his subjects to worship the idol and to pray to him, and\nother foolish royal acts, almost incredible to us, are strange indeed,\nbut would appear less strange if all the records of the acts of Eastern\ntyrants had been preserved. It has been contended that the history of\nthe Syrian wars with Egypt, and the suffering of the Jews through the\nSyrian invasion, is given in such detail as could only be done by a\ncontemporary. But apart from the fact that a careful study of the\nvisions of Daniel will convince us that we have here only a faint\noutline of the Syrian wars and not a detailed description, it must not\nbe forgotten that the author only reproduces what was shown to him by\nthe Omniscient concerning the most important event in the history of\nthe nation\u2014the preservation of the holy religion through the firmness\nand the courage of a few faithful servants of God. The fulfilment of\nthe portion of the vision which referred to the period of the Maccabees\nis a guarantee for the fulfilment of the prophecies yet unrealised.\n\nIn like manner have the authenticity and the integrity of other\nBiblical books been rejected; the method and the arguments are the\nsame; they are based on a misunderstanding of the true essence of\nprophecy and inspiration, and originate in a want of belief in the\nOmniscience and Omnipotence of the Divine Being.\n\n\n\nOn the Ninth Principle, p. 139.\n\nIn the Pentateuch there is not the slightest indication that the laws\nrevealed on Sinai might be superseded by a future Revelation. On the\ncontrary, we meet repeatedly with the phrases, \u200f\u05d7\u05e7\u05ea \u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd\u200e, \u201can\neverlasting statute,\u201d \u200f\u05dc\u05d3\u05e8\u05d5\u05ea \u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd\u200e, \u201cfor everlasting generations,\u201d and\nsimilar expressions, which clearly show the intention of Him who gave\nthe laws that these should last for ever. The Israelites were told that\nProphets would be sent to them, and that they must listen to the\nProphets and obey them, but at the same time they were commanded to put\nto death a prophet who would attempt \u201cto turn them aside from the way\nwhich the Lord commanded them to walk therein\u201d (Deut. xiii. 6).\nBesides, the Prophets never speak of a new Revelation, which would\nsupersede the Torah. When Jeremiah prophesies about a new covenant, the\ncontext teaches the reader what is meant by the \u201cnew covenant.\u201d He\nspeaks of the future and final restoration of Israel as follows:\n\u201cBehold, days will come, saith the Lord, when I shall make a new\ncovenant with the house of Israel and with the house of Judah. Not like\nthe covenant which I made with their fathers on the day when I took\nhold of their hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt, because they\nbroke my covenant, and I rejected them, saith the Lord. But this is the\ncovenant which I shall make with the house of Israel after those days,\nsaith the Lord, when I set my Law among them and write it upon their\nheart: both I shall be to them a God, and they shall be to me a people\u201d\n(Jer. xxxi. 31\u201333). The Law is not to be altered, but it will dwell\nmore firmly in the heart of Israel; the deliverance from Egypt was soon\nforgotten, but the future deliverance will plant the fear and love of\nGod\u2014here called the Law of God\u2014in the hearts of the people in such a\nmanner that it will take a deep root and will not be plucked out of it\nagain. There occur, however, in Talmud and Midrash sayings which seem\nto imply a future alteration of the Law; e.g., \u201cIn future all prayers\nwill cease except that of thanksgiving: in future all sacrifices will\ncease except that of thanks-offering\u201d (Midrash on Ps. c.). In these\nsayings their authors simply intended to emphasise the duty of\nthanksgiving; even in the state of physical and moral perfection, when\nthere will be a perfect absence of trouble and fear and a perfect\nimmunity of sin, so that there will be nothing to be prayed for,\nnothing to be atoned for through sacrifice, the duty of offering\nprayers and sacrifices of thanksgiving will still remain in full force.\nAnother saying of this kind is: \u201cIf all festivals were to cease, Purim\nwill never be forgotten\u201d (Piyyut for Sabbath Zachor); that is, even if\nother festivals should be neglected, Purim is so much liked that it\nwill never be forgotten by the Jews. In Talmud Jerus. Megillah (i. 7)\nwe read: \u201cThe reading from the Prophets and the Hagiographa may at some\nfuture time be discontinued, but the reading of the Pentateuch will\nnever be abolished.\u201d The idea expressed by this dictum is, that the\nwarnings or consolations or prayers may become superfluous by the\nchanged condition of the future, but the laws and statutes of the\nPentateuch will always remain in force.\n\nIn sayings of this kind the time to which they are meant to apply is\nnot defined. \u201cThe future\u201d (\u200f\u05dc\u05e2\u05ea\u05d9\u05d3 \u05dc\u05d1\u05d0\u200e) may mean the time of Messiah,\nor else the time of the Resurrection, or what we are used to call \u201cthe\nfuture life.\u201d As in the above quotation, the authors aimed at\ninculcating some moral lesson for the present state of things, and not\nat describing the results of philosophical speculation with regard to\nremote times. A new revelation, or the abrogation of the Law or part of\nit, is nowhere mentioned.\n\nOn the contrary, it is emphasised in the Talmud that the Torah has been\ngiven to Israel in its entirety, and nothing has been reserved for a\nsecond revelation. \u201cThe Law is not any longer in heaven,\u201d it is\nentirely in the hands of man. The only authority recognised in the\ninterpretation of the Law was that based on knowledge, tradition, and\ncommon sense. Authority claimed for this purpose on the ground of\nsupernatural privilege, prophecy, bath-kol or miracle, was not\nrecognised (Babyl. Talm. Baba Metsia, 59b).\n\nMaimonides (Mishneh torah, Hilchoth Yesode ha-torah ix.) says on this\nprinciple as follows:\u2014\u201cIt has been distinctly stated in the Torah that\nits precepts remain in force for ever without change, diminution, or\naddition. Comp. \u2018The word which I command you that you must keep to do,\nthou shalt not add ought unto it nor take ought away from it\u2019 (Deut.\nxiii. i); \u2018That which has been revealed for us and for our children for\never is to do all the words of this Law\u2019 (Ibid. xxix. 28). Hence it\nfollows that we are bound for ever to do according to the words of the\nTorah. It is further said, \u2018An everlasting statute for all your\ngenerations\u2019 (Exod. xii. 14, 17, et passim); \u2018It is not in heaven\u2019 [26]\n(Deut. xxx. 12). Hence we see that a prophet cannot reveal any new law.\nIf, therefore, any man, whether an Israelite or a non-Israelite, should\nrise, perform signs and miracles, and say that the Lord sent him to add\none precept or to abolish one of the Divine precepts, or to interpret a\nprecept in a way different from what has been handed down to us from\nMoses, or assert that the precepts which were given to the Israelites\nhad only temporary force and were not permanent laws: such a man is a\nfalse prophet, because he contradicts the prophecy of Moses. The\nmission of the Prophets after Moses is to exhort the people to obey the\nLaw of Moses, and not to make a new religion.\u201d\u2014Comp. \u201cThe Guide,\u201d II.\nxxxix.; and Saadiah, Emunoth ve-deoth, III. chap. vii. to x.\n\nRabbi Jehudah ha-Levi, in the book Cuzari, seems to have a different\nview. He likewise believes in the permanent character of the Torah, but\nhe modifies his view in accordance with his interpretation of the\nwords, \u201cAnd thou shalt do according to the word which they\u2014viz., the\npriests and the judge that shall be in those days\u2014will tell thee from\nthat place which the Lord shall choose; and thou shalt observe to do\naccording to all that they will teach thee\u201d (Deut. xvii. 9, 10).\nAccording to his view, these words imply that from time to time\nprophets or inspired men, or the highest authority of the nation,\nwhilst the Shechinah was still filling the Temple, issued laws and\norders, which had legal force, and all were bound to obey them. But\nsince the destruction of the Temple there has not been any man or any\ncourt that had the authority to make new permanent laws. According to\nMaimonides, however, there were no additions made to the Torah; the\nRabbinical laws are either temporary regulations or served as a means\nof ensuring the strict observance of the Torah.\n\nAlbo, in criticising the principles of faith as laid down by\nMaimonides, objects also to the Ninth Principle, and contends that it\nis not fundamental, since the belief in the Divine origin of the Law\ndoes not necessarily imply the belief in its eternity. But although the\npossibility of a second revelation superseding the first is admitted in\nprinciple or theory, it does not follow that such revelation has in\nreality been made. If any person asserts that he is sent by God to\nrepeal the old laws or to alter them, he must prove his Divine mission\nbefore he can be believed. We are fully convinced of the Divine mission\nof Moses, and our conviction of the Divine mission of the new prophet\nmust at least be equally strong. The Divine character of the mission of\nMoses was revealed to the Israelites by God Himself; and only such\ndirect revelation could satisfy us as to the trustworthiness of the new\nprophet (Ikkarim III. xix.).\n\nR. Abraham ben David, in his book Emunah-ramah, finds in various\npassages of the Bible indications that the Torah was to remain in force\npermanently. Thus Isaiah and Zechariah, speaking of the remote future,\nrefer respectively to the celebration of Sabbath and New-moon, and to\nthe celebration of Sukkoth. Again, in refuting the claims of Christians\non behalf of Jesus, and of Mohammedans on behalf of Mohammed, to a\nDivine mission to substitute a new covenant for the old one, Rabbi\nAbraham argues thus: \u201cThe divinity of the old covenant, or the Torah,\nhas been admitted by both Jesus and Mohammed; we need not prove it. But\nthe Divine authority asserted by them for its abrogation or change is\nnot admitted by us; it must be proved; and since no proof has been\ngiven, it must be rejected\u201d (Fifth Principle, chap. ii.).\n\n\n\nOn the Tenth Principle, p. 148.\n\nIt is noteworthy that this principle is exceptionally supported by a\nBiblical verse. The same may be noticed in the book Cuzari (V. xviii.),\nin the enumeration of the principles of faith according to the methods\nof Mohammedan Theologians (Medabberim); the principle of God\u2019s\nOmniscience is supported by a Biblical verse, only with this\ndifference, that in the Cuzari it is not exactly the principle of God\u2019s\nOmniscience, but its proof derived from the Creation, that is supported\nby a quotation from Ps. xciv. The reason of the anomaly is this: Some\nof the opponents of this principle contend that it would be derogatory\nto the greatness of God if He were to take notice of the doings of each\nindividual being. To this the reply is given: The Psalmist, who was far\nfrom saying anything derogatory of God, declared that God knows the\ndeeds and the thoughts of each individual.\n\nThe problem how to reconcile God\u2019s Prescience and Omniscience with\nman\u2019s Free-will has of course engaged the attention of all Jewish\ntheologians and philosophers, and, though in different ways and words,\nthey all assume that God\u2019s knowledge of a thing is by no means the\ncause of its existence. (See Cuzari, V. xx.; \u201cGuide,\u201d III. xx.;\nSaadiah, Emunoth, II. chap, ix.)\n\nPerhaps a reconciliation is not necessary at all, there being no\nconflict. We should not call it a defect in God if His Omniscience were\nrestricted to things knowable; a prescience of things to be determined\nby man\u2019s free-will is contradictory in itself, and illogical, and to\nsay that God would not be omniscient if He did not know them, is as\nabsurd as to say that God would not be omnipotent if He could not make\ntwice two to be three.\n\n\n\nOn the Eleventh Principle, p. 150.\n\nThe subject of this creed has been the main thought of the lesson\npreached by the prophets, of the hymns sung by the psalmists, and of\nthe narratives written by the sacred chroniclers, as has been\nillustrated above (p. 155) by Biblical quotations. To these may be\nadded (1.) the song haazinu, the professed object of which was to\nremind the Israelites of God\u2019s Justice whenever evil should befall\nthem. The words which form the basis of the song, viz., \u201cThe Rock,\nperfect is his work,\u201d &c. (Deut. xxxii. 4), are also at present recited\nat funeral rites, as \u200f\u05e6\u05d3\u05d5\u05e7 \u05d4\u05d3\u05d9\u05df\u200e, an expression of our firm belief in\nGod\u2019s Justice. (2.) The prophet who laments over the fall of Jerusalem\ndeclares: \u201cOut of the mouth of the Most High do not come forth the evil\nthings and the good (i.e., man causes them by his evil or good deeds,\nwhich are the result of his own free will and not of the Will of God).\nWhy should man complain (of what has befallen him), being master over\nhis sins?\u201d (Lam. iii. 38, 39).\n\nIn the Talmud the doctrine of God\u2019s Justice is expressed thus: \u201cThy\nemployer is trustworthy, that he will pay thee the reward of thy deeds\u201d\n(Aboth ii. 21). \u201cThe shop is open, and the merchant gives on credit,\nand all who like may come and borrow; but the collectors go constantly\nabout, and exact payment whether the debtor is willing to pay or not,\nfor they have something to rely upon, and the judgment is a just\njudgment; and everything is prepared for a banquet\u201d (Aboth iii. 20).\n\u201cGod does not withhold ought of the desert of any creature\u201d (Pesachim,\n118a).\n\nIt is, however, emphatically declared in the Talmud that the reward of\ngood deeds is given to the righteous in the future life, \u200f\u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd \u05d4\u05d1\u05d0\u200e,\n\u201cThe reward for obedience to the Divine commandments is not to be\nexpected in this world\u201d (Kiddushin, 39b). \u201cThe Law says with reference\nto the Divine precepts, \u2018Which I command thee this day to do them;\u2019\nhence we infer that their performance is to take place this day, i.e.,\nin this life, but their reward will be received in the future life\u201d\n(Abodah-zarah, 3a).\n\n\u201cRabbi Elazar ha-kappar used to say, \u2018Those that have been born will\ndie; those that have died will come to life again; those that have come\nto life again will be judged.\u2019 He said so in order that he himself\nmight bear in mind, and tell others, and that it might become generally\nknown, that God, who has formed and created man\u2019s heart and understands\nall his doings, is the Judge, the Witness, and the Prosecutor; He\nbefore whom there is no wrong, no forgetfulness, no partiality, and no\nbribery, will one day judge. Let thy imagination not persuade thee that\nthe grave is a refuge for thee. For without thy consent hast thou been\nborn, and without thy consent wilt thou die, and without thy consent\nthou art brought to life again to account for thy deeds before the King\nof kings, blessed be He\u201d (Aboth iv. 22).\n\nThe immediate enjoyment of the reward is, however, not excluded. We\nread in the Law, \u201cDo this and thy days will be long;\u201d and the Mishnah\nteaches, \u201cThese are the good acts, the fruit of which man enjoys in\nthis life, whilst the full reward awaits him in the world to come:\nhonouring father and mother, the practice of charity, peace-making\nbetween man and man, and above all the study of the Law\u201d (Mishnah,\nPeah. i. 1).\n\nThe faithful Israelite is not discouraged at the sight of the successes\nof the wicked; on the contrary, he believes: \u201cIf to those who break the\nDivine laws such kindness is shown by God, what must be His goodness to\nthose who obey Him!\u201d (Midrash Yalkut on Isaiah viii. 1). As regards the\ntroubles of the good, our Sages teach that the good will receive their\nreward \u201cin proportion to their suffering.\u201d Yet pious men do not seek\ntrouble and pain merely for the prospect of future compensation; on the\ncontrary, they avail themselves of every possible means to secure\nrelief, and would even renounce in their agony all compensation in the\nfuture world, in order to secure release from pain in the present\n(Babyl. Talm. Berachoth, 5a).\n\nAs the life of Adam and Eve in the garden of Eden was free from care\nand trouble, and such a life was the ideal of human hopes and wishes,\nthe Garden-Eden, \u200f\u05d2\u05df \u05e2\u05d3\u05df\u200e (lit., \u201cthe garden of pleasure\u201d), became the\nsymbol of man\u2019s happiness in its perfection, such as will fall to the\nshare of the good and the righteous. On the other hand, the valley of\nHinnom, near Jerusalem, was a place of horror and disgust; a place\nwhere at one time children were burnt to Moloch, and where later the\nrefuse of the city was cast. Dwelling in the valley of Hinnom\n(\u200f\u05d2\u05d9\u05d4\u05e0\u05d5\u05dd\u200e) became the symbol of the punishment to be inflicted on the\nwicked. Gan-eden or Paradise, and Gehinnom or Hell, are thus mere\nfigures to express our idea of the existence of a future retribution,\nand must not be taken literally as names of certain places.\n\nThe detailed descriptions of Paradise and hell as given in books both\nprofane and religious are nothing but the offspring of man\u2019s\nimagination.\n\nThe question has been asked, How long shall the punishment of the\nwicked last? Will it be eternal? and if so, is it compatible with God\u2019s\ngoodness? This and similar questions do not concern us in the least.\nOur task is to do what the Lord has commanded us to do, and to trust,\nas regards the future, in Him, who knows best to combine goodness and\njustice. We must here bear in mind that \u201cGod\u2019s thoughts are not ours.\u201d\n\nEqually ignorant are we as to the cause of the suffering and of the\ndeath of each individual; but of this we are certain, if death is\npunishment, that every one dies for his own sin. This theory is so\nfrequently repeated in the Bible that it is surprising how the theory\nof Vicarious Death and Vicarious Atonement could be considered as\nharmonising with the teaching of the Bible. We are taught that God\nvisits the iniquity of the fathers upon the children, upon the third\nand upon the fourth generation; but at the same time we are told that\nthe children are only punished if they repeat the sins of their\nfathers, and even then only for their own sins (comp. p. 251). It has\nbeen asserted that Isaiah in chap. liii. assumes the principle of\nvicarious atonement. That this is not the case we can easily see if we\nturn from the Anglican Version to the original Hebrew, and translate it\nliterally and in accordance with the context. Isaiah, in describing the\nfuture glory of the servant of the Lord (= Israel), tells us what those\npeople who oppress Israel will then feel, and how they will give\nexpression to their feeling of shame and regret, saying, \u201cSurely he\nhath borne griefs caused by us, and carried sorrows caused by us: yet\nwe did esteem him stricken, smitten of God, and afflicted. But he was\nwounded through our transgressions, bruised through our iniquities\u201d\n(comp. Family Bible, Anglican Version, revised by M. Friedl\u00e4nder).\nSin-offerings were brought, but not as a vicarious atonement, although\nthe sinner might well have felt that he himself deserved the treatment\nendured by the sacrifice. The sin-offering could not have been a\nvicarious atonement, as it was not offered when the sin was committed\nknowingly. Maimonides explains the various laws concerning sin-offering\nas based on the principle that the sacrifices serve as the means of\nreminding us more vividly of our sins, and of their evil consequences\n(The Guide, III. xlvi.; comp. Mic. vi. 6\u20138).\n\n\n\nOn the Twelfth Principle, p. 155.\n\nA belief in Messiah, although not directly taught, is assumed in the\nMishnah as existing; and the days of Messiah (\u200f\u05d9\u05de\u05d5\u05ea \u05d4\u05de\u05e9\u05d9\u05d7\u200e) are spoken\nof as an event that admits of no doubt (comp. Mishnah Berachoth, i. 5).\nThat this belief was in reality taught by the religious heads of the\nJewish community is clearly shown by the introduction into the Amidah\nof a prayer [27] for the speedy appearance of Messiah.\n\nThe belief in the coming of Messiah in some future time has been, like\nthe belief in the Unity of God, the source of vexatious disputations\nbetween Jews and non-Jews. Mohammedans and Christians tried by all\nmeans in their power to convince the Jews that the Anointed whose\nadvent was prophesied by the Prophets had already appeared, the former\npointing to Mohammed, the latter to Jesus, as the person realising\nthose predictions. The Biblical passages adduced as evidence prove\nnothing of the kind. E.g., the three names, Sinai, Seir, and Paran, in\nDeut. xxxiii. 2, were interpreted by Mohammedans to refer to three\nrevelations through Moses, Jesus, and Mohammed; and Mohammed being\nmentioned last, his revelation was to be the final one. It is not\nnecessary to contradict such reasoning; one need only read the text in\norder to see the absurdity of the argument. Christians quoted passages\nfrom Isaiah which had no reference whatever to Messiah in evidence of\nthe Messianity of Jesus. Children born in the days of Isaiah (vii. 14;\nviii. 18), whose names had reference to good or evil events of the\ntime, were wrongly interpreted as referring to the birth of Jesus; the\nsufferings and final relief of the servant of the Lord, that is, Israel\n(chaps. lii. and liii.), were applied to Jesus; the Psalmist who sings\nof victories which God will grant to David (cx.) is made to declare the\ndivinity of Jesus.\n\nCommentators and philosophers have taken notice of these arguments and\nrefuted them. Of the many works on these topics a few may be named:\n\u201cNitsachon\u201d (\u200f\u05e0\u05e6\u05d7\u05d5\u05df\u200e), by Lipmann M\u00fchlhausen (1400), \u201cStrengthening of\nFaith\u201d (\u200f\u05d7\u05d6\u05d5\u05e7 \u05d0\u05de\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4\u200e), by Isaak ben Abraham Troki (1594), \u201cVindici\u00e6\nJud\u00e6orum,\u201d by Manasseh ben Israel (1650).\n\nIn refuting arguments brought by Christians and Mohammedans against\nJews and Judaism, and rejecting the Messianic claims of Jesus and\nMohammed, Jews are ready to acknowledge the good work done by the\nreligions founded by these men, Christians and Mohammedans, in\ncombating idolatry and spreading civilisation. Maimonides says as\nfollows:\u2014\u201cThe King Messiah will in some future time come, restore the\nkingdom of David to its former power, build the Temple, bring together\nthe scattered of Israel, and all the ancient laws will again be in\nforce: sacrifices will be offered, and years of release and Jubilees\nwill be kept as prescribed in the Law. Whoever does not believe in him,\nor does not hope for his coming, shows a want of faith not only in the\nProphets, but also in the Law; for the Law testifies concerning him in\nthe words: \u2018And the Lord thy God will again bring back thy captivity,\nshow mercy to thee, and again gather thee, &c. If thy outcasts be at\nthe end of the heavens, thence will the Lord gather thee,\u2019 &c, \u2018and the\nLord will bring thee,\u2019 &c. (Deut. xxx. 3\u20135), &c.\n\n\u201cYou must not imagine that Messiah must prove his Messianity by signs\nand miracles, doing something unexpected, bringing the dead to life, or\nsimilar things, &c. The principal thing is this: the statutes and\nprecepts of our Torah remain for ever, and nothing can be added to them\nnor ought taken from them. If, therefore, a descendant of David\nearnestly studies the Law, observes, like David his father, what the\nLaw, both the written and the oral, enjoins, causes all Israelites to\nact similarly, exhorts those who are lax in the performance of the\ncommandments, and fights the wars of the Lord: he may possibly be\nMessiah. If he succeeds, builds the Temple in its place, and gathers\nthe outcasts of Israel, he is certainly Messiah; and if he does not\nsucceed, or is killed in war, it is certain that he is not the Messiah\npromised in the Law; he is like all the noble and good kings of the\nHouse of David who have died; and the Almighty only caused him to rise\nin order to try us thereby, as it is said, \u2018And of the wise some will\nstumble, and through them the people will be tested, purified, and made\nwhite, till the time of the end comes; for there is yet a vision for an\nappointed time\u2019 (Dan. xi. 35). Also Jesus, the Nazarene, who imagined\nthat he would be Messiah, and was killed through the court of law, is\nalluded to in the Book of Daniel, as it is said, \u2018And the sons of the\ntransgressors among thy people will rise, in order to establish a\nvision, and will stumble\u2019 (ibid. xi. 14). Can there be a greater\nstumbling than this? All the prophets said that Messiah will be a\nredeemer and a saviour to the Israelites, will bring together their\noutcasts, and will strengthen their obedience to the Divine precepts,\nbut he (Jesus) caused destruction by the sword to Israel, the\ndispersion of those left, and their humiliation; he changed the Law,\nand misled many people to worship a being beside God. But the thoughts\nof the Creator of the universe cannot be understood by any human being,\nfor the ways of men are not His ways, nor their thoughts His thoughts;\nfor all the events connected with Jesus and with Mohammed, that rose\nafter him, served only to pave the way for the King Messiah, who will\nreform all mankind and lead them to the unanimous service of God, as it\nis said, \u2018For then will I turn to the peoples a pure language, that all\nmay call by the name of God, and serve him unanimously\u2019 (Zeph. iii. 9).\nHow can this be done? Almost all people have through them\u2014Jesus and\nMohammed\u2014become acquainted with the idea of Messiah, with the words of\nthe Torah and the Divine precepts. Through them the knowledge of the\nBible spread even unto the remotest islands and unto many nations\n\u2018uncircumcised\u2019 in heart and uncircumcised in flesh. They seek to\njustify their disobedience to the precepts of the Torah; some of them\nsay that these precepts are Divine, but are not in force at present,\nand were never intended to be permanent laws; others maintain that they\nmust not be taken literally, as they are mere symbols, the meaning of\nwhich has already been explained by Messiah. But when the true King\nMessiah will rise, he will prosper, be high and exalted; all will then\nat once know that it was falsehood what their fathers have inherited,\nand that their prophets and their teachers have misled them.\n\n\u201cDo not imagine that in the days of Messiah the course of Nature will\nbe altered in any way, or that any new creation will take place. When\nIsaiah said, \u2018The wolf will dwell with the lamb, and the leopard will\nlie down with the kid,\u2019 he merely employed allegorical and figurative\nspeech; and he meant to say that the Israelite will dwell in safety\ntogether with his enemy, who has been as cruel to him as wolves and\nleopards, &c.; all will join the true religion; they will not rob, nor\ncommit any violence, &c., and in the days of Messiah the meaning of the\nallegories will be clearly known.\n\n\u201cOur Sages said that there will be no other difference between the\npresent time and the days of Messiah but the independence of the people\nof Israel.\n\n\u201cIt appears from the literal meaning of the prophecies that the\nMessianic period will be preceded by the war of Gog and Magog, and that\nbefore the war a prophet will appear to guide the Israelites, and to\ndirect their hearts to repentance. Comp. \u2018Behold, I will send you\nElijah,\u2019 [28] &c. (Mal. iii. 23). Elijah will not come to declare\nunclean that which is clean, or clean that which is unclean; nor to\ndisqualify persons who are believed to be qualified for joining the\ncongregation of the Lord, or to qualify persons who are believed to be\ndisqualified; but he will come to establish peace on earth, as it is\nsaid, \u2018He shall turn the heart of the fathers to the children\u2019 [29]\n(Ibid. 24).\n\n\u201cSome of our Sages believe that Elijah will come before Messiah, but of\nall these and similar things no man knows how they will come to pass;\nthey are unexplained in the Prophets, and our Sages have no tradition\nabout them; they only adopt what they believe to be the meaning of the\nBiblical passages which refer to this subject. Hence the difference of\nopinion. At all events, the order and the detail of these events do not\nform an essential portion of our creed; we must not take too much\nnotice of Agadoth and Midrashim speaking on these and similar themes.\nWe must not attribute great importance to them, for they do not lead to\nthe fear or the love of God. We must also abstain from calculating the\ntime of the coming of Messiah, &c. All we have to do is to believe in\nthe coming of Messiah, to wait and hope.\n\n\u201cIt is not because they desired to have dominion over all lands and\nnations, and be honoured by all people, or because they desired to have\nplenty to eat and drink, and other pleasures, that the wise men and the\nprophets longed for the Messianic days, but because they would then be\nat leisure to study the Law and its teaching without being interrupted\nby any oppressor, and would thus make themselves worthy of the life in\nthe world to come (\u200f\u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd \u05d4\u05d1\u05d0\u200e).\n\n\u201cThere will not be in those days any famine, war, jealousy, or quarrel,\nbecause the good things will be in plenty, and even luxuries will be\nfound everywhere; all will only busy themselves with trying to know the\nLord. Therefore the Israelites will be great sages, knowing things\nwhich are at present hidden; they will obtain a knowledge of their\nCreator as far as is possible by human understanding; \u2018For the earth is\nfull with the knowledge of the Lord as the waters that cover the sea\u2019\u201d\n(Maim., Mishneh-torah xiv.; Hilchoth Melachim xi.\u2013xii.).\n\nThe war of Gog and Magog against the Holy Land referred to by\nMaimonides is described by the prophet Ezekiel (chaps. xxxviii.,\nxxxix.) as preceding the complete restoration of Israel. Saadiah has a\ndifferent view of this war. The punishment of Israel in exile is to\ncome to an end at a fixed time, or as soon as the Israelites by earnest\nand thorough repentance show themselves worthy of Divine grace. In that\ncase no war of Gog and Magog will be waged against them. But if the\nIsraelites should allow the approach of the time fixed for the\nredemption without having given signs of repentance and improvement,\ngreat troubles will be brought upon them, which will forcibly remind\nthem of the necessity of returning to God; they will come together\nunder a leader, Messiah ben Joseph, under whose leadership they will\nfight against their enemies, but will be beaten, and Messiah ben Joseph\nhimself will be killed. Then Messiah ben David will appear, and with\nhim the period of glory, of permanent peace and prosperity, and of the\nworship of the One God by all nations. The idea of a double Messiah, a\nwarlike and a peaceful, an unsuccessful and a successful, is not\nexpressed in any of the prophecies in the Bible, and seems to be of a\nlater origin. Maimonides is silent about Messiah ben Joseph; so also\nAlbo in Ikkarim, and Rabbi Jehudah ha-levi in the book Cuzari. Albo\ndiscusses the question about Messiah in chap. xlii. of the fourth\nsection of Ikkarim. He refutes the opinion of those who maintain that\nthe Messianic prophecies refer to the reign of Hezekiah or to the\nrestoration of Israel under Zerubbabel and Ezra. The condition of the\nIsraelites in the reign of Hezekiah did not resemble the state of\nprosperity and glory and universal peace as depicted in the Messianic\nprophecies; the fulfilment of these prophecies is still hoped for, and\nour hope is founded on our belief in the truthfulness of the Word of\nGod. (Comp. Saadiah, Em. ve-deoth, VIII. iii.).\n\n\n\nOn the Thirteenth Principle, p. 16\n\nThe belief in the Resurrection of the Dead has been formulated in the\nMishnah (Sanhedrin x. i) as an essential creed: \u201cHe who says that the\nbelief in the Resurrection of the Dead is not implied in the Law has no\nportion in the world to come.\u201d There is no doubt that the Almighty has\nthe power to give fresh life to the body in which life has been\nextinct. We set no limits to the Omnipotence of God. But it is\ndifferent if we ask whether it is the Will of God to give new life to\nthe dust and ashes of the dead, and to restore the soul to the dead\nbody in which it has dwelt before. Maimonides substitutes the\nImmortality of the Soul for the Resurrection of the Dead, and has been\nvehemently attacked by those who had a different opinion. He defended\nhis view in an essay called \u200f\u05de\u05d0\u05de\u05e8 \u05ea\u05d7\u05d9\u05d9\u05ea \u05d4\u05de\u05ea\u05d9\u05dd\u200e, \u201cOn the Resurrection of\nthe Dead,\u201d in which he attempts to prove that the Agadoth and Midrashim\nin depicting the future life employed figurative language, but in\nreality meant only a spiritual life, without any material enjoyment.\n\nSaadiah defends the literal interpretation of \u201cResurrection of the\nDead\u201d (Emunoth ve-deoth, VII.), and believes that the event will take\nplace at the time of the final redemption (\u200f\u05d2\u05d0\u05d5\u05dc\u05d4 \u05d0\u05d7\u05e8\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4\u200e). Rabbi\nJehudah ha-levi, in Cuzari, though mentioning this principle, seems to\nunderstand it as identical with the Immortality of the Soul. The king,\nwho was at first surprised at the scarcity of references to the future\nlife in our prayers, confessed his complete satisfaction, after having\nheard the exposition of our prayers by the Jewish scholar. \u201cI see,\u201d he\nsays, \u201cthat I was in error; those who pray to have the Divine light\nvouchsafed to them during lifetime, who long to see it with their own\neyes, and to attain to the degree of prophecy, they certainly seek\nsomething better even than the future life, and they who attain it may\nbe sure that they will also enjoy the blessing of the future life; for\nif the soul of a man, troubled by the wants of the body, is\nnevertheless cleaving to the Divine glory, how much more may this be\nthe case after the soul has left this body!\u201d (III. 20).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nII.\n\nOUR DUTIES.\n\n\nINTRODUCTION.\n\n\nThe king, in Rabbi Jehudah ha-levi\u2019s Cuzari, anxious to lead a good and\nreligious life, was told by an angel who appeared to him in a dream\nthat his heart was good, but his deeds were not acceptable. The purity\nand goodness of our heart certainly ennobles our deeds and gives them\nthe stamp of sincerity and holiness, though they may not be marked by\nabsolute perfection. But an inner voice, our conscience, does not allow\nus to be content with the goodness of the heart; we feel the necessity\nof seeking also perfection of words and deeds. We wish not only our\nheart but also our entire self to be good, so that our inner life and\nouter life, our feeling and thinking, our speaking and doing, may\ncombine into one harmonious whole, which comes as near perfection as\npossible.\n\nIt has been shown above that one of the principles of faith which we\nconfess is our belief in the Divine origin of the Torah, and in the\nobligatory character of its precepts. When we pray to God to make us\nunderstand the Torah we are not content with the mere knowledge of the\nwords of the Law; we also seek God\u2019s assistance to enable us \u201cto obey,\nto observe, and to perform\u201d all that He has commanded us. Man\u2019s nature\nis not the same in all individuals; one person finds special delight in\nthe performance of this duty, another in the performance of that. Every\none likes to devote his energies to that work for which he considers\nhimself best qualified, and which promises to yield the best fruit. But\nthis individual liking or aptitude must not mislead us into thinking\nthat the Law is divided into important and unimportant precepts. So far\nas they represent the Will of the Almighty they are all alike, and\nequally demand our attention and our obedience. Thus the \u200f\u05e7\u05d1\u05dc\u05ea \u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\n\u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd\u200e, [30] our unconditional submission to the Will of the Almighty as\nour King, is followed in our Service by \u200f\u05e7\u05d1\u05dc\u05ea \u05e2\u05d5\u05dc \u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea\u200e,[30] the\nacknowledgment of the binding force of His precepts.\n\nThere are persons who question the wisdom and usefulness of the\nprecepts; they call it legalism, and are opposed to the tendency of\nsubjecting every act of ours to the control of the Law. They argue that\nlegalism tends to weaken our regard for the Law, and trains hypocrites\nrather than true servants of the Lord. It is a bold assertion, but one\nthat rests on imagination and prejudice. Is it possible that such a\nconstant reminder of God\u2019s presence as the Divine precepts supply\nshould not have a beneficent influence over us, by making us feel\nencouraged by His presence when we are engaged in a good cause, and\ndiscouraged when we are about to do wrong? If persons are found who are\ndevout worshippers at one time and criminals at another, it only shows\nhuman weakness in the moment of trial in spite of good resolves and\ngenuine devotion; and were it not for the effect of such devotion, the\nnumber of crimes would probably be far greater.\n\nA truly pious man will never imagine that he may freely transgress one\nset of the precepts, if he strictly obeys another set; that he may,\ne.g., wrong his neighbour, and compensate for his sins by regular\nattendance at the place of worship, or by a strict observance of the\ndietary laws, or the laws of Sabbath and Festivals; or that he may\nfreely break the latter, if only he is honest, just, and charitable.\nThe precepts have all the same Divine origin; the all-wise and all-kind\nGod, who has commanded us to walk in the way of justice and\nrighteousness, has also ordained the Sabbath, given the dietary laws,\nand established the sacrificial service. He who selects some of the\nprecepts and rejects the rest substitutes his own authority for that of\nthe Almighty, and places his own wisdom above the wisdom of Him who\ngave us the Law.\n\n\u201cBe as zealous in the performance of an unimportant precept as of an\nimportant one,\u201d is one of the maxims taught in the \u201cSayings of the\nFathers.\u201d A difference between precept and precept is here admitted,\nbut only in so far as they seem to us more or less important, with\nregard to the good which their observance produces or the evil which is\ncaused by their neglect. In case of a conflict of two duties we give\nthe preference to that which seems to us more important. In times of\nreligious persecution the question frequently arose how far resistance\nwas necessary, and how far religious practice might yield to physical\nforce. The rule has been laid down, that when our life is threatened we\nmay transgress any precept; but we must not allow ourselves, under any\ncircumstances, to be forced to idolatry, murder, or adultery (\u200f\u05e2\u05d1\u05d5\u05d3\u05d4\n\u05d6\u05e8\u05d4 \u05d2\u05dc\u05d5\u05d9 \u05e2\u05e8\u05d9\u05d5\u05ea \u05d5\u05e9\u05e4\u05d9\u05db\u05d5\u05ea \u05d3\u05de\u05d9\u05dd\u200e); we must prefer death to committing any\nof these sins. But in times of trouble and persecution the spirit of\nresistance is as a rule too strong to be kept within the strict lines\nof demarcation, and life is willingly and heroically sacrificed for any\nreligious duty. This is not surprising, for every religious act which\nis chosen by the enemy as a test to prove the faithfulness or the\nfaithlessness of the persecuted sect to its own religion, receives\nthereby the stamp of great importance.\n\nSimilar questions are also asked in times of peace, when some of our\nbrethren reject the authority of the Oral Law, while others refuse even\nto recognise the authority of the Written Law, when some set aside the\nDivine precepts out of convenience, and others from principle, and\nstill others from ignorance; when some limit their Judaism to the\nnominal membership of the Jewish race, and others to a negation of\nother creeds. Are all these Jews? Whatever the answer to this question\nmay be from a practical, political, social, and communal point of view,\nthe fact is that they are Jews. They may have forfeited certain\nprivileges, they may be disqualified for certain religious offices,\nthey may be dangerous to the religious peace of our family or\ncommunity: they are notwithstanding Jews, and are bound to live in\naccordance with the Law which the Almighty has given to the Jews and\nfor the Jews. Our Sages say: \u200f\u05d0\u05e3 \u05e2\u05dc \u05e4\u05d9 \u05e9\u05d7\u05d8\u05d0 \u05d9\u05e9\u05e8\u05d0\u05dc \u05d4\u05d5\u05d0\u200e, \u201cAlthough a man\nmay have sinned, he is an Israelite still.\u201d No theologian, Rabbi, or\nteacher, or Beth-din, or Sanhedrin, has the power of granting\nabsolution, or telling those who break or reject any portion of the\nDivine precepts that they are not doing wrong. No human being has the\nauthority to abrogate laws revealed by God. Why then, some may ask, do\nprophets and moralists, the Rabbis of the Talmud not excluded, single\nout ethical principles for special recommendation to their fellow-men,\ngenerally observing silence about the rest of the Divine commands? The\nanswer is simple. The ethical principles and the Divine commandments\nembodying them are different in kind from the rest of the commandments.\nThe latter are distinct, well defined, and the punishment for their\ntransgression is fixed; they are unchangeable, and not capable of\nexpansion.\n\nThe dietary laws, e.g., are exactly the same now as they were in the\ndays of Moses. So also the laws concerning Sabbath. What was then\nprohibited by the Sabbath is prohibited still. The ethical principles,\nhowever, are capable of development, and the moral standard rises with\nthe progress of civilisation. Hence the constant dissatisfaction of\nprophets, preachers, and teachers with the moral principles of their\nfollowers. They have a higher standard of morality, and strive to raise\nthe moral consciousness of their generations to their own height.\n\nIt is, therefore, no wonder that the prophet Isaiah exhorts his\nbrethren: \u201cWash you, make you clean; put away the evil of your doings\nfrom before mine eyes; cease to do evil: learn to do well: seek\njudgment, relieve the oppressed, judge the fatherless, plead for the\nwidow\u201d (i. 16, 17). \u201cHe that walketh righteously, and speaketh\nuprightly; he that despiseth the gain of oppressions, that shaketh his\nhands from holding of bribes, that stoppeth his ears from hearing of\nblood, and shutteth his eyes from looking upon evil, he shall dwell on\nhigh,\u201d &c. (Ibid. xxxiii. 15, 16). In the same sense the virtuous man\nis described by all prophets; also in Ps. xv. and Ps. xxiv.\n\nR. Akiba says: \u201c\u2018Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself\u2019 (Lev. xix.\n18) is an important principle in the Torah,\u201d but at the same time he\nshows what importance he ascribes to all other principles and precepts\nof the Law by most carefully examining the details of every one of them\nalike. The great Hillel told the Gentile who desired to become a Jew:\n\u201c\u2018Do not to thy neighbour what is hateful to you;\u2019 this is our whole\nreligion;\u201d but that he did not ignore the remainder of the Torah, or\nconsider it as not essential, is proved by the additional words: \u201cThe\nrest is its explanation; go and learn\u201d (Babyl. Talmud, Sabbath, 31a).\nHillel only gave the proselyte a lesson which would lead him to obey\nall the words of the Almighty.\n\nRabbi Simlai (Yalkut on Micah vi. 8) said: \u201cSix hundred and thirteen\ncommandments were given to Moses on Mount Sinai; David reduced them to\neleven (Ps. xv.); Isaiah reduced them to six (xxxiii. 16, 17); Micah\n(vi. 8) to three; then Isaiah reduced them again to two (lvi. 1); and\nHabakkuk to one\u2014Faith (ii. 4).\u201d This Rabbi does certainly not mean to\nsay that Isaiah cancelled some of the eleven virtues mentioned by\nDavid, or that Habakkuk only demanded Faith, and did not consider it\nessential that man should be righteous, truthful, &c. Rabbi Simlai\nintended only to point out that by training ourselves in the practice\nof certain virtues, the fulfilment of all Divine precepts will be\ngreatly facilitated.\n\nAll the commandments of the holy Torah are equally Divine. Laws\nconcerning justice and humanity, and laws concerning Sabbath and\nHolydays, are equally introduced by the declaration, \u201cAnd the Lord\nspake unto Moses, saying.\u201d The commandments, \u201cThou shalt love thy\nneighbour as thyself,\u201d and \u201cA garment of diverse kinds, of linen and\nwool, shall not come upon thee,\u201d stand side by side in the same\nparagraph. The equality of all the precepts as the expression of the\nWill of the Almighty is clearly set forth in the Law, in the frequent\nexhortations that the Israelites should obey all the precepts, whatever\ntheir nature may be, whether they be of the class of \u201cstatutes\u201d or of\n\u201cjudgments,\u201d or of any other class of Divine commands. (Comp. Exod. xv.\n25, 26; Lev. xxvi. 15, 43; Num. xv. 39, 40; Deut. iv. 1, 5, 8, &c.)\n\nAs to the various terms employed in the Pentateuch to designate the\nDivine precepts: words (\u200f\u05d3\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e), commandments (\u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05d5\u05ea\u200e), statutes\n(\u200f\u05d7\u05e7\u05d9\u05dd\u200e), judgments (\u200f\u05de\u05e9\u05e4\u05d8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e), and laws (\u200f\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d5\u05ea\u200e), they may be\nconsidered as synonyms signifying similar things. But even synonyms are\nas a rule distinguished from each other by a certain variation in their\nmeaning, especially when the terms occur in one and the same sentence.\nA definition of these terms is not given in the Pentateuch or in the\nBible; from the context, however, in which they occur the following\ndistinction may be drawn:\u2014\n\n\u200f\u05d7\u05e7\u200e or \u200f\u05d7\u05e7\u05d4\u200e, \u201cstatute,\u201d is applied to those laws which are absolute\nand do not depend on certain conditions, whilst mishpat, \u201cjudgment,\u201d is\na law the performance of which varies according to circumstances. Thus\nthe Paschal sacrifice is called chukkah, and must absolutely be\nperformed, whilst the civil laws concerning slaves, damages, &c., are\nmishpatim, because cases of slavery or damages need not occur, and the\nrespective precepts are then not carried into effect. In a similar\nmanner Jewish theologians divide the Divine precepts into \u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea \u05e9\u05de\u05e2\u05d9\u05d5\u05ea\u200e\nand \u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea \u05e9\u05db\u05dc\u05d9\u05d5\u05ea\u200e precepts which our duty of obedience to God makes us\nperform, and precepts which, without distinct Divine command, our own\nreason would impel us to do.\u2014The other terms, mitsvah, \u201ccommandment,\u201d\nand mishmereth, \u201ccharge,\u201d are used in a general sense, the former in\nreference to the Giver of the law, and the latter in reference to those\nto whom it is addressed.\n\nThe division of the precepts into \u200f\u05e9\u05de\u05e2\u05d9\u05d5\u05ea\u200e and \u200f\u05e9\u05db\u05dc\u05d9\u05d5\u05ea\u200e is a vague one,\nand the line of demarcation will be moved farther to the one side or\nthe other, according to the judgment exercised by the interpreter. Of\ngreater importance is the division into positive and negative precepts,\ncommandments, and prohibitions, \u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea \u05e2\u05e9\u05d4\u200e and \u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea \u05dc\u05d0 \u05ea\u05e2\u05e9\u05d4\u200e. The\nprohibitions are of two kinds: such as admit of amends being made for\ntheir transgression and such as do not admit: \u200f\u05e9\u05d9\u05e9 \u05d1\u05d4 \u05e7\u05d5\u05dd \u05e2\u05e9\u05d4\u200e and\n\u200f\u05e9\u05d0\u05d9\u05df \u05d1\u05d4 \u05e7\u05d5\u05dd \u05e2\u05e9\u05d4\u200e.\n\nThe number of the commandments is, according to Rabbi Simlai, 613\n(\u200f\u05ea\u05e8\u05f4\u05d9\u05d2\u200e), and in some editions of the Pentateuch the number of each\ncommandment has been noted in the margin. Rabbi Moses ben Maimon, in\nthe introduction to his Mishneh-torah, enumerates the 613 mitsvoth.\nThey are also contained in liturgical compositions, called \u200f\u05d0\u05d6\u05d4\u05e8\u05d5\u05ea\u200e\n\u201cexhortations,\u201d or \u201cprecepts,\u201d such as are met with in the Machzor for\nthe Feast of Weeks.\n\nMaimonides, in \u201cThe Guide\u201d as well as in Mishneh-torah, treats of the\nprecepts of the Torah under the following fourteen heads: (1)\nFundamental principles of our faith; [31] (2) Divine worship; (3)\nSabbath and festivals; (4) Marriages; (5) Forbidden food and forbidden\nrelations of the sexes; (6) Vows; (7) Agriculture; (8) The Temple and\nthe regular sacrificial service; (9) Occasional sacrifices; (10)\nCleanness and uncleanness; (11) Compensation for damages; (12) Transfer\nof property; (13) Contracts; (14) Administration of the law.\n\nAnother theologian, Rabbenu Jakob, divided the code of laws into four\nsections: (1) Divine worship, Sabbath, festivals, and fasts; (2) Things\nforbidden and things permitted in satisfying our bodily desires; (3)\nMarriages; (4) Civil laws.\n\nThe latter work was recast by Rabbi Joseph Caro, and in the new form,\nwith the new title Shulchan Aruch, it has become the standard work of\nJewish law and life, and its authority has been recognised and upheld\nby Jews in the East and the West. Annotations (\u200f\u05d4\u05d2\u05d4\u05d5\u05ea\u200e) were added by\nRabbi Moses Isserles, but his opinion, when differing from that of\nRabbi Joseph Caro, was only accepted by the Polish and German\nCongregations, not by the Sephardim.\n\nRabbi Joseph Caro, Rabbenu Jakob, and Maimonides appear, in their\nrespective codes, not as legislators but as compilers. The Torah and\nthe Talmud were the sources from which they all drew their laws. But\nlaws, minhagim or customs, and institutions (\u200f\u05ea\u05e7\u05e0\u05d5\u05ea\u200e) of a\npost-Talmudic date were not neglected. Questions arising in the course\nof time, through new and changed conditions of life, are, as a rule,\ndiscussed and decided in notes and commentaries on the Shulchan Aruch.\nThere are also numerous special works on such occasional questions;\nthey are called \u201cResponsa\u201d (\u200f\u05ea\u05e9\u05d5\u05d1\u05d5\u05ea\u200e \u201cAnswers,\u201d or \u200f\u05e9\u05d0\u05dc\u05d5\u05ea \u05d5\u05ea\u05e9\u05d5\u05d1\u05d5\u05ea\u200e\n\u201cQuestions and Answers\u201d), and the importance attributed to them varies\naccording to the reputation of the respective authors.\n\nWhat is the object of the Divine laws? This is a question that\nnaturally rises in the minds of those to whom they are addressed. But\nthe question has been anticipated by Him \u201cwho knoweth the thoughts of\nthe sons of man,\u201d and the answer is found in clear and distinct words\nin the fountain of living waters, the Torah, that never fails to\nsatisfy our thirst for truth: \u201cThou shalt keep his statutes and his\ncommandments which I command thee this day, that it may be well with\nthee and thy children after thee\u201d (Deut. iv. 40). \u201cAnd now, O Israel,\nwhat doth the Lord thy God require of thee, but to fear the Lord thy\nGod, to walk in all his ways and to love him, and to serve the Lord thy\nGod with all thy heart and with all thy soul: to keep the commandments\nof the Lord and his statutes which I command thee this day, for thy\ngood\u201d (ibid. x. 12, 13). It is for our benefit, for our well-being,\nthat the laws were revealed to us; they serve to make us good and\nhappy; they train us in the mastery over our appetites and desires, in\nthe practice of charity and justice, and in the conception of noble,\npure, and lofty ideas, and bring us nearer and nearer in perfection the\nBeing in whose image and likeness we have been created.\n\nWhat share each individual precept has in the attainment of this end we\ncannot state with certainty, because in the Torah the reason and\npurpose of each precept is, with very few exceptions, withheld from us.\nIn many cases our reflection on the nature of a special law, or on the\ncontext in which it occurs in the Pentateuch, leads to a discovery of\nsome reason for it. But, whatever reason we may thus discover, we must\nnot lose sight of the fact that it is we who have found it, we whose\nknowledge is imperfect, and that we or others might in future discover\na better reason. If we, e.g., find that certain dietary laws serve to\ntrain us in temperance, and see that the virtue of temperance is\nfrequently recommended in the Bible, we may well obey these dietary\nlaws, and strive to be temperate in every respect in accordance with\nthe spirit we detect in them. It would, however, be a gross error if,\nbelieving the training in temperance to be their only object, we\nassumed that we could neglect them, and attain the same object by\nsubstituting our own insufficient knowledge and imperfect reason for\nthe Will and Wisdom of the most perfect Being. Moralists, our teachers\nand preachers of ancient and modern times, have found in these precepts\nan inexhaustible treasure of lessons exhorting to virtue and warning\nagainst vice, and the great variety of inferences thus drawn from the\nsame source proves the error of those who imagine that their own\nexposition is the only right one. Whatever reason we assign to a\nreligious precept, and whatever wholesome lesson we derive from it, our\nfirst duty towards the commandment, and towards Him who commanded it,\nis strict and unconditional obedience.\n\nMaimonides, who may be considered as the representative of the school\nwhich seeks to establish a rational explanation for all precepts,\nadmits that the reason we may assign to any of the commandments cannot\naffect their validity and immutability, and we are bound to obey them,\nalthough the supposed reason may be of a local or temporary character.\nAccording to Maimonides, the object of the Law is to promote the\nwell-being of our body and the well-being of our soul; and every\ncommandment has therefore some bearing upon one of the following three\nthings: the regulation of our opinions, the removal of sin, or the\nteaching of good morals. He does not except the \u201cstatutes\u201d from this\nrule, but confesses that in a few cases he is unable to show clearly\nthe relation of the commandment to any of these objects. He also\nrestricts the principle of rational interpretation to the main element\nin each commandment, and does not apply it to its details; the latter,\nas a rule, do not demand an explanation. He says:\u2014\n\n\u201cThe general object of the Law is twofold: the well-being of the soul\nand the well-being of the body\u201d (Guide, iii. 27). \u201cI am prepared to\ntell you my explanations of all these commandments (the so-called\nchukkim or \u201cstatutes\u201d), and to assign for them a true reason supported\nby proof, with the exception of some minor rules and of a few\ncommandments. I will show that all these and similar laws must have\nsome bearing upon one of the following three things, viz., the\nregulation of our opinions or the improvement of our social relations,\nwhich implies two things: the removal of wrong-doing and the teaching\nof good morals\u201d (ibid. xxviii.). \u201cThe repeated assertion of our Sages\nthat there are reasons for all commandments, and the tradition that\nSolomon knew them, refer to the general purpose of the commandments,\nand not to the object of every detail. This being the case, I find it\nconvenient to divide the six hundred and thirteen precepts into\nclasses; each class to include many precepts of the same kind. I will\nfirst explain the reason of each class of precepts, and show their\ncommon object, and then I shall discuss the individual commandments and\nexpound their reasons. Only very few will be left unexplained, the\nreason for which I have been unable to trace unto this day. I have also\nbeen able to comprehend in some cases even the object of many of the\nconditions and details of the laws as far as it can be discovered\u201d\n(ibid. xxvi.).\n\n\u201cIt is also important to note that the Law does not take into account\nexceptional circumstances; it is not based on conditions which rarely\noccur.\u201d \u201cWe must therefore not be surprised when we find that the\nobject of the Law does not fully appear in every individual case.\u201d\n\u201cFrom this consideration it follows that the Law cannot, like medicine,\nvary according to the different conditions of persons and times. Whilst\nthe cure of a person depends on his particular constitution at the\nparticular time, the Divine guidance contained in the Law must be\ncertain and general, although it may be effective in some cases and\nineffective in others. If the Law depended on the varying conditions of\nman, it would be imperfect in its totality, each precept being left\nindefinite. For this reason, it would not be right to make the\nfundamental principles of the Law dependent on a certain time or a\ncertain place. On the contrary, the statutes and the judgments must be\ndefinite, unconditional, and general, in accordance with the Divine\nwords: \u2018As for the congregation, one ordinance shall be for you and for\nthe stranger\u2019 (Num. xv. 15). They are intended, as has been stated\nbefore, for all persons and for all times\u201d (ibid. xxxiv.).\n\nIn the present treatise our religious duties will be expounded under\nthe following seven heads:\u2014\n\n\n 1. Exposition of the Decalogue.\n 2. General ethical principles\u2014\n (a.) Duties towards God.\n (b.) ,, ,, our fellow-men.\n (c.) ,, ,, ourselves.\n 3. Outward reminders of God\u2019s Presence.\n 4. Sabbath, Festivals, and Fasts.\n 5. Divine Worship.\n 6. Dietary Laws.\n 7. Jewish Life.\n\n\n\n\n\nI. THE TEN COMMANDMENTS. \u200f\u05e2\u05e9\u05e8\u05ea \u05d4\u05d3\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05ea\u200e\n\nThe \u201cTen Words\u201d are distinguished from all other lessons of the Torah\nboth on account of their intrinsic value and on account of the\nextraordinary manner in which they have been revealed by the Almighty\non Mount Sinai. They form the contents of \u201cthe covenant which God made\nwith us\u201d (Deut. v. 3).\n\nBut it must not be forgotten that they are not the only Divine\ncommandments. When, therefore, Moses repeated them before his brethren\nin the plain of Moab, he prefaced it by the exhortation: \u201cHear, O\nIsrael, the statutes and the judgments which I speak unto you to-day,\nand learn them and keep them to do them\u201d (ibid. 1); and after he had\nfinished reciting them he reminded the Israelites how they received the\nTen Commandments from the midst of the fire, and how they prayed that\nfurther commandments should be given to them through Moses; adding that\nthe Almighty, in compliance with their petition, said to him: \u201cStand\nthou here with me, and I will tell thee the whole commandment, both the\nstatutes and the judgments which thou shalt teach them\u201d (ibid. 28).\n\n\n\n\u201cAnd God spake all these words, saying:\u201d\n\n\nFIRST COMMANDMENT.\n\n\u201cI am the Lord thy God, who brought thee out of the land of Egypt, out\nof the house of bondage.\u201d\n\nThe Israelites who now stood round Mount Sinai and heard the voice of\nGod saying, \u201cI am the Lord thy God,\u201d were the same who a very short\ntime before had been slaves in Egypt; they were delivered from slavery,\nand saw their cruel taskmasters perish in the waves of the Red Sea.\nPharaoh, the king of the Egyptians, and his people had believed that\nthey were the masters of the Israelites, and that they could do with\nthem as they pleased. And Pharaoh said, \u201cWho is the Lord, that I should\nlisten to his voice? I know not the Lord, nor will I let Israel go.\u201d It\nhas now been shown that Pharaoh and his people were not the true\nmasters; that there was a higher Being that ruled over all men, over\nkings and their peoples. After the Israelites had crossed the Red Sea,\nthey sang with Moses: \u201cThis is my God, and I will praise him, the God\nof my father, and I will exalt him.\u201d They all felt that their liberty\nwas not obtained by human strength and skill; that there must be a\nhigher Being who is All-powerful, All-wise, and All-good; and that it\nwas He who freed them, and punished the wicked Egyptians by whom they\nhad been kept in slavery. What the Israelites at first felt in their\nhearts they were now, when standing round Sinai, taught by God Himself,\nin plain, clear, and intelligible words: \u201cI am the Lord thy God, who\nbrought thee out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage.\u201d\n\nThis is the first commandment; it is only one commandment, but it\ncontains several important lessons:\u2014\n\n1. God has shown great kindness to our nation; we Jews must therefore\nmore than other people show ourselves grateful to Him, love Him as our\nDeliverer and Benefactor, and do willingly all that He commands us to\ndo.\n\n2. When we are in trouble we must trust in God, pray to Him, and hope\nthat He will help us when our fellow-men cannot do so. When they give\nus up as lost we need not despair; for the Almighty can help where\nhuman wisdom and power are insufficient.\n\n3. The wicked may for a time succeed in doing wrong, whilst the good\nand just suffer; but this does not last for ever. There is a Master\nabove all of us, who in due time punishes the wicked and saves the\ngood.\n\n\n\nSECOND COMMANDMENT.\n\n\u201cThou shall have no other gods before me. Thou shalt not make unto thee\na graven image, nor the form of anything that is in heaven above, or\nthat is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth.\nThou shalt not bow down thyself unto them, nor serve them, for I, the\nLord thy God, am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers\nupon the children, upon the third and upon the fourth generation of\nthem that hate me; and showing loving-kindness to the thousandth\ngeneration of them that love me and keep my commandments.\u201d\n\nThere are no other gods in existence; it is impossible for us to have\nother gods. There is only one God, as we repeatedly declare, \u201cHear, O\nIsrael, the Lord is our God, the Lord is one.\u201d The commandment is\nnevertheless not superfluous. There have been whole nations, and there\nare still people, who, in their ignorance and folly, attribute Divine\npower to things that have no Divine power, and who give the name of god\nto things that are not gods. Such people are called heathens,\nidolaters, or idol-worshippers. The second commandment forbids us to do\nany such thing.\n\nIt was the custom in some countries to worship the king, either during\nhis lifetime or after his death, as a Divine being; it is still the\ncustom in some countries to pray to departed saints. All this our holy\nreligion forbids us to do. We must respect our king, we must honour the\nmemory and the name of good men, but only as human beings, not as gods;\nwe may not deify them. As to our prophets, our great men, the\nPatriarchs, the kings, their names are a pride unto us, their memory a\nblessing, \u200f\u05d6\u05db\u05e8\u05d5\u05e0\u05dd \u05dc\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05d4\u200e\u2014they are honoured by us as human, mortal\nbeings: they are not worshipped. When we visit the graves of those near\nand dear to us, and honour their memory by reflecting on their virtues,\nwhen we revere those holy men who have devoted their lives to the\nservice of God, or the martyrs who have sacrificed their lives for the\nsanctification of the Name of God (\u200f\u05e7\u05d3\u05d5\u05e9 \u05d4\u05e9\u05dd\u200e), we do not endow them\nwith Divine attributes, and do not offer up any prayer to them.\n\nThe second commandment, in forbidding all kinds of idolatry, includes\nthe following prohibitions:\u2014\n\n\n(1.) The worship of sun, moon, stars, animals, human beings, or any\n part of Nature, as endowed with Divine power.\n(2.) The worship of images representing things that exist in reality or\n in man\u2019s imagination.\n(3.) The worship of angels as Divine beings. They are only messengers\n of God, and we must not pray to them.\n(4.) The belief in evil spirits, demons, devils, and the like, and the\n fear of them.\n(5.) The belief in charms, witchcraft, fortune-telling, and similar\n superstitions.\n\n\nThe words, \u201cFor I, the Lord thy God, am a jealous God,\u201d are to be\nunderstood in a figurative sense; we cannot say of God that He is\njealous, in the literal sense of the word. It is only because we call a\nperson jealous who is anxious that no one else shall enjoy the same\nright or privilege as he enjoys, that we apply the term \u201cjealous\u201d\nfiguratively to God, because He does not concede Divine worship and\nservice to any other being. He demands of His worshippers that they\nserve Him alone and none besides.\n\nThose who break this commandment \u201chate God,\u201d and will surely receive\ntheir punishment. He \u201cvisits the iniquity of the fathers upon the\nchildren upon the third and upon the fourth generation.\u201d The bad\nexample set by a man frequently corrupts his children, grandchildren,\nand great-grandchildren. In that case they will all receive their\npunishment, and there is no excuse for them, that they were misled by\nthe bad example of their father or their forefathers. A bad example\nmust not be followed, even if it be set by those whom we love dearly.\n\nThe good example of a man should always be followed, and his good deeds\nbear good fruit and are the source of blessing even long after his\ndeath. For to those that love God and keep His commandments God\n\u201cshoweth mercy even to the thousandth generation.\u201d\n\n\n\nTHIRD COMMANDMENT\n\n\u201cThou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain; for the Lord\nwill not hold, him guiltless that taketh his name in vain.\u201d\n\nWe pronounce the name of God when we read the Bible, when we pray, when\nwe take an oath, or when we speak of God\u2019s wisdom, power, and goodness.\nWe take the name of God in vain when we read the Bible without\nattention, or pray without devotion, or take an oath without necessity\nor contrary to truth. When we utter the name of God we must bear in\nmind that it is the name of the most Holy and most Perfect Being that\nwe are pronouncing; that it is a privilege to us to be allowed and to\nbe able to pronounce it.\n\nThe more we meditate on the greatness and holiness of God, the more\ncareful should we be \u201cnot to utter the name of God in vain.\u201d We should\nguard ourselves from falling into the bad habit of uttering it\nthoughtlessly to no purpose whatever. Many people are heard to exclaim\nevery minute, \u201cO God,\u201d or similar phrases. To them the sacredness of\nthe name is entirely lost, and they are no longer reminded by it of the\nholiness of Him who is designated by that name. Still greater is the\nthoughtlessness of those who swear by God without any necessity. In\nswearing by God we call upon God to bear witness that our words are\ntrue. But such a testimony is only required when our statement is not\nbelieved. If we swear before we know whether we are believed or not, we\nindicate that, according to our estimate of ourselves, we are not\ntrustworthy, and it has often been observed as a fact that those who\nswear most are least to be believed. The worst of all forms of swearing\nis to swear falsely, that is, to swear that something is the case\nwithout knowing that it is true, or knowing that it is not true. This\nis a terrible crime, and is called \u201cthe profanation of God\u2019s name,\u201d\n\u200f\u05d7\u05dc\u05d5\u05dc \u05d4\u05e9\u05dd\u200e.\n\nThere is still another kind of \u200f\u05d7\u05dc\u05d5\u05dc \u05d4\u05e9\u05dd\u200e \u201cprofanation of God\u2019s name:\u201d\nif we Jews who are called by His name, the people of the Lord, or\nchildren of the Lord, bring contempt upon God\u2019s people by disgraceful\nconduct, we profane the name of God. We sanctify it by noble and\ngenerous deeds; by leading a pure and blameless life we cause a \u200f\u05e7\u05d3\u05d5\u05e9\n\u05d4\u05e9\u05dd\u200e \u201csanctification of the name of God.\u201d\n\nThe third commandment forbids us\u2014\n\n\n(1.) To utter the name of God unnecessarily in our common conversation.\n(2.) To read the Bible carelessly, or to pray without attention and\n devotion.\n(3.) To swear otherwise than when required by the law to do so, as,\n e.g., in courts of law.\n(4.) To swear when we are not fully convinced of the truth of our\n declaration.\n\n\nThe additional sentence, \u201cfor he will not hold him guiltless who taketh\nhis name in vain,\u201d is to remind us that it is against God the\nOmniscient that we sin in breaking this commandment. God knows our\ninnermost thoughts, whether we think of what we utter or not; whether\nwe are convinced of what we declare on oath or not. He will punish us\nif we break His commandments, although we may be able to conceal our\nsins from men and escape condemnation by a human tribunal.\n\n\n\nFOURTH COMMANDMENT.\n\n\u201cRemember the Sabbath day to keep it holy. Six days shalt thou labour\nand do all thy work. But the seventh day is a Sabbath unto the Lord thy\nGod: in it thou shalt not do any work, thou, nor thy son, nor thy\ndaughter, thy manservant, nor thy maidservant, nor thy cattle, nor thy\nstranger that is within thy gates. For in six days the Lord made heaven\nand earth, the sea, and all that is therein, and rested the seventh\nday; wherefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day, and hallowed it.\u201d\n\nThe Sabbath day, that is, the day of rest, is to be kept holy. In two\nways it should differ from other days; it is to be a day of rest and\nalso a holy day. We keep it as a day of rest by not doing on it any\nkind of work; we keep it as a holy day by devoting the greater part of\nit, since we are free from our ordinary occupation, to prayer and to\nreading the Bible.\n\nWe are thankful to God for having commanded us to keep the Sabbath, and\ngive expression to our feeling of gratitude in our prayers, especially\nat the beginning and the end of the Sabbath; thus, on Friday evening,\nbefore the meal, we praise God for sanctifying the Sabbath by a prayer\ncalled Kiddush, \u201csanctification,\u201d and on Sabbath evening, after the\nclose of the Sabbath, we recite the Habhdalah, in which God is praised\nfor the distinction made between Sabbath and the six week-days.\n\nThe Israelites were told to remember the Sabbath day; that is, the\nwell-known day of rest, the same day which was instituted as a day of\nrest in connection with the manna. On five days they collected one omer\nof the manna, on the sixth day two omers for each person; on the\nseventh day no manna was collected nor was any found, and the\nIsraelites were commanded to bake and to cook on the sixth day not only\nfor the sixth day, but also for the seventh, on which day baking and\ncooking was not to be done. This same seventh day we are told in the\nfourth commandment to remember to keep holy, that we should not forget\nit, or choose another day instead of it. It is the same seventh day on\nwhich God rested after the six days of the Creation, and which \u201che\nblessed and sanctified.\u201d\n\nIt is to be a day of rest not only for ourselves; we must not have work\ndone for us by our children, or by our servants, or by strangers; even\nour cattle must rest. After six days of work we enjoy the blessing of\none day\u2019s rest, and are rendered more fit to work another six days. The\nharder we work on six days, the more welcome is the rest of the seventh\nday to us. When Moses repeated the commandments, he laid special stress\non the rest of the servants, reminding the Israelites that they\nthemselves had once been slaves, and must therefore recognise the\nnecessity of granting a day of rest to their servants.\n\nIt is not to be a day of mere idleness. Complete idleness leads to evil\nthoughts and evil deeds. Whilst our body rests our mind should be\noccupied with holy thoughts; we should commune with God, reflect on His\nworks, learn from them the power, wisdom, and goodness of God, study\nthe Word of God, listen to the instruction of our teachers and\npreachers, and altogether try to raise ourselves into a loftier sphere.\n\nOn the day of rest we reflect on the works of God, on the work of\nCreation which He completed in six days, and thus by keeping the\nSabbath we testify to our belief in God as the Creator of the Universe.\nOn this account it is that the Creation is referred to in this\ncommandment as the reason why rest was enjoined for the seventh day.\n\u201cFor in six days,\u201d &c.\n\n\u201cTherefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day;\u201d the rest on the seventh\nday is a blessing to those who have worked hard during the preceding\nsix days; it is a blessing to those who spend the Sabbath in a proper\nmanner. \u201cAnd he hallowed it\u201d by giving man an opportunity to sanctify\nhimself by more frequent communion with the Most Holy.\n\nThe fourth commandment tells us\u2014\n\n\n(1.) To remember to keep the same day as Sabbath which has been set\n apart as such from the beginning.\n(2.) To abstain on that day from all kind of work.\n(3.) To devote part of the day to our sanctification.\n\n\n\nFIFTH COMMANDMENT.\n\n\u201cHonour thy father and thy mother: that thy days may be long upon the\nland which the Lord thy God giveth thee.\u201d\n\nThe strongest desire that animates a father and a mother is to see\ntheir children good and happy. From the first day of their existence\nchildren are guarded by the watchful eyes of their parents that no evil\nmay befall them. How delighted are father and mother when they notice\nthe progress of their child in health and strength, in heart and soul!\nWhat an amount of trouble and anxiety parents undergo when they see\ntheir child suffering! No sacrifice is too great for them so long as it\nensures the child\u2019s well-being. It is painful to them to be compelled\nto deny their child anything, or to rebuke or to punish it. To this\nthey are impelled only by the anxiety for the welfare of the child. The\nmutual affection between parent and child is one which nature has\nimplanted. Without it the home would be the dwelling of misery and\nmisfortune; with it comfort and happiness flourish therein. The loving\nparents have pleasure in whatever they do for the benefit of the child,\nand the affectionate child is delighted with the goodness of its\nparents.\n\n\u201cHonour thy father and thy mother,\u201d says the Almighty to us. How does a\nchild honour father and mother? In the eyes of the child father and\nmother must be the king and the queen of the house, however small that\nmay be. Every word that comes from their mouth, every desire that they\nexpress, must be regarded as of the greatest importance, and be well\nremembered by the child. When the king or the queen speaks, all present\nstand and listen respectfully; their words are read by every one with\nthe greatest interest. So it must be with the words of our parents.\nWhenever they tell us to do or not to do a thing, obedience is a\nblessing to us; disobedience is the chief cause of all misery and\ntrouble. We feel pleasure and honour in being able to do something that\ngratifies our parents, and we like to give them at times some material\ntoken of our affection. The best present we can give them is a good\nheart, sincere love that prompts us to avoid everything that would\ngrieve them, and to do everything we can to give them pleasure and to\nmake them happy.\n\nThis is one of the few laws the reward of which is distinctly stated,\n\u201cThat thy days may be long upon the land, which the Lord thy God giveth\nthee.\u201d We can easily understand the good effect of keeping the fifth\ncommandment. Pleasure and contentment contribute a good deal to the\nhealth and well-being of man, whilst anger, trouble, and\ndissatisfaction produce ill-health and weakness. The mutual affection\nbetween parent and child is therefore the cause that the days of both\nthe parents and the children are prolonged, and the harmony and\nhappiness of the house firmly established. The blessing attending\nchildren\u2019s obedience and love towards their parents does not end here.\nThe whole State consists of small homes and families, and the greater\nthe well-being of the individual homes, the greater is the well-being\nof the whole country. Thus the child by acting in accordance with this\nDivine commandment contributes its share towards the prosperity of the\nwhole country.\n\nWhen our parents are not present, we should, out of love towards them,\nobey those who take their place, as, e.g., our elder brothers or\nsisters, our guardians, and our teachers, since all these only do what\nthe parents would themselves like to do were the opportunity granted\nthem.\n\nWe are bound to honour our parents not only so long as we are under\ntheir care and live in their house, but also when we have left our\nparents\u2019 home, and have become independent. Even when they have become\nold, weak, and poor, and we support them, we must not forget the\nnatural relation between parent and child, and the honour due to\nparents from their children must still be shown to them. When they have\ndeparted from this life, and we are no longer able to show our feeling\nof love and respect in the usual way, we must honour their name and\nmemory, and hold in respect the wishes and commands which they\nexpressed when still alive. Death is no bar to true love and sincere\naffection.\n\nThus we obey the fifth commandment\u2014\n\n\n(1.) By listening respectfully to the words of our parents and obeying\n what they say.\n(2.) By doing that which pleases them, and avoiding that which would\n displease them.\n(3.) By supporting them when they are weak and poor by all our best\n exertion and with genuine pleasure.\n(4.) By honouring their name and memory after their death.\n(5.) By being obedient to our elder brothers or sisters, to our\n guardians, and to our teachers.\n\n\n\nSIXTH COMMANDMENT.\n\n\u201cThou shalt not murder.\u201d\n\nMurder is a most terrible thing; we shudder at the sound of the word,\neven at the mere idea of it. We wonder how it is possible that a person\nshould be so wicked, so cruel, and so unnatural as to take the life of\nanother human being! One who can do such a thing must have lost all\nhuman feeling, and is rather a brute than a being created in the image\nof God. But, unfortunately, there have been and there are such wicked\npeople. We read in the Bible that a dispute arose between the two sons\nof Adam, and the one, Cain, slew the other, Abel. He repented it, but\nhe could not restore to his brother the life which he had taken. The\nseverest punishment is therefore inflicted on those who have committed\nthis crime.\n\nThis commandment and those which follow it have their root in the\nprinciple, \u201cLove thy fellow-man as thyself,\u201d applied to the life (sixth\ncommandment), the home (seventh commandment), the property (eighth\ncommandment), and the honour of our fellow-man (ninth commandment). We\nwish to enjoy life as long as possible; it must therefore be our desire\nto see our fellow-man enjoy the longest possible life. But we must not\nrest satisfied with the mere desire. An earnest desire is followed by\nacts dictated by it. We must try our utmost, even as we do with regard\nto ourselves, to preserve the life of our fellow-man. We have, e.g.,\nseen before how by obeying the fifth commandment we lengthen not only\nour own life, but also that of our parents, whilst by breaking this law\nwe shorten their life as well as our own.\n\nBy supporting the poor and nursing the sick we may be the means of\nincreasing a human life by many days or even years, whilst by\nneglecting the duty of charity we neglect to save the life of our\nfellow-man when it is in our power to do so.\u2014Another instance of\ncriminal neglect it would be if a person saw another in actual danger\nof life, and did not try everything in his power to save him.\n\nWithout having directly broken the sixth commandment, without having\ntaken the life of our neighbour by violence, we may still be guilty of\nhaving shortened his life and caused his untimely death. Talebearers\nand slanderers, e.g., often undermine the peace and happiness of an\nindividual, and even of a whole family, and sow the seed of misery and\nruin where well-being and prosperity seemed well established.\n\nThe sixth commandment enjoins that we should respect the life of our\nfellow-man, and forbids us therefore\u2014\n\n\n(1.) To take it by violent means.\n(2.) To do anything by which the peace and well-being of our fellow-man\n might be undermined.\n(3.) To neglect anything in our power to save our neighbour from direct\n or indirect danger of life.\n\n\n\nSEVENTH COMMANDMENT.\n\n\u201cThou shalt not commit adultery.\u201d\n\nThe institution of marriage is of very ancient date. When Eve had been\nformed out of the rib of Adam, and was brought to him, he exclaimed,\n\u201cShe is bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh,\u201d and the account of the\nfirst marriage concludes thus: \u201cTherefore man shall leave his father\nand his mother and cleave unto his wife, and they shall be one flesh\u201d\n(Gen. ii. 24). Every married couple, husband and wife, bind themselves\nby a solemn promise to be true and faithful to each other, to remain\nthroughout life united in love and affection, and to establish a home\nfounded on purity and sanctity. Adultery is the breaking of this\npromise. That love and affection which unites man and wife cannot be\nshared by a third person without involving a breach of the seventh\ncommandment.\n\nJewish homes have always been distinguished by sanctity and purity. In\norder to retain this distinction it is necessary that we should be\ntrained in this virtue from our childhood. Our language must be pure\nand holy; unclean and indecent expressions must never be uttered in our\nhomes, either by the old or by the young. The purer our speech is, the\nmore sanctified will our heart be. Bad society often corrupts the heart\nof the young through bad example in words and conduct. It is therefore\nessential that immoral persons should not come in contact with our\nchildren; that everything that is contrary to the virtue of modesty\n(\u200f\u05e6\u05e0\u05d9\u05e2\u05d5\u05ea\u200e) should be rigorously excluded from Jewish homes.\n\nThe seventh commandment forbids:\u2014\n\n\n(1.) Faithlessness of a man to his wife, or a woman to her husband.\n(2.) The use of improper and indecent language.\n(3.) Immodest conduct.\n(4.) Associating with immoral persons.\n\n\n\nEIGHTH COMMANDMENT.\n\n\u201cThou shalt not steal.\u201d\n\nWe do not like that any one should take a part of our property without\nour knowledge or consent. An old saying of the Rabbis teaches: \u201cLet the\nproperty of thy neighbour be as dear in thy eyes as thine own\u201d (Aboth\nii. 12); that is to say, as you do not wish a diminution or destruction\nof what is yours, so you must not cause a diminution or destruction of\nwhat belongs to your neighbour.\n\nBy secretly taking anything for ourselves that does not belong to us,\nwe steal, and break the eighth commandment.\n\nThis commandment has also a wider sense, and forbids every illegal\nacquisition of property, whether it be directly by theft or robbery, or\nby cheating, by embezzlement or forgery. Property acquired by any of\nthese or similar means may be considered as stolen property, and is by\nno means a blessing to him who possesses it. Even if human justice does\nnot reach the evil-doer, he is watched by an All-seeing Eye, and will\nin due time receive his full punishment.\n\nThis commandment prohibits:\u2014\n\n\n(1.) Theft and robbery.\n(2.) All kinds of fraud and dishonesty.\n\n\n\nNINTH COMMANDMENT.\n\n\u201cThou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour.\u201d\n\nIt gives us pain to hear that others speak ill of us. \u201cLet the honour\nof thy neighbour be as dear to thee as thine own\u201d (Aboth ii. 10). We\nmust therefore not speak ill of our neighbour. But it is not only the\nspeaking ill of others that this commandment forbids; we must not say\nof our fellow-man anything that is not true. If we are called as a\nwitness in a court of justice, we must be most careful that every word\nwe utter be perfectly true. We must weigh our words well and guard\nourselves against stating as facts things about which we are not quite\ncertain. If we are careless we may become false witnesses, and may even\nbe guilty of perjury.\n\nThe consequences of false evidence are of a very grave nature; it\nmisleads the judge, perverts justice, ruins innocent people; and the\nfalse witness himself\u2014whether he sinned with intention or by\ncarelessness\u2014will not escape punishment.\n\nGod declared through the mouth of the prophet Zechariah (v. 4): \u201cI will\nbring forth the curse, saith the Lord of hosts, and it shall enter into\nthe house of the thief and into the house of him that sweareth falsely\nby my name; and it shall remain in the midst of his house, and shall\nconsume it, with the timber thereof and the stones thereof.\u201d\n\nIn order to guard ourselves against the possibility of such a crime, we\nmust train ourselves in speaking the exact truth in everything, however\ntrifling it may appear to us. Even in their play children must be\ncareful in what they utter. Idle talk, gossip, frequently leads us to\nspeak of our neighbours what is not in harmony with facts. Though we\nmay believe it to be harmless and to have no evil consequence, it has\nin reality very pernicious results; for we get into the habit of being\ncareless about our words, and of ignoring the line that parts truth\nfrom falsehood, and when we have then to speak on more important\nthings, or even in a court of justice, we may prove ourselves equally\ncareless. There is a proverb (Prov. xix. 5): \u201cA faithful witness is he\nwho doth not lie, but he who uttereth lies will be a false witness;\u201d\ni.e., the conduct of a witness with regard to truth in ordinary and\nless important utterances is a test of his trustworthiness in more\nimportant matters.\n\nThe ninth commandment\u2014\n\n\n(1.) Forbids us to give false evidence; and\n(2.) To utter an untruth of any kind whatever.\n(3.) It commands us to be careful in our utterances.\n\n\n\nTENTH COMMANDMENT.\n\n\u201cThou shalt not covet thy neighbours house; thou shalt not covet thy\nneighbour\u2019s wife, nor his man-servant, nor his maid-servant, nor his\nox, nor his ass, nor any thing that is thy neighbour\u2019s.\u201d\n\nThe coveting which the tenth commandment forbids is the root from which\nthe crimes forbidden in the four preceding commandments spring.\nCoveting is a desire to possess what we cannot get in an honest and\nlegal manner. An instance of such coveting is the desire of Ahab to\npossess the vineyard of Naboth. It must have been more than an ordinary\ndesire, for it led him to most wicked acts (1 Kings xxi.).\n\nIt is not every desire that is prohibited. If we see a thing that\npleases us, we begin to feel a desire for its possession. Our reason\nmust then step in and tell us whether we can obtain it in an honest way\nor not. In the latter case we must conquer our desire and suppress it,\nlest it obtain the mastery over us.\n\nWe must work and try to make progress. We cannot be blamed if we are\nnot quite content with our present condition, and wish to improve it.\nWithout such a desire all industry and progress would disappear. But we\nmust consider that the improvement of our material condition, the\nincrease of our property, is not the whole mission of man. We must not\nforget that we have a higher mission: to improve our heart and our\nmoral conduct, and to make ourselves worthy of being called \u201cthe\nchildren of God.\u201d The increase of our property must not impede the\nprogress of the purity and goodness of our heart.\n\nThe tenth commandment\u2014\n\n\n(1.) Forbids us to covet that which does not belong to us; and\n(2.) Commands us to suppress any such desire when it rises in our\n heart.\n\n\n\n\n\nNote 1.\u2014There is another way of enumerating the Ten Commandments,\nnamely, to combine the first and the second into one, and to divide the\ntenth into two. The Masoretic text seems to point in this direction;\nfor there is no pause between the first and the second commandments,\nwhile there is one in the middle of the tenth. The inference from the\nMasoretic text, however, is not quite certain. It is possible that the\nfirst two commandments were joined closely together in order to\nseparate more pointedly those commandments in which God speaks of\nHimself in the first person from those in which He speaks of Himself in\nthe third person; or, to use the words of the Midrash, to separate the\nfirst two, which the Israelites heard directly from God, from the rest,\nwhich they heard through Moses. The last commandment was, on account of\nits great importance, given in two different forms. In the first the\ngeneral term \u201chouse\u201d is employed; in the second the various elements\nconstituting the \u201chouse\u201d are enumerated instead. The two forms of the\ncommandment are separated by the sign of a pause, because each of them\nis complete in itself. Tradition supports our division of the\nDecalogue. \u201cI am\u201d (\u200f\u05d0\u05e0\u05db\u05d9\u200e) and \u201cThou shalt not have\u201d (\u200f\u05dc\u05d0 \u05d9\u05d4\u05d9\u05d4 \u05dc\u05da\u200e) are\nmentioned in Talmud and Midrash, also in Targum, as two distinct\ncommandments. According to Philo (On the Ten Comm.) and Josephus\n(Antiq. III. v. 5), the verse, \u201cThou shalt have ... before me\u201d belongs\nto the first commandment.\n\nThe text of the Decalogue, as repeated by Moses in the plain of Moab\n(Deut. v. 6\u20138), differs from the original (Exod. xx. 2\u201314). One of the\ndifferences, the first word of the fourth commandment\u2014\u200f\u05d6\u05db\u05d5\u05e8\u200e,\n\u201cRemember,\u201d in Exodus, and \u200f\u05e9\u05de\u05d5\u05e8\u200e, \u201cObserve,\u201d in Deuteronomy\u2014is pointed\nout in Midrash and Talmud, and also in the hymn for the Eve of Sabbath,\nbeginning, \u201cCome, my friend\u201d (\u200f\u05dc\u05db\u05d4 \u05d3\u05d5\u05d3\u05d9\u200e). Tradition explains the first\nexpression as referring to affirmative commandments, and the second to\nprohibitions; it further teaches that \u201cboth expressions were spoken by\nGod simultaneously;\u201d that is to say, the fourth commandment in\nDeuteronomy, though different in form, does not imply anything that has\nnot been revealed by God on Mount Sinai. The same applies to all points\nof difference.\n\nWhy did Moses introduce the alterations? Ibn Ezra, in his Commentary on\nthe Decalogue, is of opinion that the question need not be asked, or\nanswered if asked, because in the repetition of a Divine message the\noriginal words may be changed so long as the sense remains intact. But\nthe addition of the phrase, \u201cas the Lord thy God commandeth thee\u201d in\ntwo cases, and the reference to the deliverance from Egyptian\nservitude, substituted (in Deut.) in the fourth commandment for the\nreference to the Creation (in Exod.), lead us to think that the changes\nwere not introduced unintentionally or without any purpose. The\nrepeated Decalogue is a portion of an address in which Moses exhorted a\nnew generation in the plains of Moab to obey the Divine Law. It is,\ntherefore, not unlikely that he made additions and alterations for the\nsake of emphasis, where he noticed a certain laxity among those whom he\naddressed. Having come in contact with heathen nations and observed\ntheir rites in connection with their sacred days, the Israelites may\nhave been inclined to imitate them; they were therefore exhorted to\nsanctify the Sabbath in the way God commanded; hence also the more\nemphatic \u201cObserve,\u201d \u200f\u05e9\u05de\u05d5\u05e8\u200e.\u2014A similar reason may have caused the\naddition of the same phrase, \u201cas the Lord, &c.,\u201d to the fifth\ncommandment. The participation of a portion of the Israelites in the\nlicentious feasts of the Moabites and Midianites disturbed the peace of\ntheir homes and loosened the sacred family tie. Moses therefore points\nto the Divine origin of the law commanding obedience to parents, and\nalso emphasises the blessings which it will yield by adding the words,\n\u201cand in order that it may be well with thee.\u201d\u2014The change of\ncircumstances has also caused another alteration in the fourth\ncommandment. During the forty years which the Israelites were compelled\nto spend in the wilderness, they almost forgot the condition of their\nformer servitude; the new generation did not know it at all, and they\ngrudged their slaves the one day of rest in the week. They were\ntherefore reminded of their servitude in Egypt, and were asked to\nremember it in order that they might, out of gratitude to the Almighty,\nkeep the Sabbath as He commanded them.\n\nAnother indication that changed circumstances caused the alterations is\nnoticed in the tenth commandment. Having arrived at the border of\nPalestine, the Israelites were about to take possession of houses and\nfields, and two and a half tribes were already in possession of landed\nproperty. The term \u201chouse\u201d (\u200f\u05d1\u05d9\u05ea\u200e), which at first denoted \u201cthe home\u201d\nor \u201cthe household,\u201d including the wife, was now in the minds of the\npeople chiefly \u201ca permanent building.\u201d \u201cThe wife,\u201d the centre and the\nchief element in the home, was therefore substituted for \u201cthe house\u201d in\nthe first part of the commandment, and vice vers\u00e2, \u201cthe house\u201d for \u201cthe\nwife\u201d in the second part, where appropriately \u201cnor his field\u201d has been\nadded.\u2014The substitution of \u201cThou shalt not desire\u201d (\u200f\u05dc\u05d0 \u05ea\u05ea\u05d0\u05d5\u05d4\u200e) for the\noriginal \u201cThou shalt not covet\u201d (\u200f\u05dc\u05d0 \u05ea\u05d7\u05de\u05d5\u05d3\u200e) may have been intended to\nteach the Israelites that all kinds and degrees of desire were\nforbidden, and to remind them of the consequences of desire which they\nhad experienced at \u201cthe graves of the desire\u201d (\u200f\u05e7\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05ea \u05d4\u05ea\u05d0\u05d5\u05d4\u200e Num.\nxi.).\u2014One more important alteration is to be noticed, the conjunctive\n\u201cand\u201d (\u200f\u05d5\u05b0\u200e) before the seventh and the following commandments, which\nserved to create in the minds of the hearers the idea that the crimes\nforbidden in the second part of the Decalogue are to some extent\nconnected, and that he who broke one of these commandments was likely\nto break the others also. We are thus bidden to be on our guard, and to\ntake good care that none of them be violated by us.\n\nNote 2.\u2014Ibn Ezra, in his Commentary on Exodus xx. 9, says: \u201cRabbi\nJehudah ha-levi asked me why it is said in the Decalogue, \u2018who brought\nthee out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage,\u2019 and not\n\u2018who created heaven and earth.\u2019 My answer was as follows: Know that\nthose who believe in God have not all the same kind of faith. Some\nbelieve because they were told of His existence by others; those who\nbelieve in God because the holy Torah teaches this belief possess a\nhigher degree of faith. If an unbeliever argues with either of these,\nthey are not able to refute his argument. Those, however, who study\nsciences\u2014Astronomy, Botany, Zoology, and Anthropology\u2014learn to\nunderstand the works and the ways of God, and from these the Creator\nHimself. The words \u2018I am the Lord thy God\u2019 can only be understood by\nthe wise and intelligent of all nations. For they all see that God has\nmade heaven and earth. But there is this difference: the Israelites\nbelieve that the Creation has taken place five thousand years ago:\nnon-Israelites assume that God has been continually creating from\neternity. Now, God wrought signs and wonders in Egypt by which He\ndelivered the Israelites out of Egypt, and thus showed them His Divine\njustice and goodness. In reference to these miracles it is said, \u2018Thou\nhast been shown to know that the Lord is God;\u2019 all Israelites, wise and\nsimple, equally witnessed His miracles. The beginning of the Decalogue,\ntherefore, \u2018I am the Lord thy God,\u2019 is well understood by the wise; but\nfor the rest of the nation the words \u2018who brought thee out,\u2019 &c., have\nbeen added, in order that all without exception should understand it.\u201d\n\nNote 3.\u2014Don Isaac Abarbanel, in his Commentary on Exodus xx., says:\n\u201cThe Ten Commandments are distinguished from the other Divine precepts\nin three things: they were directly communicated by God to the\nIsraelites, not through a prophet; they were revealed to a whole nation\nat once; and they were written on the two tables of stone by the finger\nof God. Such distinction necessarily indicates a greater intrinsic\nvalue of the Ten Commandments. My opinion is therefore that they are\nlaws of a general character, and principles including all the 613\nprecepts which the Holy One, blessed be He, gave to His people. E.g.,\nlove and worship of God. sanctification of His Name, submission to His\njudgment, fear of God, reverence of His sanctuary, and other duties\ntowards God; Passover, Tabernacles, Tefillin, Mezuzah, and such other\nprecepts as are \u2018a memorial of the departure from Egypt;\u2019 the\nseparation of the first-born, tithes, &c.\u2014all these duties are implied\nin the first commandment. Also Rabbi Levi ben Gershon and the Gaon\nSaadiah assume that all the 613 precepts are implicitly contained in\nthe Decalogue. Although all precepts involving practice (\u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05d5\u05ea\n\u05de\u05e2\u05e9\u05d9\u05d5\u05ea\u200e) are implied in the Decalogue, and even allusions to each one\nof the thirteen principles of faith may be discovered in it, there is\nno precept concerning our faith. It has already been proved by Rabbi\nChisdai that by the Divine commands we are either told to do a certain\nthing, or told not to do a certain thing; but what we have to believe\nor not to believe the Almighty taught us through signs, wonders, and\nrevelation. The words \u2018I am the Lord thy God, who brought thee out of\nthe land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage,\u2019 teach a certain truth,\na principle from which many of the 613 precepts may be derived, but\nwhich is in itself no commandment.\u2014The Decalogue (\u200f\u05e2\u05e9\u05e8\u05ea \u05d4\u05d3\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e) must\ntherefore not be understood as designating ten commandments, but \u2018ten\nwords\u2019 or \u2018ten paragraphs\u2019 indicated in the Hebrew text by the pauses,\nor spaces left between two paragraphs.\n\n\u201cThe \u2018ten words\u2019 were written on two tables, five on each. The first\nfive, containing positive and negative precepts, with the announcement\nof reward and punishment, were exclusively addressed to the Israelites.\nThe latter five are simple prohibitions without any mention of\npunishment; because they were addressed to man as man, and include only\nsuch laws as are also suggested to him by human reason, without direct\nrevelation.\u201d\n\nRabbi R. S. Hirsch, in his Commentary on Exodus xx., says in reference\nto the first commandment: \u201cAs this verse is not understood as a mere\ndeclaration, but as a commandment (\u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05d4\u200e), it does not say \u2018I am thy\nGod,\u2019 but \u2018I, the Lord, shall be thy God,\u2019 and thus contains as the\nfoundation of all our duties towards God an exhortation to acknowledge\nthe sovereignty of God, \u200f\u05e7\u05d1\u05dc\u05ea \u05e2\u05d5\u05dc \u05de\u05dc\u05db\u05d5\u05ea \u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd\u200e.\n\n\u201cThe so-called \u2018belief in the existence of God,\u2019 as ancient and modern\ntheologians generally express this idea, differs widely from that which\nunderlies this fundamental doctrine of Judaism. The truth which affords\nme the foundation of a Jewish life is not the belief that there is a\nGod, or that there is only one God, but the conviction that this One,\nOnly, and true God is my God; that He has created and formed me, has\nplaced me here, and given me certain duties; that He constantly makes\nand forms me, preserves, protects, directs, and guides me; not the\nbelief that I, an accidental product of the Universe whose First Cause\nHe was millions of years ago, am through a chain of thousands of\nintervening beings related to Him, but the belief that every moment of\nmy existence is a direct personal gift from the Almighty and All-good,\nand that every moment of my life ought to be spent in His service; not\nthe knowledge that there is a God, but the recognition of God as my\nGod, as the sole Cause of my fate, and my sole Guide in all that I do,\ngives me the foundation for my religious life. The response to the\nexhortation, \u2018I shall be thy God,\u2019 is \u2018Thou art my God.\u2019\u201d\n\nNote 4.\u2014The importance attached to the Decalogue may be gathered from\nthe various attempts made, on the one hand, to classify the Divine laws\naccording to the Ten Commandments, showing that the latter contain all\nthe 613 precepts; and, on the other hand, to find in such important\npassages as the Shema and Leviticus xix. a parallel for each of the Ten\nCommandments. (Jerus. Talm. Ber., chap. i.; Rabboth, Vayyikra ad\nlocum.)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nII. GENERAL MORAL PRINCIPLES.\n\nThe Ten Commandments, flowing as it were from the one source, \u201cI am the\nLord thy God,\u201d branch off in all directions, and penetrate all man\u2019s\nrelations, guide him in his conduct towards God, towards his fellow-men\nand towards himself, and teach him how to rule his thought, his speech,\nand his actions. When the Almighty proclaims to us, \u201cI am the Lord thy\nGod,\u201d we willingly respond, \u201cThou art my God.\u201d But this declaration\ninvolves also duties on our part, the fulfilment of which is the\nnatural consequence and the verification of our response. If our words,\n\u201cThou art my God,\u201d come from our hearts, and are not empty sounds,\nuttered merely by the lips, we must be conscious of the duties they\nimpose on us. These are:\u2014\n\n\nA. Duties towards God, as our Master, Creator, and Father.\nB. Duties towards our fellow-men, as children of one God.\nC. Duties towards ourselves, as the object of God\u2019s Providence.\n\n\n\nA. DUTIES TOWARDS GOD.\n\n(a.) Duties of the Heart.\n\n1. Fear of God. \u200f\u05d9\u05e8\u05d0\u05ea \u05d4\u05e9\u05dd\u200e\u2014The true knowledge of God, of His Wisdom and\nGreatness, as visible in His works, leads us to fear God; that is, to\nfear doing anything that might displease Him and make us unworthy of\nHis love. It is not a fear that terrifies us and drives us away from\nHis presence; on the contrary, it draws us nearer to Him, and causes us\nto try to become more and more worthy of His love.\n\n\u201cAnd now, O Israel, what doth the Lord thy God require of thee but to\nfear the Lord thy God?\u201d (Deut. x. 12).\n\n\u201cIf thou wilt not observe to do all the words of this law that are\nwritten in this book, that thou mayest fear this name which is to be\nhonoured and revered, the Lord thy God; then the Lord will make thy\nplagues wonderful\u201d (Deut. xxviii. 58).\n\n\u201cThe fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge\u201d (Prov. i. 7).\n\n\u201cThe beginning of wisdom is the fear of the Lord\u201d (Ps. cxi. 10).\n\n\u201cThe fear of the Lord is to hate evil\u201d (Prov. viii. 13).\n\n\u201cThe fear of the Lord prolongeth days\u201d (Prov. x. 27).\n\n\u201cFear God, and keep his commandments; for this is the whole duty of\nman\u201d (Eccles. xii. 13).\n\n\u201cHe who possesses learning but is without fear of God, resembles a\ntreasurer who has the key for the inner door, but not for the outer\none\u201d (Babyl. Talm. Sabb. 31b).\n\n\u201cEverything is in the hand of God except the fear of God\u201d (Babyl. Talm.\nBer. 33b). [32]\n\n2. Love of God. \u200f\u05d0\u05d4\u05d1\u05ea \u05d4\u05e9\u05dd\u200e\u2014The true fear of God is associated with the\nlove of God. The latter means the constant longing for communion with\nHim, feeling happy and joyful when with Him, but unhappy and miserable\nwhen without Him. Love of God creates in us an anxiety to do everything\nin our power that might please the Almighty. He who is filled with love\nof God is \u200f\u05d7\u05e1\u05d9\u05d3\u200e, pious; he does not rest content with doing what he is\ncommanded, but anxiously seeks the opportunity of fulfilling a Divine\ncommand; he is \u200f\u05e8\u05d5\u05d3\u05e3 \u05d0\u05d7\u05e8 \u05d4\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea\u200e, \u201ceager in the pursuit of Mitsvoth.\u201d\nThe fear of God is the beginning of knowledge, but love of God is the\naim and end of all our religious thinking and striving.\n\n\u201cThou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thine heart, and with all\nthy soul, and with all thy might\u201d (Deut. vi. 5).\n\n\u201cThe Lord preserveth all those who love him (Ps. cxlv. 20).\n\n\u201cThou wilt show me the path of life. In thy presence is fulness of joy;\nin thy right hand there are pleasures for evermore\u201d (Ps. xvi. 11).\n\n\u201cAs the hart panteth after the water brooks, so panteth my soul after\nthee, O God\u201d (Ps. xlii. 2).\n\n\u201cBlessed are they who dwell in thy house: they will be still praising\nthee\u201d (Ps. lxxxiv. 5).\n\n\u201cThe desire of our soul is to thy name, and to the remembrance of thee\u201d\n(Isa. xxvi. 8).\n\n\u201cI will rejoice in the Lord; I will joy in the God of my salvation\u201d\n(Hab. iii. 18).\n\n3. Gratitude towards God.\u2014All that we possess, the very breath we\nbreathe, is a present received at the hands of the Almighty. Whatever\nsuccess we desire to achieve, whatever undertaking we desire to\naccomplish, we must ourselves first strive for it to the utmost of our\npower, and this done, we may hope for the Divine blessing. When we have\nattained what we sought, we are warned against believing that \u201cour\npower and the strength of our hand hath gotten us this wealth.\u201d We are\nto \u201cremember the Lord our God, for it is he that giveth us power to get\nwealth\u201d (Deut. viii. 17\u201318).\n\n\u201cFor all things come of thee, and of thine own hand have we given thee\u201d\n(1 Chron. xxix. 14).\n\n\u201cWhoso offereth the sacrifice of thanksgiving glorifieth me\u201d (Ps. l.\n23).\n\n\u201cThough all sacrifices should cease, the sacrifice of thanksgiving will\nnever cease\u201d (Vayyikra Rabba ix.).\n\n4. Reverence for His Name.\u2014The more we fear and love God, the deeper\nand the more intense is our feeling of reverence for everything which\nis connected in our thoughts with the name of the Almighty. Whenever we\nenter a place dedicated to His worship, or open the Book that bears His\nname, or celebrate the days set apart as \u201cseasons of the Lord,\u201d this\nfeeling of reverence overcomes us, and finds expression in our conduct.\nThe reverence for the name of God impels us also to respect ministers\nand teachers who spend their life in spreading the knowledge of God and\nHis Will.\n\n\u201cHow awful is this place! this is none other but the house of God\u201d\n(Gen. xxviii. 17).\n\n\u201cI will come into thy house in the multitude of thy mercy: and in thy\nfear will I worship toward thy holy temple\u201d (Ps. v. 8).\n\n\u201cWhen I will publish the name of the Lord, ascribe ye greatness unto\nour God\u201d (Deut. xxxii. 3).\n\n5. Obedience to the Will of God.\u2014Whatever the Almighty, whom we love\nand fear, bids us do, we not only do, but find pleasure in doing.\n\n\u201cTo obey is better than sacrifice, and to hearken than the fat of rams.\nFor rebellion is as the sin of witchcraft, and stubbornness is as\niniquity and idolatry\u201d (1 Sam. xv. 22, 23).\n\n\u201cBut this thing commanded I them, saying, Obey my voice, and I will be\nyour God, and ye shall be my people\u201d (Jer. vii. 23).\n\n\u201cThy statutes have been my song in the house of my pilgrimage\u201d (Ps.\ncxix. 54).\n\n\u201cThy testimonies have I taken as an heritage for ever: for they are the\nrejoicing of my heart\u201d (Ps. cxix. 111).\n\n\u201cSacrifice and offering thou didst not desire; mine ears hast thou\nopened; burnt offering and sin offering hast thou not required. Then\nsaid I, Lo, I come with the volume of the book written for me: I\ndelight to do thy will, O my God: yea, thy law is written within my\nheart\u201d (Ps. xl. 7\u20139).\n\n6. Faith and Confidence in God.\u2014God is All-kind, All-wise, and\nAll-powerful. The Lord is good to all, and His mercy is over all His\ncreatures: He wills that which is good for us. Being All-wise, He knows\nbest what is good for us, and by what means it can be attained; being\nAll-powerful, He can always carry His Will into effect. He is,\ntherefore, the only Being to whom we can safely entrust ourselves\neverywhere and always. In His words and commands, exhortations and\nwarnings, we have the best and surest guide through life. Our\nconfidence in God causes us to turn to Him for help in time of need,\nand for comfort in time of sorrow.\n\n\u201cInto his hand I commend my spirit, when I sleep and when I wake; and\nwith my spirit my body also: the Lord is for me, and I shall not fear\u201d\n(Daily Prayers, Morning Service).\n\n\u201cBlessed is the man that trusteth in the Lord, and whose hope the Lord\nis\u201d (Jer. xvii. 7).\n\n\u201cTrust in the Lord, and do good\u201d (Ps. xxxvii. 3).\n\n\u201cWait on the Lord: be of good courage, and he shall strengthen thine\nheart; and wait on the Lord\u201d (Ps. xxvii. 14).\n\n\u201cThe Lord is my shepherd, I shall not want\u201d (Ps. xxiii. 1).\n\n7. Resignation to the Will of God.\u2014Trusting in God\u2019s goodness, we are\ncontented with the lot which He determined for us. When we are\nprosperous we hope for His protection, lest we become corrupted and\nunworthy of His goodness; when we fail, faith in God will keep us from\ndespair and encourage us to fresh attempts; when misfortune befalls us\nwhich it is impossible for us to remedy, we resign ourselves unto His\nWill, and say, \u201cThe Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away! blessed be\nthe Name of the Lord!\u201d\n\n\u201cMy flesh and my heart failed; but God is the strength of my heart and\nmy portion for ever\u201d (Ps. lxxiii. 26).\n\n\u201cI am in a great strait: let us fall now into the hand of the Lord; for\nhis mercy is great\u201d (2 Sam. xxiv. 14).\n\n\u201cWe are bound to bless God in evil even as we bless Him in good\nfortune. It is written: \u2018And thou shalt love the Lord, thy God, with\nall thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might\u2019 (Deut.\nvi. 5); love Him with all thy soul or life\u2014i.e., even though for His\nsake thou risk thy life; and with all thy wealth\u2014that is, whatever\nmeasure He metes out to thee, acknowledge with exceeding gratitude\u201d\n[33] (Mishnah Berachoth ix. 5).\n\n\n\n(b.) Duties towards God: In Speech.\n\nThe feelings of fear and love of God, of reverence, obedience, faith,\ngratitude, and resignation, must also find adequate expression in our\nspeech. God, the Omniscient, knows our thoughts and sentiments, and\nthere would be no necessity for giving them an outward expression, if\nwe only intended thereby to make them known to the Almighty. But as in\nour relations to our fellow-men\u2014e.g., to our parents or to our\nchildren\u2014we frequently, in obedience to an irresistible impulse,\ncommunicate to them in words what we think and what we feel, even when\nconvinced that we only tell them things well known to them already, so\nwe address the Almighty, who is everywhere near unto us, and listens to\nour speech, although our wishes are known to Him before we utter them,\nand our innermost feelings are open before Him before we express them\nin words. We are aware that there is an immeasurable difference between\nthe Divine Being and earthly creatures like ourselves. We know that He\nis not subject to human weaknesses, and that the audible sound of words\ncannot move Him more than the thoughts and feelings that prompt the\nwords to come forth. And yet the mere communion of our heart with our\nCreator does not satisfy us; we feel ourselves impelled by some inner\nforce to give it an outward expression. Besides, there is a constant\ninteraction between our thoughts and our spoken words. Thoughts and\nfeelings that remain unspoken, are seldom permanent: we soon cease to\nbe conscious of them ourselves, and they often disappear without\nleaving any trace behind them, whilst sentiments and ideas expressed in\nspoken words become strengthened and take a deeper and firmer root in\nour hearts. The relationship between our lips and our heart is\ntherefore of mutual benefit to both: the words uttered with the lips\nreceive their value and importance from the heart, and the emotions of\nthe heart derive strength and support from the lips.\n\n1. Prayer.\u2014All our feelings and sentiments towards the Almighty, our\nlove and fear, faith and confidence, gratitude and resignation, find in\nDivine worship their due expression. When our soul is full of the love\nof God, and yearns for His presence, we call upon Him in hymns and\nsongs of praise, and He is \u201cnigh to all them who call upon him, to all\nthat call upon him in truth\u201d (Ps. cxlv. 18).\n\n\u201cI will sing unto the Lord as long as I live; I will sing praise to my\nGod while I have any being. Let my meditation be sweet unto him: I will\nrejoice in the Lord\u201d (Ps. civ. 33, 34).\n\n\u201cPraise ye the Lord: for it is good to sing praises unto our God; for\nit is pleasant, and praise is comely\u201d (Ps. cxlvii. 1).\n\n\u201cI will bless the Lord at all times: his praise shall continually be in\nmy mouth\u201d (Ps. xxxiv. 2).\n\n\u201cO Lord, open my lips; and my mouth shall show forth thy praise\u201d (Ps.\nli. 17)\n\nOur desire to please Him whom we love sincerely, our longing for an\nopportunity to do what is good in His eyes, ought not to remain hidden\nand silent. The sooner and the more frequently we give expression to\nthese wishes in audible words, the sooner do they become realised, and\nthe sooner are the promptings of our heart followed by deeds.\n\n\u201cWith my lips have I declared all the judgments of thy mouth\u201d (Ps.\ncxix. 13).\n\n\u201cHow sweet are thy words unto my palate! yea, sweeter to my mouth than\nhoney\u201d (Ps. cxix. 103).\n\n\u201cLet my tongue sing of thy word; for all thy commandments are\nrighteousness\u201d (Ps. cxix. 172).\n\nWe fear lest we offend and displease Him by our words or acts; we\nrecall to our mind the holiness of a God \u201cwho has no pleasure in\nwickedness, and with whom evil shall not sojourn\u201d (Ps. v. 5); we not\nonly meditate on the Holy One, but speak and sing of Him. Our\nmeditation finds expression in songs on the holiness of God, and these\nsongs again supply fresh material for meditation; we thus hope to fence\nand guard our heart against the intrusion of anything unworthy of the\npresence of the Most Holy.\n\n\u201cWho shall ascend the hill of the Lord? and who shall stand in his holy\nplace? He that hath clean hands and a pure heart\u201d (Ps. xxiv. 3, 4).\n\n\u201cI will wash mine hands in innocency; so will I compass thine altar\u201d\n(Ps. xxvi. 6).\n\nOur weakness and helplessness in many conditions of life fill us with\ntrouble and care. When we enjoy good health, we fear a change might\ntake place; in possession of wealth, we are in anxiety: it might be\ntaken from us. The pleasures of home and family we know to be but\ntemporary: how soon may sorrow visit us there! From all these fears and\nanxieties we seek and find refuge in Him, who is \u201ca stronghold to the\nweak, a stronghold in times of trouble\u201d (Ps. ix. 10). We tell Him\nconfidently all the troubles and cares of our heart, as we would do to\na friend who is always willing and ready to help us. We have faith in\nGod, and therefore we approach Him with our petitions; and when we have\npoured forth our heart before the All-merciful we feel more at ease,\nand our faith and confidence have gained in strength.\n\n\u201cHe shall call upon me, and I will answer him: I will be with him in\ntrouble; I will deliver him and honour him\u201d (Ps. xci. 15).\n\n\u201cWhen they have cried unto the Lord in their trouble, he will save them\nout of their distresses\u201d (Ps. cvii. 6).\n\n\u201cBecause he hath inclined his ear unto me, therefore will I call upon\nhim as long as I live. When I find trouble and sorrow, then will I call\nupon the name of the Lord. When I take the cup of salvation, then will\nI call upon the name of the Lord\u201d (Ps. cxvi. 2, 4, 13).\n\n\u201cWhat sufferings may be called chastisements of love? Such as do not\nprevent us from prayer\u201d (Babyl. Talm. Ber. 5a).\n\n\u201cEven when the edge of the sword touches already a man\u2019s neck, even\nthen he must not abandon his faith in praying to God\u201d (Babyl. Talm.\nBer. 10a).\n\n\u201c\u2018I was asleep, but my heart was awake;\u2019 I have no sacrifices, but I\nhave \u2018Shema\u2019 and \u2018Prayer\u2019\u201d (Shir ha-shirim Rabba on v. 2).\n\n\u201c\u2018Hope in the Lord,\u2019 and pray again\u201d (Rabboth, Deuter., chap. ii.).\n\nOur Rabbis teach, \u201cPrayer is good for man both before his fate has been\ndecreed and after it has been decreed\u201d (Babyl. Talm. Rosh-hashshanah,\np. 16a). But at the same time we are warned against impatiently\nexpecting and demanding an immediate effect from the words uttered by\nour lips, however devoutly they may have been spoken. Such\nexpectation\u2014denounced in the Talmud as \u200f\u05e2\u05d9\u05d5\u05df \u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d4\u200e [34]\u2014would indicate\nour confidence in the wisdom of our petition, whilst confidence in the\nwisdom and goodness of God would suggest that \u201cthe Lord will do what is\ngood in his eyes.\u201d\n\nWe give expression to our feelings of gratitude towards our benefactor\nby acknowledging the fact, that whatever we enjoy, we are enabled to\nenjoy through His kindness. The various blessings formulated by our\nSages serve a double purpose: first, they facilitate the expression of\nour feelings; secondly, they remind us of the presence of the Almighty,\nand of His goodness in providing for us and all His creatures. From the\ntime we awake in the morning till the evening when we lie down to\nsleep, there is not a moment that does not bring to our knowledge some\nDivine act of kindness towards us. In the morning we perceive the\nbenefit of light, in the evening we have reason to welcome the blessing\nof repose it brings with it, while the interval between the two periods\nconstantly reveals to him who does not wilfully shut his eyes the hand\nof Him \u201cwho is good, and whose loving-kindness endureth for ever.\u201d\n\n\u201cI will give thanks to thee, for thou hast answered me, and art become\nmy salvation\u201d (Ps. cxviii. 21).\n\n\u201cI will sacrifice unto thee with the voice of thanks giving\u201d (Jon. ii.\n10).\n\n\u201cThough all prayers were to be discontinued, prayers of thanksgiving\nwill never be discontinued\u201d (Vayyikra Rabba, chap. ix.).\n\nWhen things happen which are not pleasant to us, which give us pain and\nsorrow, we ought to consider that the plans of God are different from\nour plans, and His ways from our ways, and what He wills is better for\nus than our own wishes. With resignation, without murmuring, we ought\nto utter words of praise and thanks to the Almighty.\n\n\u201cThe Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away; blessed be the name of\nthe Lord\u201d (Job i. 21).\n\n\u201cLearn to say, \u2018Whatever the Almighty does, is done for our good\u2019\u201d\n(Babyl. Talm. Ber. 60b).\n\nPublic Service.\u2014Man has a natural desire to communicate his sentiments\nto his fellow-men, and finds a certain pleasure or relief in knowing\nthat others share in his joys and sorrows. The same is the case with\nregard to his sentiments towards the Most High. If, yearning for\ncommunion with God, we fervently appeal to Him in solitude, where we\nare undisturbed by the intrusion of any other person, it will not be\nlong before we shall feel ourselves in the very presence of Him who is\n\u201cnigh to all those who call upon him in truth.\u201d Standing before the\nAlmighty, the Creator and Master of the whole Universe as well as of\nourselves, we should like all nature to join in His praises, and we\nsummon the inhabitants of the heavens above, His angels and hosts, sun,\nmoon, and all the stars of light; and the dwellers on earth below,\ninanimate and animate, irrational and rational, kings with their\npeoples, to come and to praise the name of God (Ps. cxlviii.). Such\nmoments of solitary devotion are very precious, and are by no means to\nbe despised. But they are not frequent, and not always successful.\nPublic worship has this advantage, that the object of our meeting, the\nholiness of the place, and the union in a worship with our fellow-men\ncombine to create, maintain, or intensify our devotion. Although each\none has his individual wants, joys, and sorrows, there are many wants,\njoys, and sorrows which we have all in common, and concerning which we\nmay in common give expression to our feelings in prayer, praise, and\nthanksgiving.\n\n\u201cBless ye the Lord in congregations\u201d (Ps. lxviii. 27).\n\n\u201cIf ten pray together, the presence of God is with them\u201d (Babyl. Talm.\nBer. 6a).\n\n\u201c\u2018But as for me, my prayer is unto thee, O Lord, in an acceptable time\u2019\n(Ps. lxix. 14): which is the acceptable time? The time of public\nworship\u201d (Babyl. Talm. Ber. 8a).\n\n2. Study of the Law (\u200f\u05ea\u05dc\u05de\u05d5\u05d3 \u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e).\u2014Another way of employing speech in\nthe service of the Lord is the reading and the study of the Word of\nGod: the Holy Scriptures and their Commentaries. Our love and reverence\nof God ought to induce us frequently to consult the book which contains\nHis commandments, and which He has given us as a guide and companion.\nEven if we derived no further benefit than the consciousness of having\nspent some time in reading His Word revealed to us by the mouth of the\nProphets, the time thus spent would not be wasted. But we derive a\nfurther advantage. It is impossible to imagine that our devoting a\ncertain time, however short it may be, to the reading of the words of\nthe Most Holy should have no purifying influence upon us, provided we\napproach the book before us with due reverence, and with the intention\nto be guided by its teachings.\n\nJoshua, when placed at the head of the nation, is exhorted by the\nAlmighty as follows: \u201cThis book of the law shall not depart out of thy\nmouth; but thou shalt meditate therein day and night, that thou mayest\nobserve to do according to all that is written therein\u201d (Joshua i. 8).\n\n\u201cAs for me, this is my covenant with them, saith the Lord: my spirit\nthat is upon thee, and my words which I have put in thy mouth, shall\nnot depart out of thy mouth, nor out of the mouth of thy seed, nor out\nof the mouth of thy seed\u2019s seed, saith the Lord, from henceforth and\nfor ever.\u201d (Is. lix., 21)\n\n3. Teaching.\u2014The gift of speech is of service also in communicating our\nthoughts, feelings, and convictions to our fellow-men. They who are\nable to read the Word of God and to understand it, ought to read and\nexpound it to those who are less favoured; they who feel the presence\nof God, and comprehend His holiness, goodness, and unity, ought to\ndirect the hearts of their brethren to God, His words and works. It is\na special duty and privilege of the Jew to proclaim and teach the\nExistence and the Unity of God\u2014\u200f\u05d9\u05d7\u05d5\u05d3 \u05d4\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0\u200e.\n\n\u201cAnd thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children, and shalt talk\nof them when thou sittest in thine house, and when thou walkest by the\nway, and when thou liest down and when thou risest up\u201d (Deut. vi. 7).\n\n\u201cHappy are we! how goodly is our portion, and how pleasant is our lot,\nand how beautiful our heritage! Happy are we who early and late,\nmorning and evening, twice every day, declare, \u2018Hear, O Israel, the\nLord is our God, the Lord is One\u2019!\u201d (Daily Prayers, Morning Service).\n\n4. Reverence of the Name of God.\u2014The mention of the name of God ought\nto make us most careful about that which we utter in connection with\nit. If a person makes a promise or statement on oath carelessly or with\nlevity, he shows that he has no reverence of the name of God; no fear\nof God. It is only through such irreverence that a person is capable of\nbreaking the third commandment. Blasphemy, a sin treated in the Bible\nas a capital crime, has likewise its source in want of due reverence of\nGod\u2019s name. In order to preserve and strengthen that reverence we must\navoid pronouncing the Divine name too frequently. Hence arose the\ncustom of substituting such words as \u200f\u05d4\u05e9\u05dd\u200e \u201cthe Name,\u201d \u200f\u05d4\u05de\u05e7\u05d5\u05dd\u200e \u201cthe\nOmnipresent,\u201d for the names of God, and employing in ordinary writing\nletters like \u200f\u05d4\u200e or \u200f\u05d3\u200e or \u200f\u05d9\u05d9\u200e instead of any of the Divine names. In\nwriting single letters instead of the full names we also intend to\nguard ourselves against causing irreverence towards the name of God; as\nour writing is frequently destroyed or liable to be thrown among the\nrefuse. This precaution, dictated by a feeling of reverence for God and\nHis name, serves at the same time to strengthen that feeling. [35]\n\nFrom the same reason, the word which is exclusively used as a name of\nGod, the Tetragrammaton, [36] was rarely pronounced, and in reading the\nBible the word Adonai, \u201cMy Lord,\u201d is substituted wherever it occurs. It\nwas only pronounced in the Temple by the High-priest on the Day of\nAtonement, in the Confession of Sins, and in the Prayer for\nForgiveness; and by the ordinary priests when they blessed the people\nin accordance with the Divine precepts (Num. vi. 24\u201326). Since the\ndestruction of the Temple the Tetragrammaton has not been pronounced,\nand thus it has come about that the right pronunciation of the word is\nat present unknown.\n\n5. The consciousness that we frequently address the Almighty with our\nlips, and read His Holy Word, ought to make us strive for the utmost\npurity and holiness in our speech. When the prophet Isaiah, in a Divine\nvision, perceived the majesty of the Most High, and heard the sound of\nHis ministering angels proclaiming His holiness, a sense of his own\nfailings forced even from this chosen messenger of God the confession,\n\u201cWoe is me! for I am undone; because I am a man, unclean in lips, and I\ndwell in the midst of a people unclean in lips, for mine eyes have seen\nthe King, the Lord of hosts\u201d (Isa. vi. 5).\n\n\n\nDuties towards God: In our Actions.\n\nRabbi Jose teaches, \u201cLet all thy deeds be in the service of heaven,\u201d\n\u200f\u05db\u05dc \u05de\u05e2\u05e9\u05d9\u05da \u05d9\u05d4\u05d9\u05d5 \u05dc\u05e9\u05dd \u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd\u200e (Sayings of the Fathers, ii. 12).\n\nThe feeling of love and fear of God which fills our heart and soul, and\nto which we frequently give expression in words, must also be visible\nin our actions. Our whole life must be devoted to His service, and\nought to be one continuous worship of God. Every act of ours must aim\nat the sanctification of His name. He has revealed unto us His Will,\nand shown us the way in which we should walk; unconditional submission\nto His guidance and strict obedience to His command should distinguish\nthe people of the Lord. True love of God and faith in His goodness make\nus \u201cbold as a leopard, light as an eagle, swift as a stag, and strong\nas a lion to carry out the will of our Father in heaven\u201d (Sayings of\nthe Fathers, v. 20). For what could be the value of our professions of\nlove for God, if we refused to listen attentively to His voice, to walk\nin the way He has prepared for us, or to observe His statutes? From\nthis point of view we may consider all our duties as duties towards\nGod, since their fulfilment implies obedience to His Will. But there\nare certain duties which chiefly or exclusively concern our relations\nto God. Such duties are: the observance of Sabbath and Festivals,\nproviding reminders of God\u2019s Presence, establishing and supporting\nPublic Worship, sanctifying God\u2019s Name (\u200f\u05e7\u05d3\u05d5\u05e9 \u05d4\u05e9\u05dd\u200e), and imitating His\nways. Of these duties, the first three will be fully treated in special\nsections.\n\nThe sanctification of God\u2019s Name is a duty incumbent on all mankind,\nbut it is incumbent on us Jews in a higher degree, for we are called\nthe people of the Lord, the chosen people, a holy nation, and a kingdom\nof priests. We sanctify the name of God by remaining faithful to Him\nand to His Word, resisting every kind of force or temptation to turn us\naway from our faith, making sacrifices for our holy religion, and\nconducting ourselves in such a manner that our fellow-men may become\nconvinced that the tree of our Law bears good and holy fruit. Every\naction that brings disgrace upon us as Israelites, and causes our\nneighbours to despise \u201cthe people of the Lord, who profess to be the\nguardians of the revealed Torah,\u201d is \u200f\u05d7\u05dc\u05d5\u05dc \u05d4\u05e9\u05dd\u200e \u201cProfanation of the\nName of God.\u201d \u201cAnd ye shall not profane my holy name, but I will be\nhallowed among the children of Israel\u201d (Lev. xxii. 32).\n\n\u201cProfanation of the name of God is a greater sin even than idolatry\u201d\n(Babyl. Talm. Sanhedrin 106a).\n\nImitating the Ways of God.\u2014We know that God is perfect, and that all\nHis ways are perfect; we are conscious also of our weakness and of the\nimpossibility of ever becoming perfect. But this conviction must not\ndeter us from seeking perfection as far as our nature permits it, or\nfrom setting before us the ways of God as an example for us to follow,\nas the aim which should direct the course of our life, the balance in\nwhich to weigh our actions, and the test by which to determine their\nvalue.\n\n\u201cYe shall be holy; for I, the Lord your God, am holy\u201d (Lev. xix. 2).\n\n\u201cI set the Lord always before me\u201d (Ps. xvi. 8).\n\n\u201c\u2018Ye shall walk after the Lord your God\u2019 (Deut. xiii. 5). Is it\npossible for man to walk after the Lord? Has it not been said, \u2018The\nLord thy God is a consuming fire\u2019? (ibid. iv. 24). The meaning of the\nverse, however, is this: Follow the ways of God: He clothes the naked,\nas we are told, \u2018And the Lord God made coats of skin for Adam and his\nwife\u2019 (Gen. iii. 21); do the same. He visits the sick, as is indicated\nin the words, \u2018And God appeared to him in the plain of Mamre\u2019 (ibid.\nxviii. 1); you must also visit the sick. He comforts the mourners, as\nappears from the passage, \u2018And it came to pass after the death of\nAbraham, that God blessed his son Isaak\u2019 (ibid. xxv. 11); do the same,\nand comfort mourners,\u201d &c. (Babyl. Talm. Sotah 14a).\n\nIt may happen that we are sometimes disposed to exclude a fellow-man\nfrom our brotherly love. It would be against human nature to love those\nwho have hurt or wronged us. But, on the other hand, we are taught that\nwe must keep our heart free from feelings of revenge and hatred. If an\noffence has been committed against us by our brother, the Law directs\nus as follows: \u201cThou shalt not hate thy brother in thine heart; thou\nshalt surely reprove thy neighbour, and not bear sin against him. Thou\nshalt not revenge, and thou shalt not keep a grudge against the\nchildren of thy people, but love thy fellow-man like thyself: I am the\nLord\u201d (Lev. xix. 17, 18). The traditional interpretation illustrates\nrevenge and grudge in the following way: If your neighbour, after\nhaving been unkind to you, is in need of your assistance, and you\nrefuse it on the ground of his want of kindness towards you, you are\nguilty of revenge; if you grant him his request, but at the same time\nremind him of his unkind conduct, you are guilty of \u201cbearing a grudge\nagainst your neighbour.\u201d (Sifra, ad locum.)\n\n\n\n\n\nB.\u2014DUTIES TOWARDS OUR FELLOW-CREATURES.\n\n(a.) Duties towards our Fellow-men in General.\n\n\u201cHave we not all one father? hath not one God created us?\u201d (Mal. ii.\n10). \u201cThou shalt love thy fellow-man as thyself\u201d (Lev. xix. 18). These\nare the sentiments which, according to the Will of God, ought to guide\nus in our relation to our fellow-men. When, therefore, a Gentile came\nto Hillel and asked him to explain to him in one moment the duties\nwhich Judaism enjoins on its adherents, he replied, \u201cWhat is\ndispleasing to thee, that do thou not to others. This is the text of\nthe Law; all the rest is commentary; go and learn\u201d (Babyl. Talm.\nShabbath 31a). In a different form this idea has been expressed by\nRabbi Akiba and by Ben-Azai, who respectively quoted as a fundamental\nprinciple of the Law, \u201cLove thy neighbour as thyself,\u201d and \u201cThis is the\nbook of the generations of man; in the day that God created man, he\nmade him in the likeness of God\u201d (Yalkut on Gen. v. 1).\n\nFrom this principle we derive the following general maxims with regard\nto our neighbour\u2019s (1) life and health, (2) property, (3) honour, and\n(4) well-being:\u2014\n\n1. Life and Health of our Fellow-man.\u2014Life is a precious treasure which\nthe Almighty has given us; if it is once taken from us, no man is able\nto restore it. Among the first lessons revealed to man in Scripture is\nthe value of the life of a human being, created by God in His own\nlikeness, and when the first murder had been committed, God said to the\nmurderer, \u201cWhat hast thou done? the voice of thy brother\u2019s blood is\nheard that crieth unto me from the ground\u201d (Gen, iv. 10). The first\ncommandment in the second section of the Decalogue is directed against\nthis crime: \u201cThou shalt not murder.\u201d The significance of these words,\nthe general lessons implied in this commandment, and the extent to\nwhich a person, though not an actual murderer, may become guilty of\nhaving broken this commandment, have already been explained in the\nchapter on the Ten Commandments (p. 261). It has been shown how the\nsixth commandment forbade\u2014\n\n\n(1.) The taking of the life of a fellow-man by violent means.\n(2.) The doing of anything by which the health, the peace, and the\n well-being of our fellow-man is undermined.\n(3.) The omission of any act in our power to save our fellow-man from\n direct or indirect danger of life.\n\n\n2. The Property of our Neighbour.\u2014The eighth commandment in its wider\nsense comprehends all our relations to our neighbour\u2019s property. It\nprohibits, as has been shown above (p. 263), the appropriation of\nanything that belongs to our neighbour\u2014\n\n\n(1.) By theft and robbery, or\n(2.) By any kind of fraud and dishonesty.\n\n\nOur Sages teach: \u201cLet the property of thy fellow-man be as dear to thee\nas thine own\u201d (Aboth ii. 12); i.e., you do not like to see your own\nproperty damaged, diminished, or destroyed; so it would be wrong if you\nwere to cause loss and ruin to your fellow-man, whether you did it\ndirectly or indirectly. [37] Let every one enjoy the labour of his\nhands; partake of the gifts of the earth and the Divine blessings as\nmuch as his physical and mental powers enable him to do in a righteous\nmanner.\n\nIt is not only direct illegal appropriation of our neighbour\u2019s goods\nthat is condemned as theft or robbery; it is equally wicked to buy\nthings which one knows to have been stolen by others. [38] He who does\nit is worse than the thief; for, whilst the latter injures only the\nperson whom he robs, the former encourages and corrupts the thief,\nhardens his heart, helps to silence the voice of his conscience, and\nthus obstructs the way to repentance and improvement.\n\nThere are transactions which are legal and do not involve any breach of\nthe law, and which are yet condemned by the principles of morality as\nbase and disgraceful. Such are all transactions in which a person takes\nadvantage of the ignorance or embarrassment of his neighbour for the\npurpose of increasing his own property. Usurers frequently belong to\nthis low and heartless class of society. The worst thing, however, they\ndo is, that they plan the ruin of others; in many cases they bring\nabout disaster by inducing young and inexperienced persons to borrow\nmoney and to spend it in luxuries, or increase the embarrassment of the\ndistressed by charging exorbitant interest and imposing cruel\nconditions, which make it impossible for those who have once fallen\ninto the hands of usurers to free themselves from their bondage.\n\nIt makes no difference whatever whether the victim be a Jew or a\nnon-Jew; the transaction is equally condemnable, and the usurer equally\nwicked. This statement would be superfluous, were it not for the\nmisunderstanding that exists both among some of our co-religionists and\namong non-Jews with regard to the principle it involves. Great stress\nis laid in the Pentateuch on the prohibition of taking interest for\nadvances of money or articles of food. \u201cAnd if thy brother be waxen\npoor and fallen in decay with thee, then thou shalt relieve him: yea,\nthough he be a stranger or a sojourner, that he may live with thee.\nTake thou no interest of him, or increase: but fear thy God, that thy\nbrother may live with thee. Thou shalt not give him thy money upon\nusury, nor lend him thy victuals for increase. I am the Lord your God,\u201d\n&c. (Lev. xxv. 35\u201338; comp. Exod. xxii. 24).\u2014It is one of the\ncharacteristics of the pious who is worthy to \u201cabide in the tabernacle\nof God,\u201d that \u201che putteth not out his money to usury\u201d (Ps. xv. 5).\n\nThe strict prohibition to take interest on advances of money or goods\nserved a twofold purpose. In the first place, the surplus money of the\nwealthy was to be employed in disinterested charity. Secondly, labour\nand activity, both physical and mental, were to be the sources of\nincome and wealth for the individual as well as for the whole nation;\nmoney without labour was not to bear any fruit or produce any increase.\n\nAn exception from this law was made for the benefit of the stranger.\nThe inhabitants of a town or a country who lived in the midst of their\nrelatives, friends, and countrymen could, as a rule, be trusted to\nreturn the loan in due time. If they were not known themselves, they\ncould find persons who would recognise them or even offer themselves as\nsecurity for them. It was different with the stranger (\u200f\u05d4\u05e0\u05db\u05e8\u05d9\u200e) \u201cwho\ncame from a far land\u201d (Deut. xxix. 21); he was not known; he was, as a\nrule, without friends; he had none to offer security for him. [39] When\nin need, therefore, he would be unlikely to obtain a loan, if the\nlender were not permitted in such cases to take interest as\ncompensation for risking the capital itself. The same reason explains\nalso a second exception made in the law with regard to a stranger when\na debtor. The payment of old debts is, as a rule, a great hardship to\nthe insolvent, especially at a time when the benefit derived from the\nloan has already been forgotten. It was therefore ordained that every\nseven years a remission of all debts should take place. The debtor that\nlived in the country could easily be urged or forced to pay his debts,\nand the creditor could safely expect that he would receive his money\nbefore the year of release began. This was not the case with the\nstranger, who might with impunity keep out of sight for some time\nbefore the beginning of the seventh year: a circumstance that increased\nthe uncertainty of the repayment, and would have rendered it almost\nimpossible for a stranger to enjoy the benefit of a loan in times of\ntemporary embarrassment, but for the exception made in his case from\nthe law commanding the remission of all debts in the seventh year.\n\nWe see here a difference made in our duties towards our fellow-men\nbetween an Israelite and a stranger, but solely for the benefit of \u201cthe\nstranger.\u201d At present, when the original relation between the Israelite\nand the stranger has ceased, the spirit of charity and justice towards\nthe stranger (\u200f\u05e0\u05db\u05e8\u05d9\u200e) or non-Jew, which is the basis of this law, must\ncontinue to regulate our intercourse with our neighbours, and if the\nnon-Jew would recognise the prohibition of taking interest as equally\nbinding upon him as upon the Jew, the latter would not be allowed to\ntake any kind of interest from a non-Jew. At all events, if any of our\nco-religionists take this law as a pretext for imposing upon their\nnon-Jewish fellow-men, and injuring and ruining them by exorbitant\nusury, they pervert alike the letter and the spirit of the Divine\ncommand; they do not act in a Jewish spirit, and instead of being\nmembers of a holy nation or the people of the Lord, they are guilty of\n\u200f\u05d7\u05dc\u05d5\u05dc \u05d4\u05e9\u05dd\u200e, the profanation of the name of God, and do not deserve to\nbe honoured by the name of Jews.\n\nDenunciations are sometimes levelled against the Jews, on account of\nthe misdeeds of some individuals, as cruel usurers. Those non-Jews who\nwould take the trouble of thoroughly studying Jews and Judaism would\nsoon discover the error and the baselessness of such denunciations.\nJudaism has never sanctioned usury, but, on the contrary, always\ncondemned it. [40]\n\nWith regard to the property of our neighbour our Sages expressed the\nfollowing maxim:\u2014\n\n\u201cThere are four characters among men: he who says, \u2018What is mine is\nmine and what is thine is thine,\u2019 his is a neutral character; some say\nthis is a character like that of Sodom; he who says, \u2018What is mine is\nthine and what is thine is mine\u2019 is a boor; he who says \u2018What is mine\nis thine and what is thine is thine\u2019 is a saint; he who says \u2018What is\nthine is mine and what is mine is mine\u2019 is a wicked man\u201d (Aboth v. 10).\n\nWe are not only commanded to abstain from injuring our neighbour with\nregard to his property, but we are exhorted to protect it as far as\nlies in our power. \u201cIf thou meetest the ox of thine enemy or his ass\ngoing astray, bring it back to him\u201d (Exod. xxiii. 4). \u201cThou shalt not\nsee thy brother\u2019s ox or his sheep go astray, and hide thyself from\nthem: thou shalt surely bring them again unto thy brother\u201d (Deut. xxii.\n1). \u201cThou shalt not see thy brother\u2019s ass or his ox fallen down by the\nway, and hide thyself from them: thou shalt surely help him to lift\nthem up again\u201d (ibid. ver. 4).\n\n3. The Honour of our Fellow-man.\u2014\u201cLet the honour of thy fellow-man be\nas dear to thee as thy own\u201d (Aboth ii. 10). We are very sensitive about\nour own honour; and many of us\u2014nay, all right-minded persons\u2014are more\nanxious for the good name acquired through integrity of character than\nfor the safety of their property. We must be equally sensitive about\nthe honour of our fellow-man, and take good care lest we damage his\nrepute by falsehood, slander, or spreading evil reports in apparently\ninnocent gossip. An evil tongue (\u200f\u05dc\u05e9\u05d5\u05df \u05d4\u05e8\u05e2\u200e) is a serious failing from\nwhich few are exempt; even if a person is not guilty of the sin of evil\nspeech, he does not entirely escape \u201cthe dust of the evil tongue\u201d\n(Babyl. Talm. B. Bathra 165a). Calumny, it is said, kills three\u2014the\nslanderer himself, him who listens, and the person spoken of. We\ntherefore add to the Amidah the words: \u201cMy God, guard my tongue from\nevil, and my lips from speaking guile;\u201d and in one of the Psalms we\nread: \u201cWho is the man that desireth life, and loveth days, that he may\nsee good? Keep thy tongue from evil and thy lips from speaking guile\u201d\n(Ps. xxxiv. 13, 14).\n\nOur Sages are very severe against those who attack the honour of their\nfellow-men. In one passage it is said: \u201cWhoever causes by offensive\nwords the face of his fellow-man to turn pale is almost guilty of\nshedding blood\u201d (Babyl. Talm. B. Metsia 58b). Another passage runs\nthus: \u201cRather let a man throw himself into a furnace than publicly\noffend his fellow-man\u201d (ibid. 59a).\n\nThe Law does not only forbid the utterance of evil reports, but also\nthe encouragement given to the tale-bearer by listening to his stories.\n\u201cThou shalt not take up a false report\u201d (Exod. xxiii. 1). In the Book\nof Proverbs the evil consequences of listening to slander are thus\ndepicted: \u201cIf a ruler hearkeneth to falsehood, all his servants are\nwicked\u201d (Prov. xxix. 12). \u201cHe who giveth heed to wicked lips causeth\nevil-doing; he who giveth ear to a mischievous tongue feedeth lies\u201d\n(ibid. xvii. 4).\n\nWhen we hear evil reports about our neighbour, we should try to defend\nhim; when we are convinced that he has done wrong, we must rebuke him,\nlead him back to the right way, and not utterly reject him; we may\nstill find some redeeming feature in his character that makes it worth\nour while to save him. Thus Joshua, the son of Perachjah, teaches us:\n\u201cJudge every man favourably\u201d (Aboth i. 6); that is, if you are\nuncertain as to a man\u2019s faults, let him have the benefit of the doubt.\nWhen we criticise our neighbour\u2019s character\u2014and idle gossip frequently\nleads to this practice\u2014we are too often inclined to dwell upon his weak\npoints\u2014his vices\u2014and to pass over his merits in silence; but we ought\nto consider how little we should like to see the same treatment applied\nto ourselves. Another fault of ours is to judge the doings of other\npeople without fully understanding all the circumstances and the causes\nthat led to such actions. Hillel said, \u201cDo not judge thy neighbour\nuntil thou hast come into his place;\u201d that is, do not pass judgment\nupon your neighbour before you are able to place yourself in his\nposition, and to say with certainty what, you would have done under the\nsame circumstances. The Law forbids us to use divers weights and divers\nmeasures in our business transactions, lest we damage the property of\nour neighbour; equally unlawful is the use of one kind of weights and\nmeasures for weighing our own words and deeds, and another kind for\nweighing the words and the deeds of others, to the injury of our\nfellow-man\u2019s name and repute. Contrary to the usage of courts of\njustice, our neighbour\u2019s words and deeds are generally reported by us,\ninterpreted, tried and condemned in his absence, when he is unable to\ndefend himself, to show his innocence, or to prove the falsehood of the\nreport, the error of the interpretation, and the injustice of the trial\nand the condemnation.\n\nThe perversity of such conduct is evident, especially in the case of\nthe departed. The prohibition, \u201cThou shalt not curse the deaf\u201d (Lev.\nxix. 14) has been interpreted to apply to all kinds of slander about\nthose absent or dead. Our respect for the memory of the dead is\nexpressed in the Latin maxim, \u201cDe mortuis nil nisi bonum;\u201d or in the\nHebrew, \u200f\u05d0\u05d7\u05e8\u05d9 \u05de\u05d5\u05ea \u05e7\u05d3\u05e9\u05d9\u05dd \u05d0\u05de\u05d5\u05e8\u200e [41] \u201cAfter their death say of them\n\u2018saints.\u2019\u201d Similar maxims are the following: \u201cWe must not refute the\nlion after his death;\u201d \u200f\u05de\u05d9\u05ea\u05d4 \u05de\u05db\u05e4\u05e8\u05ea\u200e \u201cDeath atones for all offences.\u201d\n\n4. The Well-being of our Fellow-man.\u2014The duties expounded in the above\nare of a negative character. The commandment, \u201cLove thy neighbour as\nthyself\u201d implies also certain positive duties, which are comprehended\nin the terms, \u200f\u05e6\u05d3\u05e7\u05d4\u200e and \u200f\u05d2\u05de\u05dc\u05d5\u05ea \u05d7\u05e1\u05d3\u200e \u201ccharity.\u201d\n\nThe literal meaning of the term tsedakah is \u201crighteousness,\u201d but it\noccurs also frequently in the sense of \u201ccharity;\u201d and we may infer from\nthis that charity was to the Hebrew a mere act of righteousness. In the\nBook of Daniel and in post-Biblical Hebrew tsedakah is \u201calms,\u201d and\ndistinguished from gemilluth-chesed, \u201ccharity.\u201d The former is given to\nthe poor; the latter to poor and rich alike: tsedakah, consisting of\nmoney or things that can be purchased for money, is a duty chiefly\nincumbent on the wealthier class; gemilluth-chesed, consisting of\npersonal acts of kindness, is a virtue that can be acquired and\npractised by every one, whether he be poor or rich; and whilst tsedakah\ncan only be given to those that live, gemilluth-chesed can be shown\neven to the departed. When Jacob asked his son for a burial in the cave\nof Machpelah, he relied on his son\u2019s \u200f\u05d7\u05e1\u05d3 \u05d5\u05d0\u05de\u05ea\u200e, \u201cKindness and truth;\u201d\nand the Midrash adds the remark, \u201cKindness shown to the dead is an act\nof true love, as there can be no prospect of gratitude or repayment.\u201d\n\nThe principal kinds of \u200f\u05d2\u05de\u05dc\u05d5\u05ea \u05d7\u05e1\u05d3\u200e are the following:\u2014\n\n\n(1.) \u200f\u05d1\u05e7\u05d5\u05e8 \u05d7\u05d5\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd\u200e Visiting the sick. [42] The object of the visit ought\nto be to cheer up the sufferer by pleasant conversation, to assist him\nby good advice, to render him any service that is wanted, to inspire\nhim with hope, and to strengthen his faith in God by the comforting\nwords of Scripture and by prayer.\n(2.) \u200f\u05d4\u05dc\u05d5\u05d9\u05ea \u05d4\u05de\u05ea\u200e \u201cAccompanying the dead\u201d to his last resting-place, and\ndoing everything that our love and regard for the departed requires.\nAlmost every Jewish community includes an association whose members\nundertake to perform personally, as far as possible, these acts of\nlove. Such a society is generally called \u200f\u05d7\u05d1\u05e8\u05ea \u05d2\u05de\u05dc\u05d5\u05ea \u05d7\u05e1\u05d3\u05d9\u05dd\u200e\n\u201cAssociation for practising loving-kindness towards our fellow-men,\u201d or\n\u200f\u05d7\u05d1\u05e8\u05d0 \u05e7\u05d3\u05d9\u05e9\u05d0\u200e \u201cHoly Association;\u201d that is, an association for a holy\nobject.\n(3.) \u200f\u05e0\u05d7\u05d5\u05dd \u05d0\u05d1\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd\u200e Comforting the mourners, who find relief in the\nconviction that their fellow-men have sympathy with them.\n(4.) \u200f\u05d4\u05d1\u05d0\u05ea \u05e9\u05dc\u05d5\u05dd \u05d1\u05d9\u05df \u05d0\u05d3\u05dd \u05dc\u05d7\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u200e \u201cPeace-making.\u201d\u2014War, whether carried on\nbetween nations, or between parties, or between one individual and\nanother, is equally detestable; and all those who by their exertion and\nintercession contribute to a diminution of warfare are engaged in\npraiseworthy work. The principal prayers in our Liturgy conclude with a\npetition for peace, and we look forward for the state of uninterrupted\npeace, the Messianic time, as the most perfect condition of mankind.\nForbearance, a kind word, a judicious counsel, frequently averts the\ngreat evil of strife and enmity.\u2014Peace, harmony, and friendship are\nbest promoted by\u2014\n(5.) Judging favourably the deeds and words of our fellow-men. It is\nnot an easy task to correctly estimate the motives which guide our\nneighbour in his actions, and in doing so we err frequently; but it is\nbetter to err by over-estimating them; since this produces far less\nharm than going astray in the other direction and speaking ill of\nothers without any justifiable cause. Conduct like this leads to peace\nand happiness within and without. \u201cSpeaking peace to all his seed\u201d is\nthe climax of the virtues praised in Mordecai, the Jew (Esther x. 3).\n\n\nCharity (tsedakah) in its narrower sense, as a duty towards the poor,\nincludes\u2014\n\n\n(1.) Alms-giving to the poor for the purpose of alleviating temporary\nsuffering.\n(2.) Providing for the comfort of the aged and sick, widows and\norphans.\n(3.) Assisting the stranger. The Law lays special stress on this branch\nof charity, and reminds us that we all have once been strangers in the\nland of Egypt. Even in the various countries of which we have become\ncitizens, our forefathers, three or four generations back, were\nstrangers; and, besides, we are told by the Almighty, \u201cYe are strangers\nand sojourners with me:\u201d (Lev. xxv. 23). This kind of charity is known\nby the name \u200f\u05d4\u05db\u05e0\u05e1\u05ea \u05d0\u05d5\u05e8\u05d7\u05d9\u05dd\u200e\n(4.) Support given to the poor towards obtaining a livelihood, by\nprocuring occupation for them, teaching them a trade and giving them a\nstart in it.\n(5.) Providing for the religious and secular education of the children\nof the poor.\n(6.) Raising their intellectual, social, and moral condition by\npersonal intercourse with them, and by kind words of advice, comfort,\nand encouragement.\n(7.) Helping those who have gone astray and have fallen into vice or\ncrime to return to the path of virtue, industry, and righteousness.\n\n\nThere are generally associations formed for the various branches of\ngemilluth-chesed, the number of which grows, especially in large towns,\nwith the increase of misery. It is our duty to support such\ninstitutions, as combined action is in most cases more practical and\nproductive of good result. But the existence of public institutions,\nand our support given to them, by no means exempt us from assisting\nindividually those who apply to us for help. We must be judicious in\nour charitable acts, lest we nurse poverty and promote imposture. But,\non the other hand, we must not be over cautious, and must not unduly\nsuspect every applicant for assistance as guilty of idleness or other\nvices, lest by refusal or hesitation to help we become guilty of\nneglect, when by prompt action we might save from utter ruin a person\nor a whole family well worthy of our sympathy. In this regard we are\nwarned by King Solomon: \u201cWithhold not good from them to whom it is due,\nwhen it is in the power of thine hand to do it. Say not unto thy\nneighbour, Go, and come again, and to-morrow I will give; when thou\nhast it by thee\u201d (Prov. iii. 27, 28).\n\n\n\n(b.) Special Duties towards our Fellow-men.\n\n1. Children towards their Parents.\u2014\u201cHonour thy father and thy mother\u201d\nis one of the Ten Words which God spoke to the Israelites on Mount\nSinai. The child honours his parents by considering them as his\nsuperiors, as endowed with authority over him, and entitled by\nexperience to be his guides and instructors; by listening respectfully\nwhen they speak to him, and by speaking with reverence when he speaks\nof or to them.\n\nThe love of parents towards their child should find an echo in the\nheart of the latter.\n\nThe child\u2019s love of his parents finds expression in willing, cheerful\nobedience; in the endeavour to do everything that pleases them, in the\nsacrifice made for the purpose of giving them pleasure, in the\nassistance given them when, through age, sickness, or misfortune, they\nare in need of aid.\n\nThe parents\u2019 duty towards the child is to do everything that true love\ndemands, for his physical, moral, and intellectual well-being.\n\nWith regard to the child\u2019s duty towards his parents the following\nverses from Proverbs may be noticed:\u2014\n\n\n \u201cThe eye that mocketh at his father, and despiseth to obey his\n mother, the ravens of the valley shall pick it out, and the young\n eagles shall eat it\u201d (xxx. 17).\n\n \u201cWhoso robbeth his father or his mother, and saith, It is no\n transgression, the same is the companion of a destroyer\u201d (xxviii.\n 24).\n\n \u201cWhoso curseth his father or his mother, his lamp shall be put out\n in obscure darkness\u201d (xx. 20).\n\n \u201cHe that wasteth his father and chaseth away his mother is a son\n that causeth shame, and bringeth reproach\u201d (xix. 26).\n\n \u201cThe glory of children are their fathers\u201d (xvii. 6).\n\n\n\n2. All other special duties towards our fellow-men may be divided into\n(i.) Duties towards our equals; (ii.) Duties towards our superiors and\ntowards our inferiors.\n\n\n\n\n\n(I.) DUTIES TOWARDS OUR EQUALS.\n\n(1.) A bond of friendship frequently exists between equals.\n\nFriends have certain duties to fulfil towards each other. It is\nexpected that friends should have faith in their mutual friendship. \u201cAs\nin water face answereth to face, so in the heart man answereth to man\u201d\n(Prov. xxvii. 19). As the water reflects the face of him who looks into\nit, so the heart of man reflects the friendship and faithfulness of him\nwho has penetrated into it. Our estimation of our friend\u2019s feeling\ntoward us is the measure of the genuineness and value of our own\nfriendship towards him.\n\nDisinterestedness is an essential condition of genuine friendship.\nEvery service we render to our friend must be prompted by the desire to\nbe of use to him. and not to advance our own interest. If any other\nmotive enters our mind, if we speculate on his gratitude, and think\nthat our kindness must eventually be returned with interest, we have no\nknowledge or feeling of friendship. Thus our Sages declare, \u201cFriendship\ndictated by a selfish motive comes to an end together with the\nspeculation; but friendship which is not based on any selfish motive\ncomes never to an end. An instance of the first kind is the friendship\nbetween Amnon and Tamar (2 Sam. xiii.); of the second kind, the\nfriendship between David and Jonathan (1 Sam. xviii.)\u201d (Aboth v. 16).\n\nFriends bound to each other by genuine and sincere love find great\npleasure in the fulfilment of the duties involved in friendship. They\ndo not hesitate to bring sacrifices for each other\u2019s well-being; they\nevince heartfelt sympathy for each other in good and evil fortune.\n\nAll the duties of charity\u2014gemilluth chesed\u2014which we owe to our\nfellow-men in general, apply with increased force when our fellow-man\nis also our friend. One of these duties demands our special attention,\nbecause it is frequently neglected through human weakness: truthfulness\nand openness. Flattery, objectionable as it is in every case, is most\ndetestable between friends. We must encourage our friends by kind\nwords, and acknowledge their merits, but we must not spoil them by\nundue flattery. If, on the other hand, we discover errors or vices in\nour friend, it is our duty to communicate to him openly our opinion,\nand to do all that is in our power to bring him back to the path of\nrighteousness and truth. \u201cThou shalt surely rebuke thy friend, and not\nsuffer sin upon him\u201d (Lev. xix. 17).\n\nFriendship is mostly formed without premeditation, and without any aim;\nwe are friends, we do not know how and why; some similarity in our\ncharacter, in our talents, in our views, in our successes and failures,\nor in our fortunes and misfortunes, draws us together, and we become\nfriends before we are aware of the fact. But as far as we have control\nover our feelings we ought to be careful not to plunge into friendship\nwithout knowing something of the character and the tendencies of those\nwith whom we are to associate ourselves in such close relationship. In\nProverbs we are told, \u201cMake no friendships with an angry man, and with\na furious man thou shalt not go\u201d (xxii. 24). Ben-sira (vi. 6) exhorts\nus, \u201cIf thou wouldst get a friend, prove him first, and be not hasty to\ncredit him.\u201d Our Sages say, \u201cIt is easy to make an enemy; it is\ndifficult to make a friend\u201d (Yalkut on Deut. vi. 16).\n\nThe acquisition of a true friend is by no means an easy task. But it is\na task that cannot be dispensed with. Persons who enjoy a life spent in\nloneliness uncheered by friendship are exceptions to the rule; such a\nlife is miserable, and the climax of all the evils complained of by\nHeman the Ezrahite (Ps. lxxxviii. 19) is: \u201cLover and friend hast thou\nput far from me, and darkness is mine acquaintance.\u201d Job in his great\nsufferings longs for \u201cthe love which is shown to the unhappy by his\nfriend\u201d (Job vi. 14).\n\nFriendship being one of our most valuable possessions, it must be well\nguarded and cultivated, lest it be lost or weakened. \u201cThine own friend\nand thy father\u2019s friend, forsake not\u201d (Prov. xxvii. 10). \u201cLet thy foot\nbe seldom in thy friend\u2019s house, lest he be weary of thee, and so hate\nthee\u201d (ibid. xxv. 17).\n\nTrue friendship can be extended only to a few; but those who are not\nour friends need not be our enemies. They are all our fellow-men, and\nour conduct towards them is to be guided by the principle, \u201cLove thy\nfellow-man as thyself.\u201d We are distinctly commanded, \u201cThou shalt not\nhate thy brother in thine heart\u201d (Lev. xix. 18), \u201cbrother\u201d having here\nthe same meaning as fellow-man. Enmity, like friendship, comes\nfrequently unawares; we dislike or even hate a person without knowing\nwhy. But it is our duty, as soon as such an ill-feeling has stolen into\nour heart, to search for its origin; and this being done, we shall\ngenerally feel ashamed of having allowed our heart to be invaded by\nsuch an unworthy intruder. We must keep away from evil-doers, and not\nassociate with wicked people; but this is a very different thing from\nhating our neighbour. The pious wish, \u201cMay sinners cease to exist, and\nthe wicked be no more\u201d (Ps. civ. 35), is explained in the Talmud in the\nwords of Beruria, daughter of Rabbi Meir, as follows: \u201cMay sins cease\nto exist, and the wicked will be no more.\u201d We often conceive just\nindignation at the misdeeds of our neighbours, and cannot well separate\nthe doer from the deed. But we ought in such cases of indignation to\nexamine ourselves, whether the source of our indignation is pure, or\nhas its root in selfishness. Such an analysis of our motives would soon\npurify our heart of all ill-feeling.\n\nIn our conduct towards those whom we consider our enemies, or who\nconsider us their enemies, we must show forbearance and a desire to\noffer or to seek forgiveness, according as we are the doers or the\nsufferers of wrong. Self-love and self-esteem, if not kept within due\nlimits, easily produce feelings of revenge. Without entirely\nsuppressing human nature, we are bound to control our feelings, and to\nlet love of our fellow-men in all conditions occupy the first place in\nour heart. We are taught by our Sages, \u201cHe who is forbearing, receives\nalso pardon for his sins\u201d (Babyl. Talm. Yoma 23a); \u201cBe of the\npersecuted, and not of the persecutors\u201d (ibid. Baba Kama 93a); \u201cTo\nthose who being offended do not offend, being insulted do not insult,\nthe verse applies: \u2018And they who love him shall be as the sun when he\ngoeth forth in his might\u2019\u201d (Judges v. 31; Babyl. Talm. Shabbath 88b).\n\n(2.) Man and wife are united by the holy bond of marriage. They owe to\neach other love, faithfulness, confidence, and untiring endeavour to\nmake each other happy. The neglect of these duties turns a happy home\ninto an abode of misery and wretchedness. [43] The last of the\nprophets, Malachi, rebuking such neglect, says: \u201cThe Lord hath been\nwitness between thee and the wife of thy youth, against whom thou hast\ndealt treacherously, yet is she thy companion and the wife of thy\ncovenant.\u201d\n\n(3.) As citizens of a State we must take our proper share in all work\nfor the welfare of the State. When the State is in danger we must\nevince patriotism, and must not withdraw ourselves from those duties\nwhich, under such circumstances, devolve upon every citizen. All our\nmeans, our physical and intellectual faculties, must be at the disposal\nof the country in which we live as citizens. Thus Jeremiah exhorts his\nbrethren in Babylonia: \u201cBuild ye houses and dwell in them; and plant\ngardens, and eat the fruit of them; ... and seek the peace of the city\nwhither I have caused you to be carried away captives, and pray unto\nthe Lord for it: for in the peace thereof shall you have peace\u201d (Jer.\nxxix. 5, 7). Similarly we are taught, \u201cPray for the welfare of the\ngovernment\u201d (Aboth iii. 2). [44]\n\nAn important dictum of Samuel, a Rabbi famous for his decisions in\nquestions of civil law, is accepted in the Talmud as law: \u201cThe law of\nthe State is binding upon us,\u201d \u200f\u05d3\u05d9\u05e0\u05d0 \u05d3\u05de\u05dc\u05db\u05d5\u05ea\u05d0 \u05d3\u05d9\u05e0\u05d0\u200e (Babyl. Talm. Baba\nKamma 113a). It is, according to the teaching of the Talmud, incumbent\nupon us, as citizens of the State, to obey the laws of the country.\nThere is no difference between Jews and their fellow-citizens with\nregard to the duty of loyalty. It is only in case of an attempt to\nforce us aside from our religion that we are not only justified in\nresisting and disobeying laws framed with this intention, but we are\ncommanded to do so. But in the absence of such intention, we must\nfulfil all those duties which devolve upon all citizens alike\u2014such as\nmilitary service in countries that have general conscription\u2014although\nsuch obedience may carry with it a breach of some of the laws of our\nreligion. On the contrary, evasion and desertion of all national\nobligations is a serious offence against our holy Law.\n\n(4.) As members of the same religious community, we must unite in\nworking for the well-being of the whole body. \u201cDo not separate thyself\nfrom the congregation\u201d (Aboth ii. 4) is a principle taught by the great\nHillel. A Jew who violates this principle, and keeps aloof from his\nbrethren, unwilling to take his share of the communal burdens, is\nguilty of a serious dereliction of duty, and is set forth in the Talmud\nas an example of most disgraceful conduct. \u201cWhen your brethren are in\ntrouble, do not say, \u2018I have my home, my food and drink; I am safe.\u2019 If\nyou ever were to think so, the words of the prophet would apply to you:\n\u2018Surely this iniquity shall not be purged from you till you die\u2019.\u201d \u201cHe\nwho does not join the community in times of danger and trouble will\nnever enjoy the Divine blessing\u201d (Babyl. Talm. Taanith, p. 11a); \u201cHe\nwho separates from the ways of the community has no portion of the\nworld to come,\u201d \u200f\u05d4\u05e4\u05d5\u05e8\u05e9 \u05de\u05d3\u05e8\u05db\u05d9 \u05e6\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8 \u05d0\u05d9\u05df \u05dc\u05d5 \u05d7\u05dc\u05e7 \u05dc\u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd \u05d4\u05d1\u05d0\u200e (Maim.,\nMishneh-torah, Hilchoth Teshubah iii. 6).\n\n(5.) As to members of another community, we have to show due regard for\ntheir religious convictions, and not to wound their feelings in respect\nof anything they hold sacred. Respect for the religious feelings of our\nfellow-men will increase their regard for our own religion, and evoke\nin them the same consideration for our religious feelings. All our\nduties towards our fellow-men are equally binding upon us whether in\nrelation to members of ether faiths or of our own.\n\n(6.) Employers and employed, sellers and buyers, must act towards each\nother with the strictest honesty. In cases of dispute a friendly\nexplanation or discussion is more likely to promote the interest of\nboth parties than mutual animosity. Each party must bear in mind that\nprosperity depends on the co-operation of the other party, and not on\nits ruin.\n\n\nNote.\u2014We meet in the Talmud and works based on the Talmud with dicta\nwhich seem at first sight to exclude Gentiles (\u200f\u05e2\u05db\u05d5\u05f4\u05dd\u200e, \u200f\u05e0\u05db\u05e8\u05d9\u200e or\n\u200f\u05d2\u05d5\u05d9\u200e) from our duty of love towards our fellow-men. This, however, was\nnever intended. Sayings of this kind originated in days of warfare\nbetween the oppressor and the oppressed, and were an outburst of\nfeelings of pain and anger, caused by an enemy who was not restrained\nfrom tyranny and cruelty by any sense of justice and humanity. But this\nstate of affairs has ceased, and such sayings have since entirely lost\ntheir force and meaning, and are practically forgotten. Some of these\npassages have been removed from the Talmudical works by hostile\ncensors; but having led, and being still likely to lead, to errors or\nmisunderstanding, less on the part of Jews than of non-Jewish readers,\nthey ought to be eliminated in future editions of any of these works by\nJewish censors, especially as the notices on the first page of the\nbooks, that the terms \u200f\u05d2\u05d5\u05d9\u200e, \u200f\u05e2\u05db\u05d5\u05f4\u05dd\u200e or \u200f\u05e0\u05db\u05e8\u05d9\u200e do not apply to our\nnon-Jewish neighbours at the present day, appear to have proved\nineffectual against calumny and persecution.\n\n\n\n\n\n(II.) DUTIES TO OUR SUPERIORS AND INFERIORS.\n\nAlthough we are all equally children of one God, and before the Most\nHigh all our petty differences disappear, His infinite wisdom willed it\nthat there should be a certain degree of inequality among His\ncreatures; that some men should be wise, others simple; some talented,\nothers less skilful; some strong, others weak; some high, others low;\nsome imperious, others submissive; some rulers, others subjects; some\nfit to guide, and others only fit to be guided. This inequality is the\nsource of certain special duties between man and man. \u201cBe submissive to\nyour superior, agreeable to your inferior, and cheerful to every one\u201d\n(Aboth iii. 12).\n\n(1.) The teacher who patiently strives to benefit his pupils by his\ninstruction and counsel has a just claim on their respect. It is in the\ninterest of the pupils themselves to regard their teacher as a friend,\nto have confidence in him, and faith in his superiority. It is\nthemselves they benefit most if they lighten the labours of their\nteacher by due attention and obedience, and themselves they injure\nmost, if by want of proper respect they render his task difficult and\ndisagreeable.\n\nOn the other hand, it is the duty of the teacher to try to win the\nrespect and the affection of the pupils by conscientiousness in his\nwork, by patience and forbearance, by kindness and justice, by genuine\ninterest in the progress and welfare of those entrusted to his care,\nand, above all, by a pure, good, and noble life.\u2014The pupils owe much to\ntheir teachers, but the latter also owe something to their disciples.\n\u201cMuch have I learnt from my teachers, more from my fellow-students,\nmost from my pupils,\u201d is a well-known Talmudical saying (Babyl. Talm.\nTaanith 7a). Of the priest, who in ancient time used to be the\nprincipal teacher, the prophet Malachi says: \u201cThe priest\u2019s lips shall\nkeep knowledge, and they shall seek the law at his mouth; for he is the\nmessenger of the Lord of hosts\u201d (Mal. ii. 7). Rabbi Jochanan, in\ncommenting on these words, said, \u201cIf the teacher is like the messenger\nof the Lord, i.e., leads a pure life in the service of the Lord, then\npeople shall seek instruction at his mouth; if not, they cannot be\ninstructed by him in the Law\u201d (Yalkut ad locum).\u2014\u201cLet the honour of thy\ndisciple be as dear to thee as thy own, and the honour of thy colleague\nas dear as the fear of thy teacher, and the fear of thy teacher as dear\nas the fear of Heaven\u201d (Aboth iv. 15).\u2014\u201cHe who has been taught\nsomething by his neighbour, whether it be a chapter, a law, a verse, a\nphrase, or a letter, owes him respect. Thus David, who only learnt two\nthings from Ahitophel, called him \u2018teacher, chief, and friend\u2019\u201d (ibid.\nvi. 3).\n\nReverence is shown by a pupil to his teacher, not only by outward signs\nof respect, but also by refraining from opposing him, his teaching, or\nhis decisions (Maimonides I. Hilchoth Talmud torah v. 1). A pupil who\naltogether relinquishes the teaching of his master is to the latter a\nsource of intense grief.\u2014Among the outward signs of regard for the\nteacher we find the ancient custom or rule to pay a visit to the\nteacher on the three festivals: Passover, Feast of Weeks, and\nTabernacles (ibid. v. 7).\n\n(2.) Master and Servant.\u2014The relation between master and servant is\nlegally regulated by the same rules as that between employer and\nemployed. Strict honesty in the fulfilment of the duties undertaken by\neither party is the basis of a good understanding between master and\nservant. The former must not exact from the latter more than was agreed\nupon, and the latter must not fail to perform all that he has\nundertaken to do. The relation between master and servant can be made\nmore pleasant on both sides, if they are sensible enough to recognise\ntheir mutual obligations. On the part of the master, it is necessary\nthat he should consider his servant as a human being like himself, who\nhas a right to expect due reward for faithful service. A treatment of\nthe servant from this point of view inspires him with a feeling of\nregard and attachment for his master, which finds expression in good\nand honest service. The servant will feel comfortable in his work, and\nbe convinced that to be a servant is no degradation.\u2014\u201cThou shalt not\ndefraud an hired servant that is poor and needy, whether he be of thy\nbrethren or of thy strangers that are in the land within thy gates\u201d\n(Deut. xxiv. 14).\n\n(3.) Rich and Poor.\u2014\u201cThe rich and poor meet together: the Lord is the\nmaker of them all\u201d (Prov. xxii. 2). Those who are fortunate enough to\npossess more than is wanted for the necessities of life, are expected\nto spend part of the surplus in relieving those who possess less than\nthey require for their maintenance. Sympathy towards the poor and needy\nis the duty of the rich; gratitude towards the generous and benevolent\nis the duty of the poor. But the rich must by no means make their gifts\ndependent on the signs of gratitude on the part of the poor; they must\neven avoid eliciting expressions of thanks, as these lead too often to\nflattery, hypocrisy, and servility. The rich find ample reward for\ntheir benevolence in the joyous feeling that Providence has chosen them\nas the means of diminishing the sufferings, the troubles, and the cares\nof some of their fellow-men.\n\n(4.) The following have a just claim on our respect:\u2014\n\nLearned Men (\u200f\u05ea\u05dc\u05de\u05d9\u05d3\u05d9 \u05d7\u05db\u05de\u05d9\u05dd\u200e), who, even if not directly our teachers,\nin many ways benefit us by their learning. \u201cIt is a great sin to\ndespise or to hate the wise: Jerusalem has chiefly been destroyed as a\npunishment for the contempt shown for the learned; as it is said (2\nChron. xxxvi. 16), \u2018They mocked the messengers of God, and despised his\nwords, and misused his prophets, until the wrath of the Lord arose\nagainst his people till there was no remedy\u2019\u201d (Maimonides, l. c. vi.\n11). \u201cHe who despises talmide-chachamim,\u201d says Rab, \u201chas no remedy for\nhis disease\u201d (Babyl. Talm. Shabbath, 119b), and belongs to those who\nforfeit their portion in the world to come (\u200f\u05d0\u05d9\u05df \u05dc\u05d4\u05dd \u05d7\u05dc\u05e7 \u05dc\u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd \u05d4\u05d1\u05d0\u200e,\nibid., Sanhedrin 90).\n\nThe Aged.\u2014\u201cThou shalt rise up before the hoary head, and honour the\nface of the old man, and fear thy God\u201d (Lev. xix. 32). The Bible\nillustrates, in the history of Rehoboam (1 Kings xii.), the evil\nconsequences of the contempt shown by this king to the words of the old\nmen.\u2014\u201cWith the ancient is wisdom, and in length of days understanding\u201d\n(Job xii. 12). \u201cThe building of the young is destruction; the\ndestruction of the old is building\u201d (B. T. Megillah 31b). [45]\n\nGreat men who have accomplished great works in the interest of mankind,\nand have thus merited the gratitude of all.\n\nThe great men of our nation, their works and the institutions founded\nby them at various periods of our history. \u201cDo not despise thy mother,\nthough she hath become old\u201d (Prov. xxiii. 22). The feeling of piety and\nreverence towards our Sages and Teachers of former generations, and\ntowards institutions of ancient times that have come down to us, is an\nessential element in our inner religion (\u200f\u05d7\u05d5\u05d1\u05d5\u05ea \u05d4\u05dc\u05d1\u05d1\u05d5\u05ea\u200e).\n\nThe magistrates, judges, and statesmen, who devote their time, their\ntalents, and their energy to promoting the well-being of the State.\n\nThe Head of the State.\u2014\u201cFear the Lord, O my son, and the king, and do\nnot mix with rioters\u201d (Prov. xxiv. 21).\n\n\n\n\n\n(C.) KINDNESS TO ANIMALS.\n\n\u201cBe fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it: and\nhave dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air,\nand over every living thing that moveth upon the earth\u201d (Gen. i. 28 and\nix. 2, &c.; comp. Ps. viii. 7, &c.). Thus spake the Creator to the\nfirst man. He gave him a right to make use of the animals for his\nbenefit; and man makes the animals work for him; they serve him as\nfood, provide him with clothing and other necessary or useful things.\nIn return for all these services the animals ought to be treated with\nkindness and consideration. It is a necessity to force certain beasts\nto work for us, and to kill certain animals for various purposes. But\nin doing so we must not cause more pain than is absolutely necessary.\nIt is a disgraceful act to give pain to animals merely for sport, and\nto enjoy their agony. Bullfights and similar spectacles are barbarous,\nand tend to corrupt and brutalise the heart of man. The more we abstain\nfrom cruelty to animals, the more noble and loving is our conduct\nlikely to be to one another. \u201cA righteous man regardeth the feelings of\nhis beast, but the heart of the wicked is cruel\u201d (Prov. xii. 10).\n\nThe following are instances of kindness to animals enjoined in the\nPentateuch:\u2014\n\n\u201cYe shall not kill an animal and its young on one day\u201d (Lev. xxii. 28).\n\n\u201cIf a bird\u2019s nest happen to be before thee on the way upon the earth or\nupon a tree, with young ones or eggs, thou shalt not take the mother\nwith the young. Let the mother go away; then thou mayest take the young\nones, in order that it may be well with thee, and thy days be long\u201d\n(Deut. xxii. 6, 7).\n\n\u201cThou shalt not muzzle the ox when he treadeth out the corn\u201d (ibid.\nxxv. 4).\n\nIn the Talmud we have the following saying in the name of Rab:\u2014\u201cWe must\nnot begin our meal before having given food to our cattle; for it is\nsaid, \u2018And I will give you grass in thy field for thy cattle,\u2019 and\nafter that \u2018thou shalt eat and be full\u2019\u201d (Deut. xi. 15; Babyl. Talm.\n40a).\n\n\n\n\n\nC.\u2014DUTIES TO OURSELVES.\n\nOur duties to ourselves are to a great extent included in our duties\ntowards God and towards our fellow-men, because these likewise tend to\npromote our own well-being.\n\nThe fundamental principle of our duties towards ourselves is to make\nthe best use of the gifts which the kindness of God has bestowed upon\nus.\n\n1. Life and health are precious gifts received by us at the hands of\nDivine Providence. We must therefore guard them as valuable treasures,\nand must not endanger them without absolute necessity. On the contrary,\nas much as lies in our power, we must improve our health and preserve\nour life. Food and bodily enjoyment, however pleasant for the moment,\nmust be let alone if they are injurious to health. If we find ourselves\ninclined to exceed the right measure in the enjoyment of a thing, it is\nadvisable to turn, for a while at least, to the other extreme and avoid\nthat enjoyment altogether. Thus persons that are easily misled to\nexcess in drink should become total abstainers from drink. But in\nordinary cases the golden mean is preferable, especially for us Jews\nwho are trained by the Dietary Laws, and by other precepts, to have\ncontrol over our appetites. We are not commanded to be ascetics and to\nlead a gloomy, miserable life. On the contrary, we are frequently told\nin the Pentateuch, \u201cAnd ye shall rejoice before the Lord your God.\u201d The\nPsalmist exhorts us to \u201cserve the Lord with gladness; to come before\nhis presence with singing\u201d (Ps. c. 2). \u201cHe who doeth good to his own\nsoul is a man of love; and he who troubleth his own flesh is a cruel\nman\u201d (Prov. xi. 17); i.e., he who does good to himself is of a cheerful\ndisposition, and is likely to do good to others; but he who deprives\nhimself of enjoyments is often also cruel to his fellow-creatures. The\nNazirite had to bring a sin-offering after the expiration of the period\nof his vow. \u201cWhat sin has he committed?\u201d was asked. The answer is given\nin the Talmud by Samuel: \u201cBecause he deprived himself of wine;\u201d and the\nRabbi further infers from this, that it is prohibited to impose a\nvoluntary fast upon oneself. Rabbi Eleazar, however, thinks that the\nvow of a Nazirite is a praiseworthy act, and his view found many\nfollowers, especially in the Middle Ages. Abraham Ibn Ezra, e.g.,\nexplains that the sin of the Nazirite consists in not prolonging the\nstate of Naziritism. But, however different their opinions may be\ntheoretically, all agree that no voluntary fast should be undertaken,\nif it endangers the health of the faster, changes cheerfulness into\nsadness, and disables him from doing necessary or useful work.\n\n2. Wealth, if acquired in an honest manner, by hard work, is conducive\nto our well-being. But in our search for wealth we must bear in mind\nthat it is not an end in itself, but serves only as a means of securing\nour well-being. Koheleth tells us, what experience endorses, that there\nare \u201criches kept for the owners thereof to their hurt\u201d (Eccles. v. 12).\nIt is true we must struggle for the means of our existence. But in the\nstruggle for wealth we must not entirely suppress the claims of our\nmoral and intellectual wants, and if we were to suppress them, we\nshould only work for our own ruin. \u201cTwo things have I required of thee;\ndeny me them not before I die: Remove far from me vanity and lies; give\nme neither poverty nor riches; feed me with food convenient for me:\nlest I be full, and deny thee, and say, Who is the Lord? or lest I be\npoor, and steal, and take the name of my God in vain\u201d (Prov. xxx. 7\u20139).\nTo this golden mean we should adhere. It is our duty to seek an honest\nlivelihood, but we are told, \u201cLabour not to be rich: cease from thine\nown wisdom\u201d (Prov. xxiii. 4). One of the various duties of parents\ntowards their children is to take good care that they learn a trade,\nand \u201che who does not teach his son a trade,\u201d say our Sages, \u201cis as\nguilty as if he directly taught him to rob\u201d (Babyl. Talm. Kiddushin, p.\n29a).\n\nThere is an erroneous opinion abroad, that commerce is more congenial\nto Judaism than handicraft. In our Law no trace of such preference is\nnoticeable; on the contrary, agriculture was the principal occupation\nof the Israelites. \u201cWhen thou eatest the labour of thine hands, happy\nart thou, and it is well with thee\u201d (Ps. cxxviii. 2). \u201cLove work, and\nhate lordship\u201d is a well-known lesson of the sayings of the Fathers\n(Aboth i. 10). Bible and post-Biblical literature equally teach us the\nlesson that our comfort and happiness do not depend on the amount of\nwealth we have amassed, but on the degree of contentment our heart has\nacquired. \u201cSweet is the sleep of the labourer, whether he eat little or\nmuch: but the abundance of the rich will not suffer him to sleep\u201d\n(Eccles. v. 11).\n\nIndustry is one of the sources of human happiness; but the blessing of\nindustry is easily lost, if it is not combined with thrift and\ntemperance. In days of prosperity we must bear in mind that days of\nmisfortune may come; we must, so far as we can, provide for them, so\nthat we may be able to hold out \u201ctill the storm has passed.\u201d Temperance\nis inseparable from thrift and industry. Intemperance not only consumes\nthe products of thrift and industry, but in course of time destroys\nthese very sources of our prosperity. Even with regard to Sabbath, in\nhonour of which some degree of comfort and even of luxury may be\nindulged in, the principle is laid down: \u201cTreat thy Sabbath like an\nordinary day, if additional expense is likely to make thee dependent on\ncharity\u201d (Babyl. Talm. Shabbath 118a).\n\n3. Knowledge.\u2014God has made man \u201ca little lower than the angels, and has\ncrowned him with glory and honour\u201d (Ps. viii. 6); He has endowed him\nwith the faculty of acquiring knowledge: \u201cThere is a spirit in man, and\nan inspiration of the Almighty, that gives him understanding\u201d (Job\nxxxii. 8). It is our duty to cultivate this faculty, to nurse it with\nall possible care, that it may grow, produce beautiful blossoms, and\nbear goodly fruit. The training must begin very early, at an age in\nwhich we are entirely dependent on the assistance and guidance of\nothers. Parents, to whom the Almighty has entrusted the care of their\nchildren, are therefore commanded to provide for their education; and\nas parents are not always capable of doing this, the duty devolves on\nthe community or on the State. Every civilised country has its schools,\ncolleges, and seminaries for the development of the intellectual and\nmoral faculties of its inhabitants, and as these institutions increase\nin number and efficiency, the prosperity of the nation grows in like\nproportion. But the success of these educational institutions, however\nwell provided they may be with an excellent teaching staff and the best\nappliances, depends on the regular and punctual attendance of the\nchildren, their attention, and their industry. It is the duty of\nparents to see, as far as it is in their power, that these conditions\nbe fulfilled. Among the various branches of knowledge we seek to\nacquire, there is one branch of paramount importance, the absence of\nwhich would make all other knowledge valueless: it is\u2014\n\n4. Moral and Religious Training.\u2014\u201cThe fear of the Lord is the beginning\nof knowledge; fools despise wisdom and correction\u201d (\u200f\u05d7\u05db\u05de\u05d4 \u05d5\u05de\u05d5\u05e1\u05e8\u200e Prov.\ni. 7). The author of the Book of Proverbs teaches that knowledge must\nbe combined with \u200f\u05d9\u05e8\u05d0\u05ea \u05d4\u05e9\u05dd\u200e \u201cfear of God;\u201d and that it is a perverse\nidea to separate wisdom (\u200f\u05d7\u05db\u05de\u05d4\u200e) from moral training (\u200f\u05de\u05d5\u05e1\u05e8\u200e), and to\nseek knowledge (\u200f\u05d3\u05e2\u05ea\u200e) without the fear of the Lord (\u200f\u05d9\u05e8\u05d0\u05ea \u05d4\u05f3\u200e). Our\nSages teach us that our training should include both fear of God and\nwisdom. \u201cIf there is no wisdom, there is no fear of God; and in the\nabsence of the latter there is no wisdom\u201d (Aboth iii. 17). Fear of the\nLord, however, and fear of sin must have precedence. Rabbi Chanina, son\nof Dosa, says: \u201cIf a man\u2019s wisdom is preceded by fear of sin, his\nwisdom is well established; if the fear of sin is preceded by wisdom,\nhis wisdom is not well established\u201d (ibid. 9).\n\nThe result of our training must be the acquisition of good manners and\nnoble principles. Avoid extremes, and hold to the golden mean, is an\nexcellent rule that leads us safely through the various conditions of\nlife and wards off many troubles and dangers. The following examples\nmay serve as an illustration of this rule: Do not ignore your own self;\nlet self-love and self-respect influence your conduct; but these must\nnot be allowed to develop into selfishness and arrogance. Look after\nyour own interests, but do not consider them as the supreme rulers of\nyour actions. Be self-reliant, and keep equally far from self-conceit\nand self-distrust. Haughtiness and self-contempt are extremes to be\navoided: be modest. When wronged or insulted by your neighbour, be\nneither callous nor over-sensitive; ignore insult and wrong in most\ncases, forgive them readily in others, and resent them only when forced\nto do so. In disputes and discussions be neither weak nor obstinate: be\nfirm. Be neither passionate nor indifferent: be calm. Do not trust\nevery one, lest your credulity mislead you; do not suspect every one,\nlest you become misanthropic: be discreet. Do not seek danger, nor fear\nit; but be prepared to meet it with courage. Be temperate in eating and\ndrinking, and avoid both excess and needless privation. In spending\nyour earnings show neither niggardliness nor recklessness: be\neconomical. Work, but not in such a manner as to ruin your health. As\nto your future, be neither too sanguine in your hopes, nor despondent:\ndo your duty, and trust in God.\n\nThere are, however, exceptions from this rule; for in certain cases\nthere is only the choice between two extremes. Such is Truthfulness. It\nis our duty to approach nearer and nearer the extreme of this virtue,\nand to consider the least deviation from it as vice. From our earliest\nyouth we should train ourselves in the practice of this virtue. Every\nword that we desire to utter should be well examined before it passes\nour lips. We must be on our guard that nothing should escape our lips\nthat is not in harmony with what we feel or think. In small matters as\nwell as in important things truthfulness must be the principle which\nguides us in our utterances. \u201cThe lips of truth shall be established\nfor ever, but for a moment only the tongue of falsehood\u201d (Prov. xii.\n19). \u201cKeep thee far from a word of falsehood\u201d (Exod. xxiii. 7).\n\u201cFalsehood,\u201d say our Sages, \u201chas no legs to stand upon; whilst \u2018truth\u2019\nis declared to be the seal of the Holy One, Blessed be He\u201d (\u200f\u05d0\u05de\u05ea \u05d7\u05d5\u05ea\u05de\u05d5\n\u05e9\u05dc \u05d4\u05e7\u05d1\u05f4\u05d4\u200e).\n\nOur moral and religious training is based on the Word of God, on the\nTorah, and the study of the Torah, \u200f\u05d7\u05dc\u05de\u05d5\u05d3 \u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e, is an essential\nelement in Jewish education. The term Torah is to be understood in no\nnarrow sense, but as including the written and the oral Law, all the\nbooks of the Holy Writings, and such works as have from time to time\nbeen composed for the purpose of facilitating and promoting the study\nof the Torah. The importance of this duty has been recognised from\nancient times, and Jewish congregations, before building a synagogue,\nmade provision for the religious education of the young and for the\nstudy of the Law, by establishing schools and colleges (\u200f\u05d1\u05d9\u05ea \u05e1\u05e4\u05e8\u200e or\n\u200f\u05d1\u05d9 \u05e8\u05d1\u200e and \u200f\u05d1\u05d9\u05ea \u05d4\u05de\u05d3\u05e8\u05e9\u200e).\n\nTalmud-torah is one of those duties to which no measure was fixed (\u200f\u05d0\u05e9\u05e8\n\u05d0\u05d9\u05df \u05dc\u05d4\u05dd \u05e9\u05d9\u05e2\u05d5\u05e8\u200e Mishnah Peah i. 1). Whenever we can find time and\nleisure, we ought to turn to the Word of God, every one according to\nhis capacity and his opportunities. The readings from the Torah, both\nthe written and the oral, which form part of our Service, have been\nintroduced for the purpose of facilitating for the general public the\nfulfilment of the duty of Talmud-torah.\n\nThe study of the Law and the regular and punctual attendance at the\nBeth-hammidrash belong to those religious acts which \u201cbear fruit here\non earth and procure bliss in the future life\u201d (ibid.). Our Sages\nexhort us in various sayings to devote ourselves earnestly to the study\nof the Torah. The object of this study is, in the first instance, to\nenable us to live in accordance with His Commandments; secondly, to\npurify our thoughts by turning them from common, ordinary things to\nhigher and loftier subjects; for while we are reading the Divine\nmessages and reflecting on them, we move in a purer atmosphere and must\nbe inspired with holy and noble thoughts.\n\nThe book which is expected to produce these results must be approached\n\u201cwith awe, with meekness, with cheerfulness, and with purity\u201d (Aboth\nvi. 6). Our intention must be to be instructed and guided by what we\nread. We must not presume to criticise the Divine decrees therein\nrecorded. If we meet with passages that strike us as strange or\nobjectionable, we may be sure that we have not yet comprehended the\ntrue sense of the Divine words. Modesty must cause us rather to assume\nshortcomings on our part than to find fault with the Holy Writings.\n\u201cTurn it over, and read it again and again; for all is in it, and\nbehold everything through it; and even when old and weak, cleave to it,\nand do not move away from it; for there is no better guide for thee\nthan this one\u201d (Aboth v. 22). There is one great advantage in the study\nof the Torah; it constantly supplies us with one of the best means of\npromoting our moral training, viz., with good company.\n\nThe society in which we move and the persons with whom we associate are\nan important factor in the formation of our character. Bad companions\ncorrupt us, and lead us to ruin; good companions improve our moral\nconduct by their example and not rarely by their words. \u201cIf one joins\nmockers, he will be a mocker; if he joins the lowly, he will show\ngrace\u201d (Prov. iii. 34). \u201cKeep away from a bad neighbour; do not\nassociate with the wicked, and do not believe thyself safe from evil\u201d\n(Aboth i. 7). In our daily prayers we ask God for His assistance in our\nendeavour to act according to this principle.\n\nThe aim and end of all our moral training must be to keep our mind pure\nfrom evil thoughts, to make our heart the seat of noble and lofty\ndesires; to accustom our tongue to the utterance of that which is good\nand true, and to lead a pure, honourable, and godly life. If we\nsucceed, we establish our well-being during our life on earth, and\nsecure Divine blessing for our soul in the future world.\n\n\n\n\n\nIII. SIGNS AS OUTWARD REMINDERS OF GOD\u2019S PRESENCE.\n\nThe voice that comes from within, from our own heart and conscience, is\nthe best reminder of God\u2019s Presence and Will. But it does not always\nsound with sufficient force to make itself heard, and we, weak mortals,\nhave the weakness of forgetting even most important duties, unless we\nare reminded of them from time to time. The Divine Law has therefore\nset up signs as outward reminders. Such are the commandments of \u200f\u05e6\u05d9\u05e6\u05ea\u200e\n\u201cfringe,\u201d \u200f\u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d9\u05df\u200e \u201cornaments,\u201d and \u200f\u05de\u05d6\u05d5\u05d6\u05d4\u200e \u201cdoor-post symbol.\u201d\n\n\n\n\u200f\u05e6\u05d9\u05e6\u05ea\u200e \u201cFringe\u201d or \u201cTassel.\u201d\n\n\u201cThou shalt make thee fringes upon the four corners of thy vesture,\nwherewith thou coverest thyself\u201d (Deut. xxii. 12). The object of this\ncommandment is described as follows:\u2014\u201cIt shall be unto you for a\nfringe, that ye may look upon it, and remember all the commandments of\nthe Lord, and do them, and that ye seek not after your own heart and\nyour own eyes, after which ye use to go astray: that ye may remember\nand do all my commandments, and be holy unto your God\u201d (Num. xv. 39,\n40).\n\nIn obedience to this commandment, we have two kinds of four-cornered\ngarments provided with \u201cfringes.\u201d The one is small, and is worn under\nthe upper garments the whole day; it is called arba\u2019 kanfoth, \u201cfour\ncorners,\u201d or talith katan, \u201csmall scarf.\u201d The other and larger one is\nworn over the garments during the Morning Service. [46] It is called\nsimply talith, \u201cscarf,\u201d or talith gadol, \u201clarge scarf.\u201d\n\nThe form of the blessing which accompanies the performance of this\nmitsvah varies according as it refers to the small talith or to the\nlarge one. In the former case the blessing concludes with \u200f\u05e2\u05dc \u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea\n\u05e6\u05d9\u05e6\u05ea\u200e \u201cconcerning the commandment of tsitsith;\u201d in the latter with\n\u200f\u05dc\u05d4\u05ea\u05e2\u05d8\u05e3 \u05d1\u05e6\u05d9\u05e6\u05ea\u200e, \u201cto wrap ourselves with a garment provided with\ntsitsith.\u201d [47]\n\nThe tsitsith, which is appended to each of the four corners, consists\nof four long threads drawn through a small hole about an inch from the\ncorner; the two parts of the threads are bound together by a double\nknot; the largest thread\u2014called shammash, \u201cthe servant\u201d\u2014is then wound\nseven, eight, eleven, and thirteen times round the other seven halves\nof the four threads, and after each set of windings a double knot is\nmade.\u2014If one of the four tsitsith is not in order, e.g., two of the\nthreads being torn off, the talith is called pasul, \u201cdisqualified\u201d for\nthe mitsvah, and must not be worn till that tsitsith is replaced by a\nnew one.\n\nThere is, however, an important element in this Divine commandment,\nwhich is now altogether neglected, viz., \u201cAnd they shall put upon the\nfringe of the corner a thread of \u200f\u05ea\u05db\u05dc\u05ea\u200e purple blue wool\u201d (Num. xv.\n38). Tradition determined the exact shade of the purple blue indicated\nby the term \u200f\u05ea\u05db\u05dc\u05ea\u200e; in the Talmud (Menachoth 42b) the various ways of\nits preparation are given. But the colour seems to have been rare, and\nwe are warned against using imitations of techeleth. Regulations were\nalso made providing for the case when techeleth could not be obtained.\nThe natural white colour was then substituted, and no other colour was\nallowed. After the conclusion of the Talmud doubts seem to have arisen\nas regards the exact shade of the purple blue demanded by the Divine\nprecept in the term \u200f\u05ea\u05db\u05dc\u05ea\u200e, and thus the use of the thread of purple\nblue wool gradually ceased to form part of the tsitsith. The exact time\nwhen it ceased cannot be fixed.\n\n\n\n\u200f\u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d9\u05df\u200e [48] \u201cOrnaments.\u201d\n\nFour times the Law repeats the commandment concerning the tefillin:\n\u201cAnd thou shalt bind them\u201d\u2014the words of God\u2014\u201cfor a sign upon thy hand,\nand they shall be for a frontlet between thine eyes\u201d (Deut. vi. 8 and\nxi. 18); \u201cAnd it shall be unto thee for a sign upon thy hand, and for a\nmemorial between thine eyes, in order that the Law of the Lord be in\nthy mouth\u201d (Exod. xiii. 9); \u201cAnd it shall be for a sign upon thy hand,\nand for a frontlet between thine eyes\u201d (ibid. 16).\n\nThe object of this commandment is to direct our thoughts to God and His\ngoodness, and to remind us of the important lessons taught in the\nfollowing four paragraphs, in which the commandment of tefillin is\nmentioned:\u2014\n\n\n(1.) The first paragraph (\u200f\u05e7\u05d3\u05e9\u200e Exod. xiii. 1\u201310) teaches that we must,\nin various ways, express our belief in God as the King and Ruler of the\nuniverse. Two laws are contained in this paragraph which are to serve\nthis object\u2014the sanctification of the first-born to the service of the\nLord, and the celebration of the Feast of Unleavened Cakes.\n(2.) The second paragraph (\u200f\u05d5\u05d4\u05d9\u05d4 \u05db\u05d9 \u05d9\u05d1\u05d9\u05d0\u05da\u200e Exod. xiii. 11\u201316) reminds\nus of the wonderful way in which God delivered our forefathers from\nEgyptian bondage. Remembering this deliverance, we are strengthened in\nour faith in God in days of trouble, for His ways are not ours, and\nwhen we do not see any prospect of relief God may be preparing help for\nus.\n(3.) The third paragraph (\u200f\u05e9\u05de\u05e2\u200e Deut. vi. 4\u20139) proclaims the Unity of\nGod, and teaches us to love God and obey Him out of love.\n(4.) The fourth paragraph (\u200f\u05d5\u05d4\u05d9\u05d4 \u05d0\u05dd \u05e9\u05de\u05e2\u200e Deut. xi. 13\u201320) teaches that\nProvidence deals with men according to their merits, according as each\ndeserves reward or punishment.\n\n\nTradition has handed down to us the way in which this precept is to be\ncarried out. The four above-mentioned paragraphs are written twice on\nparchment, once on one piece, and once on four pieces, each piece\ncontaining one paragraph. The two sets are put into two leather cases\n(\u200f\u05d1\u05d9\u05ea\u200e), one of which is divided into four compartments, for the four\nseparate slips of parchment, and marked outside by the letter shin.\n[49] Through a loop attached to each bayith a leather strap (\u200f\u05e8\u05e6\u05d5\u05e2\u05d4\u200e)\nis passed, the two parts of which are tied together [50] in such a\nmanner as to hold the bayith on the arm or on the head. On the arm the\ncase is placed that contains the four paragraphs written on one piece,\non the head that which contains them written on four pieces. The former\nis called tefillah shel yad, \u201ctefillin of the hand;\u201d the latter\ntefillah shel rosh, \u201cthe tefillin of the head.\u201d\n\nThe tefillin are put on in the following way:\u2014(1.) Tefillah shel rosh.\nThe case is placed in front, just over the forehead in the middle, and\nthe knot of the straps (\u200f\u05e7\u05e9\u05e8\u200e) on the back of the head over the middle\nof the neck; the remainder of the two straps hang down in front, one on\neach side. (2.) Tefillah shel yad. The case containing the parchment is\nplaced on the inner side of the left upper arm, near the elbow; the\nknot is kept near it, and the strap is twisted seven times round the\narm and three times round the middle finger; there are, however,\ndifferent customs with regard to this latter practice.\n\nTefillah shel yad is put on first, being mentioned first in the Divine\nprecept. The reverse order is observed in taking off the tefillin.\nOriginally the tefillin were worn all day long, [51] but at present\nthey are worn only during the morning prayer.\n\nThe tefillin are not worn on Sabbath or Festival. The observance of\nthese days is \u201ca sign for ever\u201d of our belief \u201cthat in six days the\nLord made the heavens and the earth.\u201d The very days of rest thus remind\nus of the truths of which the tefillin are \u201ca sign.\u201d The tefillin\nbecame, therefore, unnecessary on those days.\n\nThe commandment of tefillin applies to all male persons from their\nthirteenth birthday. [52]\n\nThe performance of this commandment is preceded by the usual\nbenediction (\u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05ea \u05d4\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea\u200e), concluding \u200f\u05dc\u05d4\u05e0\u05d9\u05d7 \u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d9\u05df\u200e, \u201cto place the\ntefillin,\u201d scil., on the arm and on the head. According to the German\nrite, a second benediction is recited before placing the tefillah shel\nrosh on the head, viz., \u200f\u05e2\u05dc \u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea \u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d9\u05df\u200e, \u201cconcerning the commandment of\ntefillin.\u201d [53]\n\nIn order to prevent a mere perfunctory observance of this commandment,\nwe are taught to reflect on the importance and the object of the\ntefillin, and to declare that by placing the tefillin on the head and\non the arm, near the heart, we indicate our consciousness of the duty\nto employ the thoughts that rise in our mind, and the desires of our\nheart, in the service of the Lord, who gave us the powers of thought\nand will. [54]\n\n\n\n\u200f\u05de\u05d6\u05d5\u05bc\u05d6\u05d4\u200e Door-post Symbol.\n\nThe Mezuzah is a piece of parchment on which the two first paragraphs\nof Shema (Deut. vi. 4\u20139, xi. 13\u201320) are written. The parchment is\nrolled together, put into a small case, and fixed on the right-hand\ndoor-post. A small opening is left in the case, where the word \u200f\u05e9\u05b7\u05c1\u05d3\u05b7\u05bc\u05d9\u200e\n\u201cAlmighty,\u201d written on the back of the scroll, is visible. [55]\n\nThe object of the mezuzah, commanded in the words, \u201cAnd thou shalt\nwrite them on the door-posts of thy house and upon thy gates\u201d (Deut.\nvi. 9 and xi. 20), is to remind us of the Presence of God, of His\nUnity, Providence, and Omnipotence, both on entering our home and on\nleaving it; of the all-seeing eye that watches us, and of the Almighty\nwho will one day call us to account for our deeds, words and thoughts.\nThe mezuzah thus serves to sanctify our dwelling and protect it from\nbeing polluted by evil deeds.\n\n\n\nSigns of God\u2019s Covenant.\n\nBesides the signs mentioned above, there are two other signs of the\ncovenant between God and Israel.\n\n1. Sabbath is called \u201can everlasting covenant,\u201d and \u201ca sign between God\nand the children of Israel for ever\u201d (Exod. xxxi. 16, 17). See pp. 254\nsqq. and 339 sqq.\n\n2. The covenant of Abraham (\u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea \u05de\u05d9\u05dc\u05d4\u200e \u201cthe covenant of\ncircumcision\u201d). God made a covenant with Abraham, and said, \u201cThou shalt\nkeep my covenant, thou and thy seed after thee in their generations.\nThis is my covenant which ye shall keep between me and you, and thy\nseed after thee: Every male child among you shall be circumcised when\neight days old\u201d (Gen. xvii. 9, 10, 12). If the eighth day happens to be\non a Sabbath, the circumcision takes place on that day; but if, because\nof illness, or from any other cause, the rite has not been performed on\nthe eighth day, it must be done on some other day, but not on a Sabbath\nor Festival.\n\n\n\n\nNotes.\u20141. In reference to the importance of these mitsvoth, Maimonides,\nin Mishneh-torah, says as follows:\u2014\n\n\u201cAlthough we are not commanded to get a talith, and to put it on in\norder to join the tsitsith (\u201cfringes\u201d) to it, a religious person will\nnot consider himself free from this duty, but will always endeavour to\nwear a garment to which fringes must be affixed. During prayer we must\nbe especially careful to provide ourselves with a talith. It is a\ndisgrace for a scholar (Talmid chacham) to say the prayer without the\ntalith. We must be particularly anxious to perform this mitsvah; it is\nof great importance with regard to all the precepts, according to the\nwords, \u2018And ye shall look upon it, and remember all the commandments of\nthe Lord\u2019\u201d (2nd Book, Ahabhah, Hilchoth tsitsith iii. 12).\n\n\u201cThe holiness of the tefillin is great, for so long as the tefillin are\nupon the head and the arm of a man, he is humble and God-fearing, keeps\naway from levity and idle talk, does not conceive evil thoughts, but\nturns his heart exclusively to words of truth and justice. We ought\ntherefore to wear them all day long; this would be the proper way. It\nis said of Rab, the pupil of Rabbi Jehudah, the Holy, that he was never\nseen otherwise than with torah or tsitsith or tefillin.\n\n\u201cAlthough we ought to wear tefillin all day long, it is our special\nduty to wear them during prayer. Our Sages said, \u2018He who reads Shema\nwithout tefillin rejects, as it were, his evidence concerning the\nAlmighty as false\u2019\u201d (ibid., Hilchoth tefillin iv. 26).\n\n\u201cWe should be particular with regard to the mezuzah, which is a duty\nincumbent uninterruptedly on every one. Whenever we enter or leave the\nhouse our eye meets with the name of God; we remember His love, and\nrousing ourselves from our torpitude, we are led to regret our foolish\ndevotion to the vanities of the time, and recognise that nothing\nremains for ever except the knowledge of the Rock of the universe. We\nshall then at once devote ourselves to know Him, and walk in the way of\nuprightness. Our ancient Sages said, \u2018He who has tefillin upon his head\nand upon his arm, tsitsith on his garment, and mezuzah on his door, he\nis safe from sin, since he has many reminders of his duties, and these\nare the angels that protect him from going astray; and to him the\nfollowing verse applies: \u201cAn angel of the Lord encampeth round those\nwho fear Him\u201d\u2019\u201d (ibid., Hilchoth mezuzah vi. 13).\n\n2. The great importance of the tefillin, as described by Maimonides,\nwas not understood or recognised by all Jews. Various sayings occurring\nin the Talmud indicate the existence of laxity or even opposition with\nregard to the carrying out of this precept in its literal sense. When\npersons with tefillin on their head and on their arm showed by their\nconduct that their heart was not filled with the holiness and\nuprightness of which the tefillin are the symbol, it was but natural\nthat not only were these persons accused of hypocrisy, but the Divine\nprecept itself was discredited. But the greater the opposition by one\nsection of the Jewish community, the more the enthusiasm of the other\nsection grew in its favour. Hence the numerous Talmudical and\nRabbinical utterances concerning the sanctifying force inherent in the\ntefillin (comp. Tur Orach Chayyim xxxvii.). Thus, when a Rabbi was\ncautioned not to be over joyous, as excess of joy led to sin, he\nreplied, \u201cI lay tefillin;\u201d i.e., \u201cThe thoughts which the observance of\nthis precept awakens protects me from sin.\u201d This idea of protection\nfrom sin may be the origin of the Greek name phylacterion,\n\u201cprotection.\u201d\u2014In times of persecution, when the Jews were forbidden by\ntheir oppressors to perform any of their religious rites on penalty of\ndeath, the precept of tefillin was not included among those which they\nperformed even at the risk of their life. To this circumstance Rabbi\nSimeon b. Elazar ascribes the laxity with regard to the tefillin\n(Babyl. Talm. Shabbath 130a).\n\n3. There occurs in the Midrash (Sifre on Deut. xi. 18), in reference to\ntsitsith and tefillin, the following passage: \u201cAlso when in exile deck\nyourselves with mitsvoth, in order that on your return to your own land\nthe Divine precepts should not seem to you new and unknown.\u201d This\npassage has been misinterpreted as if the author of that passage were\nof opinion that precepts like tsitsith and tefillin did originally not\napply to those who are outside the Holy Land. The meaning is rather\nthis: Although a large portion of the laws is not in force outside\nPalestine, yet continue to wear these reminders in exile, in order that\nby this act your attention may constantly be turned to the whole Torah,\nto those precepts which are in force at present as well as to those\nwhich are not. Thus all the precepts will be familiar to you, and when\nthe time comes in which the observance of all the laws will again be\npossible, none of the laws will appear to you new and strange.\n\n4. There is, on the whole, no difference between men and women with\nregard to the obedience due to the Divine commandments. All Jews are\nequally bound to obey the Will of God expressed in the Law. This is\nabsolutely the case with all prohibitions (\u200f\u05dc\u05d0 \u05ea\u05e2\u05e9\u05d4\u200e). In the case of\npositive commandments (\u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea \u05e2\u05e9\u05d4\u200e) the following rule has been laid\ndown by our Sages: Women are exempt from the performance of such\nreligious duties as are restricted to a certain period of time (\u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea\n\u05e2\u05e9\u05d4 \u05e9\u05d4\u05d6\u05de\u05df \u05d2\u05e8\u05de\u05d0 \u05e0\u05e9\u05d9\u05dd \u05e4\u05d8\u05d5\u05e8\u05d5\u05ea\u200e). The object of the seeming anomaly is\nprobably this: the principal duty and the privilege of women is to\nmanage the household, a task that demands constant attention. Religious\nacts which are to be performed at a certain time might involve an\ninterference with such of their household duties as demand immediate\nattention; e.g., nursing a patient, a task which generally falls to the\nlot of the female section of the family. Jewish women, nevertheless,\nzealously fulfil most of the duties from which the above rule exempts\nthem. They thus are most eager to obey the laws concerning shofar on\nNew-year, lulab on Tabernacles, and the like; and some of them are\nnamed as having conscientiously laid tefillin (Mechilta on Exod. xiii.\n9).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nIV. SABBATH AND FESTIVALS.\n\n\nThe daily work which has chiefly the well-being of the body as its aim\nmust be interrupted on certain days which the Almighty has appointed\nfor the promotion of man\u2019s spiritual well-being. Sabbath and Festivals\nare the days thus appointed, and are therefore called \u200f\u05de\u05d5\u05e2\u05d3\u05d9 \u05d9\u05d9\u200e \u201cthe\nseasons of the Lord,\u201d and \u200f\u05de\u05e7\u05e8\u05d0\u05d9 \u05e7\u05d3\u05e9\u200e \u201choly convocations.\u201d The blessing\nderived from the observance of Holy-days in the true spirit is\ndescribed by the prophet as follows: \u201cIf thou keep back thy foot\nbecause of the sabbath, from doing thy business on my holy day; and\ncall the sabbath a delight, the holy of the Lord, honourable, and shalt\nhonour it, not doing thine own ways, nor finding thine own business,\nnor speaking thine own words: then thou shalt delight thyself in the\nLord: and I will cause thee to ride upon the high places of the earth,\nand feed thee with the heritage of Jacob, thy father\u201d (Isa. lviii. 13,\n14). To those who fail to observe the seasons of the Lord in the true\nspirit, the prophet says in the name of the Almighty: \u201cYour new-moons\nand your festivals my soul hateth: they are a trouble unto me; I am\nweary to bear them\u201d (ibid. i. 14).\n\nMaimonides [56] comprehends the various duties and observances of the\nHoly-days in the following four terms: \u200f\u05d6\u05db\u05d5\u05e8\u200e \u201cremember,\u201d \u200f\u05e9\u05de\u05d5\u05e8\u200e \u201ctake\nheed,\u201d \u200f\u05db\u05d1\u05d5\u05d3\u200e \u201chonour,\u201d and \u200f\u05e2\u05d5\u05e0\u05d2\u200e \u201cdelight.\u201d The first two are found\nin the Pentateuch, and form the beginning of the fourth commandment in\nExodus and Deuteronomy respectively; the other two occur in the above\ndescription of the Sabbath quoted from Isaiah (lviii. 13, 14).\nFollowing the example of our great teacher, we shall likewise treat of\nthe laws and customs of Sabbath and Festivals under these four heads:\n[57]\u2014\n\n\n\na. \u200f\u05d6\u05db\u05d5\u05e8\u200e \u201cRemember.\u201d\n\nRemember the Sabbath-day; speak of it, of its holiness and its\nblessings. We fulfil this duty when Sabbath comes in, by the Kiddush,\n\u201cthe sanctification of the day,\u201d in which we praise the Almighty for\nthe boon bestowed upon us by the institution of the Sabbath; and when\nSabbath goes out, by the Habhdalah, in which we praise God for the\n\u201cdistinction\u201d made between the holy and the ordinary days. We have both\nKiddush and Habhdalah in a double form: (a) as a portion of the Amidah\nin the Evening Service; the Kiddush being the middle section of the\nAmidah, the Habhdalah consisting of a prayer added to the fourth\nparagraph beginning \u200f\u05d0\u05ea\u05d4 \u05d7\u05e0\u05df\u200e; (b) as a separate service especially\nintended for our homes. It is this home-service that we generally\nunderstand by the terms Kiddush and Habhdalah, and in this sense they\nare employed in the following. [58]\n\n\n\nKiddush.\n\nThere is a traditional explanation of the term zachor: \u200f\u05d6\u05db\u05e8\u05d4\u05d5 \u05e2\u05dc \u05d4\u05d9\u05d9\u05df\u200e\n\u201cremember it over the wine.\u201d As \u201cwine gladdens the heart of man\u201d and\nforms an important element in a festive meal, it has been ordered that\nour meal on the eve [59] of Sabbath and Festival should be begun with a\ncup of wine in honour of the day, and that mention should be made of\nthe holiness of the day before partaking of the wine. The Kiddush\nconsists of two blessings (\u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05d5\u05ea\u200e): one over the wine, [60] and one\nthat refers to the holiness of the day. On Holy-days\u2014except the last\ndays of Passover\u2014a third blessing (\u200f\u05e9\u05d4\u05d7\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5\u200e) follows, praising God for\nhaving granted us life and enabled us again to celebrate the Festival.\nOn Friday evening a portion from Genesis (i. 31 to ii. 3) is added,\nwhich contains the first mention of the institution of Sabbath. If a\nFestival happens to fall on Sunday, we add part of the Habhdalah to the\nKiddush on Saturday evening, [61] referring to the distinction between\nthe holiness of the Sabbath and that of the Festivals.\n\nThe Kiddush is part of the Sabbath or Festival evening meal, and in the\nabsence of the latter the Kiddush is omitted. [62] In Synagogues of the\nGerman and Polish Minhag the Reader recites the Kiddush at the\nconclusion of the Maarib Service. This custom is a survival of the\nancient way of providing for the poor and the stranger. In the absence\nof better accommodation lodging and food were given to the needy in\nrooms adjoining the Synagogue, or even in the Synagogue itself. It was\nfor these that the Reader recited the Kiddush, before they commenced\nthe evening meal, as most probably wine was not served to all. Although\ncircumstances have changed the mode of maintaining the poor, and the\nlatter find no longer lodging and board in the Synagogue, the Kiddush\nhas been retained as part of the Maarib Service, except on the first\ntwo nights of Passover, when there had never been an occasion for\nreading Kiddush in the Synagogue. The poor were treated on these nights\nwith four cups of wine each, and they recited Kiddush by themselves as\npart of the Seder.\n\n\n\nHabhdalah \u200f\u05d4\u05d1\u05d3\u05dc\u05d4\u200e.\n\nHabhdalah is recited in the evening following Sabbath or Holy-day,\nafter the Evening Service. A cup of wine is raised, and the \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05d4\u200e over\nwine is followed by another \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05d4\u200e, in which God is praised for the\ndistinction made between the holy and the ordinary day (\u200f\u05d1\u05d9\u05df \u05e7\u05d3\u05e9\n\u05dc\u05d7\u05d5\u05dc\u200e), or between two kinds of holiness (\u200f\u05d1\u05d9\u05df \u05e7\u05d3\u05e9 \u05dc\u05e7\u05d3\u05e9\u200e) in case\nSabbath is followed by a Holy-day.\u2014On Sabbath night we take a candle\nand a spice-box, and add two blessings after that over wine; in the one\nwe thank God for the enjoyment of the fragrance, in the other for the\nbenefit He bestowed on us by the creation of light. A few verses from\nthe Bible, especially the Prophets, precede the Habhdalah.\n\nThe origin of the introduction of the blessings for light and for\nspices in the Habhdalah may be the following:\u2014The principal meal of the\nday used to be taken about sunset; light and burning incense were\nessential elements of a festive meal. On Sabbath these could not be\nhad, and were therefore enjoyed immediately after the going out of\nSabbath. Although the custom of having incense after the meal has long\nceased, it has survived in the Habhdalah, and has, in course of time,\nreceived another, a more poetical interpretation. The Sabbath inspires\nus with cheerfulness, gives us, as it were, an additional soul\u2014\u200f\u05e0\u05b0\u05e9\u05b8\u05c1\u05de\u05b8\u05d4\n\u05d9\u05b0\u05ea\u05b5\u05e8\u05b8\u05d4\u200e\u2014traces of which are left on the departure of Sabbath, and are\nsymbolised by the fragrance of the spices. For the use of the special\nlight there has likewise been suggested a second reason, namely, that\nit is intended at the commencement of the week to remind us of the\nfirst product of Creation, which was light.\n\nThere are a few customs connected with the Habhdalah that may be\nnoticed here.\n\n(1.) The wine, when poured into the cup, is allowed to flow over, as a\nsymbol of the overflowing Divine blessing which we wish and hope to\nenjoy in the coming week.\n\n(2.) Some dip their finger in wine and pass it over their eyes, in\nallusion to the words of the Nineteenth Psalm (ver. 9), \u201cThe\ncommandment of the Lord is pure, enlightening the eyes.\u201d The act\nexpresses the love of the Divine commandments (\u200f\u05d7\u05b4\u05d1\u05bc\u05d5\u05bc\u05d1 \u05de\u05b4\u05e6\u05b0\u05d5\u05b8\u05d4\u200e).\n\n(3.) Only male persons partake of the wine; they have more interest in\nthe Habhdalah as the signal for the resumption of ordinary work and\nbusiness.\u2014The exclusion of women from the wine of Habhdalah may also\nhave its origin in the fact that Jewish women generally abstained from\ntaking wine, considering strong drink suitable only for the male\nportion of mankind. They only partake of the wine of Kiddush on account\nof its importance; to Habhdalah less importance was ascribed.\n\n(4.) On reaching the words \u200f\u05d1\u05d9\u05df \u05d0\u05d5\u05e8 \u05dc\u05d7\u05e9\u05da\u200e, \u201cbetween light and\ndarkness,\u201d some hold their hands against the light, the fingers bent\ninside, in illustration of the words which they utter, showing darkness\nand shadow inside and light outside.\u2014With the practice of these and\nsimilar customs we must take good care that we should not combine any\nsuperstitious motive, or join actions which are really superstitious,\nand did not originate in Jewish thought and Jewish traditions.\n\nWe further remember the Sabbath-day to sanctify it by increased\ndevotion, by reading special Lessons from the Pentateuch and the\nProphets, and by attending religious instruction given by teachers and\npreachers.\n\nBesides various additions in the Service, and the substitution of one\nparagraph concerning Sabbath or Festival for the thirteen middle\nparagraphs of the Amidah, there is another Service inserted between the\nMorning and the Afternoon Services; it is called Musaph, \u201cthe\nAdditional Service,\u201d and corresponds to the additional offering\nordained for Sabbath and Festival (Num. xxviii. 9, sqq.).\n\nAn essential element in the Morning Service is the Reading from the\nTorah (\u200f\u05e7\u05e8\u05d9\u05d0\u05ea \u05d4\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e) and the Prophets (\u200f\u05d4\u05e4\u05d8\u05e8\u05d4\u200e). A periodical public\nreading from the Law was enjoined in the following words: \u201cAt the end\nof every seven years, in the solemnity of the year of release, in the\nfeast of tabernacles, when all Israel is come to appear before the Lord\nthy God in the place which he shall choose, thou shalt read this law\nbefore all Israel in their hearing. Gather the people together, men and\nwomen and children, and the stranger that is within thy gates, that\nthey may hear, and that they may learn, and fear the Lord your God, and\nobserve to do all the words of this law; and that their children, which\nhave not known anything, may hear and learn to fear the Lord your God\u201d\n(Deut. xxxi. 10\u201313).\n\nA seven years\u2019 interval would surely have destroyed the impression\nproduced by the reading. The reading was probably repeated throughout\nthe country at shorter intervals. Tradition ascribes to Moses the\ninstitution of reading the Law every Sabbath, Monday, and Thursday\nmorning, in order that three days might never pass without Torah. Ezra\nis said to have added the reading on Sabbath afternoon, and to have\nmade various other regulations with regard to the reading of the Law.\n\nQuantity and manner of reading were at first, no doubt, variable. In\nthe course of time certain systems found favour and became the fixed\nrule. Some completed the reading of the whole Pentateuch in three\nyears, others in one year. The former mode was gradually displaced by\nthe latter, and the attempts which have lately been made to revive it\nhave not succeeded. Traces of the triennial reading may be noticed in\nthe number of sedarim contained in the five books of the Pentateuch. At\npresent, however, the annual course is followed in almost all our\nSynagogues. The section read on one Sabbath is called sidra; the first,\n\u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9\u05d9\u05ea\u200e, is read the first Sabbath after the Feast of Tabernacles, and\nthe last sidra is read on Simchath-torah (the 23rd of Tishri).\n\nFor the Festivals such sections were selected as contained either\ndirect or indirect reference to the Festivals. If these happen to be on\na Sabbath, the ordinary reading is interrupted, and that of the\nFestivals substituted for it.\n\nThe number of persons who were to take part in the reading varied\naccording as the people were likely to devote less or more time to\nDivine Service: on weekdays and on Sabbath afternoon three, on New-moon\nand Chol-hammoed four, on the Festivals five, on the Day of Atonement\nsix, [63] and on Sabbath seven. Some may have required the assistance\nof the chazan, and in some cases the chazan\u2019s voice was the only one\nthat was heard; gradually the chazan became the reader, and the\noriginal reader became silent, being content with reciting the\nb\u2019rachoth. Only in the case of the Bar-mitsvah, the Chathan-torah, and\nthe Chathan-b\u2019reshith the original practice has been retained.\n\nAs regards the order of those who take part in the reading of the Law,\nthe first place is given to a Cohen, i.e., a descendant of Aaron, the\npriest; the second to a Levite, i.e., a non-priest of the tribe of\nLevi; and then follow other Israelites, that are neither Levites nor\nCohanim, without any prescribed order. The last who concludes the\nreading from the Law on those days on which a chapter from the Prophets\nis also read is called maftir, \u201cconcluding;\u201d and the lesson from the\nProphets is called haphtarah, \u201cconclusion.\u201d\n\nIn the selection of the haphtarah care was taken that it should contain\nsome reference to the contents of the lesson from the Pentateuch, and\nas there was not much choice, the haphtarah, once chosen, was as a rule\nread again on the recurrence of the same sidra. Different communities\nhad different series of haphtaroth. A few negative rules concerning the\nselection of the haphtarah are mentioned in the Mishnah (Megillah iv.\n10); Ezek. i. and xvi., 2 Sam. xi. and xiii., are to be excluded. These\nrules, however, were not observed, as Ezek. i. is the haphtarah for the\nfirst day of the Feast of Weeks. There is an ancient rule about the\nnature of the haphtaroth between the Fast of Tamuz and New-year; viz.,\nthere should be three haphtaroth of \u201crebuke\u201d and seven of \u201ccomfort\u201d\n(\u200f\u05e0\u05f3 \u05d3\u05e4\u05e8\u05e2\u05e0\u05d5\u05ea\u05d0\u200e, \u200f\u05d6\u05f3 \u05d3\u05e0\u05d7\u05de\u05ea\u05d0\u200e). The former are taken from Jeremiah (i.\nand ii.) and Isaiah (i.); the latter are selected from Isaiah (xl. to\nlxvi.)\n\nVarious accounts are given of the origin of the haphtarah. One account\ntraces its origin to a period of persecution, when the Jews were not\nallowed to read from the Torah, and the scrolls of the Law were either\nconfiscated or concealed. In both cases it was easy to read from the\nProphets, for this could be done by heart and in any place; whilst for\nthe reading of the Torah it was necessary to produce a copy of the Law.\nAccording to another account, the haphtarah served as a protest against\nthe theory of the Samaritans, who recognised the Torah alone as holy.\nBut it is more likely and more natural to suppose that the haphtarah\nwas introduced as soon as the Prophets became part of the Holy\nScriptures.\n\nThere was a tendency to have recourse to the Divine messages of future\ncomfort and glory when the present was gloomy and sad. At the end of\nthe Service or a religious discourse, just before leaving the Synagogue\nor the Beth ha-midrash, passages from the Prophets were read, in order\nthat the people might carry away with them a strengthened faith in God\nand in the ultimate victory of their religion. On Sabbath morning the\nlessons from the Prophets were of greater importance, since a larger\nnumber congregated, and more time could be devoted to it. A b\u2019rachah\ntherefore introduced it, and b\u2019rachoth, including a prayer for the\nrestoration of Zion, followed it. The name haphtarah suggests this\nexplanation; it denotes literally \u201ccausing to leave,\u201d \u201cdeparture,\u201d or\n\u201cconclusion.\u201d\n\nAfter the return of the Jews from Babylon they spoke the Chaldee\ndialect; the lessons from the Bible were accordingly accompanied by a\nChaldee translation called targum. The translation was not always\nliteral, but was frequently a paraphrase. It was given, as a rule,\nafter each verse, by an appointed methurgeman.\u2014In communities which\nonly understood Greek the Greek version was read. A Spanish translation\nof the haphtarah is still added at present on the Fast of Ab in the\nPortuguese Ritual; but otherwise the practice of adding a translation\nto the text has long since been discontinued.\n\n\n\nb. \u200f\u05e9\u05de\u05d5\u05e8\u200e \u201cTake Heed.\u201d\n\nThe negative commandment concerning the Holy-days is: \u200f\u05dc\u05d0 \u05ea\u05e2\u05e9\u05d4 \u05db\u05dc\n\u05de\u05dc\u05d0\u05db\u05d4\u200e, \u201cThou shalt do no manner of work.\u201d The very name Sabbath\n(\u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea\u200e, \u201crest\u201d) implies absence of labour. We are commanded to rest on\nthe Sabbath, but not to indulge in laziness and indolence, which are by\nno means conducive to the health of the body or the soul. The Sabbath\nrest is described in our Sabbath Afternoon Service as \u201cvoluntary and\ncongenial, true and faithful, and happy and cheerful.\u201d Moderate\nexercise, cheerful reading, and pleasant conversation are indispensable\nfor a rest of this kind.\n\nWhat is to be understood by the term \u201clabour\u201d or \u201cwork\u201d in the\nprohibition \u201cThou shalt not do any manner of work\u201d? The Pentateuch\ngives no definition of the term. But the Israelites, when they were\ntold that work was prohibited on Sabbath, and that any breach of the\nlaw was to be punished with death, must have received orally a full\nexplanation of the prohibition. A case is mentioned of one who profaned\nthe Sabbath by gathering sticks, and was put to death; this could not\nhave been done if any doubt had been left in his mind whether the act\nof gathering sticks was included in the prohibition.\n\nA few instances of work prohibited on a Sabbath-day are met with in the\nBible. In connection with the manna, the prohibition of cooking and\nbaking is mentioned; also the commandment, \u201cLet no man go out of his\nplace on the seventh day\u201d (Exod. xvi. 29); i.e., we must not travel or\ngo beyond a certain distance [64] on the Sabbath. Another act\ndistinctly forbidden is contained in the words, \u201cYe shall kindle no\nfire in all your dwellings on the day of rest\u201d (ibid. xxxv. 3). The\nprophet Amos (viii. 5), in rebuking the Israelites for cheating their\nfellow-men, puts the following words into their mouth: \u201cWhen will the\nnew moon be gone, that we may sell corn? and the Sabbath, that we may\nopen our stores of wheat?\u201d This shows that the Israelites conducted no\nbusiness on New-moon and Sabbath. Jeremiah (xvii. 21 sqq.) says as\nfollows: \u201cThus saith the Lord, Take heed to yourselves, and bear no\nburden on the sabbath day, nor bring it in by the gates of Jerusalem;\nneither carry forth a burden out of your houses on the sabbath day,\nneither do ye any work, but hallow ye the sabbath day.\u201d\u2014Nehemiah\nrelates (xiii. 15): \u201cIn those days saw I in Judah some treading\nwine-presses on the sabbath, and bringing in sheaves, and lading asses;\nas also wine, grapes, and figs, and all manner of burdens, which they\nbrought into Jerusalem on the sabbath day: and I testified against them\nin the day wherein they sold victuals. Then I said unto them, What evil\nthing is this that ye do and profane the sabbath day?\u201d As a general\nrule, we may say that the work prohibited on Sabbath and Festivals\nembraces two classes: viz., (1) All such acts as are legally\u2014i.e., in\nthe Oral Law\u2014defined as \u200f\u05de\u05dc\u05d0\u05db\u05d4\u200e \u201cwork.\u201d It makes no difference whether\nwe consider any of them as labour or not. Under thirty-nine different\nheads [65] they are enumerated in the Mishnah (Shabbath vii. 2). The\nfollowing are a few of them:\u2014Ploughing, sowing, reaping, threshing,\ngrinding, baking, hunting, killing an animal, tanning, sewing, writing,\nkindling light or fire, and carrying things abroad.\n\n(2.) Everything which our conscience tells us to be inappropriate for\nthe Sabbath; acts which come neither under the head of \u200f\u05de\u05dc\u05d0\u05db\u05d4\u200e nor\nunder that of \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05d5\u05ea\u200e, but which would tend to change the Sabbath into\nan ordinary day; e.g., preparing for our daily business transactions,\nalthough such preparation does not involve an actual breach of any of\nthe Sabbath laws.\n\nWhatever we are not allowed to do ourselves, we must not have done for\nus by a co-religionist, who deliberately disregards the fourth\ncommandment. Neither must we employ non-Israelites to do our work on\nSabbath, except in case of need; e.g., in case of illness or fear of\nillness.\n\nAs regards Holy-days, there is the general rule that work (\u200f\u05de\u05dc\u05d0\u05db\u05d4\u200e)\nprohibited on Sabbath must not be done on Holy-days: \u201cSave that which\nevery man must eat, that only may be done of you\u201d (Exod. xii. 16); that\nis to say, it is allowed on Festivals to cook, to bake, or to prepare\nfood in any other way. [66] Of course, for the Festival that happens to\nfall on a Sabbath, the laws of Sabbath remain in force. The Day of\nAtonement is in this respect equal to Sabbath.\n\n\n\nc. \u200f\u05e2\u05e0\u05d2\u200e \u201cDelight.\u201d\n\nThe principal and noblest delight yielded by Holy-days is the pleasure\nwe feel in more frequent communion with the Divine Being, in the purer\nand holier thoughts with which we are inspired when at rest from\nordinary work, and able to devote ourselves more fully to the\ncontemplation of the works and words of God. In this sense the day of\nrest is described in one of the hymns (\u200f\u05d6\u05de\u05d9\u05e8\u05d5\u05ea\u200e) after supper as \u201ca\nforetaste of the world to come\u201d (\u200f\u05de\u05e2\u05d9\u05df \u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd \u05d4\u05d1\u05d0 \u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05e9\u05d1\u05ea \u05de\u05e0\u05d5\u05d7\u05d4\u200e).\n\nBut oneg shabbath includes also delight of a less spiritual character.\nWe are not commanded on the days of rest to forget altogether the wants\nof the body. On the contrary. Nehemiah, when on the first day of the\nseventh month, that is, on New-year, he perceived that his brethren\nwere sad, addressed them thus: \u201cGo your way, eat the fat and drink the\nsweet, and send portions unto him for whom nothing is prepared: for\nthis day is holy unto the Lord: neither be ye grieved; for the joy of\nthe Lord is your strength\u201d (Neh. viii. 10). The same conception of \u201cthe\nsabbath unto the Lord\u201d is met with in Talmud, Midrash, and throughout\nthe whole of the Rabbinical literature. In one of our Sabbath-hymns\n(\u200f\u05d6\u05de\u05d9\u05e8\u05d5\u05ea\u200e) we say: \u201cThis day is for Israel, light and joy, a sabbath of\nrest;\u201d and in our prayers for Sabbath we glory in being shom\u2019re\nshabbath ve-kor\u2019e oneg, \u201cobservers of the sabbath, and such as call it\na delight.\u201d\u2014With regard to the Festivals, the duty of rejoicing is\nrepeatedly enjoined (Deut. xvi. 11, 14).\n\nIn our regulations, customs, and prayers for Sabbath and Festivals,\nthis duty is clearly indicated. All fasting and mourning is prohibited.\nCare was taken that Divine Service should be free from such prayers as\nwould be likely to create feelings of grief and sadness. [67] A special\nformula has also been introduced for the expression of our sympathy\nwith the sick and the mourner on Sabbath and Festivals. [68]\n\nWhen any of the obligatory fasts\u2014except the Day of Atonement\u2014happens to\nfall on a Sabbath, the fasting is put off (\u200f\u05e0\u05d3\u05d7\u05d4\u200e) till the next day,\nor kept, as in the case of the fast of Esther, on the preceding\nThursday. Tradition has raised the taking of the three regular meals on\nSabbath (\u200f\u05e9\u05dc\u05e9 \u05e1\u05e2\u05d5\u05d3\u05d5\u05ea\u200e), viz., supper, breakfast, and dinner, to a\nreligious act\u2014a mitsvah, and the religious character of the meals is\nshown by the special prayers and hymns\u2014zemiroth\u2014which accompany them. A\nfourth meal is, according to some authority, likewise obligatory;\nwhilst, according to another authority, it may be replaced by spiritual\nfood, by reading and studying the Torah.\n\n\n\nd. \u200f\u05db\u05d1\u05d5\u05d3\u200e \u201cHonour.\u201d\n\nWe honour the day inwardly by considering it a holy, distinguished\nseason, which ought to be devoted to higher objects than the wants of\nour body. Our mind should be entirely turned aside from our daily\nbusiness, in order to be free for loftier and holier thoughts. For the\npurpose of effecting this inward distinction of the Sabbath, we honour\nit also outwardly by various things, which are partly a symbol, partly\na reminder of the distinction claimed by the day. We honour the\nSabbath, therefore, by giving a festive appearance to our meals, our\ndress, and our dwelling. The principal thing required is neatness and\ncheerfulness; not luxury. On the contrary, we are guided in this\nrespect by the principle: Make rather thy Sabbath an ordinary day\u2014i.e.,\nomit the distinction in food and dress\u2014than render thyself dependent on\nthe support of thy fellow-men. [69]\n\nIt is customary to have two loaves on the table, over which the\nblessing ha-motsee is said. They are to remind us of the double portion\nof bread or manna (\u200f\u05dc\u05d7\u05dd \u05de\u05e9\u05e0\u05d4\u200e, Exod. xvi. 22) given to the Israelites\nin the wilderness on the sixth day because of the succeeding\nSabbath-day. The cloth spread beneath the loaves, and the cover over\nthem, represent symbolically the dew which both lay on the ground under\nthe manna and also over it. [70] The origin of this custom of covering\nthe bread may perhaps be found in the following Talmudic law: \u201cIf a\nmeal that has commenced on Friday afternoon is continued in the night,\nit must be interrupted when Sabbath comes in; a cloth is to be spread\nover the bread whilst the Kiddush is recited\u201d (Babyl. Talm. Pesachim,\n100a). The spreading of the cloth appears to be here merely a sign of\nthe pause, and the distinction between the ordinary meal and that of\nSabbath. [71] That which was at first ordained for special cases became\nin course of time a general custom. [72]\n\nThe loaves are called birchoth (\u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05d5\u05ea\u200e), taashir (\u200f\u05ea\u05e2\u05e9\u05d9\u05e8\u200e), or challah\n(\u200f\u05d7\u05dc\u05d4\u200e). The first name they received as symbols of God\u2019s blessing, the\ndouble portion of manna which the Almighty sent to the Israelites on\nFriday because of the Sabbath (see Rashi on Gen. ii. 3). The verse,\n\u201cThe blessing of the Lord, it maketh rich\u201d (\u200f\u05ea\u05e2\u05e9\u05d9\u05e8\u200e, Prov. x. 22),\nsuggested the second name. Challah reminds us of the commandment to\ngive the first part of the dough to the priest (Num. xv. 17\u201321).\nAlthough at present this commandment cannot be carried out, we separate\na small piece, called challah, of the dough which we prepare for bread,\nand burn it, after having recited an appropriate blessing. [73] It is\ncustomary to prepare the dough for the Sabbath loaves at home, in order\nto be able to act in accordance with this custom. This is one of the\nreligious acts which it is the special duty of women to perform, and\nsome of the pious women of Israel (\u200f\u05e0\u05e9\u05d9\u05dd \u05e6\u05d3\u05e7\u05e0\u05d9\u05d5\u05ea\u200e) have the\npraiseworthy custom to lay something aside for charity when performing\nthis or similar religious acts.\n\nAnother act performed in honour of Sabbath and Festivals is the\nkindling of special lights before the holy day comes in, to indicate\nsymbolically the approach of a day of light and cheerfulness. This duty\nis likewise the privilege of the housewife [74] or her representative.\nBefore [75] kindling the lights the following blessing is recited:\n\u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05da \u05d0\u05ea\u05d4 \u2026 \u05d5\u05e6\u05d5\u05e0\u05d5 \u05dc\u05d4\u05d3\u05dc\u05d9\u05e7 \u05e0\u05e8 \u05e9\u05dc \u05e9\u05d1\u05ea\u200e \u201cBlessed art thou ... and hast\ncommanded us to kindle the sabbath lights.\u201d \u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d8\u05d5\u05d1\u200e, \u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d4\u05db\u05e4\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e,\n\u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea \u05d5\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d8\u05d5\u05d1\u200e, or \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea \u05d5\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d4\u05db\u05e4\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e is substituted for \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea\u200e\naccording as a Holy-day, the Day of Atonement, or these days when they\nhappen to fall on a Saturday, come in. On Festivals, except the last\ndays of Passover, the following blessing, called \u200f\u05e9\u05d4\u05d7\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5\u200e, is added:\n\u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05da \u2026 \u05e9\u05d4\u05d7\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5 \u05d5\u05e7\u05d9\u05de\u05e0\u05d5 \u05d5\u05d4\u05d2\u05d9\u05e2\u05e0\u05d5 \u05dc\u05d6\u05de\u05df \u05d4\u05d6\u05d4\u200e \u201cBlessed art thou ... who hast\nkept us in life, preserved us, and enabled us to reach this season.\u201d\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNOTES.\n\n1. The reading of the Law is preceded and followed by a blessing. In\nthe first we praise God for having distinguished Israel by revealing\nthe Law to them, and in the second for the benefit derived from the Law\nas the source of eternal life. The love and regard for the Law\nexpressed in these blessings should be shown by the congregants in\nsilent and respectful attention to what is recited by the Reader. Those\nwho are called up to the Law consider this as an important event, and\nmake it an occasion of special prayers for relatives and friends\n(mi-shebberach), accompanied by promises of contributions to communal\nand charitable institutions. On days of family rejoicing, as well as on\ndays of mourning, the religious privilege of being called to the\nReading of the Law is especially valued; in the former case offerings\nare vowed in honour of our living friends, in the other case in\nmemoriam of those near and dear to us, who have departed from our\nmidst. These additional prayers thus serve a double purpose; they help\nto preserve the bond of relationship and friendship, and secure a\nmaterial support for the benevolent and other institutions of the\ncommunity.\n\nObjections have been raised to this in itself praiseworthy custom for\ntwo reasons: first, the mi-shebberach only concerns a few, and appears\nto the rest of the congregation a useless interruption in the reading\nof the Law; secondly, it gives occasion to a display of vanity and\npride.\n\nAs to the first objection, provision could and should be made that the\ninterruption be not unduly long, and cause irritation among the\ncongregants. Due regard should be shown to the fact that the Divine\nBook is open on the reading-desk, and everything should be avoided that\nmight diminish the reverence proper to such an occasion. The second\nobjection is based on a pessimistic estimate of our fellow-men; if\nthere is any one whose offerings are made from vain and ostentatious\nmotives, he is certainly lost in the multitude of those who take a more\nserious and a more dignified view of their duties when standing before\nthe open Torah.\n\n2. There is an old tradition that we should recite daily a hundred\nbenedictions. On Sabbath and Holy-days, when the Amidah contains only\nseven berachoth instead of eighteen, the deficiency is made up by\nseeking an occasion for birchoth ha-nehenin. Hence the minhag spread of\npartaking on these days of various kinds of fruit between the meals.\n\n3. Tradition teaches us that on the holy days of rest we must not only\nabstain from actual work, but also from ordering anything to be done by\nthose who refuse to recognise the Sabbath-laws as binding on\nthem.\u2014Circumstances force us to deviate at times from this rule. There\nwere Jews who would not allow any work to be undertaken on Friday which\nwould continue of its own accord after the Sabbath had set in. Thus\nthey would not have light in their homes on Friday evening or warm food\non the Sabbath-day, although all necessary precautions had been taken\nbefore Sabbath came in to keep the light burning and the food warm for\ntwenty-four hours. But the more these Jews insisted on excluding light\nand fire from their homes, the more did our Sages demand light and warm\nfood as essential comforts of the Sabbath, and to them the\nSabbath-candles and the warm food were a mitsvah of great importance.\nMuch work is done on Sabbath for the public by non-Jews; e.g., in\nconnection with railway-trains, steamboats, and other public\nconveyances. May the Jew avail himself of the work thus done for all\nalike without his bidding? He may in some cases\u2014e.g., for a long\nsea-voyage\u2014in others not. But he must always bear in mind that Judaism\ndepends on the adherence of the Jews to the noble principle, \u200f\u05db\u05dc \u05d9\u05e9\u05e8\u05d0\u05dc\n\u05e2\u05e8\u05d1\u05d9\u05dd \u05d6\u05d4 \u05d1\u05d6\u05d4\u200e \u201cAll Israelites are sureties responsible for each other.\u201d\nThe meaning of this principle is this: If a certain act appears to one\nof us allowable, but at the same time our action might mislead others\nand cause them to break the Law, we must not do it. Thus if Jews were\nto avail themselves of the public conveyances, the whole aspect of the\nSabbath would change, and the day would ultimately be forgotten.\n\n4. When dire necessity compels a Jew to break the Sabbath, let him not\nthink that the Sabbath is lost to him, or he to Judaism. So long as\nJewish conscientiousness is alive within him, let him endeavour to keep\nas much of the Sabbath as he is able. He must not say, \u201cI have broken\nthe Sabbath. How can I join my brethren in the Sabbath Service!\u201d\nWhatever he does conscientiously will be acceptable before God, and he\nwill thus find himself exhorted to watch carefully, and to seize the\nfirst opportunity of returning to the full observance of Sabbath. The\nsame principle applies to all the Divine Precepts.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTHE JEWISH CALENDAR.\n\n\nThe Jewish Calendar [76] reckons the day from evening to evening, in\naccordance with the order observed in the verse, \u201cAnd it was evening\nand it was morning, one day\u201d (Gen. i. 5). The evening begins after\nsunset, at the moment when stars become visible under normal conditions\nof the atmosphere: at \u200f\u05e6\u05d0\u05ea \u05d4\u05db\u05d5\u05db\u05d1\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cthe coming forth of the stars,\u201d\nscil., of at least three stars of middle size.\n\nThe day is divided into evening, morning, and afternoon. With each of\nthese periods is connected an appropriate prayer or service, viz.,\nMaarib or Evening-prayer, Shacharith or Morning-prayer, and Minchah or\nAfternoon-prayer.\n\nSeven days form a week. The days of the week are described in the Bible\nand the Talmud simply as the first day, the second day, &c. Only the\nseventh day has a second name, Yom ha-shabbath or shabbath, \u201cthe day of\nrest,\u201d or \u201cthe rest.\u201d In post-Biblical literature the sixth day is\ncalled Erebh shabbath or Ma\u2019ale shabbatha, \u201cthe eve of Sabbath,\u201d or\n\u201cthe coming in of Sabbath.\u201d The evening following Sabbath is named\nMotse\u00eb shabbath, \u201cthe departure of Sabbath.\u201d Similarly the day\npreceding a Festival and the evening following it are called Erev\nyom-tobh and Motse\u00eb yom-tobh, \u201cthe eve of the Festival.\u201d and \u201cthe\ndeparture of the Festival.\u201d\n\nFour weeks and one or two days make one month, \u200f\u05d7\u05d3\u05e9\u200e or \u200f\u05d9\u05e8\u05d7\u200e. The\nlength of the month is determined by the duration of one revolution of\nthe moon round the earth. Such revolution is completed in twenty-nine\ndays and a half. [77] As, however, the calendar mouth does not commence\nin the middle of the day, but at the beginning of the evening, it was\nnecessary to add half a day to one month, and to take off half a day\nfrom the next. The months have therefore alternately twenty-nine and\nthirty days.\n\nThe months are named according to their order, the first month, the\nsecond, &c.; the first being the first month in the spring. Other\nnames, implying agricultural and climatic relations, were likewise in\nuse, and the following four of them have been preserved in the Bible:\nthe first month is called Abib, \u201cears of corn;\u201d the second Ziv,\n\u201cbeauty;\u201d the seventh Ethanim, \u201chardy fruit;\u201d and the eighth, Bul,\n\u201crain.\u201d [78] Since the return of the Jews from the Babylonian exile,\nnames of foreign origin have been in use, viz., Nisan, Iyar, Sivan,\nTammuz, Abh, Elul, Tishri, Cheshvan, Kislev, Tebheth, Shebhat and Adar.\n[79] Roughly speaking, these months correspond to April, May, June,\nJuly, August, September, October, November, December, January,\nFebruary, and March.\n\nThe year is either an ordinary year or a leap-year, the former\nconsisting of twelve, the latter of thirteen months. The extra month is\ncalled Adar-sheni, \u201cthe second Adar,\u201d and is added between Adar and\nNisan. It serves to adjust from time to time the lunar to the solar\nyear; [80] for there is between the lunar year\u2014that is, the time of\ntwelve revolutions of the moon round the earth\u2014and the solar year, or\nthe time of one revolution of the earth round the sun, a difference of\nabout eleven days, the one consisting of about 354\u2153, the other of about\n365\u00bc days. In nineteen years the difference amounts to about seven\nmonths. We have therefore seven leap-years in every cycle (\u200f\u05de\u05d7\u05d6\u05d5\u05e8\u200e) of\nnineteen years, viz., the 3rd, 6th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 17th, and 19th.\n\nNeither the ordinary years nor the leap-years have a uniform duration;\nthe former fluctuate between 353, 354, and 355 days; the latter between\n383, 384, and 385 days. The following is the cause of this variety:\nThere are certain days in the week which are never made the beginning\nof the new year (the 1st of Tishri). Whenever the astronomical\nbeginning of the year happens to be on one of these days, a day is\nadded to one year, and taken from the next. The addition in the former\ncase is made in the month of Cheshvan, and the curtailing in the latter\ncase in the month of Kislev. The length of the months is therefore as\nfollows:\u2014Nisan, 30; Iyar, 29; Sivan, 30; Tammuz, 29; Abh, 30; Elul, 29;\nTishri, 30; Cheshvan, 29 or 30; Kislev, 30 or 29; Tebheth, 29; Shebhat,\n30; Adar, 29, in leap-year 30; Adar-sheni (in leap-year), 29 days.\n\nThe first day of the month is called New-moon-day \u200f\u05d7\u05d3\u05e9\u200e [81] or \u200f\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9\n\u05d7\u05d3\u05e9\u200e, \u201cbeginning of the month.\u201d In those months which have thirty days,\nthe thirtieth day is likewise kept as Rosh-chodesh.\n\nThe beginning of the astronomical month is the moment of the\nconjunction of sun and moon, [82] when the moon is exactly between the\nearth and the sun. Nothing is then visible of the moon. Six hours at\nleast later a very small portion of the moon can, under favourable\nconditions, be seen, and the day on which this takes place is the first\nof the calendar month.\n\nAt first, from the earliest days down to Hillel II. (about 360 C.E.),\nRosh-chodesh was determined by direct observation. The highest court,\nthe great Sanhedrin, examined the witnesses who had noticed the\nreappearance of the moon, and accordingly determined the first day of\nthe month by the solemn declaration, Mekuddash, \u201csanctified;\u201d that is,\nthe day is to be kept as Rosh-chodesh. These proceedings took place on\nthe thirtieth day of the month. If witnesses presented themselves who\ntestified to the appearance of the new moon, and after due examination\ntheir statement was found to be correct, the same day was proclaimed as\nRosh-chodesh, and the preceding month had twenty-nine days; if no\nwitnesses presented themselves, or the witnesses could not sustain\ntheir evidence, the day was added to the expiring month, and the day\nfollowing was the first of the next month. The decision of the\nSanhedrin concerned only the thirtieth day of the month. As soon as\ntheir decision was arrived at, Jewish congregations located within a\ncertain distance were informed by signal or by trustworthy messengers\nwhich day had been fixed as the first of the new month. The decrees of\nthe Sanhedrin, the highest religious council of the nation, were\naccepted by all Jewish congregations as law, and the Festivals were\ncelebrated in accordance with the New Moon thus appointed. There were,\nhowever, Jewish congregations in distant parts that could not be\nreached by the messengers in due time, and these were in doubt\nconcerning the day on which a Festival had to be celebrated. Being\nanxious not to miss the day kept as a Festival on the authority of the\nSanhedrin by their brethren at the religious centre of the nation, the\nJews abroad observed two days as Holy-days instead of one; only the\nFast of the Day of Atonement had no additional day, because, being a\nfast-day, the majority of the people were unable to abstain from food\nfor two consecutive days. New-year, on the other hand, was, as a rule,\neverywhere observed two days, even in places near the seat of the\nSanhedrin, and sometimes even in the very place where the Sanhedrin\nmet, on account of the uncertainty whether the 30th of Elul or the day\nfollowing would be fixed by the Sanhedrin as Rosh ha-shanah. Though,\nwith regard to the most holy Festival, the uncertainty of the day\nadmitted of no remedy, this circumstance did not prevent our pious\nancestors from applying a remedy where it could be done.\n\nIt was not ignorance that led Jews outside Palestine to observe two\nHoly-days instead of one. A rough calculation of the time in which the\nvarious phenomena of the moon are to be noticed is not difficult, and\ncould be made by many Rabbis and laymen long before Hillel II. framed\nthe permanent Calendar. Nevertheless, two days were kept, because it\nwas impossible to calculate or anticipate all the accidental\ncircumstances that might cause the Sanhedrin to defer the fixing of\nRosh-chodesh for the next day.\n\nNor was it a decree of the Sanhedrin, or of a Rabbinical assembly, that\nordered the observance of \u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d8\u05d5\u05d1 \u05e9\u05e0\u05d9\u200e, \u201ca second day of the\nFestival.\u201d This was done by the voluntary act of the nation, and their\nresolution was confirmed by continued usage. It was the outcome of\ngenuine piety, of the earnest desire to be at one with the central\nauthority of the nation. The observance of \u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d8\u05d5\u05d1 \u05e9\u05e0\u05d9\u200e is so old that\nno trace of its actual introduction can be discovered in the Talmud;\nwherever mention is made of it, it is represented as an institution\nalready in existence. It may already have existed in the days of the\nprophets, and traces of the celebration of a second day of Rosh-chodesh\nmay be recognised in the first book of Samuel (i. xx. 27).\n\nThis practice, which sprang from true fear and love of God, was\nspontaneously adopted by all the Jews outside Palestine, continued by\ngeneration after generation for more than two thousand years, and has,\nas a minhag of long standing, become law. It is not a precept commanded\nin the Written Law, or decreed in the Oral Law; it is only a minhag\n\u201cpractice,\u201d but a minhag that must be cherished and respected as a\nnational institution. There may come a time when the institution of\n\u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d8\u05d5\u05d1 \u05e9\u05e0\u05d9\u200e will be abolished; this can, however, only be done by the\nnational will, confirmed by a Sanhedrin which will be recognised by the\nwhole nation as the only religious authority. Until then it is\nincumbent upon us to adhere firmly to the observance of the second days\nof the Festivals.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNOTES.\n\nThe following are the general principles upon which our Calendar is\nbased:\u2014\n\n1. Twenty-nine days 12\u200b793\u20441080 hours elapse between one molad and the\nnext. [83]\n\n2. An ordinary year must not have less than 353 or more than 355 days,\nnor the leap-year less than 383 or more than 385 days.\n\n3. The 1st of Tishri is fixed on the day of the molad of Tishri. There\nare four exceptions (\u200f\u05d3\u05d7\u05d9\u05d5\u05ea\u200e):\u2014\n\na. \u200f\u05dc\u05d0 \u05d0\u05d3\u05f4\u05d5 \u05e8\u05d0\u05e9\u200e. If the molad of Tishri falls on a Sunday, Wednesday,\nor Friday.\n\nb. \u200f\u05de\u05d5\u05dc\u05d3 \u05d6\u05e7\u05df\u200e. If the molad of Tishri is at noon or later.\n\nc. If the molad of Tishri in an ordinary year is on Tuesday 3\u200b204\u20441080\nA.M. or later (\u200f\u05d2\u05f3 \u05d8\u05f3 \u05e8\u05f4\u05d3\u200e).\n\nd. If the molad of Tishri of a year succeeding a leap-year is on Monday\n9\u200b589\u20441080 A.M. or later (\u200f\u05d1\u05f3 \u05d8\u05f4\u05d5 \u05ea\u05e7\u05f4\u05e4\u05d8\u200e).\n\nThe first of these four exceptions is to prevent the Day of Atonement\nfrom falling on Friday or Sunday, and Hoshaana-rabba from falling on\nSabbath; the third exception is to guard against having an ordinary\nyear of more than 355, and the last from having a leap-year of less\nthan 383 days.\n\n4. The character of the year is described by three letters, the first\nof which indicates the day of the week for the 1st of Tishri, the last\nthe day of the week for the 1st of Nisan, the middle letter, according\nas it is \u200f\u05db\u200e, \u200f\u05d7\u200e, or \u200f\u05e9\u200e (=\u200f\u05db\u05e1\u05d3\u05e8\u200e \u201cregular;\u201d \u200f\u05d7\u05e1\u05e8\u05d4\u200e \u201cdefective;\u201d\n\u200f\u05e9\u05dc\u05de\u05d4\u200e \u201cperfect\u201d), indicates a regular year of 354 (in leap-year 384)\ndays, a defective year of 353 (in leap-year 383), or a perfect one of\n355 (in leap-year 385) days.\n\nThe present year (September 1890 to October 1891) is, according to\nJewish tradition, [84] the year 5651 A.M. (of the Creation); its\ncharacteristics are \u200f\u05d1\u05f3 \u05d7\u05f3 \u05d4\u05f3\u200e; i.e., the 1st of Tishri is on Monday;\nthe year is defective; and the 1st of Nisan is on Thursday. The year\nis, besides, a leap-year, consisting of 13 months; it is the eighth\nyear of the 298th cycle (of 19 years). It is the first year of the\nSeptennate, or the first year after the year of release (\u200f\u05e9\u05de\u05d8\u05d4\u200e. See\nLev. xxv.).\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTHE FESTIVALS.\n\n\n\u201cThe feasts of the Lord, even holy convocations, which ye shall\nproclaim in their seasons\u201d (Lev. xxiii. 4), are Passover, Feast of\nWeeks, Day of Memorial, Day of Atonement, and Feast of Tabernacles.\nThese are divided into two groups called \u200f\u05e9\u05dc\u05d5\u05e9 \u05e8\u05d2\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd\u200e and \u200f\u05d9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd\n\u05e0\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e, \u201cthree festivals\u201d and \u201csolemn days.\u201d In the Pentateuch the two\ngroups are kept distinctly asunder. Thus in Exod. xxiii. 14\u201317 and\nxxxiv. 18, and Deut. xvi., only the former group is mentioned.\n\nThe name shalosh regalim derives its origin from the following Biblical\npassage: \u201cThree times thou shalt keep a feast unto me in the year,\u201d\n\u200f\u05e9\u05dc\u05e9 \u05e8\u05d2\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd \u05ea\u05d7\u05d2 \u05dc\u05d9 \u05d1\u05e9\u05e0\u05d4\u200e (Exod. xxiii. 14). Although in a parallel\npassage the word \u200f\u05e8\u05d2\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd\u200e has been replaced by \u200f\u05e4\u05e2\u05de\u05d9\u05dd\u200e (ibid. ver. 17),\nof the same meaning, \u201ctimes,\u201d shalosh regalim has been preferred,\nbecause \u200f\u05e8\u05d2\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd\u200e reminds one also of \u201ca journey on foot,\u201d \u201ca\npilgrimage,\u201d an important element in the celebration of these three\nfestivals, according to the Divine commandment, \u201cThree times every year\nshall thy males appear before the Lord thy God, in the place which he\nshall choose, in the feast of unleavened bread, in the feast of weeks,\nand in the feast of tabernacles\u201d (Deut. xvi. 16).\n\nThe name yamim noraim for the remaining two feasts is not founded on a\nBiblical phrase, but on the fact that these festivals are devoted more\nthan the rest to earnest reflection and solemn devotion.\n\n\n\n\n\nI. THE THREE FESTIVALS (\u200f\u05e9\u05dc\u05e9 \u05e8\u05d2\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd\u200e).\n\nThe three festivals have the following three characteristics in\ncommon:\u2014\n\n1. They refer to important events in our national history; viz.,\nPassover to the deliverance of the Israelites from Egyptian bondage;\nFeast of Weeks to the Revelation on Mount Sinai; and Tabernacles to the\ntravels of the Israelites through the Arabian desert.\n\n2. They mark the various stages of the harvest; viz., Passover marks\nthe season of the early harvest, Feast of Weeks the second harvest, and\nthe Feast of Tabernacles the ingathering of the fruit.\n\n3. They serve as a means for imparting essential religious truths;\nviz., Passover embodies the principle of the Existence of God, the\nFeast of Weeks that of Revelation, and the Feast of Tabernacles that of\nDivine Providence.\n\n\n\nTHE DISTINGUISHED SABBATHS (\u200f\u05d3\u05f3 \u05e4\u05e8\u05e9\u05d9\u05d5\u05ea\u200e). [85]\n\nThere are in the months Adar and Nisan four Sabbaths distinguished by\nthe circumstance that on them additional sections are read from the\nPentateuch and special lessons from the Prophets. Two of them are\nconnected with the celebration of Passover.\n\n1. \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea \u05e9\u05e7\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cSabbath of the shekels;\u201d i.e., on which the law\nconcerning the half-shekel contribution is read from the Pentateuch\n(Exod. xxx. 11\u201316), and also the account of the gifts for the repair of\nthe Temple in the reign of King Joash (2 Kings xii. 1\u201317). Every male\nIsraelite, twenty years old or upward, had to contribute annually one\nhalf-shekel towards the maintenance of the Temple and the Temple\nService. The year commenced the 1st of Nisan, when public sacrifices\nhad to be bought with money of the new contributions. [86] Every one\nwas therefore expected to send his contribution before the 1st of\nNisan. On the 1st of Adar proclamations were made throughout the\ncountry that the half-shekel was due. [87] Hence the custom to read the\nabove-named sections on the Sabbath before the 1st of Adar, or on the\n1st, if this happens to be on a Sabbath.\n\n2. \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea \u05d6\u05db\u05d5\u05e8\u200e \u201cSabbath Remember\u201d is the Sabbath on which the paragraph\nconcerning the enmity of Amalek is read from the Pentateuch (Deut. xxv.\n17\u201319), and the defeat of Amalek by King Saul from the Prophets (I Sam.\nxv.). The Agagite Haman, one of the principal figures in the history of\nPurim, is believed to be a descendant of Agag, king of Amalek (ibid.\nver. 8). And as the Law commands us to remember the hostilities of\nAmalek against Israel, it has been found appropriate to read the above\nsections on the Sabbath before Purim.\n\n3. \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea \u05e4\u05e8\u05d4\u200e \u201cThe Sabbath of the Red Heifer,\u201d i.e., the Sabbath on\nwhich the law concerning the sacrifice of the red heifer and the\npurification with its ashes is read from the Pentateuch (Num. xix.),\nand \u201cthe future purification of Israel\u201d (Ezek. xxxvi. 17\u201338) from the\nProphets. It is the Sabbath after Purim, or, when the 15th or 16th of\nAdar falls on Saturday, the second Sabbath after Purim. All Israelites\nhad to come to the Temple, and to offer the Passover-lamb on the 14th\nof Nisan, and this could not be done by any unclean person. By the\nreading of the above sections, all are, as it were, reminded to take\nthe necessary steps for their purification, and thus prepare themselves\nfor the celebration of Passover.\n\n4. \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea \u05d4\u05d7\u05d3\u05e9\u200e \u201cThe Sabbath of ha-chodesh,\u201d i.e., the Sabbath before the\n1st of Nisan, or on the 1st of Nisan if it falls on a Saturday, on\nwhich the law that fixes Nisan as the first month [88] and the\ncommandment concerning Passover are read from the Pentateuch (Exod.\nxii. 1\u201320), and the description of the sacrifices of the 1st of Nisan,\nPassover, and other Festivals in the future Temple from the Prophets\n(Ezek. xlv. 16\u2013xlvi. 18).\n\nIn addition to these four Sabbaths, the Sabbath preceding Passover is\nto be mentioned. It is not distinguished by any special lesson from the\nPentateuch, but it has nevertheless received the title \u201cthe Great\nSabbath,\u201d \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea \u05d4\u05d2\u05d3\u05d5\u05dc\u200e [89] on account of the importance of the\napproaching Festival. The last part of Malachi (iii. 4\u201324) is read as\nthe haphtarah of the day, in which the ultimate triumph of the\nGod-fearing is described by the Prophet.\n\n\n\n\u200f\u05e4\u05e1\u05d7\u200e PASSOVER.\n\nPassover is the first of the Three Feasts, and is kept eight days, from\nthe 15th of Nisan to the 22nd; the four middle days being\nhalf-Holy-days, called chol ha-mo\u00ebd (\u201cthe week-days of the festival\u201d).\n\nThe name Pesach, \u201cPassover,\u201d [90] reminds us of the way in which the\nIsraelites enjoyed the Divine protection before they left Egypt.\nPharaoh, king of Egypt, kept the Israelites as slaves, and when asked\nin the name of God to let them go, refused to obey. But the ten plagues\nwhich consecutively afflicted his land without causing injury to the\nIsraelites taught him the existence of a higher Power, to whose decrees\nthe will of earthly rulers has to submit. It was especially the tenth\nplague, the slaying of the first-born, that convinced the king and his\npeople of this truth. When the Lord smote all the first-born in the\nland of Egypt, \u201che passed over the houses of the children of Israel\u201d\n(Exod. xii. 27).\n\nThe Feast has a second name, viz., \u201cfeast of unleavened bread,\u201d \u200f\u05d7\u05d2\n\u05d4\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea\u200e, a name derived from the commandment to eat \u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d4\u200e \u201cunleavened\nbread,\u201d instead of the ordinary \u200f\u05d7\u05de\u05e5\u200e \u201cleavened bread,\u201d during the\nFestival. The purpose of this commandment is to commemorate the\ndeliverance of the Israelites from Egypt as well as the mode of their\nactual departure. For when the tenth plague, the slaying of the\nfirst-born, had visited the Egyptians, they were overcome with fear,\nand urged the Israelites at once to leave the country. The Israelites\ntherefore left Egypt hurriedly, and had no time for preparing the\nordinary \u201cleavened bread,\u201d and baked for themselves unleavened cakes\n(\u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea\u200e) of the dough which they had made.\n\nPassover thus commemorates two distinct moments in the deliverance of\nthe Israelites from Egyptian slavery, viz. (1) the special protection\nwhich the Almighty granted them in Egypt, and (2) their departure from\nthe house of bondage.\n\nTwo distinct observances, therefore, were ordained for the Feast of\nPassover, viz. (1) the sacrifice of the Passover-lamb, and (2) the\neating of \u201cunleavened bread\u201d and the abstaining from \u201cleavened bread.\u201d\n\n1. The Passover-lamb.\u2014A short time before their departure from Egypt\nthe Israelites were commanded by the Almighty that on the tenth of the\nfirst month every family should procure a lamb, keep it four days, [91]\nkill it in the afternoon of the fourteenth, sprinkle of its blood on\nthe \u201clintel and the two door-posts,\u201d and \u201ceat in the evening the meat\nroast in fire, with unleavened bread and bitter herbs, in haste, their\nloins girded, their shoes on their feet and their staff in their hand\u201d\n(Exod. xii. 3\u201311). Whatever the material benefit was which the\nIsraelites, in the moment of starting for a long and uncertain journey,\nderived from the meal prepared and partaken of in this manner, there\nwas a higher purpose in the Divine commandment; it was demanded that\nthe lamb should be \u201ca passover sacrifice unto the Lord\u201d (ibid.). The\nproceedings should be an expression of faith in God, [92] and of\ngratitude to Him for His protection. Every house should thus form a\nplace holy unto the Lord; an altar, as it were, on which the blood of\nthe sacrifice was sprinkled.\n\nThe Passover sacrifice first observed in Egypt was afterwards ordained\nas a permanent institution (ibid. ver. 24). This difference, however,\nwas observed, that the Passover-lamb, like all sacrifices, had to be\nbrought to the Sanctuary, to \u201cthe place which the Lord chose to place\nhis name in\u201d (Deut. xvi. 6). All who were prevented from performing\ntheir duty on the 14th of Nisan were allowed to offer the Passover on\nthe 14th of the second month (Iyar). By way of distinction from the\nsacrifice on the first date, this offering was called \u201cthe second\npassover\u201d (\u200f\u05e4\u05e1\u05d7 \u05e9\u05e0\u05d9\u200e, [93] Num. ix. 9\u201314). Since the destruction of the\nTemple all sacrificial service has been discontinued, and in accordance\nwith the words, \u201cWe will compensate with our lips for the bullocks\u201d\n(Hos. xiv. 3), prayers and recitals from the Bible have taken the place\nof sacrifices, whilst psalms and hymns are added such as used to\naccompany the act of offering sacrifices. The Passover sacrifice has\ntherefore been discontinued; but the law of eating unleavened bread and\nbitter herbs is still observed.\n\n2. The Unleavened Bread.\u2014\u201cSeven days shall ye eat unleavened bread;\neven the first day ye shall have put away leaven out of your houses:\nfor whosoever eateth leavened bread from the first day until the\nseventh day, that soul shall be cut off from Israel\u201d (Exod. xii. 15).\n\u201cUnleavened bread shall be eaten seven days; and there shall no\nleavened bread be seen with thee, neither shall there be leaven seen\nwith thee in all thy quarters\u201d (ibid. xiii. 7). \u201cSeven days shall there\nno leaven be found in your houses\u201d (ibid. xii. 19). The distinction\nbetween leavened and unleavened only applies to bread or any other form\nof food prepared out of any of the following five kinds of grain:\nbarley, wheat, rye, oats, and spelt. Bread or cake prepared from any of\nthese five kinds is called unleavened bread, or \u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d4\u200e, if the dough is\nbaked immediately after it has been prepared, no time being left for\nfermentation. [94] It is not only forbidden during the Festival to eat\nleavened bread, but it is not permitted to derive any benefit\nwhatsoever from it. [95] All leaven and leavened bread must be removed\nbefore Passover comes in; and in accordance with the traditional\ninterpretation of the precept, \u201cThou shalt not offer the blood of my\nsacrifice with leavened bread\u201d (ibid. xxiii. 18), the leaven must be\nremoved before the time in which the Passover was offered. [96]\n\nThe law forbidding \u200f\u05d7\u05de\u05e5\u200e \u201cleavened bread,\u201d to be kept in the house\nduring Passover is frequently and most emphatically repeated in the\nTorah. Jews have therefore, as a rule, been very conscientious and\nzealous in the fulfilment of this Divine command. In accordance with\nthis law, the following observances have been ordained:\u2014\n\n(1.) \u200f\u05d1\u05d3\u05d9\u05e7\u05ea \u05d7\u05de\u05e5\u200e \u201cthe searching for leavened bread\u201d on the eve of the\n14th of Nisan. [97] The head of the family, or his deputy, examines his\nresidence thoroughly, and keeps the chamets, which he has found, in a\nsafe place till the next morning. This searching, like every other\nperformance of a religious duty, is preceded by a blessing, viz., \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05da\n\u2026 \u05d0\u05e9\u05e8 \u05e7\u05d3\u05e9\u05e0\u05d5 \u05d1\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea\u05d9\u05d5 \u05d5\u05e6\u05d5\u05e0\u05d5 \u05e2\u05dc \u05d1\u05d9\u05e2\u05d5\u05e8 \u05d7\u05de\u05e5\u200e \u201cBlessed art thou ... who hast\nsanctified us by thy commandments, and hast commanded us concerning the\nremoval of the leavened bread.\u201d [98]\n\n(2.) \u200f\u05d1\u05d9\u05e2\u05d5\u05e8 \u05d7\u05de\u05e5\u200e, \u201cthe removal or the destruction of chamets.\u201d All the\nchamets that is left after the first meal on the 14th of Nisan must be\nremoved, i.e., sold or given as a present to a non-Israelite, or\ndestroyed. In addition to the actual removal or destruction of chamets,\na solemn declaration is made by the head of the family, that if any\nchamets should be left in his house without his knowledge, he would not\nclaim it as his. The object of this declaration is to free the master\nof the house from all responsibility in case any chamets should be\nfound on his premises, contrary to the Law. [99]\n\n(3.) Utensils which have been used for chamets are put away, and\nreplaced by new ones, or by such as have exclusively been kept for\nPassover. Some vessels used during the year may be used for Passover,\nafter having undergone a certain process called kasher; [100] i.e.,\n\u201cfitting\u201d them as vessels for use on Passover.\n\n(4.) Although the articles of food that are directly forbidden as\nchamets are very few, there are a great many things that contain an\nadmixture of chamets, and those \u201cwho fear the word of the Lord\u201d use\nduring Passover only those articles of food concerning which there is\nno doubt whatever that they are perfectly free from chamets. Articles\nof food for Passover are therefore only bought of persons who can be\ntrusted to hold these observances in respect.\n\nIn addition to the commandments of the Passover-offering and the\nunleavened bread, there is a special duty, mentioned four times in the\nPentateuch, for the Israelite to relate to his children the history of\nthe departure from Egypt, and to explain to them the meaning of the\nseveral rites connected with the celebration of Passover. This duty is\ncalled haggadah, \u201crelating,\u201d and a service has been arranged for the\npurpose, called Seder, \u201cthe Order.\u201d The first two evenings of Passover\nare therefore called \u201cSeder-evenings,\u201d and the book which contains this\nService is generally called Haggadah.\n\nThe Seder-service contains four elements: (1) the relation of the\ndeliverance of the Israelites from Egypt; (2) the festive meal,\npreceded by Kiddush and the partaking of bitter herbs and unleavened\nbread, and followed by Grace; (3) Hallel and other hymns; (4) the\npartaking of four cups of wine (arba kosoth). [101]\n\nThe head of the family or his substitute who reads the Service has\nbefore him on the table: (1) three unleavened cakes (matsoth); [102]\n(2) bitter herbs and other vegetables; [103] (3) salt water, in which\nthe vegetables (karpas) are dipped before they are eaten, and\ncharoseth, a mixture of apples, almonds, various spices, especially\ncinnamon, and wine, in which mixture the bitter herbs are dipped; [104]\n(4) a bone with some meat on it and an egg, [105] both roasted.\n\nThe order of the Service is indicated in most editions of the Haggadah\nin rhymed Hebrew as follows:\u2014\n\n\n \u200f\u05e7\u05d3\u05e9 \u05d5\u05e8\u05d7\u05b7\u05e5 . \u05db\u05e8\u05e4\u05e1 \u05d9\u05d7\u05b7\u05e5 . \u05de\u05d2\u05d9\u05d3 \u05e8\u05d7\u05b7\u05e5 . \u05de\u05d5\u05e6\u05d9\u05d0 \u05de\u05e6\u05b8\u05d4.\u200e\n \u200f\u05e9\u05dc\u05d7\u05df \u05e2\u05e8\u05b5\u05da\u05b0 . \u05de\u05e8\u05d5\u05e8 \u05db\u05e8\u05b5\u05da\u05b0 . \u05e6\u05e4\u05d5\u05df \u05d1\u05e8\u05b5\u05da\u05b0 . \u05d4\u05dc\u05dc \u05e0\u05e8\u05e6\u05b8\u05d4\u05c3\u200e\n\n\nThe following is the explanation of these lines:\u2014\n\n1. \u200f\u05e7\u05d3\u05e9\u200e Say Kiddush. See above, page 379.\n\n2. \u200f\u05e8\u05d7\u05e5\u200e \u201cWash,\u201d scil., your hands.\u2014Only the head of the family does so\nat this part of the Service. [106]\n\n3. \u200f\u05db\u05e8\u05e4\u05e1\u200e \u201cVegetables.\u201d A piece of parsley or salad or bitter herb is\ndipped in salt water, and eaten after the recitation of the blessing:\n\u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05da \u2026 \u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0 \u05e4\u05e8\u05d9 \u05d4\u05d0\u05d3\u05de\u05d4\u200e \u201cBlessed art thou ... who hast created the\nfruit of the ground.\u201d [107]\n\n4. \u200f\u05d9\u05d7\u05e5\u200e \u201cHe divides.\u201d Of the three matsoth before him, the head of the\nfamily breaks the middle one, part of which is laid aside, to be eaten\nat the end of the meal. [108]\n\n5. \u200f\u05de\u05d2\u05d9\u05d3\u200e \u201cRelating,\u201d [109] scil., the history of the departure from\nEgypt. The reader, pointing to the broken \u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d4\u200e before him, exclaims,\n\u201cSuch was the bread of poverty which our forefathers ate in the land of\nEgypt;\u201d as if to say, \u201cWe are all alike descendants of those who ate\nthe bread of poverty in Egypt.\u201d In the same sense, the reader\ncontinues, \u201cWe all alike should rejoice in the kindnesses shown by the\nAlmighty to our nation, and all alike should seek and find true comfort\nin the hope of the Messianic blessing promised by Him for the future.\u201d\n[110] One of the company, usually the youngest, puts to the reader four\nquestions, as formulated in the paragraph beginning \u200f\u05de\u05d4 \u05e0\u05e9\u05ea\u05e0\u05d4\u200e \u201cWhy is\ndifferent?\u201d [111] Additions and alterations may, of course, be made by\nthe inquirer according to his knowledge and intellect. The object of\nthese questions is to obtain an explanation of the rites that\ndistinguish this evening from others. In answer to these questions, the\nreader refers to the past history of Israel in three different forms,\n[112] viz.:\u2014\n\n(1.) The first answer begins, \u200f\u05e2\u05d1\u05d3\u05d9\u05dd \u05d4\u05d9\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5\u200e, \u201cWe were slaves;\u201d and\nends, \u200f\u05d1\u05e9\u05e2\u05d4 \u05e9\u05d9\u05e9 \u05de\u05e6\u05d4 \u05d5\u05de\u05e8\u05d5\u05e8 \u05de\u05d5\u05e0\u05d7\u05d9\u05dd \u05dc\u05e4\u05e0\u05d9\u05da\u200e \u201cWhen unleavened bread and\nbitter herbs lie before thee.\u201d Here the reader restricts himself,\nwithout any comment, to the one fact that our forefathers were at first\nslaves in Egypt, and were then delivered, and illustrates the duty of\nspeaking that night more fully concerning the departure from Egypt, by\nprecedent, by the authority of the Mishnah, and by the Midrashic\ninterpretation of the law commanding us to tell our children this\nevent.\n\n(2.) The second form of the answer begins, \u200f\u05de\u05ea\u05d7\u05dc\u05d4 \u05e2\u05d1\u05d3\u05d9 \u05e2\u05d1\u05d5\u05d3\u05d4 \u05d6\u05e8\u05d4 \u05d4\u05d9\u05d5\n\u05d0\u05d1\u05ea\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5\u200e \u201cOur forefathers were at first worshippers of idols,\u201d and ends,\n\u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d9\u05dc\u05e0\u05d5 \u05de\u05d9\u05d3\u05dd\u200e \u201cdelivers us out of their hand.\u201d Here the exodus from\nEgypt is described as the fulfilment of the promise made by God to\nAbraham, that his descendants would be delivered out of the hands of\ntheir oppressors.\n\n(3.) The passage from Deut. xxvi. 5\u20138 is recited with its Midrashic\ninterpretations, [113] and in conclusion all the benefits received by\nthe Israelites from the departure from Egypt till the building of the\nTemple are enumerated, and our duty of gratitude is shown.\n\nIn all these three forms no notice has been taken of the particular\nquestions. Rabban Gamaliel insists that this should be done, and a\nsection is therefore added, containing the explanation why the\nPassover-offering, the unleavened bread, and the bitter herbs were to\nbe eaten; this, like the three other sections, concludes with the\nemphatic declaration that we\u2014after so many generations\u2014are still bound\nto praise and to thank God for the benefits bestowed upon our nation so\nlong ago. Hereupon follows the Hallel, of which the first two\nparagraphs, containing special reference to the departure from Egypt,\nare sung before supper; the first part of the Seder-Service concludes\nwith a blessing, in which we praise God for our past deliverance and\npray for the approach of our future redemption.\n\n6. \u200f\u05e8\u05d7\u05e5\u200e \u201cWashing.\u201d All those who partake of the meal wash their hands,\nas is ordinarily done before meals.\n\n7. \u200f\u05de\u05d5\u05e6\u05d9\u05d0 \u05de\u05e6\u05d4\u200e. Two pieces of \u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d4\u200e are taken; one piece, broken off\nthe whole cake, representing the bread eaten at ordinary meals for\n\u200f\u05de\u05d5\u05e6\u05d9\u05d0\u200e, and the other piece taken from the broken one, representing\nthe \u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d4\u200e we are commanded to eat on the Seder-night. Before eating the\ntwo pieces two blessings are recited \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05da \u2026 \u05d4\u05de\u05d5\u05e6\u05d9\u05d0 \u05dc\u05d7\u05dd \u05de\u05df \u05d4\u05d0\u05e8\u05e5\u200e\n\u201cBlessed art thou ... who bringest forth bread from the earth,\u201d and\n\u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05da \u2026 \u05d0\u05e9\u05e8 \u05e7\u05d3\u05e9\u05e0\u05d5 \u05bc\u05bc\u05bc \u05e2\u05dc \u05d0\u05db\u05d9\u05dc\u05ea \u05de\u05e6\u05d4\u200e \u201cBlessed art thou ... who hast\nsanctified us by Thy commandments and hast commanded us to eat \u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d4\u200e.\u201d\n[114]\n\n8. \u200f\u05de\u05e8\u05d5\u05e8\u200e \u201cBitter herb.\u201d Bitter herbs dipped in charoseth are eaten,\nafter the following blessing has been recited \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05da \u2026 \u05d0\u05e9\u05e8 \u05e7\u05d3\u05e9\u05e0\u05d5 \u2026 \u05e2\u05dc\n\u05d0\u05db\u05d9\u05dc\u05ea \u05de\u05e8\u05d5\u05e8\u200e \u201cBlessed art thou ... who hast sanctified us by thy\ncommandments and hast commanded us to eat bitter herbs.\u201d\n\n9. \u200f\u05db\u05d5\u05e8\u05da\u200e \u201cCombining;\u201d scil., unleavened bread and bitter herbs; these\nare eaten together, just as formerly, in the time of the Temple, Hillel\nused to eat together meat of the Passover-offering, unleavened bread,\nand bitter herbs (Exod. xii. 8; Num. ix. 11).\n\n10. \u200f\u05e9\u05dc\u05d7\u05df \u05e2\u05d5\u05e8\u05da\u200e \u201cTable laid.\u201d The evening meal is taken.\n\n11. \u200f\u05e6\u05e4\u05d5\u05df\u200e \u201cLaid aside.\u201d The meal is concluded with a piece of the half\nmatsah that has been laid aside at the beginning of the Service. It is\ncalled afikuman, \u201cdessert.\u201d [115]\n\n12. \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05da\u200e \u201cSay grace.\u201d [116]\n\n13. \u200f\u05d4\u05dc\u05dc\u200e \u201cHallel.\u201d\u2014The rest of Hallel is sung, followed by Ps.\ncxxxvi., and the whole of \u200f\u05e0\u05e9\u05de\u05ea\u200e with the concluding blessing.\u2014The\nfourth cup of wine is then taken, and the usual prayer after the\npartaking of wine is recited.\n\n14. \u200f\u05e0\u05e8\u05e6\u05d4\u200e \u201cCompleted.\u201d [117]\u2014The Seder-Service is completed; it\nconcludes with a prayer for the rebuilding of the Temple and the\nrestoration of Israel to Zion. The prayer seems to have been originally\nthe conclusion of a Piyyut or liturgical poem on the Passover\nSacrifice.\n\nThe Haggadah contains, besides, several hymns and songs, of which the\nfollowing are found in the ordinary editions of the work:\u2014\n\n1. \u200f\u05d5\u05d9\u05d4\u05d9 \u05d1\u05d7\u05e6\u05d9 \u05d4\u05dc\u05d9\u05dc\u05d4\u200e \u201cAnd it was in the middle of the night.\u201d The\nauthor reflects on the various marvellous events in our history that\nhappened in the night-time.\n\n2. \u200f\u05d5\u05d0\u05de\u05e8\u05ea\u05dd \u05d6\u05d1\u05d7 \u05e4\u05e1\u05d7\u200e \u201cAnd ye shall say, It is a sacrifice of Passover.\u201d\nA song referring to wonderful events which, according to Tradition,\ntook place on Passover.\n\n3. \u200f\u05db\u05d9 \u05dc\u05d5 \u05e0\u05d0\u05d4\u200e \u201cTo him praise is seemly.\u201d A praise of God as the only\nBeing worthy to be called King and Ruler.\n\n4. \u200f\u05d0\u05d3\u05d9\u05e8 \u05d4\u05d5\u05d0\u200e \u201cHe is mighty.\u201d A praise of God, and an expression of\nhope that He will soon rebuild the Temple.\n\n5. \u200f\u05d0\u05d7\u05d3 \u05de\u05d9 \u05d9\u05d5\u05d3\u05e2\u200e \u201cOne, who knows?\u201d A popular song enumerating persons\nand objects in Jewish History and Tradition, as well as in Nature\naccording to numbers up to thirteen, with the object of emphasising the\nUnity of God.\n\n6. \u200f\u05d7\u05d3 \u05d2\u05d3\u05d9\u05d0\u200e \u201cOne kid.\u201d A popular song that illustrates the working of\nDivine Justice in the history of mankind.\n\n\n\nPassover as an agricultural feast was kept \u201cin the season of the month\nof ripeness\u201d (\u200f\u05dc\u05de\u05d5\u05e2\u05d3 \u05d7\u05d3\u05e9 \u05d4\u05d0\u05d1\u05d9\u05d1\u200e), when the barley sown in the winter\nhad become ripe. On the second day of Passover an offering was brought\nof \u201cthe beginning of the harvest;\u201d it consisted of an omer [118] of\nbarley (Lev. xxiii. 9 sqq.). Before this offering was presented it was\nnot allowed to eat of the new corn (ibid. 14).\n\nFrom the bringing of the Omer to \u201cthe harvest feast\u201d the days are\ncounted, viz., forty-nine days, and the fiftieth day is the feast of\nharvest (\u200f\u05d7\u05d2 \u05d4\u05e7\u05e6\u05d9\u05e8\u200e), or \u201cthe day of the first-fruit offering\u201d (\u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd\n\u05d4\u05d1\u05db\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e).\n\nThe counting commences on the second evening. It is done either\nimmediately after Maarib, or later on during the Seder-Service; it is\npreceded by the following blessing: \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05da \u2026 \u05d0\u05e9\u05e8 \u05e7\u05d3\u05e9\u05e0\u05d5 \u2026 \u05e2\u05dc \u05e1\u05e4\u05d9\u05e8\u05ea \u05d4\u05e2\u05d5\u05de\u05e8\u200e\n\u201cBlessed art thou ... who hast sanctified us by thy commandments and\nhast commanded us ... to count the days of the Omer.\u201d The following is\nthe way of counting: \u200f\u05d4\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u2026 \u05dc\u05e2\u05d5\u05de\u05e8\u200e \u201cThis day is the first day\nsince the Omer.\u201d From seven upward the number of weeks is likewise\nexpressed, [119] \u200f\u05d4\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u2026 \u05e9\u05d4\u05dd \u2026 \u05e9\u05d1\u05d5\u05e2\u05d5\u05ea \u2026 \u05dc\u05e2\u05d5\u05de\u05e8\u200e \u201cThis day completes\n... that is ... weeks ... since the offering of the Omer.\u201d\n\n\n\nThe celebration of Passover serves to inculcate into our hearts the\nfirst principle of our faith: the existence of God, the Supreme Being\nwho rules the whole universe, in whose hand are the destinies of kings\nand peoples, whose power was recognised by the Egyptians when they were\npunished for their misdeeds, and whose might was seen by the Israelites\nwhen He divided the Red Sea for them, and fulfilled the Divine promise\nmade to the patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.\n\nThe season of Passover, in which we celebrate our liberation from\nearthly taskmasters, is called \u200f\u05d6\u05de\u05df \u05d7\u05e8\u05d5\u05ea\u05e0\u05d5\u200e \u201cThe season of our\nfreedom.\u201d The deliverance from Egypt, the first step leading to the\nfulfilment of the promise, \u201cAnd I will take you unto me for a people,\u201d\nhas been poetically conceived as the betrothal of Israel to God, and in\nthe Piyyut for Passover ample use has been made of this idea. It has\nfurther found expression in the custom of reading the Song of Solomon\non the first Sabbath after the first two days of Passover, and by some\nalso on the Seder-evening after the conclusion of the ordinary Service.\n\nThe Service is, in general outline, the same as on Sabbath. It consists\nof Maarib, Shacharith, Musaph, and Minchah. The Morning-Service\nincludes Hallel, the reading of the Law, and Lessons from the Prophets\n(\u200f\u05e7\u05e8\u05d9\u05d0\u05ea \u05d4\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e and \u200f\u05d4\u05e4\u05d8\u05e8\u05d4\u200e). The following sections, containing\ndescription of, or reference to, Passover or to the departure from\nEgypt, are read consecutively on the eight days: Exod. xii. 21\u201351, on\nthe Passover celebrated by the Israelites in Egypt; Lev. xxii. 26 to\nxxiii. 44, on \u201cthe seasons of the Lord;\u201d Exod. xiii., xxii. 24 to\nxxiii. 19, and xxxiv. 1\u201326: Num. ix. 1\u201314, on the second Passover;\nExod. xiii. 17\u2013xv. 26, the crossing of the Red Sea; Deut. xv. 19 (on\nSabbath, xiv. 22) to xvi. 17 contains laws referring to the three\nFestivals. On Sabbath chol-ha-mo\u00ebd, Exod. xxxiii. 12 to xxxiv. 26.\u2014In\naddition to these sections verses from Num. xxviii.\u2013xxix., referring to\nthe sacrifices prescribed for each day of the Festival, are read from a\nsecond sefer.\n\nThe Lessons from the Prophets are the following:\u2014Josh. v. (preceded in\nthe German Ritual by iii. 5\u20137), on the first Passover kept by the\nIsraelites in Palestine; 2 Kings xxiii. 1\u20139 and 21\u201325, on the Passover\ncelebrated in the days of King Josiah; 2 Sam. xxii., the song of David\nafter deliverance from his enemies, a parallel to the Song of Moses;\nIsa. x. 32\u2014xii., on the defeat of Sennacherib, and the blessings of the\nMessianic days. According to Tradition the defeat of Sennacherib took\nplace on Passover; moreover, the celebration of the deliverance from\nEgypt suggests the reflection on the final Redemption of Israel. The\nLesson from the Prophets chosen for Sabbath chol-ha-mo\u00ebd is taken from\nEz. xxxvi. 1\u201314. The prophet sees in a vision how the dry bones of the\ndead are awakened to fresh life by the Will and the Spirit of the Lord:\na precious lesson for us, designed to strengthen our hope of a revival\nof every good and noble idea, though for the present it be dormant\nwithin us. Nature around us awakening to fresh life in the spring\nsupplies a parallel to the vision of Hezekiel.\n\nThe Machzor (lit. Cycle) or Prayer-book for the Holy-days contains\nnumerous additions to the ordinary prayers. They are called Piyyutim,\nand vary according to the custom and the taste of the congregation. The\nPiyyut added in the second paragraph of the Musaph-amidah on the first\nday of Passover is called tal, \u201cdew,\u201d or prayer for dew; the rain\nseason having come to an end, we pray that the vegetation may, during\nthe hot season, be refreshed by the regular descent of the dew. The\npraise for \u201csending down rain\u201d in the same paragraph, viz., \u200f\u05de\u05e9\u05d9\u05d1 \u05d4\u05e8\u05d5\u05d7\n\u05d5\u05de\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9\u05d3 \u05d4\u05d2\u05e9\u05dd\u200e, \u201cThou causest the wind to blow and the rain to fall,\u201d is\ndiscontinued after the shacharith prayer of the first day of Passover.\nIn the Portuguese Ritual the words \u200f\u05de\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9\u05d3 \u05d4\u05d8\u05dc\u200e, \u201cThou causest the dew\nto fall,\u201d are introduced instead.\n\nSimilarly, there is an additional prayer for rain (\u200f\u05d2\u05e9\u05dd\u200e) in the Musaf\nof Shemini-atsereth. The time chosen for these prayers is in accordance\nwith the meteorological conditions of Palestine. This custom, however,\ndoes not exclude the addition of prayers for rain or dew, according to\nthe needs of the country in which we live.\n\n\n\nTHE DAYS OF THE COUNTING OF THE OMER, \u200f\u05d9\u05de\u05d9 \u05d4\u05e1\u05e4\u05d9\u05e8\u05d4\u200e\n\nThe period from Passover to the Feast of Weeks is full of sad memories\nof massacres of Jews that took place in the days of the Crusades; also\nof the miseries that befell the Jews in Palestine in the days of the\nEmperor Hadrian. During the month of Iyar, the Jews abstain from\nrejoicings and weddings, [120] with the exception of the 18th of the\nmonth, which is the 33rd of the Omer, because, according to Tradition,\na plague that had raged among the disciples of Rabbi Akiba ceased on\nthat day. The 18th of Iyar, \u200f\u05dc\u05f4\u05d2 \u05d1\u05e2\u05d5\u05de\u05e8\u200e is therefore called \u201cthe\nscholars\u2019 festival.\u201d\n\n\n\nTHE FEAST OF WEEKS, \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05d5\u05e2\u05d5\u05ea\u200e\n\nThe Feast of Weeks is celebrated on the fiftieth day [121] of the Omer\n(Lev. xxiii. 16); i.e., the 6th of Sivan. It is, in the first place,\n\u201cthe feast of harvest,\u201d \u200f\u05d7\u05d2 \u05d4\u05e7\u05e6\u05d9\u05e8\u200e (Exod. xxiii. 16), especially of the\nwheat, and \u201cthe day of the first-fruit offering,\u201d \u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d4\u05d1\u05db\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e (Num.\nxxviii. 26). The first sacrifice of the new corn was offered: \u201cthe\nbread of the first-fruit,\u201d which was to serve as an expression of\ngratitude for the blessing of the harvest. In the absence of sacrifices\nin our days, the custom widely prevails of adorning the Synagogue and\nthe home with plants and flowers, in order that the sight of these\nbeautiful objects might awaken and strengthen feelings of gratitude\ntoward the Almighty for His loving-kindness. Each one of the plants and\nflowers reveals a special form of the Creator\u2019s wisdom, power, and\ngoodness.\u2014The feast is called Feast of Weeks, \u200f\u05d7\u05d2 \u05d4\u05e9\u05d1\u05e2\u05d5\u05ea\u200e (Deut. xvi.\n10), on account of the completion of the seven weeks counted from the\nday of the Omer.\n\nThe Feast of Weeks, the 6th and the 7th of Sivan, commemorates also an\nhistorical event: the Law-giving on Mount Sinai. It is therefore called\n\u201cthe season of the giving of our Law,\u201d \u200f\u05d6\u05de\u05df \u05de\u05ea\u05df \u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05ea\u05e0\u05d5\u200e.\n\nAs Passover has been poetically called the day of Israel\u2019s betrothal to\nGod, the Feast of Weeks would correspond to the wedding-day, and the\ncounting of the Omer does thus not only connect two harvest-feasts, but\nrepresents the longing of the bride for the day of her complete\nhappiness; i.e., the longing of the Israelites for the Divine\nRevelation, which was to complete the work of their deliverance from\nEgypt.\n\nThe celebration of the Feast of Weeks thus involves the second\nprinciple of our faith: \u200f\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4 \u05de\u05df \u05d4\u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cThe belief in the Divine\norigin of the Law,\u201d or \u201cDivine Revelation.\u201d\n\nOn the first day we read Exod. xix.\u2013xx., the account of the Law-giving\non Mount Sinai, and Ez. i., the first vision of the prophet Ezekiel, in\nwhich the glory of God is revealed to him. On the second day Deut. xv.\n19 (on Sabbath, xiv. 22) to xvi. 17; and Hab. iii., \u201cthe prayer of\nHabakkuk,\u201d in reference to God\u2019s Revelation as the Ruler of the\nuniverse.\u2014There is also the custom to read the Book of Ruth, which\ncontains the account of Ruth\u2019s embracing the true faith, and a\ndescription of the harvest and the treatment of the poor in the\nharvest-season.\n\nThere is a custom among some of our brethren to employ the first night\nof the Feast in preparing themselves for the coming celebration of the\ngiving of the Law. The greater part of the night is spent in reading\npassages from the Scriptures and from the Talmudical books. [122] The\ncustom has its basis in the preparation commanded by God to be made\nduring \u201cthe three days of bordering\u201d (\u200f\u05e9\u05dc\u05e9\u05ea \u05d9\u05de\u05d9 \u05d4\u05d2\u05d1\u05dc\u05d4\u200e) which preceded\nthe Law-giving (Exod. xix. 10\u201312).\n\n\n\nTHE FEAST OF TABERNACLES, \u200f\u05e1\u05db\u05d5\u05ea\u200e\n\n\u201cThe fifteenth day of this seventh month (Tishri) shall be the Feast of\nTabernacles (\u200f\u05e1\u05db\u05d5\u05ea\u200e) for seven days unto the Lord\u201d (Lev. xxiii. 34).\nThe name has its explanation in the commandment, \u201cYe shall dwell in\nbooths seven days\u201d (ibid. 42); \u201cthat your generations may know that I\nmade the children of Israel to dwell in booths, when I brought them out\nof the land of Egypt\u201d (ver. 43). We are thus commanded to commemorate\nthe travelling of the Israelites through the wilderness. They dwelt in\ntents, that gave them shelter to some extent; but without the Divine\nprotection this shelter would have proved insufficient. Of this twofold\nshelter and protection we are reminded by the tabernacle in which the\nLaw commands us to dwell during the Festival.\n\nIn fulfilment of this commandment we make booths (\u200f\u05e1\u05db\u05d5\u05ea\u200e). The chief\ndifference between a booth and an ordinary house consists in the mode\nand in the material employed for roofing the two structures. For the\nsuccah must not be covered with fixed boards and beams or with canvas,\nbut with detached branches of trees, plants, flowers, and leaves, in\nsuch a manner that the covering is not quite impenetrable to wind and\nrain, or starlight. During the Festival the succah is our\ndwelling-house, in which we take our meals, study, receive our friends,\nand, if possible, enjoy rest and sleep. If, on account of the severity\nof the climate, the constant dwelling in the succah threatens to prove\ninjurious to our health, we content ourselves with taking our meals in\nthe succah. Before each meal we recite the blessing \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05da \u2026 \u05d0\u05e9\u05e8 \u05e7\u05d3\u05e9\u05e0\u05d5 \u2026\n\u05dc\u05d9\u05e9\u05d1 \u05d1\u05e1\u05d5\u05db\u05d4\u200e \u201cBlessed art thou ... who hast sanctified us by thy\ncommandments and hast commanded us to dwell in the booth.\u201d The first\ntime we are in the succah we add the blessing, \u200f\u05e9\u05d4\u05d7\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5\u200e (p. 358).\n\nThe Festival is, secondly, called \u201cthe Feast of Ingathering,\u201d \u200f\u05d7\u05d2\n\u05d4\u05d0\u05e1\u05d9\u05e3\u200e. The produce of the fields and gardens have been gathered in,\nand the people rejoice before the Lord in gratitude for the blessings\nwhich He has granted to them. \u201cAnd ye shall take unto you on the first\nday the fruit of the goodly tree, branches of palm-trees, and boughs of\nthick-leaved trees, and willows of the brook; and ye shall rejoice\nbefore the Lord your God seven days\u201d (Lev. xxiii. 40). In accordance\nwith the traditional interpretation of this verse, we take four kinds\nof plants (\u200f\u05d0\u05e8\u05d1\u05e2\u05d4 \u05de\u05d9\u05e0\u05d9\u05df\u200e), viz., \u200f\u05d0\u05ea\u05e8\u05d5\u05d2\u200e \u201cthe citron;\u201d \u200f\u05dc\u05d5\u05dc\u05d1\u200e, \u201ca\nbranch of the palm-tree;\u201d \u200f\u05d4\u05d3\u05e1\u05d9\u05dd\u200e, three \u201cmyrtle branches;\u201d and\n\u200f\u05e2\u05e8\u05d1\u05d5\u05ea\u200e, two \u201cbranches of the willow.\u201d According to a Midrashic\ninterpretation, they represent four different types of plants, that\nwhich has a pleasant fragrance and a beautiful form (esrog); the\nbeautiful in form, but without fragrance (lulabh); that which smells\npleasantly, but is inferior in form (hadassim); and that which has\nneither a goodly form nor an agreeable fragrance (arabhoth), as if to\nsay that we are thankful to God for all that He has given us, although\nto our mind some of these seem imperfect in comparison with others.\n\nIn obedience to this commandment we take, every day of Succoth except\nSaturday, [123] the above four kinds into our hands, hold them during\nthe recitation of the Hallel, and make with them a procession round the\nSynagogue, [124] while singing the hymns called hoshaanoth (so called\non account of the repeated occurrence of the word hoshaanah in them).\n\nBefore taking the arbaah minim into our hands we say the following\nblessing: \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05da \u2026 \u05d0\u05e9\u05e8 \u05e7\u05d3\u05e9\u05e0\u05d5 \u2026 \u05e2\u05dc \u05e0\u05d8\u05d9\u05dc\u05ea \u05dc\u05d5\u05dc\u05d1\u200e \u201cBlessed art thou ... who\nhast sanctified us by thy commandments and hast commanded us to take\nthe lulabh.\u201d [125] On the first day \u200f\u05e9\u05d4\u05d7\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5\u200e is added.\n\nSuccoth lasts seven days, the last five days being half Holy-days, \u200f\u05d7\u05d5\u05dc\n\u05d4\u05de\u05d5\u05e2\u05d3\u200e. The seventh day is called Hoshaana-rabba, because on that day\nmany prayers beginning with hoshaana are offered up, during the\nchanting of which seven processions round the Synagogue are made. [126]\n\nThe Feast of Tabernacles is closely followed by \u201cthe feast of the\neighth day,\u201d \u200f\u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05e0\u05d9 \u05e2\u05e6\u05e8\u05ea\u200e, [127] which, like all other Festivals, is\nkept two days. The second day is, in addition, called \u201cRejoicing of the\nLaw,\u201d \u200f\u05e9\u05de\u05d7\u05ea \u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e because on this day the reading of the Pentateuch is\ncompleted and recommenced.\n\nThe nine days of the Festival are called \u200f\u05d6\u05de\u05df \u05e9\u05de\u05d7\u05ea\u05e0\u05d5\u200e \u201cThe season of\nour rejoicing,\u201d and it is the third principle of our faith, the belief\nin Divine Providence, that this Festival impresses on our hearts. On\nthe one hand, we have the rejoicing and the four species of plants as\nproofs and tokens of Divine blessing; and, on the other hand, the\nsuccah is a symbol of human frailties and imperfections. Thus, in all\nour rejoicings we should remember that our abode on earth is not\npermanent, and that all earthly happiness is like the plants that\neasily fade away. In order to impress this idea on our mind, we read\nthe book of Koheleth on Sabbath chol-ha-mo\u00ebd or on Shemini-atsereth.\n\nThe following portions are read from the Pentateuch: Lev. xxii. 26 to\nxxiii. 44 [128] (on the first two days); Exod. xxxiii. 12 to xxxiv. 26\n(on Sabbath chol-ha-mo\u00ebd); Deut. xiv. 22 to xvi. 7 (on the eighth day);\nDeut. xxxiii. to end of Pentateuch; and Gen. i. 1 to ii. 3 (on Simchath\nTorah). In addition, the paragraph of the sacrifices of the day (Num.\nxxix. 12\u201339) is read from a second sefer. The Lessons for chol-ha-mo\u00ebd\nare taken from the same passage.\n\nThe Lessons from the Prophets are the following: Zech. xiv., prophecy\non the future of Israel and on the punishment of those who would not\ncome to Jerusalem to celebrate there the Succoth Festival; 1 Kings\nviii. 2\u201321, on the opening of the new Temple; on Sabbath chol-ha-mo\u00ebd,\nEz. xxxviii. 18 to xxxix. 16, on the war with Gog; 1 Kings viii. 22\u201366,\nprayer of Solomon on the eighth day of the services for the\nconsecration of the Temple; Jos. i., accession of Joshua to the\nleadership of Israel.\n\n\n\nSOLEMN DAYS, \u200f\u05d9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd \u05e0\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e\n\nBy \u200f\u05d9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd \u05e0\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201csolemn days,\u201d we understand the first ten days of the\nmonth Tishri, especially their beginning and their end: \u200f\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9 \u05d4\u05e9\u05e0\u05d4\u200e,\n\u201cNew-year,\u201d and \u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05db\u05e4\u05d5\u05e8\u200e \u201cthe Day of Atonement.\u201d [129]\n\nIt is customary to prepare for the \u201csolemn days\u201d during the month of\nElul, by additional prayers, called \u200f\u05e1\u05dc\u05d9\u05d7\u05d5\u05ea\u200e \u201cforgiveness,\u201d after or\nbefore the Daily Service, and by blowing the shofar at the close of the\nDaily Service. [130] According to the Portuguese Ritual, the Selichoth\nbegin on the 1st of Elul, and are continued morning and evening till\nthe Day of Atonement. The German Ritual has Selichoth only in the\nMorning Service; they begin on the Sunday before New-year, and if the\nFestival is on Monday or Tuesday, on the second Sunday before, and end\non the Day of Atonement. The blowing of the shofar takes place in the\nGerman Synagogues during the month of Elul, in the Portuguese this\ncustom is not practiced.\n\n\n\n\u200f\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9 \u05d4\u05e9\u05e0\u05d4\u200e NEW-YEAR.\n\nThe first and the second days of Tishri are kept as New-year. [131] In\naccordance with the command, \u201cThe first of the first-fruits of thy land\nthou shalt bring unto the house of the Lord thy God\u201d (Exod. xxxiv. 26),\nwe devote the first ten days of the year as an offering to the Lord;\nthey are days of increased devotion, earnest self-examination, and new\nefforts to lead a good, virtuous, and godly life. They are called \u200f\u05e2\u05e9\u05e8\u05ea\n\u05d9\u05de\u05d9 \u05ea\u05e9\u05d5\u05d1\u05d4\u200e \u201cten days of return\u201d to God, or \u201cten penitential days.\u201d\n\nWe greet and congratulate each other on New-year, using the phrase,\n\u200f\u05dc\u05e9\u05e0\u05d4 \u05d8\u05d5\u05d1\u05d4 \u05ea\u05db\u05ea\u05d1\u200e\u2014or \u200f\u05dc\u05e9\u05f3 \u05d8\u05f3 \u05ea\u05db\u05d7\u05d1\u05d9, \u05ea\u05db\u05ea\u05d1\u05d5, \u05ea\u05db\u05ea\u05d1\u05e0\u05d4\u200e according as a male,\na female, several males, or several females are addressed\u2014\u201cMay you be\ninscribed for a happy year.\u201d It is a figurative expression, borrowed\nfrom the writing and signing of decrees by earthly judges.\n\nIn the Bible the Festival is not called New-year, [132] but \u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05ea\u05e8\u05d5\u05e2\u05d4\u200e\n\u201cDay of blowing the shofar\u201d (Num. xxix. 1); and \u200f\u05d6\u05db\u05e8\u05d5\u05df \u05ea\u05e8\u05d5\u05e2\u05d4\u200e \u201cMemorial\nof the blowing of the shofar\u201d (Lev. xxiii. 24); in our prayers the\nnames \u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d4\u05d6\u05db\u05e8\u05d5\u05df\u200e and \u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d4\u05d3\u05d9\u05df\u200e \u201cDay of Remembering\u201d and \u201cDay of\nJudgment,\u201d are also used.\n\nThe first of these four names implies, according to the traditional\ninterpretation, the commandment of blowing the shofar. As a rule the\nshofar is blown during the Morning Service before the sefer is returned\nto the Ark, and during Musaf. [133] The blowing of the shofar is\nexpressed by \u200f\u05ea\u05e8\u05d5\u05e2\u05d4\u200e, which denotes the sound of an alarm; hence we\nlearn that the shofar is intended to awaken us, and to call us forth to\nrange ourselves under our banner. It is an ideal banner, the worship of\nGod and faith in Him, that we are called upon to protect and to defend\nfrom enemies without and within. [134] Prominence is therefore given in\nour Service for New-year to the proclamation of God as King of the\nuniverse, and to our longing for the time when all mankind will unite\nin the worship of the One God.\n\nThe name \u201cMemorial of blowing the shofar\u201d indicates that we are to\nremember some historical event suggested by the sound of the shofar. We\nare reminded of the period when the Israelites, encamped round Mount\nSinai, on hearing the Divine message, \u201cYe shall be my peculiar people,\u201d\n\u201ca kingdom of priests,\u201d and \u201ca holy nation,\u201d joyfully replied, \u201cAll\nthat the Lord hath spoken we will do\u201d (Exod. xix. 8). The shofar thus\nawakens us to greater watchfulness and activity in the purification and\nsanctification of our heart.\n\nThe third name, \u201cDay of Memorial,\u201d seems to be a modification of the\nsecond; but it has a more general meaning. The second name, that\nreminds us of our duty as God\u2019s peculiar people, suggests also the idea\nthat God, who declared us to be His people, watches over us; that what\nwe do, we do in His presence. He perceives, notes, and remembers all\nour deeds, words, and thoughts. When, therefore, we appeal to the\ngoodness of Him, who remembers all His creatures and provides for the\nwants of every one of them, we must not forget that He is also just.\nThis idea, again, suggests the fourth name, \u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d4\u05d3\u05d9\u05df\u200e \u201cDay of\nJudgment,\u201d the day on which we are judged according to our deeds, both\nour merits and our shortcomings being taken into account.\n\nThe essential elements in our Service are the three sections in the\nAmidah of Musaf: \u200f\u05de\u05dc\u05db\u05d9\u05d5\u05ea\u200e, \u200f\u05d6\u05db\u05e8\u05d5\u05e0\u05d5\u05ea\u200e and \u200f\u05e9\u05d5\u05e4\u05e8\u05d5\u05ea\u200e. They chiefly refer\nto the three fundamental principles of our religion: (1) Existence of\nGod, a Being that is King of the universe; (2) Divine Justice, and (3)\nRevelation. Ten passages are quoted from the Bible in support of each\nof these principles.\n\nTradition has fixed the 1st of Tishri as the date of several events in\nthe history of Israel, e.g., the birth of Isaac, the binding of Isaac\n(\u200f\u05e2\u05e7\u05d3\u05d4\u200e), and the birth of Samuel (B. T. Rosh ha-shanah 10b). Hence\nGen. xxi. and xxii. are read on the two days of New-year, in addition\nto the paragraph on the sacrifices of the Festival (Num. xxix. 1\u20136).\n\nFrom the Prophets, we read on the first day 1 Sam. i. 1 to ii. 10, on\nthe birth of Samuel, and the prayer of Hannah praising the justice of\nGod; on the second day, Jer. xxxi. 2\u201320, a prophecy concerning the\nrestoration of Israel. [135]\n\nThe Sabbath between New-year and the Day of Atonement is called \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea\n\u05e9\u05d5\u05d1\u05d4\u200e because the haphtarah, taken from Hosea (xiv. 1 seq.), commences\nwith the word \u200f\u05e9\u05d5\u05d1\u05d4\u200e and is an exhortation of Israel to return to God.\n\n\n\n\u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05db\u05e4\u05d5\u05e8\u200e \u201cDAY OF ATONEMENT.\u201d\n\nThe tenth day of the seventh month, Tishri, is the most important of\nall the Holy-days. It is the Day of Atonement, on which \u201cGod will\nforgive you, to cleanse you, that you may be clean from all your sins\nbefore the Lord\u201d (Lev. xvi. 30).\n\n\u201cYe shall do no manner of work; it shall be a statute for ever\nthroughout your generations in all your dwellings. It shall be unto you\na sabbath of rest, and ye shall afflict yourselves: in the ninth day of\nthe month at even, from even unto even, shall ye celebrate your\nsabbath\u201d (Lev. xxiii. 31, 32).\n\nThe Day of Atonement is therefore a day of resting, fasting, prayer,\nand spiritual improvement.\n\nIt is a day of rest, and the prohibition of work is the same as on the\nordinary Sabbath.\n\nThe fasting begins the 9th of Tishri\u2014\u200f\u05e2\u05e8\u05d1 \u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05db\u05e4\u05d5\u05e8\u200e\u2014about sunset, and\nlasts till the beginning of night on the following day. The phrase,\n\u200f\u05d5\u05e2\u05e0\u05d9\u05ea\u05dd \u05d0\u05ea \u05e0\u05e4\u05e9\u05ea\u05d9\u05db\u05dd\u200e \u201cYe shall afflict yourselves,\u201d is explained by\nTradition to signify the total abstinence from all kinds of food and\nthe gratification of other bodily desires (Mishnah, Yoma viii. 1). The\nreason of this commandment may be the following: The principal source\nof sin is the gratification of our bodily appetites; \u200f\u05ea\u05e9\u05d5\u05d1\u05d4\u200e \u201creturn\u201d\nto the right way must therefore include the earnest attempt to control,\nand when necessary to suppress, such appetites. Fasting is such an\nattempt. But it must be borne in mind that fasting is only one of the\nduties we have to fulfil on the Day of Atonement, and that the other\nduties are equally essential.\n\n\u200f\u05ea\u05e9\u05d5\u05d1\u05d4\u200e \u201creturn,\u201d is the principal object of the celebration of the Day\nof Atonement; it implies the following four steps:\u2014\n\n1. Consciousness of sin, \u200f\u05d9\u05d3\u05d9\u05e2\u05ea \u05d4\u05d7\u05d8\u05d0\u200e. We must again and again examine\nourselves and try to discover our failings; our actions and our words\nmust pass in review, and we must remember that, however good we may be,\nno man is righteous upon earth \u201cthat doeth good and sinneth not\u201d\n(Eccles. vii. 20).\n\n2. Confession of sin, \u200f\u05d5\u05d3\u05d5\u05d9\u200e. [136] On the discovery of sin, we must\nhave the courage to confess our guilt before him against whom we have\nsinned; if it is against God alone that we have sinned, we make silent\nconfession before Him; if we find ourselves guilty of an offence\nagainst our fellow-man, we must confess our sin to him.\n\n3. Regret, \u200f\u05d7\u05e8\u05d8\u05d4\u200e. Having discovered and confessed our sin, we should\nfeel pain and remorse, alike for the evil we have done and for the good\nwe have left undone.\n\n4. Amendment, \u200f\u05e2\u05d6\u05d9\u05d1\u05ea \u05d4\u05d7\u05d8\u05d0\u200e. The regret should be followed by a firm\nresolve to abandon the way of evil, and not to sin again, even if\noccasion be given for a repetition of the sinful act.\n\nThere are five Services on the Day of Atonement:\n\n(1) Evening Service, \u200f\u05de\u05e2\u05e8\u05d9\u05d1\u200e; [137] (2) Morning Service, \u200f\u05e9\u05d7\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\u200e; (3)\nAdditional Service, \u200f\u05de\u05d5\u05e1\u05e3\u200e; (4) Afternoon Service, \u200f\u05de\u05e0\u05d7\u05d4\u200e; (5)\nConcluding Service, \u200f\u05e0\u05e2\u05d9\u05dc\u05d4\u200e. [138]\u2014The confession of sin, \u200f\u05d5\u05d3\u05d5\u05d9\u200e is the\nmost essential and characteristic element in the Services of the Day of\nAtonement.\n\nIn the Morning Service we read Lev. xvi., and Num. xxix. 7\u201311, on the\nsacrifices on the Day of Atonement; in the Afternoon Service, Lev.\nxviii., on forbidden marriages. The Lessons from the Prophets are: in\nthe morning, Isa. lvii. 14\u2013lviii. 14, on our duties on the fast-day; in\nthe afternoon, the Book of Jonah, illustrating the effect of sincere\nrepentance, and Micah vii. 18\u201320, on Israel\u2019s repentance.\n\n\n\n\n\nHISTORICAL FEASTS AND FASTS.\n\nBesides the Festivals commanded in the Torah, we celebrate also in the\ncourse of the year anniversaries of certain days both of joy and of\nsorrow. Of the former kind are \u200f\u05d7\u05e0\u05d5\u05db\u05d4\u200e and \u200f\u05e4\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e; of the latter, the\n9th of Ab and four other fasts.\n\n\n\n\u200f\u05d7\u05e0\u05d5\u05db\u05d4\u200e FEAST OF DEDICATION.\n\nOn the 25th of Kislev we begin to celebrate eight days of \u200f\u05d7\u05e0\u05d5\u05db\u05d4\u200e or\nDedication, in commemoration of the victories of the Maccabees over\nAntiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria. Antiochus had attempted to force\nthe Jews to idolatry, and to make them abandon the worship of the true\nGod. The Jews, led by the Maccabees, resisted, and, armed with faith in\nGod, gained the victory over large armies of the enemy. The Temple,\nwhich had been defiled by the heathen soldiers, was again purified, and\nthe Service of God re-established. For lighting the continual lamp (\u200f\u05e0\u05e8\n\u05ea\u05de\u05d9\u05d3\u200e) pure oil was wanted, that had not been touched by the heathen.\nOnly a small cruse of pure oil was found, which was believed to be\nsufficient for one night; but it sufficed for eight days, by which time\na fresh supply could be procured.\n\nThe Feast of Dedication commemorates the victory of the faithful over\nthe faithless, of the true religion over idolatry, of light over\ndarkness, and is celebrated\u2014\n\n(1.) By lighting \u200f\u05d7\u05e0\u05d5\u05db\u05d4\u200e lights, one on the first evening, and adding\none light each successive evening, so that on the eighth evening eight\nlights are kindled.\n\n(2.) By giving expression to our feeling of gratitude in psalms (\u200f\u05d4\u05dc\u05dc\u200e)\nand prayers of thanks (\u200f\u05e2\u05dc \u05d4\u05e0\u05e1\u05d9\u05dd\u200e).\n\nIn the Morning Service a few verses from Num. vii., on the dedication\nof the Altar, are read. On Sabbath Chanuccah, Zechariah\u2019s vision, Zech.\nii. 10 to iii. 7, including the vision of the golden candlestick, is\nread as haphtarah; and if there happen to be a second Sabbath\nChanuccah, 1 Kings vii. 40\u201350, a description of the various vessels and\nornaments in the Temple of Solomon is read on that Sabbath.\n\n\nNote 1.\u2014The \u200f\u05d7\u05e0\u05d5\u05db\u05d4\u200e lights remind us, in the first place, of the\nreopening of the Temple and the resumption of the regular Temple\nService. But they are also intended to remind us of the light of our\nholy faith, which Antiochus Epiphanes attempted in vain to extinguish.\nFor it shed forth its light again, and shone brighter and brighter\nevery successive day. We thus learn that when our religion is\nimperilled, firmness against temptation or force is sure to lead to\nsuccess and victory.\n\n2. Before lighting the Chanuccah lights the following blessings are\nsaid: \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05da \u2026 \u05d0\u05e9\u05e8 \u05e7\u05d3\u05e9\u05e0\u05d5 \u2026 \u05dc\u05d4\u05d3\u05dc\u05d9\u05e7 \u05e0\u05e8 \u05e9\u05dc \u05d7\u05e0\u05d5\u05db\u05d4\u200e \u201cBlessed art thou ... who\nhast sanctified us by thy commandments and hast commanded us to kindle\nthe lights of Chanuccah.\u201d \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05da \u2026 \u05e9\u05e2\u05e9\u05d4 \u05e0\u05e1\u05d9\u05dd \u05dc\u05d0\u05d1\u05d5\u05ea\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5 \u05d1\u05d9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd \u05d4\u05d4\u05dd \u05d1\u05d6\u05de\u05df\n\u05d4\u05d6\u05d4\u200e \u201cBlessed art thou ... who wroughtest miracles for our fathers in\ndays of old at this season.\u201d On the first night \u200f\u05e9\u05d4\u05d7\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5\u200e is added.\n\n\n\n\u200f\u05e4\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e PURIM.\n\n\u200f\u05e4\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e or \u201cFeast of Lots,\u201d is celebrated on the 14th and the 15th of\nAdar (second Adar in a leap-year), in commemoration of the defeat of\nHaman\u2019s wicked plans. Haman was chief minister to Ahasuerus, king of\nPersia, and planned to kill all the Jews in the Persian Empire, but the\nAlmighty frustrated his designs through the agency of Mordecai and his\ncousin Esther. The Feast is called Purim, that is, \u201clots,\u201d because\nHaman had cast lots in order to discover the day most favourable to his\nplans.\n\nWe celebrate Purim\u2014\n\n(1.) By reading twice, once during the Evening Service and once during\nthe Morning Service, the Book of Esther (\u200f\u05de\u05d2\u05dc\u05ea \u05d0\u05e1\u05ea\u05e8\u200e), which contains\nthe history of Haman\u2019s plans and their frustration. The reading is\npreceded by the following blessing: \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05da \u2026 \u05d0\u05e9\u05e8 \u05e7\u05d3\u05e9\u05e0\u05d5 \u2026 \u05e2\u05dc \u05de\u05e7\u05e8\u05d0 \u05de\u05d2\u05dc\u05d4\u200e\n\u201cBlessed art thou ... who hast sanctified us by thy commandments and\nhast commanded us to read the Megillah.\u201d \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05da \u2026 \u05e9\u05e2\u05e9\u05d4 \u05e0\u05e1\u05d9\u05dd \u05dc\u05d0\u05d1\u05d5\u05ea\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5\n\u05d1\u05d9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd \u05d4\u05d4\u05dd \u05d1\u05d6\u05de\u05df \u05d4\u05d6\u05d4\u200e \u201cBlessed art thou ... who wroughtest miracles for\nour fathers in days of old at this season,\u201d and \u200f\u05e9\u05d4\u05d7\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5\u200e.\n\n(2.) By giving presents to our friends (\u200f\u05de\u05e9\u05dc\u05d5\u05d7 \u05de\u05e0\u05d5\u05ea\u200e) and gifts to the\npoor (\u200f\u05de\u05ea\u05e0\u05d5\u05ea \u05dc\u05d0\u05d1\u05d9\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e).\n\n(3.) By a festive meal (\u200f\u05e1\u05e2\u05d5\u05d3\u05ea \u05e4\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e). Comp. Esth. ix. During the\nMorning Service the account of the war with Amalek is read from Exod.\nxvii. 8\u201316.\n\nThe 15th of Adar is called Shushan Purim, because the Jews in Shushan\ncontinued to fight against the enemy on the 14th of Adar, and kept\nPurim on the 15th. The 13th of Adar, being the day appointed for the\nslaughter of the Jews, is now kept as a fast-day, and is called \u200f\u05ea\u05e2\u05e0\u05d9\u05ea\n\u05d0\u05e1\u05ea\u05e8\u200e \u201cthe Fast of Esther.\u201d\n\n\n\nTHE FOUR FASTS.\n\nThere are four days kept as fast-days in commemoration of events\nconnected with the fall of Jerusalem. They are called in the Bible\n(Zech. viii. 19) \u201cthe fast of the fourth month and the fast of the\nfifth, and the fast of the seventh and the fast of the tenth.\u201d These\ndays are the anniversaries of the commencement of the siege of\nJerusalem (10th of Tebeth), of the breach made in the wall (17th of\nTammuz), of the destruction of the Temple (9th of Ab), and of the\nmurder of Gedaliah (3rd of Tishri). The 9th of Ab is kept as a day of\nfasting and mourning for the destruction of the Temple. According to\nTradition, both the first and the second Temple were destroyed on the\nsame day.\n\nThe Lesson from the Pentateuch read in the Morning and in the Afternoon\nServices on the fast-days is Exod. xxxii. 11\u201314 and xxxiv. 1\u201310. On the\n9th of Ab this section is read in the afternoon only; the Morning\nLesson being Deut. iv. 25\u201340 and Jer. viii. 13 to ix. 23; in the\nAfternoon Service on all fasts Isa. lv. 6 to lvi. 8 is read as\nhaphtarah.\n\n\nNote 1.\u2014These fasts begin with daybreak, except the fast of the 9th of\nAb, which commences with the previous evening and lasts twenty-four\nhours, and is in all respects like that of the Day of Atonement. During\nthe day the Lamentations of Jeremiah, various elegies called \u200f\u05e7\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5\u05ea\u200e,\n\u201cLamentations,\u201d and the Book of Job are read. On the Fast of Ab, as a\nsign of mourning, talith and tefillin are not worn during the Morning\nService. They are, however, put on for the Afternoon Service.\n\n2. The Sabbath preceding the Fast of Ab is called \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea \u05d7\u05d6\u05d5\u05df\u200e, and the\nSabbath following, \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea \u05e0\u05d7\u05de\u05d5\u200e because the Haphtaroth on these Sabbaths\n(ch. i. and ch. xl. of Isaiah) begin respectively with the words \u200f\u05d7\u05d6\u05d5\u05df\u200e\nand \u200f\u05e0\u05d7\u05de\u05d5\u200e; the one containing rebukes and threats, the other a message\nof comfort.\n\n\nBesides these historical fasts, there are voluntary fasts observed by\nsome as an expression of deep-felt piety; e.g., the three fasts of \u200f\u05e9\u05e0\u05d9\n\u05d7\u05de\u05d9\u05e9\u05d9 \u05d5\u05e9\u05e0\u05d9\u200e of Monday, Thursday, and Monday, kept after the festive\nseasons of Passover and Tabernacles, in imitation of Job, who after the\ndays of feasting sanctified his sons, and brought special sacrifices\n(Job i.). To this class of fasts may be reckoned the day before\nNew-moon, called \u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05db\u05e4\u05d5\u05e8 \u05e7\u05d8\u05df\u200e on which in some congregations the\nAfternoon Service is enlarged by propitiatory prayers.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nV. DIVINE WORSHIP, \u200f\u05e2\u05d1\u05d5\u05d3\u05d4\u200e.\n\nIn the Midrash the following legend is related: When, at the conclusion\nof the seventh day, the sun had set and darkness had spread over the\nearth, Adam was afraid that the world was now coming to an end. But the\nAlmighty caused him to find two stones, by means of which he produced\nlight. On seeing this Adam was full of joy, and although he had himself\nproduced the spark, he felt that it was to his Creator and Master that\nthanks were due, and gave expression to his feelings in the words,\n\u201cBlessed art Thou, O Lord, our God, King of the Universe, who createst\nthe light of the fire.\u201d\n\nThus the legend traces the beginning of Divine Worship to the first\nman; and, in fact, the desire to commune with the Creator and to give\noutward expression to the inner feeling of reverence and allegiance is\nso general that it seems to be part of man\u2019s nature.\n\nIn a different way this feeling was expressed by the sons of Adam, by\nCain and Abel. They brought presents to the Lord, probably accompanied\nby words of praise and prayer. No essential difference is noticed by us\nin the offerings of the two brothers; each of them brought what seemed\nbest in his eyes. And yet the offering of Cain was rejected, whilst\nthat of Abel was received favourably. An important lesson it is that\nScripture teaches here at the very threshold of the history of\nsacrifices. It is this: The value of an offering does not lie in its\noutward appearance, in that which is open to man\u2019s judgment, but in\nsomething that is known to the Omniscient alone, in the heart of him\nwho approaches his Creator with a gift, in the motives which prompt him\nto do so, and in the feelings which accompany that act. From these\nbeginnings the two forms of Divine Worship, Sacrifice and Prayer,\ngradually developed.\n\n\n\nSACRIFICE (\u200f\u05de\u05e0\u05d7\u05d4\u200e, \u200f\u05e7\u05e8\u05d1\u05df\u200e).\n\nWhat was the main idea that prompted man to bring an offering to the\nAlmighty? He felt, as it were, the existence of a higher Being, the\nCreator and Ruler of all things; he was conscious that his own life and\nwelfare depended on the Will of the Being to whom in reality everything\nbelongs that man believes himself to possess and to enjoy. In order to\ngive expression to this feeling of allegiance man brought the first and\nbest of what he had acquired to the true Owner, and thus introduced\n[139] himself by such gifts as a faithful subject who is anxious to\nmerit the favour of his Master. That which was at first introduced by\nman voluntarily, was afterwards sanctioned and regulated by Divine\ncommand.\n\nThere were two kinds of sacrifices: bloodless sacrifices, minchah and\nnesech, \u201cflour-offering\u201d and \u201cdrink-offering,\u201d and blood sacrifices:\nanimal-offerings. But no difference is discernible between these two\nkinds with regard to their importance, sanctity, and efficiency. As a\nrule, the animal-offering was supplemented by minchah and nesech. The\ntreatment of sacrifices varied according as they were intended to\nexpress the feeling of reverence, rejoicing, gratitude, or repentance,\nand special rules had to be observed in each case, the various kinds of\nsacrifice being \u200f\u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05d4\u200e \u201cburnt-offering,\u201d or \u200f\u05e9\u05dc\u05de\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cpeace-offering,\u201d\nor \u200f\u05ea\u05d5\u05d3\u05d4\u200e \u201cthanksgiving,\u201d or \u200f\u05d7\u05d8\u05d0\u05ea\u200e \u201csin-offering,\u201d or \u200f\u05d0\u05e9\u05dd\u200e\n\u201cguilt-offering.\u201d The Law further fixed the place, the time, and the\nmethod of sacrificing, and appointed also the persons who alone were\nallowed to attend to this function, so that no strange element, no\nidolatrous or superstitious customs, could be introduced into the\nsacrificial service ordained by the Law.\n\nGreat stress is laid on the sprinkling of the blood of the sacrifice\nupon the altar. \u201cThe blood,\u201d the Law says, \u201cis the soul of all flesh;\nand I have given it to you upon the altar to make an atonement for the\nsoul\u201d (Lev. xvii. 11). We are thus reminded that, in so far as the\nanimal life is concerned, \u201cthe pre-eminence of man over the beast is\nnought,\u201d and yet the Creator gave us the right to shed the blood of\nanimals in order to save our life. Why? Because man has a higher\nmission to fulfil; he has been created in the image of God.\n\nThese and similar reflections were suggested by the different elements\nconstituting the sacrificial rite. With the destruction of the Temple\nsacrifices ceased; with the Restoration of Israel and the Rebuilding of\nthe Temple the Sacrificial Service will likewise be resumed. (Comp.\nMal. iii. 4). There are persons who believe that the Sacrificial\nService, implying much of anthropomorphism, could not have been\nintended to be permanent, and that it was only a concession made to the\nfashion and the low degree of culture of the age. Those who reject\nsacrifices on this account must also reject prayer, which is likewise\nbased on a certain degree of anthropomorphism, though less strikingly\nthan sacrifice. If the law concerning offerings were only intended for\na certain age, such limitation would have been indicated in the Law. In\nthe absence of such indication we have no right to criticise the Word\nof God, and to think that we are too advanced in culture to obey the\nDivine commands, It has been further argued that, according to\nMaimonides and his followers, the laws concerning sacrifices only\nserved as a means of counteracting the idolatrous tendencies of the\nage. But Maimonides never went so far as to contend that these laws\nhave served their purpose, and are now null and void. Even those laws\nwhich have been enacted by human authority remain in force till they\nare repealed in a regular and legal manner. But what human being can\nclaim a right to abolish laws given by the Almighty? Whether any of the\nlaws of the Torah will ever be abrogated we do not know, but we are\nsure that, in case of such abrogation taking place, it will be done by\na revelation as convincing as that on Mount Sinai.\n\nOn the other hand, the revival of the Sacrificial Service must likewise\nbe sanctioned by the divine voice of a prophet. The mere acquisition of\nthe Temple Mount or of all Palestine by Jews, by war, or political\ncombinations, or purchase, would not justify the revival. It is only\nthe return of the Jews to Palestine, and the rebuilding of the Temple\nby Divine command and by Divine intervention, that will be followed by\nthe restoration of the Sacrificial Service. And however contrary the\nslaughter of animals, the sprinkling of their blood, and the burning of\ntheir flesh be to our taste, we ought to look forward with eagerness\nand pleasure for the revival of the full Temple Service as an event\nthat will enable us to do the Will of the Almighty revealed in the\nTorah. Instead of modelling the Divine laws according to our liking, we\nought rather to regulate the latter according to the teaching of\nScripture, and suppress it when contrary to the express Will of God. We\ntherefore give expression to our hope \u201cfor the restoration of the\nTemple with its ancient Service\u201d in frequent and fervent prayers, and\nin accordance with the exhortation of Hosea (xiv. 2) we read each day\nduring the Service Scriptural passages referring to the sacrifice of\nthe day.\n\n\u201cSacrifices have been condemned by prophets and psalmists\u201d! But in the\npassages which seem antagonistic to sacrifices only those sacrifices\nare referred to which are brought in a wrong spirit or from bad\nmotives. (Comp. 1 Sam. xv. 22; Isa. i. 11\u201313, xliii. 24, lxvi. 2; Jer.\nvii. 21; Hosea vi. 6; Amos v. 25; Ps. l. 8.)\n\n\n\nPRAYERS, \u200f\u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d4\u200e [140]\n\nPrayer is the general name for that form of Divine Worship which is\nexpressed in words; it has a wider scope than sacrifices, for it is not\nlimited to a special place, or to a certain time, or to one privileged\nfamily. It is accessible to all, in all places and at all times. All\nalike are addressed by the Psalmist, \u201cLet everything that hath breath\npraise the Lord. Praise ye the Lord\u201d (Ps. cl. 6).\n\nThere is no direct commandment in the Torah concerning prayer; it is\nrather assumed as a matter of course, and as inseparable from our\nbelief in God. According to Tradition (Sifre on Deut. xi. 13), the\nexhortation to serve God with all the heart implies the duty of prayer.\n\u201cWhat duty depends on the heart? It is the duty of prayer.\u201d (Comp.\nMaim. Mishneh-torah, Hilchoth Tefillah i. 1.) The following are a few\nof the general rules laid down by our Sages with regard to Prayer:\u2014\n\n\u201cBetter little with devotion (\u200f\u05db\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4\u200e) than much without devotion\u201d\n(Shulchan-aruch, Orach Chayyim i. 4).\n\n\u201cDuring prayer bear in mind before whom you stand\u201d (Babyl. T.,\nBerachoth 28b).\n\n\u201cThe value of the words uttered with the lips is determined by the\ndevotion of the heart\u201d (Babyl. T., Berachoth 15b).\n\nWhat is devotion? The concentration of all our attention upon the words\nwe utter, the banishment of all foreign thoughts from the mind, and the\nconsciousness that we stand in the presence of the Almighty, whom it is\nour duty to love, fear, and obey. A prayer uttered in this frame of\nmind is called \u201ca prayer without lips of deceit\u201d (Ps. xvii. 1). Comp.\nMaim., l. c., iv. 15.\n\nIt is a matter of course that indecorous conduct, unbecoming attitudes,\nand the like cannot harmonise with true devotion. With regard to\nlanguage, form, time, and place of prayer nothing was fixed originally;\nall was regulated by the momentary impulse of the heart of the\nworshipper. But people who considered themselves incapable of giving\nadequate expression to their devotional feelings borrowed the words of\nthose more capable than themselves and followed their leading. Such a\ncourse was also necessary for common and united devotion. When a\ncertain prayer or a certain order of Service was frequently repeated at\nthe same season and in the same place, the form, the time, and the\nplace of prayer became to a certain degree fixed by custom\u2014minhag\u2014and\nthat which had in the beginning been voluntary (\u200f\u05e8\u05e9\u05d5\u05ea\u200e) was\nsubsequently made law or duty (\u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05d4\u200e or \u200f\u05d7\u05d5\u05d1\u05d4\u200e). [141]\n\nThe minhag is a most important element in Jewish religious life. What\none has been accustomed to do for a long time, or even from his\nearliest youth, is deeply impressed on the heart, and is not readily\nsurrendered. Such customs are sometimes more cherished and more firmly\nadhered to than express precepts. [142] It is the outcome of this\nrespect for custom that in all countries the Jews pray in Hebrew. But\nnevertheless the general principle remains in force that it is not the\nlanguage that determines the value of prayer but \u201cthe devotion of the\nheart,\u201d and those who do not understand Hebrew may give expression to\n\u201cthe devotion of their heart\u201d in the language they understand and\nspeak. Women, who as a rule were not expected to be Hebrew scholars,\nused to read translations of the Hebrew prayers in the vernacular\ninstead of, or in addition to, the original; they had also prayers\ncomposed for them in the vernacular (\u200f\u05ea\u05d7\u05e0\u05d5\u05ea\u200e). And in more ancient\ntimes, when the Jews of Babylon had adopted the Aramean dialect spoken\nin that country, and retained it also after their return to Palestine,\nmany prayers were composed in the more familiar language, although\nHebrew was retained for the principal prayers. Hebrew has a special\nclaim to privilege and distinction among the Jews. It is our national\nlanguage, which our forefathers once spoke; it is the language in which\nthe Almighty addressed the prophets, and through them the Israelites;\nthe language in which God revealed His Will to the Israelites on Mount\nSinai; the language in which the holy Psalmist sang the praises of the\nCreator, the priests blessed the people, and worshippers prayed in the\nTemple at Jerusalem. It must be the pride of every Jew to be enabled to\npray at home, and especially in the Synagogues, in that same language,\nand if Hebrew be not the language of his every-day life, he should seek\nto perfect his knowledge of it to such an extent that he shall be able\nto understand the prayers and to pray with his whole heart. Those who\nseek the abolition of Hebrew in our Services aim, consciously or\nunconsciously, at the destruction of our nationality as the people of\nthe Lord, by breaking asunder one important link which connects us with\nthe wonderful past of our nation.\n\nEqually indifferent with regard to the value of prayer are its length\nand its form. The Bible offers examples for all kinds and lengths of\nprayer. If one wishes to pray in a few words, he need only follow the\nexample of Moses, who in the moment of anguish uttered nothing beyond\nthe words, \u201cO God, heal her now\u201d (Num. xii. 13). If one prefers a long\nprayer, he may also take Moses as a guide, who prayed forty days for\nthe forgiveness of the Israelites after they had made the golden calf\n(Deut. ix. 18, 25). Both prayers were equally efficacious. Miriam was\nhealed, and the Israelites obtained pardon. With regard to the form, we\nhave in the Bible prayers in prose and in poetry; some uttered in\nsimple speech, others in song; some with musical accompaniment, some\nwithout it. All of them seem to have been at first the response to a\nmomentary impulse, but were afterwards repeated on similar occasions in\nthe original or in a modified form.\n\nAmong the various motives that impel us to seek communion with our\nFather, is the desire for certain things which we have not, and the\nconviction that it is solely in His hand to fulfil our wishes. [143] A\ngenuine prayer of this kind\u2014for the fulfilment of certain wishes of\nours\u2014is impossible without the belief in the efficacy of prayer. We\ncannot with certainty expect that our petition will be granted, but we\nhope that it will; we submit our wishes to the Will of the Almighty.\nThe Hebrew name for prayer \u200f\u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d4\u200e implied the idea of judgment, as if\nwe judged whether the concession of our petition might fairly be\nanticipated. Such judgment, however, is not to be considered as\ndecisive; and if our request is to be granted, it will be as an act of\nmercy and grace (\u200f\u05e8\u05d7\u05de\u05d9\u05dd \u05d5\u05ea\u05d7\u05e0\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e), and not because it is a claim fully\nproved (\u200f\u05e7\u05d1\u05e2\u200e). [144] We hope that our prayer will be granted, but\nnever lose sight of the condition \u201cif it please God.\u201d There are a few\nexceptional cases. Prophets like Moses (Exod. viii. 6), Samuel (1 Sam.\nxii. 17), Elijah (1 Kings xviii.), Elisha (2 Kings iv. 33 sqq.), and\nothers, men inspired by the Almighty, were, on certain occasions, sure\nof the effect of their prayer. In the Mishnah (Taanith iii. 8) the case\nof Choni (\u200f\u05d7\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9 \u05d4\u05de\u05e2\u05d2\u05dc\u200e) is mentioned, who spoke with certainty of the\nresult of his prayer. It must, however, in the latter case be added\nthat the head of the Sanhedrin, Shimeon ben Shatach, blamed him for his\nconduct.\n\nThis we know for certain, that whenever and wherever we respond to an\ninner impulse by the utterance of a prayer, God is near us, for \u201cHe is\nnigh unto all them that call upon him, to all that call upon him in\ntruth\u201d (Ps. cxlv. 18); that we and the place on which we stand are\nhallowed by the Divine Presence. Places once hallowed by such devotion,\nwhether of our own or of our fellow-men, we like to visit again and\nagain for the same purpose. The spot of Jacob\u2019s first communion with\nGod thus became \u201cthe house of God;\u201d and even during the period when\nthere was one central Sanctuary for the Sacrificial Service in Israel,\nat Gilgal, Mizpah, Shiloh, and later in Jerusalem, there were houses of\nGod throughout the country for devotion unaccompanied by sacrifices.\nThese were \u201cthe meeting-places of God\u201d (Ps. lxxiv. 8), in which the\nIsraelites assembled to meet their Creator. Such houses of God were\nestablished wherever Jews settled; their main purpose was united\ndevotion; but they served also many other purposes\u2014in fact, every holy,\ngood, and noble cause. The house of God was the Assembly-house,\nSynagogue (\u200f\u05d1\u05d9\u05ea \u05d4\u05db\u05e0\u05e1\u05ea\u200e), in which the affairs of the community (\u200f\u05e6\u05e8\u05db\u05d9\n\u05e6\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u200e) were settled; the young had there their school, adults came\nthere for religious instruction, and found there opportunity for the\nstudy of the Law, and the poor and stranger received there support and\nhospitality.\n\nIn a Jewish Synagogue there were two important features, the platform\n(\u200f\u05d1\u05d9\u05de\u05d4\u200e) and an ark (\u200f\u05ea\u05d1\u05d4\u200e) containing scrolls of the Law. From the\nplatform in the middle of the Synagogue, the lessons from the\nPentateuch and the Prophets were recited, and everything else that was\ndirectly or indirectly addressed to the congregants. But prayers\naddressed to the Most High were offered up from a lower place near the\nHoly Ark, [145] in accordance with the words of the Psalmist (cxxx. 1),\n\u201cOut of the depth have I cried unto thee, O Lord.\u201d\n\nThe Ark, or Holy Ark (\u200f\u05d0\u05e8\u05d5\u05df\u200e or \u200f\u05d0\u05e8\u05d5\u05df \u05d4\u05e7\u05d3\u05e9\u200e), in almost all modern\nSynagogues\u2014in places west of Jerusalem\u2014occupies the middle of the east\nside of the Synagogue. In the time of the Talmud the Synagogues were to\nsome extent made to resemble the Tabernacle which the Israelites built\nin the wilderness or the Temple in Jerusalem. The entrance was from the\neast, and the Ark, which was to represent the Most Holy, was in the\nwest. The Ark was, like the original one, movable. It was called\ntebhah, lit. \u201cbox,\u201d in order to distinguish it from the original. The\nrecess in which it was kept was the Hechal or Kodesh, \u201cThe Holy.\u201d The\ntebhah seems to have served both as a receptacle for the scrolls of the\nLaw, and as a desk on which these were put whenever they were required\nfor the reading of the Torah. On certain extraordinary occasions, when,\non account of the absence of rain, a general fast was ordered, the\ntebhah, with a Sefer-torah on it, was carried into the street, [146]\nwhere a special service was held.\n\nThe reason why the entrance to the Sanctuary and to the Synagogues was\nfrom the east, and the worshippers consequently stood during prayer\nwith their face toward the west, may, according to the Mishnah (Succah\nv. 4), be explained thus: The principal prayer of the day being that in\nthe morning, the Jews, as a protest against the sun-worship of the\nidolaters, who at that hour were accustomed to greet the sun with their\nprayer, turned away from the east and offered up their prayer to the\nAlmighty in the opposite direction. When sun-worship had ceased,\nprobably after the destruction of the second Temple, the national grief\nand hope found expression in the custom of praying toward the Sanctuary\nin Jerusalem. Hence the Jews who live west of Jerusalem stand during\nprayer with the face toward the east, while those east of Jerusalem\nturn westward. This custom is, besides, supported by the following\npassage from the prayer of King Solomon: \u201cAnd they pray unto thee\ntoward their land, which thou gavest unto their fathers, the city which\nthou hast chosen, and the house which I have built for thy name\u201d (1\nKings viii. 48). [147]\n\nIn most Synagogues there is a continual lamp (\u200f\u05e0\u05e8 \u05ea\u05de\u05d9\u05d3\u200e) burning. It is\na Biblical institution, but only designed for the Sanctuary; its\npresence in the Synagogue is of comparatively modern date. The ner\ntamid of the Sanctuary, however, is explained to be a lamp burning\n\u201cfrom evening to morning\u201d (Exod. xxvii. 21). A golden candlestick\nstanding in the Sanctuary against the south side, with its seven\nbranches arranged from east to west, served this purpose. According to\nTradition it was the second branch, counting from east to west, which\nreally burnt continually; but this was not considered as implied in the\nterm ner tamid, which only meant \u201ca continual lamp\u201d in the sense of a\nlamp that burns regularly every night.\n\nThe ner tamid in the Synagogue, which burns continually day and night,\nis not mentioned by any of the earlier Rabbinical authors. It has been\nintroduced as a symbol representing our conviction that from the\nSynagogue shall continually come forth the light of instruction, the\nlight of comfort and blessing, and the light of love and peace.\n\nIn the Synagogue women are separated from men. There was also in the\nTemple an \u200f\u05e2\u05d6\u05e8\u05ea \u05e0\u05e9\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201ccourt of the women,\u201d distinguished from the\n\u200f\u05e2\u05d6\u05e8\u05ea \u05d0\u05e0\u05e9\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201ccourt of the men,\u201d to which women had no access. During\nthe Feast of Tabernacles, when the great rejoicings in the Temple\nattracted a large assembly, special care was taken (\u200f\u05ea\u05e7\u05d5\u05df \u05d2\u05d3\u05d5\u05dc \u05d4\u05d9\u05d4 \u05e9\u05dd\u200e)\nthat the separation of the sexes should be maintained (Mishnah, Succah\nv. 2; and Talm. B., Succah 51b). This precedent has been followed in\nthe Synagogue, and has been accepted as law up to this day.\n\nReservedness and modesty (\u200f\u05e6\u05e0\u05d9\u05e2\u05d5\u05ea\u200e) have always been the pride and\nornament of Jewish women, both in their homes and in the Synagogue;\nhence also their taking a silent part in the public devotion is an\nhonour to them, and by no means derogatory.\n\nIn addition to the above-mentioned points, a Synagogue ought to be\ndistinguished by the greatest possible simplicity, by the absence of\nall kinds of images, portraits, or statues representing living beings,\nwhether real or imaginary. The Jewish religion is void of every visible\nsymbol; and the so-called magen-david (the double triangle) is probably\nnot of Jewish origin, and has no connection with our holy religion. It\nis not a symbol of this kind, but some inscription of a passage from\nthe Scriptures that in most houses of worship reminds us of the\nsacredness of the place. We enter it with due reverence, manifesting it\noutwardly, in our peculiar traditional manner, by keeping the head\ncovered. It is our ancient custom to cover the head when engaged in\nprayers, in reading the Bible or Talmud and their commentaries. This\noutward sign serves to remind us that not only our Service but even our\nliterature is something holy, and its study a religious act (\u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05d4\u200e).\n[148]\n\nBefore we proceed to describe the details of our ritual, we mention one\nimportant point in which the present Synagogal Service differs from the\nancient Service in the Temple. From what we are told in the Scriptures\nand in the Talmud, we learn that instrumental music was an essential\nelement in the Service, and that King David and his successors paid\ngreat attention to it, whilst, with a few exceptions, it is almost\nentirely absent from our Synagogues. The principal reason why\ninstrumental music is excluded from the Synagogue is its prohibition on\nSabbaths and Holy-days by Rabbinical law (Babyl. T., Erubin 104a). This\nprohibition, like many other enactments, did not apply to the Temple\nService; for the sacrificial laws had to be obeyed, irrespective of the\nfact that they involved acts which, if performed apart from the Temple\nService, would constitute a breach of the Sabbath laws. Apart from the\nTemple Service the Sabbath laws remained in full force for the priests\nas well as for the general public.\n\nThere were also other considerations that helped to keep instrumental\nmusic out of the Synagogue Service. Its absence, though not directly a\nsign of mourning, served to preserve the memory of the destruction of\nthe Temple, and to strengthen our longing for its restoration. It is\nalso urged that the introduction of instrumental music into the Service\nwould not satisfy any real want of Jewish worshippers, but would merely\nbe a concession to the desire to assimilate our Divine Service to that\nof our non-Jewish neighbours, contrary to the prohibition of chukkoth\nhaggoyim contained in the words, \u201cYe shall not walk in their statutes\u201d\n(Lev. xviii. 3), i.e., in the statutes of the Gentiles. But, on the\nother hand, it has been argued that the feeling once expressed by the\nnation in the words \u201cThis is my God, and I will worship him in a\nbeautiful manner\u201d (Exod. xv. 2), still animates us. It is said that it\nis our duty to make our Service as beautiful and as attractive as\npossible. This argument deserves consideration, and might even outweigh\nsome of the above-mentioned arguments against the introduction of music\ninto our Service, if we were sure of the result of such introduction.\nBut this is by no means the case, for the experiment, where tried, has\nnot been successful if judged by the most practical test. The number of\nworshippers has not been increased, and discontent has not been\nremoved. Whether the devotion of the worshippers has been improved,\nrefined, or intensified by music is a question that cannot be answered\nwith certainty. Even if the answer were satisfactory, it could only\napply to the introduction of instrumental music into our Service on\nweek-days, on Friday evening before the commencement of Sabbath, but\nnot on Sabbaths and Holy-days.\n\n\n\nTHE RITUAL.\n\nIn the Bible there is no indication of a fixed ritual; there are,\nhowever, a few instances of forms of prayer prescribed for certain\noccasions. There is the priests\u2019 blessing (Num. vi. 24\u201326); the\nthanksgiving on bringing the first-fruit offering to the Temple (Deut.\nxxvi. 3\u201310); prayer on distributing the tithes which accumulated in\nthree years (ibid. 13\u201315). David (Ps. lv. 18) says, \u201cEvening, and\nmorning, and at noonday do I pray;\u201d Daniel \u201ckneeled upon his knees\nthree times a day and prayed, and gave thanks before his God, as he did\naforetime\u201d (Dan. vi. 11); but nothing is said about the form and the\ncontents of these prayers. The Mishnah first speaks of certain fixed\nforms of prayer: the \u201cEighteen\u201d (\u200f\u05e9\u05de\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4 \u05e2\u05e9\u05e8\u05d4\u200e), the reading of Shema\n(\u200f\u05e7\u05e8\u05d9\u05d0\u05ea \u05e9\u05de\u05e2\u200e), and Benedictions (\u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05d5\u05ea\u200e). The composition of the\ntefillah, \u201cPrayer\u201d par excellence, is attributed to the Men of the\nGreat Synagogue (\u200f\u05d0\u05e0\u05e9\u05d9 \u05db\u05e0\u05e1\u05ea \u05d4\u05d2\u05d3\u05d5\u05dc\u05d4\u200e), but only in its outlines. The\nnumber of the paragraphs, the theme of each paragraph, and the formula\nby which it is concluded may then have been fixed, the rest being left\nto be filled up by each supplicant according to his capacity. It was\nbut natural that prayers uttered repeatedly by men eminent for their\npiety should be eagerly copied by others, and gradually become, to some\nextent at least, fixed forms of prayer. The tefillah, however, in the\ntime of the Mishnah was by no means identical with the tefillah of the\nMen of the Great Synagogue. The destruction of the Temple necessitated\nseveral changes; e.g., the prayers for the welfare of Jerusalem, for\nthe prosperity of Israel and of the Holy Land, and for the acceptance\nof the Service in the Temple were altered in accordance with the new\nstate of affairs.\n\nThe Mishnah speaks of the tefillah as a well-known existing\ninstitution; it seems that it was the regular prayer in the Synagogue\nService, and the discussion whether the tefillah should be repeated\nevery day in extenso or in an abbreviated form (Mishnah, Berachoth iv.\n3) refers probably to the prayer recited privatim (\u200f\u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05ea \u05d9\u05d7\u05d9\u05d3\u200e), and\nnot to the Service in the Synagogue. The prescribed \u201cEighteen\nBlessings\u201d were the framework, into which each man was expected to fit\nin his peculiar, individual supplications; whilst in the public Service\nthe tefillah remained uniform. In the days of Rabban Gamliel of Jamnia,\nand with his sanction, an important addition was made by Samuel: a\nprayer for the discomfiture of those who by slander, denunciation, or\nother wicked means attempt to undermine the existence of the Jewish\nreligion and community (\u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05ea \u05d4\u05e6\u05d3\u05d5\u05e7\u05d9\u05dd\u200e or \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05ea \u05d4\u05de\u05d9\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e). [149] In some\ncongregations two other paragraphs (\u200f\u05d0\u05ea \u05e6\u05de\u05d7\u200e and \u200f\u05d5\u05dc\u05d9\u05e8\u05d5\u05e9\u05dc\u05dd\u200e) were at\nthe same time combined into one, in order to keep to the traditional\n\u201cEighteen Blessings.\u201d [150]\n\nThe reading of shema in the evening and in the morning, the three\nsections constituting the shema, and the order of these sections, are\nassumed in the Mishnah as fully established by law and usage. Only a\nfew regulations are discussed concerning the time and the mode of the\nreading. There was this difference between the custom of the Babylonian\nJews and that of their brethren in Palestine, that the latter omitted\nin the evening the passage referring to tsitsith. Later on, however,\nthe Palestine Jews conformed to the Babylonian custom. Suggestions have\nbeen made to substitute other Biblical passages for shema, but they\nhave been rejected. Several attempts have been made to introduce, as an\naddition to the three sections of shema, the reading of the Decalogue;\nthe addition was disallowed, lest people should be misled to think that\nthe Ten Commandments alone were to be observed, and that the other laws\nwere not binding (Babyl. T., Berachoth 12a). [151]\n\nThe Benedictions which precede and follow the reading of shema were\nfixed in the time of the Mishnah as regards number, order, and form;\nbut the contents were left unsettled for some time (Mishnah, Berachoth\ni. 4); in the Gemara their wording is still a subject for discussion.\nThe same can be said with regard to the relative order of shema and\ntefillah. For the Evening Service the tefillah seems to have generally\nbeen considered as optional. As to Benedictions in general, their\nobligatory character is assumed in the Mishnah as admitted by all, and\nonly their form seems to have been fixed by the regulations mentioned\nin Berachoth vi.\u2013ix.\n\nThe Mishnah (Megillah iii. 4\u2013iv. 10) includes a number of regulations\nconcerning the reading of the Law, the Prophets, and the Book of\nEsther. Detailed rules were laid down for the reader and the translator\n(methurgeman), pointing out which passages should be omitted in the\ntranslation, and which should be omitted even in the original. It seems\nthat there was a regular, consecutive reading, which was interrupted on\nextraordinary days by the reading of passages referring to these days.\n\nThe ritual which was adopted for the priests in the Temple was an\nabridged form of the ritual then in general use. It was as follows:\nThey commenced with a benediction\u2014the first of those which precede the\nshema (\u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05e6\u05e8 \u05d0\u05d5\u05e8\u200e); then they read the Decalogue, shema (the three\nparagraphs), and three further benedictions, \u200f\u05d0\u05de\u05ea \u05d5\u05d9\u05e6\u05d9\u05d1\u200e, \u200f\u05e2\u05d1\u05d5\u05d3\u05d4\u200e\n(corresponding to \u200f\u05e8\u05e6\u05d4\u200e in our prayer), and the blessing of the priests\n(Mishnah, Tamid v. 1).\n\nA special ritual is also mentioned in the Talmud (Mishnah, Taanith iv.\n2) for the Maamadoth and the Fast-days. [152] There were four Services\ndaily, as on the Day of Atonement. The principal feature in the Service\nof the Maamadoth was the reading of the first chapter of Genesis.\n\nAt the conclusion of the Talmud (about 500 C.E.) the essential parts of\nour present ritual were already in a settled state; the shema with the\nbenedictions preceding and following, the tefillah with its variations\nfor New-moon, Sabbath, and Holy-days, the reading from the Law and the\nprophets, and Hallel. The Seder evening Service was complete in its\nmain parts. Of the Benedictions (Berachoth) on various occasions both\nform and contents were fixed, and the rule was laid down by Rabbi Meir\n(Berachoth 40a) that he who uttered a berachah in a form different from\nthat fixed by our Sages has not fulfilled his duty (or, according to\nMaimonides, Hilchoth Berachoth i. 5, is in error). Notwithstanding this\nrule, however, changes were made; new benedictions were introduced and\nold ones discontinued. [153]\u2014Kaddish and Kedushah seem to have formed\npart of the Service; of the latter the Talmud mentions the name, of the\nformer the response: \u201cMay his great Name be praised\u201d \u200f\u05d9\u05d4\u05d0 \u05e9\u05de\u05d5 \u05d4\u05d2\u05d3\u05d5\u05dc\n\u05de\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05da\u200e or \u200f\u05d9\u05d4\u05d0 \u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05d4 \u05e8\u05d1\u05d0 \u05de\u05f3\u200e (Comp. Babyl. Talm., Berachoth 3a).\n\nIn the next period, that of the Geonim, we meet with the complete\nSiddur, \u201cArrangement\u201d or \u201cOrder\u201d of Service for ordinary days, for\nSabbaths and Festivals, Benedictions for all occasions, and Piyyutim as\noptional additions. Such a Siddur was arranged by the Gaon Rabbenu\nSaadiah (892\u2013942), and another by the Gaon Rabbenu Amram (about 880).\nHenceforth the principal prayers underwent only insignificant\nalterations. Of the next period the most important Siddurim are those\nincluded in the Mishneh-torah, at the end of the second book, and that\ncontained in the Machzor Vitry. [154]\n\nThe additional prayers and piyyutim, being optional, varied according\nto the taste of each congregation and its leaders; in course of time\nthese variations became permanent; the same was the case with minor\nchanges, especially in the less essential elements of the Service, and\nthus the various Minhagim (Rites) of the various congregations came\ninto existence. The principal Minhagim of importance for us are: the\nPolish, the Sephardic, the German, and the Italian Rites. [155] In the\nfollowing description of the Ritual only the two rites adopted in the\nprincipal Synagogues of the Anglo-Jewish congregations in England will\nbe noted.\n\n\n\nPRAYERS AT FIXED TIMES.\n\nAlthough we constantly enjoy the blessings of God, the very breath we\nbreathe being the gift of our Heavenly Father, yet certain seasons of\nthe day, of the week, of the month, and of the year have been selected\nas especially fit for reminding us of God\u2019s kindness, and predisposing\nour heart to devotion. Thus in the day, morning, noon and evening have\nbeen fixed for prayer; in the week, Sabbath; in the month, New-moon; in\nthe year, the Festivals.\n\nWe have three daily Services: Maaribh, \u201cEvening prayer;\u201d Shacharith,\n\u201cMorning prayer,\u201d [156] and Minchah, \u201cAfternoon prayer.\u201d On Sabbath,\nNew-moon, and Festivals an \u201cAdditional prayer,\u201d Musaf, is inserted\nbetween the Morning and the Afternoon Services, and on the Day of\nAtonement, Ne\u00eflah, \u201cConcluding Service,\u201d is added after Minchah.\n\nThe two most essential elements in these Services are: (1) the Reading\nof Shema (\u200f\u05e7\u05e8\u05d9\u05d0\u05ea \u05e9\u05de\u05e2\u200e), in the Maaribh and the Shacharith; (2) the\nTefillah or Amidah, common to all the Services.\n\n\n\n1. THE READING OF SHEMA.\n\nIn obedience to the precept, \u201cThou shalt speak of them,\u201d i.e., of \u201cthe\nwords which I command thee this day\u2014when thou liest down and when thou\nrisest up,\u201d three sections of the Law are read daily in the morning and\nin the evening, viz., (1) Deut. vi. 4\u20139, beginning \u200f\u05e9\u05de\u05e2\u200e \u201cHear;\u201d (2)\nIbid. xi. 13\u201321, beginning \u200f\u05d5\u05d4\u05d9\u05d4 \u05d0\u05dd \u05e9\u05de\u05e2 \u05ea\u05e9\u05de\u05e2\u05d5\u200e \u201cAnd it shall be if ye\nwill diligently hearken;\u201d (3) Num. xv. 37\u201341, beginning \u200f\u05d5\u05d9\u05d0\u05de\u05e8 \u05d9\u05d9\u200e \u201cAnd\nthe Lord said.\u201d The first section teaches the Unity of God, and our\nduty to love this One God with all our heart, to make His Word the\nsubject of our constant meditation, and to instil it into the heart of\nthe young.\u2014The second section contains the lesson of reward and\npunishment: that our success depends on our obedience to the Will of\nGod. This important truth must constantly be kept before our eyes and\nbefore the eyes of our children.\u2014The third section contains the\ncommandment of tsitsith, the object of which is to remind us of God\u2019s\nprecepts: \u201cYe shall see it and remember all the commandments of the\nLord and do them, and that ye seek not after your own heart and your\nown eyes, after which ye use to go astray, that you remember and do all\nmy commandments, and be holy unto your God.\u201d\n\nThe reading of the shema is preceded by two berachoth: (1) \u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05e6\u05e8 \u05d0\u05d5\u05e8\u200e\nPraise of the Creator for the regular sequence of day and night, light\nand darkness; (2) \u200f\u05d0\u05d4\u05d1\u05d4 \u05e8\u05d1\u05d4\u200e or \u200f\u05d0\u05d4\u05d1\u05ea \u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd\u200e Praise of His goodness in\ngiving us the Torah, and prayer for His assistance in the study of the\nTorah. The shema is followed by a berachah on the Redemption of Israel;\nit contains a reflection on the last words of shema, \u201cI am the Lord\nyour God,\u201d an expression of our faith in the truth of these words,\nwhich strengthen our belief in the future Redemption of Israel. [157]\nIn the Evening Service a second berachah follows, beginning \u200f\u05d4\u05e9\u05db\u05d9\u05d1\u05e0\u05d5\u200e,\nand containing a prayer for protection during the night. [158]\n\n\n\n2. THE TEFILLAH OR AMIDAH.\n\nThe Tefillah, \u201cPrayer\u201d par excellence, is called Amidah (lit.,\n\u201cstanding\u201d), because the worshipper stands during the time he offers it\nup. It is also called Shemoneh-esreh, \u201cEighteen,\u201d because it contains\non most occasions eighteen (or nineteen, comp. p. 431) paragraphs, each\nconcluding with a benediction.\n\nThe first three paragraphs contain praise of God\u2019s goodness to us, the\ndescendants of the pious patriarchs (1), His omnipotence (2), and His\nholiness (3).\n\nThe next thirteen paragraphs are petitions for our individual and\nnational well-being. For our individual well-being (4\u20139), namely, for\nreason and wisdom (4), assistance in our endeavour to return to God\n(5), forgiveness of our sins (6), deliverance from trouble (7), from\nillness (8), and from want (9).\u2014For our national well-being (10\u201315),\nnamely, for the gathering of those who are scattered (10), under good\nleaders (11), protected from the evil designs of our foes (12), for the\nsupport of the faithful (13), the rebuilding of Jerusalem (14), and the\nadvent of Messiah (15). The sixteenth paragraph is a prayer that our\npetition may be accepted.\u2014The last three paragraphs include a petition\nfor the re-establishment of Divine Service in the Temple of Jerusalem\n(17), thanksgiving (18), and prayer for peace and prosperity (19). When\nthe prayer is finished we express the wish that our lips, from which\nprayer to God has come forth, may not be defiled by unworthy language.\n\nOn Sabbaths, Holy-days, and in every Musaph the thirteen middle\nparagraphs are replaced by one in which reference is made to the\ncharacteristic feature of the day; in the Musaph of New-year three\nberachoth (p. 404) are substituted for the thirteen middle berachoth of\nthe ordinary tefillah. The thirteen paragraphs have been eliminated in\norder that we should not be reminded on Sabbath and Holy-days of our\nfailings, wants, and troubles; that those seasons should be marked by a\nhappier and more cheerful mood than ordinary days (supra, p. 354).\n\nThere are two shorter forms of the tefillah for urgent occasions: the\none is a substitute for the \u201cEighteen,\u201d in which the middle thirteen\nparagraphs are contracted into one; it is called \u200f\u05d4\u05d1\u05d9\u05e0\u05e0\u05d5\u200e (the first\nword of this middle section), or \u200f\u05de\u05e2\u05d9\u05df \u05e9\u05de\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4 \u05e2\u05e9\u05e8\u05d4\u200e \u201cabstract of the\n\u2018Eighteen.\u2019\u201d The other is a contraction of the Friday evening tefillah,\nand is called \u200f\u05de\u05e2\u05d9\u05df \u05e9\u05d1\u05e2\u200e \u201cabstract of the \u2018Seven\u2019\u201d (scil., paragraphs\nforming the tefillah), originally intended for those who were too late\nfor the full Service. [159]\n\n\n\nEach of the above Services ends with a prayer called after its initial\nword alenu, \u201cIt is our duty.\u201d In this prayer we thank God that we have\nthe privilege of proclaiming His Unity, and express our hope to see the\nworship of the One God adopted by all mankind. It is omitted between\ntwo Services following closely the one upon the other.\n\nIn addition to the above, the Service contains the following parts:\u2014\n\n(1.) \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05d5\u05ea \u05d4\u05e9\u05d7\u05e8\u200e \u201cBlessings of the Morning,\u201d forming the first part of\nthe Morning Service. It contains benedictions, reflections, and prayers\nsuggested by the change from night to day, from sleep to wakefulness,\nfrom rest to activity.\n\n(2.) Psalms.\u2014Our Service contains various groups of psalms: chief among\nthem the mizmorim or pesuke dezimrah (\u201csongs\u201d or \u201cverses of song\u201d), and\nshir shel yom (\u201csong of the day\u201d), in the Morning Service. The former\ninclude Ps. cxlv. to cl., some other psalms, and the song of Moses\n(Exod. xv.). The latter correspond to the songs of the Levites in the\nTemple, and consist of Ps. xxiv. (for Sunday), xlviii. (for Monday),\nlxxxii. (for Tuesday), xciv. (for Wednesday), lxxxi. (for Thursday),\nxciii. (for Friday), and xcii. (for Saturday).\u2014The repetition of Ps.\ncxlv. three times a day, twice during Shacharith and once during\nMinchah, is an old minhag (Babyl. Talm., Berachoth, p. 4b).\n\n(3.) Supplications (\u200f\u05ea\u05d7\u05e0\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e) added in the Morning and the Afternoon\nServices after the tefillah.\n\n(4.) Readings from the Bible and Post-Biblical Sacred Literature, such\nas Num. vi. 22 sqq. (priests\u2019 blessing); Gen. xxii. (binding of Isaac);\nExod. xvi. (manna); Mishnah, Peah i. 1, and Babyl. T., Shabbath 127a,\nin the earlier part of the Morning Service; and words of comfort\n(beginning \u200f\u05d5\u05d1\u05d0 \u05dc\u05e6\u05d9\u05d5\u05df\u200e) from the Prophets after the \u201cSupplications.\u201d\nOriginally an exposition of the Written and the Oral Law followed the\n\u201cSupplications,\u201d and concluded with Messianic prophecies, recited in\nHebrew and in the Chaldee Version.\n\n(5.) Biblical and Post-Biblical passages referring to the Sacrificial\nService, in the Morning and the Afternoon Services.\n\nIn addition to the above Services, read either in the Synagogue or\nprivately at home, there is a special prayer read by us before retiring\nto rest. The chief element in it is the first section of shema; hence\nthe name \u200f\u05e7\u05e8\u05d9\u05d0\u05ea \u05e9\u05de\u05e2 \u05e9\u05e2\u05dc \u05d4\u05de\u05d8\u05d4\u200e \u201cReading of shema before going to bed.\u201d\nSome psalms and supplications are generally added.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nPUBLIC SERVICE, \u200f\u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d4 \u05d1\u05e6\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u200e. [160]\n\n\nThe following points mark off the Public Service from the various forms\nof private prayer:\u2014\n\n(1.) Kaddish, \u201cSanctification,\u201d a prayer for the universal\nsanctification of God\u2019s name, which will distinguish the age of\nMessiah. In the second part of the Kaddish we pray for the Messianic\npeace, and in the last sentence express our hope that it may soon be\ngranted.\n\nFormerly the Kaddish concluded the Service; at present it is recited at\nthe end of the Service in its full form (\u200f\u05e7\u05d3\u05d9\u05e9 \u05e9\u05dc\u05dd\u200e \u201cthe whole\nKaddish\u201d); the first half (\u200f\u05d7\u05e6\u05d9 \u05e7\u05d3\u05d9\u05e9\u200e \u201chalf-Kaddish\u201d) has its place at\nthe end of a section of the Service\u2014e.g., after the \u200f\u05e4\u05e1\u05d5\u05e7\u05d9 \u05d3\u05d6\u05de\u05e8\u05d4\u200e in\nthe Morning Service; a third form is recited by mourners after \u200f\u05e2\u05dc\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5\u200e\nand after special hymns or psalms; it is the whole Kaddish with the\nomission of the sentence beginning \u200f\u05ea\u05ea\u05e7\u05d1\u05dc\u200e. It is called \u200f\u05e7\u05d3\u05d9\u05e9 \u05d9\u05ea\u05d5\u05dd\u200e\n\u201cKaddish of the orphan,\u201d and is intended to express the mourner\u2019s faith\nin God and his resignation to His Will.\u2014Sometimes a special Kaddish,\ncalled Kaddish dirabbanan, is recited after the reading of some\nTalmudic or Midrashic passages. It is the same as Kaddish shalem,\nexcept that the sentence beginning \u200f\u05ea\u05ea\u05e7\u05d1\u05dc\u200e is replaced by a prayer for\nthe welfare of the scholars, the Rabbis, and their pupils.\n\n(2.) Repetition of the tefillah by the Reader, with the addition of\nKedushah before the third paragraph, and the Priests\u2019 Blessing before\nthe last paragraph, of the tefillah. The Kedushah, \u201cProclamation of the\nHoliness of God,\u201d is based on the visions of Isa. vi. and of Ezek.\niii., with citation of three verses, Isa. vi. 3, Ezek. iii. 12, and Ps.\ncxlvi. 10, in which the Holiness, Glory, and Kingdom of God are\nproclaimed.\n\nThe Priests\u2019 Blessing, originally spoken by priests, descendants of\nAaron, is now in most Synagogues included by the Reader in the tefillah\nby way of quotation; only on Holy-days it is pronounced by the priests.\n\n(3.) \u200f\u05e7\u05e8\u05d9\u05d0\u05ea \u05d4\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e \u201cthe Reading of the Law,\u201d and the \u201cLessons from the\nProphets\u201d (\u200f\u05d4\u05e4\u05d8\u05e8\u05d4\u200e), with the benedictions preceding and following\n(supra, p. 348).\n\n\n\nOCCASIONAL PRAYERS\u2014BENEDICTIONS, \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05d5\u05ea\u200e.\n\nThe feeling of our dependence on the goodness of God must constantly be\npresent to our mind. Whatever we enjoy, be it in the form of eating or\ndrinking, or some pleasing or remarkable sight, an agreeable smell, a\nfestivity on a joyful event, or the performance of a Divine commandment\n(\u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05d4\u200e); whatever befall us, whether it be pleasant or unpleasant\u2014all\nthis we consider as sent to us by the Will of the Almighty, and we\nexpress our conviction by a suitable berachah. The general rule is thus\nlaid down by our Sages: It is unlawful for man to enjoy anything on\nearth without previously acknowledging by a berachah that God is the\nsource whence the enjoyment is derived. For different cases different\nforms of \u201cblessings\u201d have been fixed by our Sages. In some cases the\nenjoyment is also followed by a prayer of thanksgiving, the most\nimportant being the prayer after meals, called \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05ea \u05d4\u05de\u05d6\u05d5\u05df\u200e\n\u201cBenediction for food or Grace.\u201d [161] In the Mishnah it is called\n\u201cThree Blessings\u201d (\u200f\u05e9\u05dc\u05e9 \u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05d5\u05ea\u200e), because it consisted originally of\nthree paragraphs, each ending with a benediction. The three paragraphs\nare the following: (1) \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05ea \u05d4\u05d6\u05df\u200e (\u201cBenediction commencing \u200f\u05d4\u05d6\u05df\u200e\u201d), in\nwhich we praise God\u2019s providential care of all creatures. (2) \u200f\u05d4\u05d5\u05d3\u05d0\u05d4\u200e\n\u201cThanksgiving,\u201d or \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05ea \u05d4\u05d0\u05e8\u05e5\u200e (Benediction referring to Palestine). In\nthis paragraph we offer thanks for our individual sustenance, as well\nas for our national gifts: Palestine, the Covenant, and the Law. (3)\nPrayer for the restoration of Zion and the rebuilding of the Temple\n(\u200f\u05d1\u05e0\u05d9\u05df \u05d9\u05e8\u05d5\u05e9\u05dc\u05dd\u200e).\u2014Subsequently a fourth paragraph was added (\u200f\u05d4\u05d8\u05d5\u05d1\n\u05d5\u05d4\u05de\u05d8\u05d9\u05d1\u200e \u201cwho is good and causes His creatures to be good\u201d) in\ncommemoration of the relief given to the Jews after the close of the\nwar with Hadrian. [162]\u2014On certain occasions, e.g., at a wedding\nrepast, suitable additions are made. Besides these, various\nsupplications have been added in later times.\n\nThere are various short forms of this \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05ea \u05d4\u05de\u05d6\u05d5\u05df\u200e; the shortest is\nthat for children, \u201cBlessed be the Merciful, the Giver of this bread.\u201d\n[163]\u2014When three grown-up male persons or more have their meal\ntogether, a special introductory form is used, called \u200f\u05d6\u05de\u05d5\u05df\u200e \u201csummons\nto prayer,\u201d one of the company acting as Reader, and the rest forming\nthe congregation.\n\nAnother form of thanksgiving is the \u201cAbstract of the Three Blessings\u201d\n(\u200f\u05de\u05e2\u05d9\u05df \u05e9\u05dc\u05e9\u200e), consisting of one paragraph which contains the whole of\nthe Grace in a contracted form, and is used after cake, wine, and the\nlike.\n\nNo restriction is enforced upon us if we desire on our part to give\nexpression to our feeling of gratitude and reverence toward the\nAlmighty in our own words on occasions not provided for in the ancient\nforms of benedictions and prayers. In order, however, to make a\ndistinction between the forms of obligatory berachoth fixed by our\nSages and the optional ones introduced by ourselves, we do not employ\nthe words, \u201cO Lord, our God, King of the Universe,\u201d which are essential\nin the former.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNOTES.\n\n1. On Page 424 sqq.\n\nAmong the different minhagim observed in the Synagogue the following\nare noteworthy:\u2014The head is kept covered, the hands uncovered; gloves\nare generally taken off before the beginning of the Service. It was\ncustomary to spread forth the hands during prayer, and the phrase\n\u201cspreading forth the hands\u201d is used in the Bible in the sense of\n\u201cpraying.\u201d The priests still raise their hands when pronouncing the\nblessing. Isaiah, rebuking those who prayed to God without seeking\npurification from evil deeds, says, \u201cAnd when you spread forth your\nhands I will hide mine eyes from you; yea, when ye make many prayers I\nwill not hear; your hands are full of blood\u201d (Isa. i. 15). Following\nthe example of the Psalmist, \u201cI will wash my hands in innocency, so\nwill I compass thine altar\u201d (Ps. xxvi. 6), we wash our hands before\nprayer, as a symbol of the duty of purifying our conscience from guilt\nbefore approaching the Almighty with our petitions. We thus uncover our\nhands as if to say, \u201cThe reproach of Isaiah does not apply to us; we\nhave tried to free our heart and our hands from guilt.\u201d\n\nA custom frequently animadverted upon is the habit which many Jews have\nadopted of swinging their bodies forward and backward during prayer. We\nconsider it a more decent way to stand or sit still when communing with\nthe Supreme Being. Both ways find support in the Talmud (Babyl. T.,\nBerachoth 31a, and Shabbath 10a); whilst the one stands like \u201ca servant\nin the presence of his master,\u201d the other gives way to his emotions and\nexcitement. The Magen Abraham, on chap. xlviii. 4, says: \u201cHe who\nfollows the one example is right, and he who follows the other is\nlikewise right: all depends on the devotion of the heart.\u201d Rabbi\nJehudah ha-Levi in his Cuzari (Book II. chap. xli.) mentions and\nexplains the custom of shaking during prayer. The habit of accompanying\nthe emotions of our heart by corresponding motions of our body has\nproduced the custom of raising the whole body upwards when uttering the\nword \u201choly\u201d in the kedushah.\n\nDuring tefillah we remain standing in the same place; at the end, when\nwe have finished our petition, we retire slowly a few steps backward;\nthe same is done by the Reader during the last paragraph of the\nkaddish. It is as if, our petition ended, we reverently withdrew from\nthe heavenly King who has given us audience during the prayer.\n\nWe bend the knee, incline our head, and bow down on certain occasions\nduring the Service, but we do not kneel during prayer.\u2014It has perhaps\nbeen avoided as an idolatrous practice, with reference to Judges vii.\n5.\n\nWhen the Ark is opened and the Sefer is taken out or put back, we stand\nand show our respect for the Word of God in various ways. Some bow the\nhead; others, considering this as worship, kiss the Sefer, or otherwise\nexpress their reverence.\n\nThe traditional way in which the kohanim proceed to bless the people is\nthis: they remove their shoes, as the priests did who ministered in the\nTemple; water is then poured over their hands by the Levites, the\nablutions of the ancient priests being thus imitated to some extent\n(see Exod. xxx. 20). It is a holy act, and is done in the Synagogue\ngenerally in front of the Ark. The priests ascend the steps of the\nhechal and wait till called upon by the Reader to pronounce the\nblessing. They turn toward the congregation, spread forth their hands\nin the traditional manner, and cover head and face with the talith, in\norder not to be disturbed in their devotion by the sight of the\ncongregation before them; the Reader dictates the words of the\nbenediction to them to guard against any mistakes being made by them.\nThe congregation, giving special importance to each word, add Biblical\nquotations and special supplications during the interval between one\nword and the other. Of greater importance, however, is respectful\nlistening to the words uttered by the priests, and chanted by them in a\npeculiar traditional tune. The priests turn to all directions while\npronouncing the blessing, expressing thereby that they would have no\none excluded from the blessing.\n\nSome kohanim refuse to perform this duty, pretending or believing that\nthey are unworthy to bless the congregation. This is a mistake. Those\nwho feel that they are unworthy must try by improved conduct to render\nthemselves worthy, but disobedience to the direct commandment of the\nDivine Law is certainly not the beginning of improvement. Others object\nto the singing, in which they are unable to join; others to taking off\ntheir boots. The excuses are certainly insufficient. But as these two\nelements are less essential, they might, if necessary, be dispensed\nwith if the fulfilment of the commandment is secured thereby.\n\n\n\n2. On Page 439.\n\nThere are various parts in our Service which originally seem to have\nformed a substitute, under certain circumstances, for a section of the\nService or for the whole of it, but were subsequently, when the\ncircumstances altered, embodied as an integral part of the Service in\naddition to the sections which they had replaced.\n\nIn the Morning Service there is in the section called \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05d5\u05ea \u05d4\u05e9\u05d7\u05e8\u200e a\nprayer beginning \u200f\u05dc\u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd \u05d9\u05d4\u05d0 \u05d0\u05d3\u05dd\u200e and concluding \u200f\u05dc\u05e2\u05d9\u05e0\u05d9\u05db\u05dd \u05d0\u05de\u05e8 \u05d9\u05d9\u200e. This\nprayer, preceded by an exhortation to be God-fearing in secret\u2014when\npersecution prevented public worship of God\u2014contains an expression of\npride in our history, and of gratitude to God that we have the\nprivilege to proclaim the Unity of God in the words, \u201cHear, O Israel,\u201d\n&c., and a petition for the fulfilment of the Messianic prophecies.\n\nIn the Maaribh the part beginning \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05da \u05d9\u05d9 \u05dc\u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd\u200e and ending \u200f\u05e2\u05dc \u05db\u05dc\n\u05de\u05e2\u05e9\u05d9\u05d5\u200e was originally a substitute for the Amidah, and the conclusion\nof the Evening Service for those who considered the tefillah in the\nevening optional. Similarly, on Friday evening the contracted tefillah\nwas originally a substitute for the tefillah for those who came late.\nIn both these and similar cases the substitute and its original have\nbeen retained as integral parts of the Service.\n\n\n\n3. On Page 442 (2).\n\nIn the public Service the tefillah is repeated by the Reader after the\nsilent prayer (\u200f\u05d1\u05dc\u05ea\u05e9\u200e) of the congregation. This minhag must have been\nintroduced very early. In the Talmud (end of Rosh ha-shanah) it is\nspoken of as a regular institution, its purpose is discussed, and the\nreason stated why we should not dispense with the Reader\u2019s repetition\nor with the silent tefillah. It seems that there was, on the one hand,\na desire on the part of the congregants to have an uninterrupted silent\ntefillah in which they could give suitable expression each one to his\npersonal and peculiar wants and wishes. On the other hand, there was\nalso a desire felt by many to be guided in their devotions by the\nReader. Our minhag satisfies both requirements. But it is a grave error\nto think, as unfortunately many do, that, while the Reader repeats the\ntefillah, the congregants may turn their heart and mind to other\nthings, however holy these be. The congregation and the Reader must be\nunited in devotion during \u200f\u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d4 \u05d1\u05e6\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u200e, and where the continued\nconcentration of thought during the tefillah and its repetition seems\nunattainable, it would be better to sacrifice the minhag of repeating\nthe tefillah rather than to have the repetition of the prayer without\nthe participation of the congregants, or even without decorum.\n\nIn the repetition of the tefillah the kedushah forms an important\naddition. The essential idea of the kedushah is repeated thrice during\nthe Morning Service, viz., in the first of the benedictions preceding\nthe shema, in the tefillah or Amidah, and in the concluding section\ncommencing \u200f\u05d5\u05d1\u05d0 \u05dc\u05e6\u05d9\u05d5\u05df\u200e.\n\nIn the first kedushah (called \u200f\u05e7\u05d3\u05d5\u05e9\u05d4 \u05d3\u05d9\u05d5\u05e6\u05e8\u200e), while praising God as the\nCreator of light and of the heavenly luminaries, we introduce these, as\nproclaiming, as it were, the holiness and glory of God in the words of\nthe Prophets. In the last kedushah (called \u200f\u05e7\u05d3\u05d5\u05e9\u05d4 \u05d3\u05e1\u05d9\u05d3\u05e8\u05d0\u200e or \u200f\u05e1\u05d9\u05d3\u05e8\u05d0\n\u05d3\u05e7\u05d3\u05d5\u05e9\u05d4\u200e) we merely read, among other passages from the Prophets, those\nverses of Isaiah and Ezekiel which contain the chief sentences of the\nkedushah. In the kedushah of the tefillah the Reader summons the\ncongregation to proclaim the sanctification of God in the manner of the\nangels above; it has therefore its place only in Public Worship, whilst\nas to the other two kedushoth there is no difference whether a person\nprays by himself or in a congregation of worshippers.\n\nAs regards \u200f\u05e7\u05d3\u05d9\u05e9 \u05d5\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05d5\u200e, two prayers generally united, it must be\nremarked that in their meaning they are disunited: the half-kaddish is\nthe conclusion of the mizmorim or pesuke dezimrah, and \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05d5\u200e is the\ncommencement of the next section: shema, with its benedictions. The\nhalf-kaddish, wherever it occurs, concludes some section of the\nService. In shacharith, after Amidah, or after \u201cSupplications,\u201d or\nafter the Reading of the Law; at Musaf, Minchah, Ne\u00eflah, and Maaribh\nafter the introductory psalms. The half-kaddish before the Amidah in\nthe Maaribh is probably a remnant of the whole kaddish that used to be\nsaid when the Service ended there and the Amidah was considered\noptional (\u200f\u05e8\u05e9\u05d5\u05ea\u200e).\n\n\n\n4. On Page 442 (3).\n\nAn important element in the Service is religious instruction. The means\nadopted were the reading of the Torah and Haphtarah, the introduction\nof moral lessons, principles of faith, exposition of Divine precepts\ninto the Service, and lectures containing various lessons,\nexhortations, and explanations of the Biblical and Post-Biblical Sacred\nLiterature. These lectures are an ancient institution. The prophets\ninstructed the people, especially on New-moon and Sabbath (2 Kings iv.\n23); the Scribes and the Rabbis of the Talmudic age expounded the Torah\nand other Biblical and Post-Biblical writings; they were followed by\ndarshanim and maggidim, the modern preachers and ministers. The aim of\nthese lectures is to create, maintain, or intensify the fear of God and\nthe love of the Torah (\u200f\u05d0\u05d4\u05d1\u05ea \u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4 \u05d5\u05d9\u05e8\u05d0\u05ea \u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd\u200e).\n\nThe Sermon has lost much of its original force and influence. The cause\nof this fact is probably to be sought chiefly in the materialism and\nscepticism of the age, but to some degree also in the character of the\nsermon. It cannot be denied that the pulpit, instead of being made a\nplace from which Love of Torah and Fear of God receive life,\nencouragement, and strength, is frequently turned into a platform for\ndiscussing communal or personal quarrels or theological controversies,\nor creating a discontent with existing institutions, without\nsufficiently considering the result of such discontent. Themes like\nthese are not outside the province of the preacher, but they must not\nbe the staple of his discourses, which must principally seek to foster\n\u200f\u05d0\u05d4\u05d1\u05ea \u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4 \u05d5\u05d9\u05e8\u05d0\u05ea \u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd\u200e in the hearts of the congregants. As to the\nhistory and literature of this branch of the Service, see Zunz, Die\nGottesdienstlichen Vortr\u00e4ge der Juden. Berlin, 1832.\n\n\n\n5. On Page 420.\n\nThe question is frequently asked whether special meetings and Services\nmay be arranged with a view of improving the religious status of the\nJewish community. There is no reason why attempts should not be made in\nthis direction. By all means let everything be done that is conducive\nto a revival of religious feeling and religious practice. But in such\nattempts care must be taken that nothing be done that is contrary to\nthe precepts of the Law, both Written and Oral; that the teachers,\npreachers, or lecturers do not themselves display a disregard for\nrecognised religious authority, and by such conduct undermine the\nexisting reverence for the inherited traditional Religion.\n\nOn this basis meetings on Sabbath for the purpose of reading the Bible,\npraying, and singing, in whatever language this be done, and special\nServices for the pupils of Religion Classes at the close of the\nsession, must be welcome to all who have a love for our holy Religion.\n\n\n\n6. On Page 420.\n\nA question of equal importance that frequently disturbs the peace of\nthe congregation is this: whether and in how far the established Ritual\nor minhag of a Synagogue may be altered. The Ritual is not the work of\none man or of one age; it is the product of the thoughts and the\nfeelings of our nation through many centuries. Its foundation was laid\nby the Men of the Great Synagogue in the time of Ezra. Generation after\ngeneration were busy in the construction of the building; storey was\nadded to storey; from time to time new wings made their appearance.\nReverence and piety made successive builders reluctant to pull down\nwhat the same feelings of preceding generations had reared. The whole\nformed a Sanctuary every single stone of which was cherished and\nguarded against desecration. Notwithstanding the storms and tempests to\nwhich it was exposed, and which certainly caused a breach here and\nthere, our Sanctuary stands still on its ancient foundations, and its\nwalls retain their power of resistance.\n\nWhat is the duty of the present generation with regard to this\nstructure? Architects or would-be architects examine it minutely from\nfoundation to top-stone; but they come to different conclusions. We\nwill examine these conclusions, sine ir\u00e2 et studio, assuming that the\nexamination has been conducted bon\u00e2 fide, with a view of strengthening\nthe Sanctuary, and that the reports are in accordance with truth and\nthe examiners\u2019 innermost conviction.\n\n(1.) Some declare \u201cthe Building no longer attractive; there are so many\nother edifices full of points of attraction both without and within;\nthese must in course of time draw away the visitors from our Sanctuary,\nand estrange those who used to fill it.\u201d We admit the force of the\nargument. It has always been the aim of those who had the management of\nthe Synagogue in their hands to make the Service attractive; there is\nno reason why it could or should not be done at present. Means of\nattraction are mostly of an external character: the art and luxury\ndisplayed in the building and its furniture, the eloquence of the\npreacher, the voice of the reader, the singing of the choir,\nintroduction of novelties, such as instrumental music (scil., on\nweek-days) and prayers in the vernacular. In themselves these things\nare harmless, and although they are not the essence of the worship,\nthey may lead to it; [164] and, for this reason, it must be considered\na condition sine qu\u00e2 non, that the style of singing, reading, and\npreaching should be such as to please the majority, if not every one,\nof the congregants. [165] But there is this to be feared and guarded\nagainst: viz., that the husk be mistaken for the fruit, and true\ndevotion be lost. Besides, the experiment has been made, and the\ndesired result has not been obtained. There are plenty of places for\nthe enjoyment of vocal and instrumental music, with which the Synagogue\nwould vie in vain in point of attractiveness, and novelties, as\nnovelties, soon wear away, and bring no real improvement. Let the\nleaders of the Synagogue strengthen the faith of their brethren in God\nand His Word, maintain, by good example, their reverence for our\nancient traditions and customs, and be themselves earnest and devout\nworshippers; they will then surely be more successful in drawing others\nto the House of God.\n\n(2.) Another critic says: \u201cThe Synagogue Services are discordant;\u201d that\nis, the feelings expressed in our prayers have no echo in the hearts of\nthe worshippers. \u201cEducation and general progress have so entirely\nchanged the whole life of man that he can no longer be edified by the\nprayers and method of devotion followed by our forefathers.\u201d Those who\nassert this, of course, only assert it of themselves, and so far their\nstatement may be accepted as correct. But on examining it more closely\nwe find that there must be something misleading in it. For what is the\ncentral idea of the ancient prayers and hymns? The conviction that we\naddress our Heavenly Father, who is the Creator and Ruler of the\nUniverse; who is just, good, and holy; who alone can fulfil the wishes\nwhich we utter in our prayers, and \u201cwho is near to all those who call\nupon him in truth.\u201d Does progress of education force us to abandon this\nprinciple? Certainly not. Those who do abandon it cannot be said to do\nso by force of education, for they are found among the educated and\nuneducated alike; and we should be false to our own Faith if we were to\nabandon this fundamental principle of our Divine Service.\n\nThe second of the fundamental Principles of our Faith, though less\ngeneral than the preceding, is yet equally essential in Judaism, viz.,\nthe belief in Revelation, in the Integrity and the Divine origin of the\nTorah, and the truth of the Divine messages sent through the prophets.\nThe Ritual is replete with references to this belief, and it would\namount to a rejection of this essentially Jewish Principle, if we were\nto expunge such references from the Ritual in order to please a few\nunbelievers.\n\nReferences to the Sacrificial Service, and especially prayers for its\nrestoration, are disliked by some, who think such restoration\nundesirable. Let no one pray for a thing against his will; let him\nwhose heart is not with his fellow-worshippers in any of their\nsupplications silently substitute his own prayers for them, but let him\nnot interfere with the devotion of those to whom \u201cthe statutes of the\nLord are right, rejoicing the heart; the commandment of the Lord pure,\nenlightening the eyes; the judgments of the Lord true and righteous\naltogether\u201d (Ps. xix. 9, 10), and who yearn for the opportunity of\nfulfilling Divine commandments which they cannot observe at present.\n[166] Prayer, in the true sense of the word, is impossible without the\nrecognition of God as our Master, whom we are willing to serve, and\nwhose commands we desire to do, whether the act implied in them be in\nother respects agreeable to us or not.\n\n(3.) The Ritual contains many sections which owe their existence to\nparticular circumstances that have passed away, and to local conditions\nwhich are different from those prevailing in the countries in which we\nlive. Have these a right to be kept perpetually in the Ritual?\nCertainly not. There is no reason why prayers which have become\nobsolete and meaningless should not be modified or discontinued. But as\na rule our prayers are free from references to the particular causes of\ntheir composition, and there is no need to expunge from the Service\npetitions, thanksgivings, or praises which were originally intended for\na special occasion, if they are expressed in general terms, and have\nbecome in the Synagogue a source of devotion and edification. But as to\nthe latter condition, it is difficult to decide whether a liturgical\ncomposition has become, and is still, an aid to devotion. Much depends\non the individual character of the particular congregation in which the\nquestion has been raised, and each case should be decided on its own\nmerits by a competent and responsible authority.\n\nMany of the Piyyutim [167] and Selichoth belong to this class; also a\nfew sections in the ordinary Ritual (see note 2), and the repetition of\nthe Amidah, and the Kiddush in the Synagogue on the eve of Sabbaths and\nFestivals.\n\n(4.) It is further asserted that the Ritual was formulated in bygone\ntimes; our wants and tastes are different from those of former ages. We\ncan neither pray for the same things nor in the same way as our\nancestors. But what did our ancestors pray for? For the well-being of\ntheir body and of their soul; for the realisation of our national hopes\nand the ultimate triumph of our holy Religion. Just the same ends we\nwish to obtain at present, and these objects form the substance of our\nRitual.\u2014There are some petitions which seem to many out of place, and\nout of date. Such are petitions against cruel oppressors. Our fathers\nhad good reason to cry to the Almighty for relief, for they were\noppressed, whilst we, living in a free country, in the enjoyment of all\nthe rights of citizens, have no cause whatever for complaint. If we\nwere to separate ourselves from our brethren in distant countries, we\ncould expunge all such petitions from the Ritual. This is, however, not\nthe case; we feel deeply grieved at the sufferings of our brethren. We\nshould like to see them relieved from oppression and persecution, and\npray to God for His interference in behalf of the persecuted. When we\nuse the term \u201crevenge\u201d (\u200f\u05e0\u05e7\u05dd\u200e) we do not associate with it any base\ndesire to see the enemy crushed or annihilated; we use it rather in the\nsense of a just and merited penalty for evil-doers, and associate with\nit the idea of the ultimate victory and triumph of our holy Religion\nafter long periods of oppression and persecution. It is their Faith for\nwhich our fathers suffered, and our brethren in some countries still\nsuffer, and the triumph of which forms the centre of these petitions.\nIntense grief and sorrow sometimes suggested harsh expressions, such as\n\u201cDestroy our enemies,\u201d \u201cPut an end to them,\u201d but these are figurative\nexpressions, and are used in the sense explained by Beruria, the wife\nof Rabbi Meir: \u201cMay the sinners cease from sinning, and sinners will be\nno more.\u201d Similarly we pray in the Amidah: \u201cLet our slanderers have no\nhope of success, so that evil-doers may soon vanish and disappear;\nbreak the power of the presumptuous, and humble them.\u201d In these words\nwe give expression to our feeling of indignation against the slanderers\nof our holy Religion, the revilers of Judaism, such, e.g., as from time\nto time renew the blood-accusations, or by false and deceptive\narguments or other means entice Jews to abandon their faith. [168]\n\n(5.) We hear frequently the complaint that the Public Service is too\nlong. This complaint is of a relative character; it is different from\nthe feeling of joy expressed in the words, \u201cBlessed are those who dwell\nin thy house;\u201d it is different from the sentiment of those chasidim\n(Mishnah, Berachoth v. 1) who sat still a while before the commencement\nof the prescribed prayer, or those who after the conclusion thereof sit\ndown again, saying, \u201cSurely the righteous shall give thanks to thy\nname; the upright shall dwell in thy presence\u201d (Ps. cxl. 14). As\nregards the length of the Service, we should bear in mind the principle\nof our Sages: It makes no difference whether the Service is long or\nshort: only be devout. It is provocative of irreverence to protract the\nService unnecessarily until it becomes wearisome; but it is equally\nunbecoming to hurry over it as though it were an unpleasant task. On\nthe whole the Services, especially when they are well regulated, are\nnot too long, unless too much time be spent in singing or in\nunnecessary interruptions.\n\nIn all cases in which a modification seems advisable and lawful it must\nbe borne in mind that the Ritual is a Sanctuary every element of which\nis holy, and that hasty reforms may be less effective than is hoped. It\nmay perhaps be easy to pull down, but it is not so easy to build up.\nDevout members of a congregation may easily be alienated, but not so\neasily will new members be attracted, or if attracted, permanently\nretained.\n\n\n\n7. On Page 424.\n\nRabban Gamaliel said, \u201cProvide thyself a teacher, and be quit of doubt\u201d\n(Aboth i. 16). The rule laid down in these words for every individual\napplies also to the whole community. Questions like those mentioned in\nthe preceding note frequently arise in Jewish congregations, and cause\ndissension where union is so much needed. A teacher must be appointed\nin every community, who shall be able to guide and to instruct it as to\nwhat is right and wrong. In fact, such a teacher has, as a rule, been\nappointed in Jewish congregations; he is known by various names: Haham\n(\u200f\u05d7\u05db\u05dd\u200e), Rav (\u200f\u05e8\u05d1\u200e \u201cTeacher\u201d), Rabbi (\u200f\u05e8\u05d1\u05d9\u200e \u201cMy teacher\u201d), Teacher of\nrighteousness (\u200f\u05de\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4 \u05e6\u05d3\u05e7\u200e), and Judge (\u200f\u05d3\u05d9\u05df\u200e). The weight of his\nauthority is less to be determined by the nature of his office or by\nwritten conditions than by his learning, piety, and personal influence.\nAccording to the rule, \u201cJudge not alone\u201d (ibid. iv. 8), he is generally\nassisted by two councillors (dayganim), with whom he forms a court of\njudgment\u2014Beth-din\u2014when questions of more than ordinary importance have\nto be decided. The congregation must accept his decisions as final, and\nmust have confidence that he, like the high-priest of old, will give\nhis answers according to \u201clight and integrity.\u201d\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nVI. THE DIETARY LAWS.\n\n\n\u201cThou shalt not eat any abominable thing\u201d (Deut. xiv. 3); that is,\naccording to our traditional explanation, everything that the Word of\nGod declares to be abominable (Sifre, ad locum). One of the sections of\nthe Dietary Laws concludes thus: \u201cFor I am the Lord that brought you up\nout of the land of Egypt, to be your God: ye shall therefore be holy,\nfor I am holy\u201d (Lev. xi. 45).\n\nHoliness is therefore the only object of these laws that is distinctly\nmentioned in the Pentateuch. But what is the nature of the holiness\nwhich they are intended to produce or to promote? \u201cThe Dietary Laws,\u201d\nsays Maimonides, \u201ctrain us in the mastery over our appetites; they\naccustom us to restrain the growth of desire, the indulgence in seeking\nthat which is pleasant, and the disposition to consider the pleasure of\neating and drinking the end of man\u2019s existence\u201d (\u201cThe Guide,\u201d III.,\nchap. xxv. p. 167). And, indeed, wherever the Law commands restraint of\nsome bodily enjoyment, or restriction of any of our appetites, such\ncommandment is followed or preceded by the exhortation to be holy, or\nthe warning not to defile oneself.\n\nIs there any secondary object in these laws besides the motive\ndistinctly mentioned? It has frequently been observed that Jews have\nenjoyed a certain degree of immunity from epidemics that raged among\ntheir non-Jewish neighbours. It has further been noticed that they have\na lower rate of mortality and a greater longevity. These facts are\ngenerally explained to be the result of a temperate life, regulated by\nthe Divine Law. Finding that such is the consequence of obedience to\nthe Dietary Laws, we may fairly assume that in distinguishing certain\nthings from the rest, in prohibiting some and permitting others, the\nLawgiver aimed at the health and the well-being of man\u2019s body. Our\nconception of the goodness of God compels us to believe that in\nrecommending certain things for our use He intended thereby to promote\nour well-being, and to show us what is good for our health, and what is\ninjurious. But we must take care that we do not on that account\nconsider these precepts exclusively as sanitary regulations, however\nimportant such regulations may be. We must not lose sight of the fact\nthat Holiness is the only object of the Dietary Laws, mentioned in the\nPentateuch.\n\nBut what difference can it make to the Almighty whether we eat this or\nthat? Surely it makes no difference to the Almighty; but we have faith\nin His Goodness and Wisdom, and are convinced that He knows by what\nmeans we may best attain to that holiness which we are so frequently\nexhorted to seek, and that the Divine Laws which He revealed to us for\nthis very purpose show the shortest and the safest road to this aim.\n\nWith the following exceptions, the Dietary Laws concern only animal\nfood:\u2014\n\n(1.) \u200f\u05e2\u05e8\u05dc\u05d4\u200e \u201cForbidden fruit,\u201d i.e., the fruit of a tree during the\nfirst three years after its planting (Lev. xix. 23).\u2014The fruit of the\nfourth year (\u200f\u05e0\u05d8\u05e2 \u05e8\u05d1\u05e2\u05d9\u200e) was formerly, in the time of the Temple,\nbrought to Jerusalem, and consumed there amidst praises and\nthanksgiving to Him who is the source of all blessing (ibid. v. 24).\nThose who lived far from Jerusalem were allowed to redeem the fruit of\nthe fourth year with silver, and to spend the latter in the holy city.\n\n(2.) \u200f\u05d7\u05d3\u05e9\u200e \u201cNew corn.\u201d\u2014The Omer of barley offered on the second day of\nPassover is called \u201cthe first of your harvest\u201d (Lev. xxiii. 10), and it\nwas enjoined, \u201cYe shall eat neither bread, nor parched corn, nor fresh\nears, [169] until this selfsame day, until ye have brought the oblation\nof your God\u201d (ibid. 14).\n\nThese two laws (\u200f\u05e2\u05e8\u05dc\u05d4\u200e and \u200f\u05d7\u05d3\u05e9\u200e) seem to have their source in the\ndictum, \u201cThe first of the first-fruits of thy ground thou shalt bring\ninto the house of the Lord thy God\u201d (Exod. xxiii. 19).\n\n(3.) \u200f\u05db\u05dc\u05d0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e.\u2014Mixture of different kinds. \u201cThou shalt not sow thy field\nwith two kinds of seed\u201d (Lev. xix. 19). [170] \u201cThou shalt not sow thy\nvineyard with two kinds of seed\u201d (Deut. xxii. 9). In the former case\nonly the sowing of divers kinds is prohibited, but the produce of such\nsowing is not forbidden; in the latter case, if the law is\ntransgressed, the produce of both the vine and the seed is not to be\nused for any purpose whatever (\u200f\u05d0\u05e1\u05d5\u05e8 \u05d1\u05d4\u05e0\u05d0\u05d4\u200e), for the law is followed\nby the words, \u201clest the whole fruit be forfeited, the seed which thou\nhast sown and the increase of the vineyard.\u201d\n\nAlthough these and similar [171] precepts are introduced by the words\n\u201cYe shall keep my statutes (\u200f\u05d7\u05e7\u05ea\u05d9\u200e),\u201d and no reason is given for the\nenactment of these statutes, it seems, from the position occupied by\nthese laws in a section of moral precepts, that they serve as reminders\nof the important lesson that our conduct should be regulated by the\nprinciples of contentment and simplicity of life, principles which are\nthe best safeguard against undue desire for luxury and superfluity. The\nprohibition of sowing divers kinds of seed further reminds us of the\nimportance of preserving our heart in a state of simplicity and purity;\nthat twofold weights, twofold measures, and especially a twofold heart\nare an abomination to the Lord.\n\nIn reference to animal food the following principles are observed:\u2014\n\n1. The killing of animals and the consuming of their flesh must not\ntend to create savage and cruel habits. It is therefore forbidden\u2014\n\n(a.) To cut off a piece of flesh from a living animal for our food\n(\u200f\u05d0\u05d1\u05e8 \u05de\u05df \u05d4\u05d7\u05d9\u200e \u201ca limb of a living animal\u201d).\n\n(b.) To kill the parent with its young on the same day (Lev. xxii. 28;\ncomp. Deut. xxii. 6).\n\n(c.) To give unnecessary pain to the animal in killing it. The various\nregulations for the lawful killing of animals, \u200f\u05e9\u05d7\u05d9\u05d8\u05d4\u200e, handed down by\nTradition as Mosaic, \u200f\u05d4\u05dc\u05db\u05d4 \u05dc\u05de\u05e9\u05d4 \u05de\u05e1\u05d9\u05e0\u05d9\u200e, are not only in harmony with\nthis principle, but seem in many instances to have been dictated by it.\n\n(d.) To eat the blood of beasts and birds (Lev. xvii. 12, 14). The\nblood contained in the meat is removed as far as possible by having the\nmeat soaked in water for half-an-hour, and then kept covered with salt\nfor an hour, the salt being again removed by rinsing. This process is\ncalled kasher; that is, preparing the meat so as to make it kasher\n(\u200f\u05db\u05e9\u05e8\u200e \u201cfit for food\u201d).\n\n2. The flesh of beasts and birds that have died from any other cause\nthan having been killed in the manner prescribed is forbidden. The\nflesh of animals that have been killed in the prescribed manner, but\nare found to have been affected with some dangerous disease, is also\nforbidden as t\u2019refah (\u200f\u05d8\u05e8\u05e4\u05d4\u200e). [172]\n\n3. With regard to the distinction between animals allowed for food and\nthose forbidden, all animals are divided into \u200f\u05d1\u05d4\u05de\u05d4\u200e and \u200f\u05d7\u05d9\u05d4\u200e \u201ccattle\nand beast,\u201d \u200f\u05d5\u05e3\u200e \u201cbird,\u201d \u200f\u05d3\u05d2\u200e \u201cfish,\u201d and \u200f\u05e9\u05e8\u05e5\u200e \u201ccreeping thing.\u201d\n\n(a.) With regard to cattle and beasts, the rule is given, \u201cWhosoever\nparteth the hoof and is cloven-footed and cheweth the cud, that you may\neat\u201d (Lev. xi. 3).\u2014The clean cattle (\u200f\u05d1\u05d4\u05de\u05d4 \u05d8\u05d4\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e) and the clean beasts\n(\u200f\u05d7\u05d9\u05d4 \u05d8\u05d4\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e) are enumerated in Deut. xiv. 4 and 5 respectively.\n\n(b.) A number of birds are enumerated (Lev. xi. 13\u201319) as forbidden,\nbut no general characteristics of the clean or the unclean birds are\ngiven; and as we are uncertain as to the exact meaning of the names of\nmany of the birds, we only use for food such birds as are traditionally\nknown as \u201cclean birds.\u201d\n\n(c.) Fish that have scales and fins are permitted; others\u2014e.g., the\neel\u2014are \u201cunclean\u201d (ibid. xi. 9\u201312).\n\n(d.) \u201cAll winged animals that creep (\u200f\u05e9\u05e8\u05e5 \u05d4\u05e2\u05d5\u05e3\u200e), going upon all four,\nshall be an abomination unto you. Yet these may ye eat of, every flying\ncreeping thing that goeth upon all four, which have legs above their\nfeet, to leap withal upon the earth; even these of them ye may eat; the\narbeh with its kind, and the soleam with its kind, the chargol with its\nkind, and the chagabh with its kind\u201d (ibid. 20\u201322). These are certain\nkinds of locusts that satisfy the above condition. (Comp. Maimonides,\nMishneh-torah, Hilchoth maachaloth asuroth i. 21\u201323.)\n\n(e.) \u201cAnd every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth shall be an\nabomination; it shall not be eaten\u201d (Lev. xi. 41). In this prohibition\nare included all kinds of worms such as are found in fruit, and mites,\nsnails, oysters, lobsters, crabs, &c.\n\n4. The milk of \u201cunclean\u201d cattle or beasts (e.g., asses\u2019 milk), the eggs\nof \u201cunclean\u201d birds, and the roe of \u201cunclean\u201d fish (e.g., caviare\nprepared of the roe of the sturgeon) are likewise forbidden.\n\n5. \u201cYe shall eat no manner of fat, of ox, or of sheep, or of goat\u201d\n(Lev. vii. 23). From the context we learn that only those portions of\nthe fat of cattle are forbidden which in the case of sacrifices were\nburnt upon the altar as an offering made by fire unto the Lord, viz.,\n\u201cthe fat that covereth the inwards, and all the fat that is upon the\ninwards, and the fat that is upon the kidneys which is by the flanks\u201d\n(ibid. iii. 3, 4). The forbidden fat is known by the name \u200f\u05d7\u05dc\u05d1\u200e,\nchelebh, whilst the fat permitted as food is called \u200f\u05e9\u05d5\u05de\u05df\u200e, shuman.\n\n6. \u201cTherefore the children of Israel do not eat of the sinew which\nshrank, which is upon the hollow of the thigh, unto this day: because\nhe touched the hollow of Jacob\u2019s thigh in the sinew that shrank\u201d (Gen.\nxxxii. 33). This law is designed to remind us of the wrestling of Jacob\nwith the man who attacked him, which struggle forms a type of Israel\u2019s\nfight against the evil threatening him from within and from without,\nand teaches us the lesson that, despite temporary troubles and\nstruggles, Israel will ultimately be victorious. The hind-quarters of\ncattle are not eaten unless the forbidden fat and \u201cthe sinew that\nshrank\u201d (\u200f\u05d2\u05d9\u05d3 \u05d4\u05e0\u05e9\u05d4\u200e) have first been removed from them.\n\n7. \u201cThou shalt not seethe the kid in its mother\u2019s milk\u201d (Exod. xxiii.\n19). Tradition explains this law as forbidding all mixture of meat and\nmilk (\u200f\u05d1\u05e9\u05e8 \u05d1\u05d7\u05dc\u05d1\u200e). In its literal sense the verse in which this law is\nmentioned seems to point to the duty of self-restraint, as if to tell\nus that we should not greedily devour the first ripe fruit, or the\nyoung immediately after their birth.\n\nThe significance of the law may be learnt from the fact that it is\nmentioned three times in the Pentateuch. Hence the strictness with\nwhich this commandment is observed in Jewish homes. In a Jewish\nhousehold, established in accordance with Jewish law and tradition,\nthere are two separate sets of utensils, the one to be used for the\npreparation of meat-diet, the other for the preparation of milk and\nbutter diet.\n\nThe flesh of fish is not considered as meat in this respect, nor are\nfish subject to the laws of shechitah.\n\n\n\n\n\nNOTES.\n\n1. On Page 459\u20141a.\n\nThe prohibition of eating meat taken from the body of an animal whilst\nalive is based on the words \u200f\u05d0\u05da \u05d1\u05e9\u05e8 \u05d1\u05e0\u05e4\u05e9\u05d5 \u05d3\u05de\u05d5 \u05dc\u05d0 \u05ea\u05d0\u05db\u05dc\u05d5\u200e \u201cBut flesh,\nwhen the blood thereof is in its soul, shall ye not eat\u201d (Gen. ix. 4).\nThe phrase \u201cto be in the soul\u201d means to be surrounded and animated by\nthe soul, to be in the midst of active, living organs of the animal.\n\u201cThe blood of an animal is in the soul thereof\u201d may therefore be\nparaphrased thus, \u201cThe blood hath its vital powers and the animal is\nalive.\u201d (Comp. Lev. xvii. 11.)\n\nThis prohibition is one of the \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05e2 \u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea \u05d1\u05e0\u05d9 \u05e0\u05d7\u200e \u201cthe seven Noachide\ncommandments,\u201d i.e., commandments which, according to Tradition, were\nalready in force in the days of Noah, and are binding on all his\nchildren or all mankind, and not on the Israelites alone; viz., (1) the\nprohibition of idolatry (\u200f\u05e2\u05d1\u05d5\u05d3\u05d4 \u05d6\u05e8\u05d4\u200e), (2) of murder (\u200f\u05e9\u05e4\u05d9\u05db\u05d5\u05ea \u05d3\u05dd\u200e), (3)\nof adultery (\u200f\u05d2\u05dc\u05d5\u05d9 \u05e2\u05e8\u05d9\u05d5\u05ea\u200e), (4) of blasphemy (\u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05ea \u05d4\u05e9\u05dd\u200e), (5) of\nrobbery (\u200f\u05d2\u05d6\u05dc\u200e), (6) of eating meat taken from a living animal (\u200f\u05d0\u05d1\u05e8 \u05de\u05df\n\u05d4\u05d7\u05d9\u200e), and (7) the institution of courts of justice (\u200f\u05d3\u05d9\u05e0\u05d9\u05df\u200e). See\nBabyl. Talm., Sanhedrin 56a.\n\n\n\n2. On Page 459\u20141c.\n\nThe existence of certain rules concerning killing animals for food\nincluded in the oral teaching of the Torah is derived from the\nfollowing passage: \u201cThou shalt kill of thy herd and of thy flock which\nthe Lord hath given thee as I have commanded thee\u201d (Deut. xii. 21). In\nthe Commentary of Rashi, ad locum, we read: \u201cHere we see that certain\ncommandments have been given with regard to the killing of animals, how\nthis should be done. These commandments are comprised in Hilchoth\nShechitah, which form part of the Oral Law, revealed to Moses on\nSinai.\u201d They are fully discussed and explained in the first chapter of\nthe treatise Chullin.\n\nAny deviation from these rules in the act of killing the animal renders\nthe shechitah unlawful (\u200f\u05e4\u05e1\u05d5\u05dc\u05d4\u200e). The killing of cattle, beasts, or\nfowl for food is therefore entrusted only to such persons as possess a\nknowledge of the rules of shechitah and are skilled and trustworthy.\nThe beth-din or the Chief-Rabbi decides whether a person has duly\nqualified himself for the office of shochet (\u200f\u05e9\u05d5\u05d7\u05d8\u200e), and whether he\nmay kill animals for kasher food.\n\nIt is the duty of the shochet to examine the animal before killing it,\nand to satisfy himself that it is not in a dying condition; after the\nshechitah of any cattle or beast (\u200f\u05d1\u05d4\u05de\u05d4\u200e or \u200f\u05d7\u05d9\u05d4\u200e) he must examine the\nlungs to assure himself that they are in a normal condition. If he\nfinds them in a diseased state he declares the flesh of the animal as\nt\u2019refah (\u200f\u05d8\u05e8\u05e4\u05d4\u200e) and unfit for food. In the case of poultry the\nexamination is not made by the shochet; but if any deviation from the\nnormal state is discovered in the lungs or in any other part, the meat\nmust not be used as food unless the animal has been examined by a\ncompetent person (Rabbi or dayyan), and declared by him to be kasher.\n\nAs to the beneficial influence of these examinations on the general\ncondition of health in the Jewish community, see Dr. H. Behrend\u2019s\narticles in Jewish Chronicle, November 12, 1880, and October 24, 1890,\nand Nineteenth Century, October 1890.\n\n\n\n3. On Page 459\u20141d.\n\nThe following particular rules are to be observed in kashering meat:\u2014\n\n(a.) The meat is first soaked in water for half-an-hour; this must be\ndone within three days after the killing of the animal. It is then\ntaken out of the water, placed on a slanting board or in a\nwicker-basket, and after a few minutes, when the water has sufficiently\nrun off, sprinkled on all sides with salt. After the lapse of an hour\nthe salt is again removed by soaking and rinsing.\n\n(b.) In case of urgency, when, e.g., the meat is wanted for a patient,\nor when on Friday afternoon there would not be left time enough for\ncooking or roasting the meat, it need only be kept in water for fifteen\nminutes and in salt for half-an-hour.\n\n(c.) In kashering poultry all the inner parts of the animal must be\ntaken out and salted separately; the rest must be sprinkled with salt\nboth within and without.\n\n(d.) Liver is salted a little and roasted on fire, not in the oven or\nin any vessel. This done, the liver may be cooked or roasted in any\nway.\n\n(e.) The heart is cut open before the salting, and a piece is cut off\nat the apex, in order that the blood may run off more easily.\u2014For the\nsame purpose the horny part of the legs is cut off.\u2014The head must be\nopened and sprinkled with salt on both sides, after the brain has been\ntaken out; from the latter the skin is drawn off, and then it is\nsalted.\n\n(f.) Eggs found in poultry are treated as meat, but must be salted\nseparately.\n\n(g.) The vessels used for soaking and salting the meat should not be\nused for other purposes.\n\n\n\n4. On Page 459\u20141c.\n\nThe law of shechitah applies only to cattle, beasts, and birds (\u200f\u05d1\u05d4\u05de\u05d4\u200e,\n\u200f\u05d7\u05d9\u05d4\u200e and \u200f\u05e2\u05d5\u05e3\u200e); there is no commandment as regards the killing of\nfish. Tradition supports this exception by reference to the distinction\nmade in Num. xi. 22: \u201cShall the flocks and the herds be slain (\u200f\u05d9\u05e9\u05d7\u05d8\u200e)\nfor them, to suffice them? or shall all the fish of the sea be gathered\ntogether (\u200f\u05d9\u05d0\u05e1\u05e3\u200e) for them, to suffice them?\u201d Although the latter term\n(\u200f\u05d9\u05d0\u05e1\u05e3\u200e) is also used of quails (ibid. 32), no such inference is made\nwith regard to birds, because in ver. 32 the term \u200f\u05d9\u05d0\u05e1\u05e3\u200e is not\ncontrasted by \u200f\u05d9\u05e9\u05d7\u05d8\u200e; besides, the verb \u200f\u05e9\u05d7\u05d8\u200e is frequently applied in\nthe Law to birds, but never to fish. Comp. Babyl. Talm., Chullin, p.\n27b.\n\nThere is this difference to be observed between \u200f\u05d1\u05d4\u05de\u05d4\u200e on the one hand,\nand \u200f\u05d7\u05d9\u05d4\u200e and \u200f\u05e2\u05d5\u05e3\u200e on the other. In the case of the latter two the\nshechitah must be followed by the covering of the blood (\u200f\u05db\u05e1\u05d5\u05d9 \u05d3\u05dd\u200e Lev.\nxvii. 13). The object of this law is, according to some, to prevent the\nblood being used for idolatrous and superstitious purposes, as birds\nand beasts were generally hunted in the fields, mountains, and woods,\nplaces frequently associated in the imagination of the ancients with\nevil spirits and the like. (Comp. Commentary of R. Obadiah Seforno on\nthe Pentateuch, ad locum.) The law was perhaps intended to impress the\nlesson on the mind of the hunter that the blood shed of a living being\npresents a ghastly sight that offends the eye of man. He will accustom\nhimself to think that taking away the life of another being, even of an\nanimal, is an act of grave responsibility, and will not be led to\nmisuse his weapons against any of his fellow-men.\n\n\n\n5. On Page 460\u20143b.\n\nComp. Mishnah, Treatise Chullin, iii. 6.\u2014The characteristics of the\nclean and the unclean cattle and beasts are given in the Pentateuch,\nbut the characteristics of the clean or the unclean birds are not\nmentioned in the Law. Our Sages, however, declared every bird of\nprey\u2014or every bird that seizes its food with its claws, and lifts it up\nfrom the ground before eating it (Rashi) to be an unclean bird; while\nall birds are clean that have a projecting claw (\u200f\u05d0\u05e6\u05d1\u05e2 \u05d9\u05ea\u05e8\u05d4\u200e a claw\nlonger than the rest) and a crop (\u200f\u05d6\u05e4\u05e7\u200e), and whose stomach has a\nmembrane that can easily be peeled off (\u200f\u05e7\u05e8\u05e7\u05d1\u05e0\u05d5 \u05e0\u05e7\u05dc\u05e3\u200e). Another rule is\nthis: Birds that dwell and associate with unclean birds are unclean.\n\u201cNot without reason does the starling go to the raven: they are of the\nsame species\u201d (Babyl. Talm., Chullin 65b). The sentence serves also as\na moral lesson (ibid., Baba Kama 92a). At present, however, only those\nbirds are killed for food which are known traditionally to have always\nbeen considered as \u201cclean birds\u201d (Maimonides, Mishneh-torah, Hilchoth\nmaachaloth asuroth, i. 14\u201320; Tur Joredeah, chap. lxxxii.).\n\n\n\n6. On Page 461\u20147.\n\nOnkelos translates this commandment: \u200f\u05dc\u05d0 \u05ea\u05d9\u05db\u05d5\u05dc \u05d1\u05e9\u05e8 \u05d1\u05d7\u05dc\u05d1\u200e \u201cThou shalt\nnot eat meat in milk,\u201d in accordance with the Oral Law. The threefold\nrepetition of the commandment forbidding the seething of a kid in its\nmother\u2019s milk is explained traditionally to indicate a threefold\nprohibition: that of boiling meat and milk together, that of eating\nsuch mixture, and that of deriving any benefit whatever from it\n(\u200f\u05d5\u05d0\u05d9\u05e1\u05d5\u05e8\u200e, \u200f\u05d0\u05d9\u05e1\u05d5\u05e8 \u05d0\u05db\u05d9\u05dc\u05d4\u200e, \u200f\u05d0\u05d9\u05e1\u05d5\u05e8 \u05d1\u05d9\u05e9\u05d5\u05dc \u05d4\u05e0\u05d0\u05d4\u200e). In obedience to the\nprinciple, \u201cMake a fence round the Law,\u201d we abstain from milk or butter\nfor some time after having partaken of meat.\n\n\n\n7. On Page 461\u20144.\n\nThe honey of bees is an apparent exception from the rule that the\nproducts of the unclean animals are forbidden. The honey mentioned in\nthe Bible is mostly the juice of fruit, especially of dates; but the\nhoney of bees is also mentioned (Judges xiv. 8). It is assumed that\nhoney does not contain any part of the bee itself, but is merely the\njuice of the flowers sucked and again discharged by the bees. (See\nBabyl. Talm., Bechoroth 7b; Maim., Mishneh-torah, Hil. maachaloth\nasuroth iii. 3.)\n\n\n\nNote 8.\n\nIn addition to the things enumerated in this chapter as forbidden,\nthere is the prohibition of \u201cwine of libation\u201d (\u200f\u05d9\u05d9\u05df \u05e0\u05e1\u05da\u200e). Everything\nused in the worship of idols was condemned, and could not serve as\nfood, drink, or any purpose; it was \u200f\u05d0\u05e1\u05d5\u05e8 \u05d1\u05d4\u05e0\u05d0\u05d4\u200e. Wine was frequently\nused by heathens in libations to their idols. The wine of a heathen was\ntherefore always suspected of having been employed in idolatrous\nlibations, and was consequently forbidden as \u200f\u05d9\u05d9\u05df \u05e0\u05e1\u05da\u200e. Since, however,\nsuch libations have ceased this prohibition has also lapsed.\n\nIt has, however, not lapsed in its entirety. It is only the \u200f\u05d0\u05e1\u05d5\u05e8 \u05d4\u05e0\u05d0\u05d4\u200e\nthat is no longer in force. The prohibition of using wine prepared by\nnon-Jews (\u200f\u05e1\u05ea\u05dd \u05d9\u05d9\u05df\u200e) as a beverage still continues. This and similar\nprohibitions were intended as a barrier against the increase of mixed\nmarriages among the Jews. (Comp. Babyl. Talm., Shabbath 17b.)\n\n\n\n\n\n\nVII. JEWISH LIFE.\n\n\nThe first paragraph of the Shulchan-aruch runs thus: \u201c\u2018I have set the\nLord always before me\u2019 is one of the most important principles of our\nholy Religion;\u201d and, indeed, the more the actions of the Jew conform to\nthis principle, the nearer does he approach the ideal of a true servant\nof God, who is faithful in the service of his Master, and whose life is\nthe expression of genuine recognition of God\u2019s sovereignty (\u200f\u05e7\u05d1\u05dc\u05ea \u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\n\u05de\u05dc\u05db\u05d5\u05ea \u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd\u200e) with unconditional obedience to His Will (\u200f\u05e7\u05d1\u05dc\u05ea \u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\n\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea\u200e). Neither attendance at Public Service, nor the regular\nrecitation of prayers, nor the study of the Law, nor the performance of\ncertain religious acts, constitute by themselves Jewish Life, but the\nsupreme influence which the Word of God\u2014the Torah\u2014is constantly made to\nexercise over man\u2019s doings. Every movement of his is regulated by the\nLaw, and wherever he turns he is met by a Divine precept that elevates\nhis heart towards Him who gave us the Law. The very garments he wears,\nthough not different from those of his fellow-men, [173] except by the\nabsence of shaatnez (combination of wool and linen), include the arba\nkanfoth, \u201cthe four-cornered garment,\u201d with tsitsith; his house, the\nsame in every other respect as those of his neighbours, is\ndistinguished by the mezuzah on the doorposts. These distinctive\ncharacteristics, however, are not intended to attract the attention of\nothers; they only concern the man himself; they serve him as reminders\nof God and His Will. Within the house the furniture and the whole\narrangement are in accordance with the custom and fashion of the place;\n[174] there is simplicity or luxury, taste or want of taste, according\nto the individual character of the occupier. Only the kitchen and the\ntable have a distinctly Jewish aspect; these must be adapted to the\nrequirements of the Dietary Laws. The most striking feature is the\ndouble set of kitchen utensils and of vessels for the table, the one\nset for meat, the other for butter and milk.\n\nIn the choice of his occupation, trade, or profession, the Jew, like\nall his fellow-men, is influenced by his inclination, capabilities, and\nopportunities; but, in addition to these, there is another important\nfactor that must ultimately determine the choice\u2014his religion; and such\noccupation as would be likely to compel him to abandon any of the\nDivine precepts, cannot be chosen. No manner of labour or trade is in\nitself derogatory; on the contrary, all labour is honourable, unless\nman degrades it by his conduct, and by the object he aims at achieving\nby means of it. Thrift, economy, and temperance are essential\nconditions of success. But success, however desirable, and however\nsweet when obtained, leads only to the material well-being of man. As\nto his spiritual well-being, the Jew, though busy with urgent work,\nwill try to find some spare moments in which to turn his attention to\n\u201cthe three things upon which the world is based: Study of the Torah,\nDivine Service, and Charity\u201d (Aboth i. 2).\n\nBefore the work of the day commences, and when it is finished,\nattention is paid to torah and abhodah. The Service, especially the\nMorning Service, contains various sections which are not prayers, but\nrather lessons for study. In addition to these, the Jew, according to\nhis capacity or opportunity, should read the Bible, the Mishnah, and\nthe Talmud. For those who have no opportunity at home, the Beth\nha-midrash is open with its library. Synagogue and Beth ha-midrash are\nthe places of spiritual recreation where the Jew refreshes his mind,\nelevates his heart, and gathers new strength, courage, and hope for the\nbattle of life.\n\nCharity in its various branches, tsedakah and gemiluth chasadim, is a\nvirtue practised by the wealthy and the poor alike. Any heart or house\nfrom which this virtue is absent does not deserve to be called Jewish.\nSome Jews have charity-boxes in their houses, and whenever any member\nof the family has something to spare or is moved by a special impulse\nof charity, these boxes receive an addition to their contents. Others\nimitate the law of maaser (\u201ctithe\u201d), and set aside a tenth part of\ntheir earnings and profits for charitable purposes. Hospitality (\u200f\u05d4\u05db\u05e0\u05e1\u05ea\n\u05d0\u05d5\u05e8\u05d7\u05d9\u05dd\u200e) is another method of charity, and it forms one of the\nornaments of a true Jewish house. Although societies and public\ninstitutions do at present what was formerly considered to be the duty\nof the members of the community, individual hospitality has by no means\nbecome superfluous, and there is ample opportunity for its practice.\nHospitality graces especially the lady of the house; it is her duty to\nprovide for the comfort of the guests, and to act according to the\nrule, \u201cLet the poor be the children of thy house\u201d (Aboth i. 5).\n\nThis is one of the privileges possessed by women. According to the\nprinciple of division of labour, woman rules supreme in the house: \u201cThe\nKing\u2019s daughter is all glorious within\u201d (Ps. xlv. 14); whilst man is\nmore in contact with the outer world, devotes himself to labour, trade,\nor profession in order to provide the necessities of life for those who\nare dependent upon him. There are, however, many exceptions to the\nrule, and there is scarcely any trade or profession in which women have\nnot been engaged. Women were not excluded even from the highest\nhonours. The Jews had their prophetesses, and women were entrusted with\njudgeship and even with sovereignty. There are instances of women\ndistinguished by learning, experience, wit, and especially by piety.\nWomen of piety (\u200f\u05e0\u05e9\u05d9\u05dd \u05e6\u05d3\u05e7\u05e0\u05d9\u05d5\u05ea\u200e) were never wanting in Israel; and many\na scholar owes the success he has attained in the field of learning to\nthe piety of his wife, who willingly undertook her husband\u2019s burdens\nand cares in trade and business in order to facilitate his devotion to\nstudy. No sacrifice is too great for a true Jewish mother to have her\nchildren instructed in the Word of God, and nothing adds more to the\nhappiness and pride of the mother than the progress her son has made in\nthe knowledge of the Torah. \u201cWhat is the great merit of women? They\nhave the merit of making their children attend the school, and of\nencouraging their husbands to study the Talmud\u201d (Babyl. Talm.,\nBerachoth 17a).\n\nThe moral and the intellectual as well as the physical training of the\nchildren is in its earliest stages almost exclusively in the hands of\nthe mother. If we add to this the responsibility for having the food\nprepared according to the requirements of the Dietary Laws, we easily\nunderstand the reason why Jewish women are exempt from various\nreligious duties incumbent on the other sex. The rule is this: \u201cWomen\nare exempt from the fulfilment of all precepts which are restricted to\na certain time\u201d (Mishnah, Kiddushin i. 7), in order to prevent any\ncollision between these and her principal and most important duties in\nthe house. Thus it happens that there are Jewish women who faithfully\ncling to the inherited religion, and yet are rare visitors of the\nSynagogue. On week-days the Synagogue is only in exceptional cases\nattended by women.\n\nFrom this reason women are disqualified for forming the quorum (minyan)\nrequired for public worship (tefillah batsibbur). This and similar\ndisqualifications are based on the principle of regard for women and\ntheir home-duties, and by no means on a belief in their inferiority.\nPassages in the Talmudical and Midrashic Literature which ascribe to\nwomen vanity, levity, and other shortcomings are outweighed by sayings\nwhich evidence a sense of high regard for the virtues and\naccomplishments of women. The following sentences are a few examples;\n\u201cWoman has been endowed by the Creator with greater intelligence than\nman\u201d (Babyl. Talm., Niddah 45b). \u201cWho is rich? He who possesses a wife\nfair in her doings\u201d (ibid., Shabbath 25b). \u201cIt was through the merit of\npious women that the Israelites were redeemed from Egypt\u201d (ibid., Sotah\n11b). [175] Modesty and reservedness (\u200f\u05e6\u05e0\u05d9\u05e2\u05d5\u05ea\u200e) are the distinguishing\nvirtues of Jewish women. The principle, \u201cThe daughter of the King is\nall glorious within,\u201d was applied literally. In the fulfilment of her\nhome-duties the daughter of Israel seeks her happiness and her pride.\nIt used to be opposed to the sense of propriety of Jewish ladies to\nspeak, sing, or act in public. [176] This \u200f\u05e6\u05e0\u05d9\u05e2\u05d5\u05ea\u200e was the main cause\nof the preservation of the sanctity of the Jewish home and the purity\nof Jewish family life, a treasure and a blessing which ought to be well\nguarded.\n\nThe working days of the week are divided between labour and devotion.\nThree Services are attended daily either in the Synagogue or at home,\nand every meal is preceded and followed by prayer. Jewish women have,\nin addition to the Prayer-book, a small volume of supplications\n(\u200f\u05ea\u05d7\u05e0\u05d5\u05ea\u200e) in the vernacular for every day, every season, and every\noccasion.\n\nMondays and Thursdays, on which days a Lesson from the Law is read\nduring the Morning Service, are considered as special days for earnest\ndevotion. There have been pious Jews who fasted the whole or part of\nthese days.\u2014Tuesday is looked upon as a favoured day, because it is\ndistinguished in the account of the Creation (Gen. i. 10, 12) by a\nrepetition of the phrase, \u201cAnd God saw that it was good.\u201d It is\ntherefore called \u201cthe day with double ki-tobh (that it was good).\u201d This\ncircumstance may be the cause of the belief that it is not advisable to\nbegin a new undertaking on Monday or Wednesday; [177] preference should\nbe given to Tuesday. But this belief, although seemingly founded on a\nBiblical phrase, is contrary to Jewish principles, and is included in\nthe prohibition, \u201cYe shall not observe times\u201d (Lev. xix. 26), to\ndeclare a particular day as lucky or unlucky.\n\nFriday is an important and busy day in a Jewish house. It is not only\nthe circumstance that food is being prepared for two days [178] that\ncauses greater activity, but also the anticipated pleasure at the\napproach of a beloved guest. The same is the case when a Festival is\nnear. Each Festival has its own particular wants and pleasures. In some\nhouses the activity in preparing for Passover may be noticed a whole\nmonth before, although the actual clearing of the chamets is done in a\nvery short time. Before Succoth all hands are busy with preparing and\nornamenting the Tabernacle, and selecting esrog and lulabh. It is\ngenuine religious enthusiasm [179] in the fulfilment of Divine duties\nthat inspires this kind of activity, and gives to the house a\npeculiarly Jewish tone and Jewish atmosphere. We feel in it \u201cthe season\nof our joy\u201d before and during the Three Festivals, and \u201cthe season of\nsolemnity and earnest reflection\u201d during the penitential days; grief\nwhen the 9th of Ab approaches, and hilarity when Purim is near. Twice a\nyear we are invited by law and custom to give ourselves up to gladness\nand merriment: on Simchath-torah and on Purim. Although even a certain\nexcess of mirth is considered lawful on the latter occasion, there are\nbut very few that indulge in this license.\n\nAll the seasons of rejoicing are also occasions for mitsvoth\u2014charity,\nand for strengthening the bond of love between husband and wife,\nbetween parents and children, and the bond of friendship between man\nand man. Every erebh shabbath and erebh yom-tobh afford the opportunity\nof giving challah, [180] kindling Sabbath or Festival lights, [181] and\ninviting strangers [182] (\u200f\u05d4\u05db\u05e0\u05e1\u05ea \u05d0\u05d5\u05e8\u05d7\u05d9\u05dd\u200e) to our meals. On Sabbaths and\nFestivals children, even when grown up, come to their parents and ask\nfor their blessing. [183] Before Kiddush the husband chants the section\nof Prov. xxxi. beginning \u200f\u05d0\u05e9\u05ea \u05d7\u05d9\u05dc\u200e, in praise of a good wife. The\nShabbath shalom or Good shabbath, Shabhua tobh or Good woch, Good yom\ntobh, and similar salutations, remind us that we ought to have only\ngood wishes for each other. Sabbath and Festivals afford suitable\noccasions for home-devotion, in which all the members of the family,\nmales and females, should take part. The meals are preceded and\nfollowed by the usual berachoth, but it is customary to add extra\npsalms and hymns (zemiroth) in honour of the day, and those who are\ngifted should add to these, or even substitute for them, compositions\nof their own in any language they like in gloriam Dei. A second kind of\nhome-devotion which ought not to be neglected, but should rather be\nrevived where it is neglected, is the reading of the Scriptures. On\nFriday evening the pious Jew reads the Sidra twice in the original and\nonce in the Targum; but all should at least read Sidra and Haphtarah in\nthe vernacular.\n\nThe moon by its gradual increase in light from its minimum to\nfull-moon, and the subsequent decrease from full-moon to its minimum,\nhas in Agadic and Midrashic Literature frequently served as a symbol of\nthe history of Israel, of his rise and his fall. The last day of the\ndecline, the eve of New-moon, is kept by some as a special day of\nprayer and fasting, [184] while the first day of the rise, New-moon, is\ndistinguished by Hallel and Musaph. If people, as a symbol of happiness\n(\u200f\u05e1\u05d9\u05de\u05df \u05d8\u05d5\u05d1\u200e), prefer the middle of the month for marriage, their choice\nis harmless; but if they hold that season as more lucky than the rest\nof the month, they are guilty of superstition. As at the sight of other\nnatural phenomena, so also has a benediction been fixed on observing\nthe reappearance of the moon in the beginning of the month. For the\nabove-mentioned reason, importance is attached to this berachah, and\nprayers are added for the redemption of Israel. The berachah, which is\ngenerally recited in the open air, is the chief element in the\nceremony; the additional prayers and reflections are non-essential.\n\nIn the foregoing, Jewish Life has been described as it appears at the\nvarious seasons of the year; in the following, it will be given as it\nappears at the various periods of man\u2019s existence.\n\nThe first important moment is, of course, the moment of birth. The\nfather, friends, and relatives are filled with anxiety for the life of\nboth mother and child. Prayers are daily offered up for the safety and\nrecovery of the patient and the well-being of the child. The Twentieth\nPsalm is sometimes written on a tablet placed in the room where the\nconfinement takes place, probably as a reminder or an invitation for\nvisitors to pray to the Almighty; in this sense the custom is to be\ncommended; but if the tablet is filled with meaningless signs, letters,\nand words, and is used merely as a charm, the custom should be\ndiscontinued, being a superstitious practice. In some parts it has been\nthe custom that during the week preceding the Berith-milah friends\nvisited the house to pray there for the well-being of the child, and\nboys recited there Biblical passages containing blessings, such as Gen.\nxlviii. 16. [185] The night before the berith was spent in reading\nBible and Talmud, so that the child might from the beginning breathe,\nas it were, the atmosphere of torah. [186]\n\nOn the eighth day the male child is initiated into the covenant of\nAbraham (Lev. xii. 3). Circumcision is one of \u201cthose mitsvoth which the\nIsraelites in times of religious persecution carried out\nnotwithstanding imminent danger to life.\u201d The performance of this\nDivine precept is therefore made the occasion of much rejoicing. In\nsome congregations the operation, as a sacred act, takes place in the\nSynagogue after the Morning Service; in others the privacy of the home\nis preferred. In ancient days mothers circumcised their sons, but now\nthe operation is only entrusted to a person who has been duly trained,\nand has received from competent judges a certificate of his\nqualification for the functions of a mohel. [187] Although, according\nto the Law, any person, otherwise capable of doing it, may do the\nmitsvah, preference is given, and ought to be given, to a person of\ngenuine piety and of true enthusiasm for our holy Religion, who\nperforms the act in gloriam Dei. Not only the mohel, but all who assist\nin the act do a mitsvah, and the meal which is prepared for the\noccasion is a \u200f\u05e1\u05e2\u05d5\u05d3\u05ea \u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05d4\u200e (a meal involving a religious act). [188]\nImmediately after the operation a name is given to the child. [189]\n\nThe next important moment in a boy\u2019s life is the \u201cRedemption\u201d (\u200f\u05e4\u05d3\u05d9\u05d5\u05df\n\u05d4\u05d1\u05df\u200e) in case of the first-born male child (Exod. xiii. 13, 15), which\nact is likewise made the occasion of a \u200f\u05e1\u05e2\u05d5\u05d3\u05ea \u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05d4\u200e. A cohen\n(descendant of Aaron) receives the redemption-money to the amount of\nfive shekels (or 15s.), according to Num. xviii. 16. [190]\n\nIn the case of a female child the naming generally takes place in the\nSynagogue on a Sabbath, when the father is called up to the Law. In\nmany congregations this takes place when the mother has sufficiently\nrecovered to attend again for the first time the Service in the\nSynagogue on Sabbath. Those who live at a great distance from the\nSynagogue pay the first visit to the place of worship on a week-day. A\nspecial Service has been arranged for the occasion. [191]\n\nGreat care is now taken by the parents for the physical well-being of\nthe child, without entirely ignoring its moral and intellectual\ndevelopment. \u201cAt five years the child is fit to be taught Mikra, i.e.,\nreading the Bible\u201d (Aboth v. 21), so the Mishnah teaches. But long\nbefore this the child is taught to pray, and to repeat short Biblical\npassages or prayers in Hebrew. It must, of course, be borne in mind\nthat children are not all alike, and that each child must be taught\naccording to its own capacities and strength. The knowledge must be\nimparted in such a manner that the child should seek it as a source of\npleasure and happiness.\n\nAs to the subjects which are to be taught, there is no branch of\ngeneral knowledge from which Jewish children are debarred by their\nReligion, nor is there any branch of knowledge that is more Jewish than\nthe rest. Jewish children must learn like other children, as far as\npossible, that which is considered necessary and useful, as well as\nthat which is conducive to the comfort and happiness of life. But\nReligion, Scripture, and Hebrew must never be absent from the\ncurriculum of studies of a Jewish child. The instruction in Religion\nneed not occupy much time, for the best teaching of Religion is the\ngood example set by the parents at home and the teacher in the school.\nThe religious training of a child should begin early; the surroundings\nand associations must teach the child to act nobly, to speak purely, to\nthink charitably, and to love our Religion. \u201cTrain up a child in the\nway he should go; and when he is old, he will not depart from it\u201d\n(Prov. xxii. 6). Early practical training (\u200f\u05d7\u05e0\u05d5\u05da\u200e) is also of great\nimportance with regard to the observance of religious precepts.\nChildren should be accustomed to regard with reverence that which is\nholy, to honour Sabbath and Festivals, and to rejoice in doing what the\nAlmighty has commanded. Twice a year we have special occasion for the\nfulfilment of this duty, viz., on Simchath-torah and on the\nSeder-evening.\n\nIn teaching our children Hebrew our aim must be to make them understand\nthe holy language, to enable them to read the Word of God in the\noriginal, and to pray to the Almighty in the language in which the\nProphets and the Psalmists gave utterance to their inspirations, and in\nwhich our forefathers addressed the Supreme Being in the Temple.\n\nA special ceremony used to introduce the child into the study of the\nBible in the original. [192] Teacher and pupil went to the Synagogue,\ntook a sepher from the Hechal, and the pupil was made to read the first\nlesson from the sepher. This and similar ceremonies were intended as a\nmeans of impressing on the pupil the great importance of studying the\nWord of God in the original language. After having acquired a sound\nknowledge of the Bible, the study of other branches of Hebrew\nliterature, of Talmudical and Rabbinical works, is approached.\n\nAs a rule, boys devote more time to Hebrew studies than girls, only\nbecause girls are considered physically more delicate and not capable\nof doing so much work as boys. Girls are by no means excluded from\nacquiring a sound Hebrew knowledge; on the contrary, every\nencouragement should be given to them, if they are inclined to study\nHebrew beyond the first elements. [193]\n\nThe boy when thirteen years old is bar-mitsvah (lit., \u201ca son of the\ncommandment\u201d), bound to obey the Law, and responsible for his deeds. On\nthe Sabbath following his thirteenth birthday the boy is called up to\nthe Law; he reads the whole of the Sidra or a section of it, and\ndeclares in the blessings which precede and follow the lesson his\nbelief in the Divine origin of the Torah, and his gratitude to God for\nhaving given us the Law. [194]\n\nThe school-years come gradually to a close, and the practical\npreparation for life begins. A vocation has to be determined upon. From\na moral and religious point of view all kinds of trade, business, and\nprofession are equal. They are honourable or base according as they are\ncarried on in an honourable manner or not. Whatever course is chosen,\nthe moral and religious training must continue with unabated energy.\nWhen the school-years are over, when the youth is no longer under the\ncontrol of the master, and is sometimes left even without the control\nof the parents, he is exposed to various kinds of temptation,\nespecially through the influence of bad society. The vices against\nwhich the youth must guard himself most at this period of life are\nsensuality, excessive desire for pleasure, gambling, and dishonesty,\nwhich bring about his moral, social, and physical ruin. Self-control,\nacquired through continued religious training, is the best safeguard\nagainst these dangers. It is therefore advisable that those who have\nleft the school should continue attending some religious class, or\notherwise devote part of their free time to Talmud-torah, to the study\nof the Torah, and of works relating to it.\n\n\u201cAt the age of eighteen years one is fit for marriage\u201d (Aboth, ibid.)\nis an ancient dictum, but which could never have been meant as an\nabsolute law. For there are other qualifications equally important, and\neven more essential than age. Maimonides (Mishneh-torah, Hil. Deoth v.\n11) says: \u201cMan should first secure a living, then prepare a residence,\nand after that seek a wife. But fools act otherwise: they marry first,\nthen look out for a house, and at last think of the means of obtaining\na livelihood.\u201d (Comp. Deut. xx. 5\u20137 and xxviii. 30.)\n\nMarriage is called in the Bible \u201ca divine covenant\u201d (Prov. ii. 17), or\n\u201cthe covenant of God.\u201d God is, as it were, made witness of the\ncovenant; in His presence the assurances of mutual love and the\npromises of mutual fidelity are given by husband and wife (Mal. ii.\n14). To break this covenant is therefore not only an offence of the one\nagainst the other, but an offence against God.\u2014In addition to this\nreligious basis of marriage, conditions of a more material nature were\nagreed upon. The maiden has been long of use in the house of her\nparents, and he who sought the privilege of taking her to his house and\nmaking her his wife had to give to the parents \u201cdowry and gift\u201d (\u200f\u05de\u05d4\u05e8\n\u05d5\u05de\u05ea\u05df\u200e, Gen. xxxiv. 12). Later on, in the time of the Mishnah, all that\nthe husband promised to his wife was made the subject of a written\ndocument (\u200f\u05db\u05ea\u05d5\u05d1\u05d4\u200e), signed by two witnesses. In this document he\nguarantees to her 200 zus (or half the sum if she is a widow), the\nvalue of her outfit and dowry (in Hebrew \u200f\u05e0\u05d3\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9\u05d0\u200e), and a certain\namount added to the afore-mentioned obligatory sum (\u200f\u05ea\u05d5\u05e1\u05e4\u05ea \u05db\u05ea\u05d5\u05d1\u05d4\u200e). He\nfurther promises to honour her, work for her, maintain her, and\nhonestly provide her with everything necessary for her comfort.\n\nThe marriage was preceded by the betrothal (\u200f\u05d0\u05d9\u05e8\u05d5\u05e1\u05d9\u05df\u200e or \u200f\u05e7\u05d9\u05d3\u05d5\u05e9\u05d9\u05df\u200e),\nthe solemn promise on his part to take her after a fixed time to his\nhouse as his wife, and on her part to consider herself as his wife and\nto prepare herself for the marriage. Legally she was already his wife,\nand infidelity was visited with capital punishment. The interval\nbetween the betrothal and marriage used to be twelve months; at present\nthe two events are united in the marriage ceremony, and are only\nseparated from each other by an address or by the reading of the\nkethubhah. That which is now called betrothal or engagement is merely a\npreliminary settlement of the conditions of the marriage (\u200f\u05ea\u05e0\u05d0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e\n\u201cconditions\u201d). The conditions used to be written down, including a fine\n(\u200f\u05e7\u05e0\u05e1\u200e) for breach of promise; the agreement used to be followed by the\nbreaking of a glass [195] and by a feast.\n\nThe actual betrothal takes place on the wedding-day, and consists\nmainly of the following significant words addressed by the bridegroom\nto his bride: \u200f\u05d4\u05e8\u05d9 \u05d0\u05ea \u05de\u05e7\u05d5\u05d3\u05e9\u05ea \u05dc\u05d9 \u05d1\u05d8\u05d1\u05e2\u05ea \u05d6\u05d5 \u05db\u05d3\u05ea \u05de\u05e9\u05d4 \u05d5\u05d9\u05e9\u05e8\u05d0\u05dc\u200e \u201cBehold, thou\nart consecrated (betrothed) to me by this ring according to the Law of\nMoses and of Israel.\u201d While saying this he places a gold ring [196] on\nthe second finger of the right hand. This act is preceded by a berachah\nover wine, read by the celebrant while holding a cup of wine in his\nhand, and the birchath erusin (\u201cblessing of betrothal\u201d), in which God\nis praised for the institution of Marriage. Bride and bridegroom, who\nduring the ceremony stand under a canopy (\u200f\u05d7\u05d5\u05e4\u05d4\u200e), taste of the wine.\n\nThe canopy or chuppah [197] represents symbolically the future home of\nthe married couple, which they have to guard as a sanctuary, and to\nrender inaccessible to evil deeds, words, and thoughts that would\npollute it. The top of the canopy, which is formed of a curtain\n(\u200f\u05e4\u05e8\u05db\u05ea\u200e) of the Hechal, or of a talith, expresses the idea of sanctity.\n\nAfter the birchath erusin the bridegroom makes the solemn declaration\n[198] mentioned above: \u201cBehold, thou art consecrated (betrothed) unto\nme by this ring according to the Law of Moses and of Israel,\u201d [199]\nwhereupon the kethubhah is read in Aramaic [200] or in English, and an\naddress is sometimes given. Then follow the \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05d5\u05ea \u05e0\u05e9\u05d5\u05d0\u05d9\u05df\u200e (\u201cBlessings\nof Marriage\u201d), called also after their number \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05e2 \u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05d5\u05ea\u200e \u201cSeven\nBlessings.\u201d [201] The ceremony concludes with the breaking of a glass\nand the mutual congratulations of friends and relatives, expressed in\nthe words Mazzal-tobh (\u200f\u05de\u05d6\u05dc \u05d8\u05d5\u05d1\u200e \u201cGood luck\u201d). [202]\n\nA banquet (\u200f\u05e1\u05e2\u05d5\u05d3\u05ea \u05e0\u05d9\u05e9\u05d5\u05d0\u05d9\u05df\u200e) follows, which is a \u200f\u05e1\u05e2\u05d5\u05d3\u05ea \u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05d4\u200e. It is\nintroduced by the usual berachah (\u200f\u05d4\u05de\u05d5\u05e6\u05d9\u05d0\u200e), and followed by Grace and\nthe \u201cSeven Blessings.\u201d\n\nThe following are a few of the various customs connected with a Jewish\nmarriage without being essential elements of the marriage ceremony:\u2014\n\n(1.) On the Sabbath previous to the wedding-day the bridegroom, his\nfather, and the father of the bride are called up to the Law, and\nofferings are made (mi shebberach) in honour of the bride and the\nbridegroom. In some congregations Gen. xxiv. is read after the Service,\non the morning of the wedding-day.\n\n(2.) Bride and bridegroom enter upon a new life; the wedding-day is to\nthem a day of rejoicing, but also a day of great solemnity. It is kept\nas a day of earnest reflections, of prayer and fasting, till after the\nceremony, when the fast is broken and the rejoicing begins. The\nbridegroom adds in the Minchah amidah the Confession (\u200f\u05d5\u05d3\u05d5\u05d9\u200e) of the\nDay of Atonement.\n\n(3.) The good wishes of friends and relatives are variously expressed.\nRice, wheat, or similar things are thrown over the bride and the\nbridegroom as a symbol of abundance and fruitfulness.\n\n(4.) The feast is accompanied by speeches in praise of the bride and\nbridegroom; it was considered a special merit to speak on such an\noccasion (\u200f\u05d0\u05d2\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d3\u05d4\u05dc\u05d5\u05dc\u05d0 \u05de\u05d9\u05dc\u05d9\u200e, Babyl. Talm., Berachoth 6b). The\nbridegroom used to give a discourse (\u200f\u05d3\u05e8\u05e9\u05d4\u200e) on some Talmudical theme,\nif he was able to do so. He received presents for it\n(derashah-presents).\n\n(5.) In the time of the Bible and the Talmud the feasting lasted seven\ndays.\u2014The first day after the wedding used to be distinguished by a\nfish dinner (\u200f\u05e1\u05e2\u05d5\u05d3\u05ea \u05d3\u05d2\u05d9\u05dd\u200e), in allusion to Gen. xlviii. 16.\n\nIn spite of all blessings and good wishes the marriage sometimes proves\na failure, husband and wife being a source of trouble and misery the\none to the other, instead of being the cause of each other\u2019s happiness.\nIn such a case a divorce may take place, and man and wife separate from\neach other. Divorce is permitted (Deut. xxiv. 1\u20134), but not encouraged;\nit is an evil, but the lesser of two evils. A written document was\nrequired (\u200f\u05e1\u05e4\u05e8 \u05db\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\u05d5\u05ea\u200e, \u200f\u05d2\u05d8\u200e), and later legislation made the writing\nand the delivery of the document difficult and protracted, in order to\nfacilitate attempts at reconciliation; the fulfilment of the conditions\nagreed upon in the kethubhah also tended to render divorce a rare\nevent. The number of cases of divorce among the Jews is therefore\ncomparatively smaller than among other denominations, but still\nunfortunately far too large, owing to want of foresight and reflection\nin the choice of a companion for life.\n\nThere is a kind of obligatory marriage (\u200f\u05d9\u05d1\u05d5\u05dd\u200e) and or obligatory\ndivorce (\u200f\u05d7\u05dc\u05d9\u05e6\u05d4\u200e), viz., with regard to the widow of a deceased brother\nwho has died without issue (Deut. xxv. 5\u201310). Since the abolition of\npolygamy [203] by Rabbenu Gershom (eleventh century) the obligatory\nmarriage has almost disappeared, and the obligatory divorce (\u200f\u05d7\u05dc\u05d9\u05e6\u05d4\u200e)\nmust take place before the widow can marry again. [204]\n\nWe acknowledge the principle laid down in the Talmud, \u201cThe law of the\ncountry is binding upon us\u201d (\u200f\u05d3\u05d9\u05e0\u05d0 \u05d3\u05de\u05dc\u05db\u05d5\u05ea\u05d0 \u05d3\u05d9\u05e0\u05d0\u200e), but only in so far\nas our civil relations are concerned. With regard to religious\nquestions our own religious code must be obeyed. Marriage laws include\ntwo elements\u2014civil relations and religious duties. As regards the\nformer, we abide by the decisions of the civil courts of the country.\nWe must, therefore, not solemnise a marriage which the law of the\ncountry would not recognise; we must not religiously dissolve a\nmarriage by \u200f\u05d2\u05d8\u200e, unless the civil courts of law have already decreed\nthe divorce. On the other hand, we must not content ourselves with\ncivil marriage or civil divorce; religiously, neither civil marriage\nnor civil divorce can be recognised unless supplemented by marriage or\ndivorce according to religious forms. Furthermore, marriages allowed by\nthe civil law, but prohibited by our religious law\u2014e.g., mixed\nmarriages; that is, marriages between Jews and non-Jews\u2014cannot be\nrecognised before the tribunal of our Religion; such alliances are\nsinful, and the issue of such alliances must be treated as\nillegitimate. Those who love their Religion and have the well-being of\nJudaism at heart will do their utmost to prevent the increase of mixed\nmarriages.\n\n\u201cTo every thing there is a season, and a time to every purpose under\nthe heaven: a time to be born, and a time to die\u201d (Eccles. iii. 1, 2).\nLife is a precious gift the Creator has given us; while there is breath\nin our nostrils we thank Him for it, we pray to Him for its\nprolongation, do everything in our power to preserve it, and consider\nits wilful destruction a criminal act. But notwithstanding all this\n\u201cthere is a time to die.\u201d Life and death are equally mysteries to us;\nwe trust in the mercy of Him who has ordained life and death, that both\nare for our good. Death is, therefore, not to be regarded with dread\nand horror; it is the transition to another state of life, the real\nnature of which is unknown to us. But it is our belief that the future\nlife (\u200f\u05d4\u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd \u05d4\u05d1\u05d0\u200e) is infinitely superior to the present life (\u200f\u05d4\u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd\n\u05d4\u05d6\u05d4\u200e); hence the saying in the Midrash that the words \u201cexceedingly\ngood\u201d (Gen. i. 31) applied to death. The only fear of death that can\nreasonably be justified is the fear of departing from this life before\nwe have completed our task, before we have sufficiently strengthened\n\u201cthe breaches of the house\u201d caused by our own dereliction of duty. Our\nSages advise, \u201cReturn one day before thy death\u201d (Aboth ii. 15); that\nis, every day, the day of death being concealed from our knowledge. In\nthis manner we constantly prepare ourselves for death without\ncurtailing our enjoyment of life. \u201cRejoice, O young man, in thy youth;\nand let thy heart cheer thee in the days of thy youth, and walk in the\nways of thine heart, and in the sight of thine eyes: but know thou,\nthat for all these things God will bring thee into judgment. Therefore\nremove sorrow from thy heart, and put away evil from thy flesh: for\nchildhood and youth are vanity\u201d (Eccles. xi. 9, 10). When passion\novercomes us and evil inclinations invite us to sin, we are told by our\nSages to remember the day of death, which may suddenly surprise us\nbefore we have been able by repentance to purify ourselves from our\ntransgressions (Babyl. Talm., Berachoth 5a).\n\nWhen death approaches, and announces itself through man\u2019s illness, we\ndo everything that human knowledge and skill can suggest to preserve\nand prolong the earthly life with which God has endowed us; in\naddition, the patient himself and his friends invoke the mercy of God\nfor his recovery. [205] Even when death appears invincible, when \u201cthe\nedge of the sword touches already man\u2019s neck, we do not relinquish our\nhope in God\u2019s mercy, and continue to pray to the All-merciful.\u201d The\npatient is asked to prepare himself for the solemn moment, although it\nmay in reality be as yet far off. [206] The preparation consists of\nprayer, meditation, confession of sin, repentance, and of the\nprofession of our Creed, especially of the Unity of God, in the words,\n\u201cHear, O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One.\u201d [207] To visit\nthe sick, to comfort them by kind words and deeds, to pray with and for\nthe patient, are acts included in the duty of \u201cvisiting the sick\u201d\n(\u200f\u05d1\u05e7\u05d5\u05e8 \u05d4\u05d5\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd\u200e). [208] In the moment of death those present testify\ntheir faith in God by proclaiming the Dominion, the Omnipotence, and\nthe Unity of God in the same way in which we make this declaration at\nthe conclusion of the Day of Atonement. Although Prayer-books contain\ncertain forms of prayer for this purpose, the patient and those present\nshould rather follow the impulse of their heart, and commune with the\nAlmighty in any form their heart suggests.\n\nWhen life has come to an end friends and relatives give free expression\nto their grief; [209] to check it by comforting words at this moment is\nuseless (Aboth iv. 18). The mourners, [210] father, mother, son,\ndaughter, brother, and sister, have now to direct all their attention\nto the deceased relative, in order that nothing be neglected in the\nlast honours shown to him; they are therefore free from all other\nreligious obligations till after the burial. In Palestine and\nneighbouring countries, where, in consequence of the higher\ntemperature, decomposition of the body begins soon after death, the\nburial takes place on the same day. [211] In colder climates two or\nthree days elapse between death and burial. The mourners abstain during\nthe interval from wine and meat.\n\nEvery act of piety in honour of the deceased is a meritorious religious\nact, a mitsvah, an act of kindness and truth (\u200f\u05d7\u05e1\u05d3 \u05d5\u05d0\u05de\u05ea\u200e), and in every\ncongregation there exists a society, called \u200f\u05d7\u05d1\u05e8\u05d0 \u05e7\u05e8\u05d9\u05e9\u05d0\u200e \u201choly\nsociety,\u201d whose members devote themselves to the fulfilment of these\npious duties.\n\nAccording to the principle that death equalises all, that \u201cthe small\nand great are there\u201d (Job iii. 19), the greatest simplicity and\nequality is observed in all matters connected with the obsequies [212]\nof the dead. Friends and relatives follow to the burial-ground; the\n\u200f\u05d4\u05dc\u05d5\u05d9\u05ea \u05d4\u05de\u05ea\u200e, or attending the dead to their last resting-place, [213]\nis one of those mitsvoth \u201cthe fruits of which a man enjoys in this\nworld, while the stock remains for him for the world to come.\u201d\n\nBurying the dead is a very old custom, to which the Jews adhered firmly\nat all ages. The custom of the Greeks, who burnt their dead, found no\nadvocates among the Jews. In the Written and the Oral Law only the\nburying of the dead is mentioned. To leave a human body unburied and\nunattended was considered by Jews, as by other nations, an insult to\nthe deceased person, and whoever found such a body was bound to take\ncharge of it and to effect its burial. [214]\n\nIn the Burial Service we acknowledge the justice of God, and resign\nourselves to the Will of the Almighty (\u200f\u05e6\u05d3\u05d5\u05e7 \u05d4\u05d3\u05d9\u05df\u200e). When the burial is\nover our attention is directed to the living; words of comfort are\naddressed to the mourners [215] who return home and keep \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05e2\u05d4\u200e \u201cseven\ndays of mourning.\u201d A certain degree of mourning is then continued till\nthe end of the year by the children of the deceased, and till the end\nof the month (\u200f\u05e9\u05dc\u05e9\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cthirty days\u201d) by other relatives. [216]\n\nOur regard for the deceased (\u200f\u05d9\u05e7\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d3\u05e9\u05db\u05d1\u05d9\u200e) and our sympathies with the\nmourners (\u200f\u05d9\u05e7\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d3\u05d7\u05d9\u05d9\u200e) are expressed in different ways.\n\nThe funeral oration (\u200f\u05d4\u05e1\u05e4\u05d3\u200e) occasionally spoken at the grave, or in\nthe house of mourning, or in the Synagogue, generally combines both\nelements; it contains a eulogy upon the deceased and words of sympathy\nand exhortation for the living.\n\nThe special prayers offered up on such occasions likewise include these\ntwo elements: petitions for the well-being of the soul of the deceased,\nthat it may find Divine mercy when appearing before the Supreme Judge,\nand petitions for the comfort and relief of the mourners. The Kaddish\nof the Mourners, however, does not contain such prayers, but merely\nexpresses their resignation to the Will of the Almighty, their\nconviction that He is the only Being that is to be worshipped, and that\nHe alone will be worshipped by all mankind in the days of Messiah, and\ntheir wish that the arrival of those days may be hastened.\n\nThere are, besides, the following customs, the object of which is to\nexpress our regard for the memory of the deceased: (1.) A tombstone\n(\u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d1\u05d4\u200e) is set up in front of or over the grave with the name of the\ndeceased, the date of his death, and such words of praise as are\ndictated by the love and the esteem in which the deceased was held by\nthe mourners. (2.) A lamp is kept burning [217] during the week, or the\nmonth, or the year of mourning, and on the anniversary of the day of\ndeath (Jahrzeit). (3.) By observing the anniversary of the death as a\nday devoted to earnest reflection, and to meditation on the merits and\nvirtues of the deceased; we keep away from amusements, and say Kaddish\nin the course of the Services of the day. Some observe the anniversary\nas a fast-day. (4.) By doing some mitsvah [218] in commemoration of the\ndeceased. (5.) By regarding with respect and piety the wishes of the\ndeparted relative or friend, especially those uttered when death was\napproaching. Our Sages teach: \u201cIt is our duty to fulfil the wishes of\nthe departed.\u201d [219] The absence of this inner respect and piety makes\nall the outward signs of mourning, however conscientiously observed,\nvalueless and illusory.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNOTES.\n\n\nIn addition to the customs already mentioned, there are a few calling\nfor some observation, customs which might seem superstitious, but are\nnot so if properly understood.\n\nWhen life is extinct the eyes of the deceased are closed, and in some\ncases also the mouth is kept shut. This is probably done out of regard\nfor the dead, that their face should not present a too ghastly and\nrepulsive appearance. The custom is mentioned in the Mishnah, Shabbath\nxxiii. 5, and is also alluded to in the words, \u201cAnd Joseph shall put\nhis hands upon thine eyes\u201d (Gen. xlvi. 4).\n\nFrom the house in which there was a dead person, and from the houses in\nits immediate neighbourhood, the water was poured out. According to\nNum. xix., everything in the house\u2014and, under certain conditions, also\nin the neighbouring houses\u2014was unclean; the water was poured out, from\nfear lest it be used in preparing holy food, such as terumah\n(\u201cheave-offering\u201d). Furthermore, a kohen is not allowed to enter such a\nhouse, and the pouring away of the water served as an indication that a\ndead person was in the house.\n\nAn important element in the preparation for the burial is the\n\u201ccleaning\u201d and robing of the body (\u200f\u05d8\u05d4\u05e8\u05d4\u200e); the cleansing of the body\nbefore it returns to the earth is to be a symbol of the purification of\nthe soul by the mercy of God.\n\nIt is customary that those who came into contact with the deceased\nduring his lifetime express regret for any offence they may have\ncommitted, knowingly or unknowingly, against him\u2014a good custom, that\nmight serve as an exhortation to us all to be careful in our actions\ntowards our living fellow-men.\n\nWhenever we mention the name of a deceased friend or relative we add,\nas a mark of respect, \u200f\u05e2\u05dc\u05d9\u05d4\u05df) \u05d4\u05e9\u05dc\u05d5\u05dd\u200e or \u200f\u05e2\u05dc\u05d9\u05df (\u05e2\u05dc\u05d9\u05d4 \u05e2\u05dc\u05d9\u05d4\u05dd\u200e, \u200f\u05d6\u05db\u05e8\u05d5\u05e0\u05d5\n(\u05d6\u05db\u05e8\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4) \u05dc\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05d4\u200e, \u200f\u05d6\u05db\u05e8 \u05e6\u05d3\u05d9\u05e7 \u05dc\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05d4\u200e or \u200f\u05e0\u05d5\u05d7\u05d5 (\u05e0\u05d5\u05d7\u05d4) \u05e2\u05d3\u05df\u200e (abbreviated,\n\u200f\u05d6\u05e6\u05dc, \u05d6\u05f4\u05dc, \u05e2\u05f4\u05d4\u200e or \u200f\u05e0\u05f4\u05e2\u200e), \u201cPeace be to him (her or them),\u201d \u201chis (or\nher) memory be for a blessing,\u201d \u201cthe memory of the righteous be for a\nblessing,\u201d or \u201chis (or her) rest be Eden.\u201d Comp. Zunz, Zur Literatur u.\nGeschichte. Similarly we add to the names of living friends and\nrelatives the wish \u200f\u05e9\u05d9\u05d7\u05d9\u05d4\u200e (\u200f\u05e9\u05ea\u05d7\u05d9\u05d4\u200e), or \u200f\u05e0\u05e8\u05d5 \u05d9\u05d0\u05d9\u05e8\u200e \u201cMay he (or she)\nlive,\u201d or \u201cMay his light continue to shine.\u201d\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nAPPENDIX.\n\nI.\n\nTHE THIRTEEN PRINCIPLES OF FAITH.\n\n\n\u200f\u05d0\u05e0\u05d5 \u05de\u05d0\u05de\u05d9\u05df \u05d1\u05d0\u05de\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4 \u05e9\u05dc\u05de\u05d4\u200e\n\n\u200f\u05d0\u2014\u05e9\u05d4\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d9\u05ea\u05d1\u05e8\u05da \u05e9\u05de\u05d5 \u05d4\u05d5\u05d0 \u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d5\u05de\u05e0\u05d4\u05d9\u05d2 \u05dc\u05db\u05dc \u05d4\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05d0\u05d9\u05dd \u05d5\u05d4\u05d5\u05d0 \u05dc\u05d1\u05d3\u05d5 \u05e2\u05e9\u05d4 \u05d5\u05e2\u05d5\u05e9\u05d4\n\u05d5\u05d9\u05e2\u05e9\u05d4 \u05dc\u05db\u05dc \u05d4\u05de\u05e2\u05e9\u05d9\u05dd\u05c3\u200e\n\n\u200f\u05d1\u2014\u05e9\u05d4\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d9\u05ea\u05d1\u05e8\u05da \u05e9\u05de\u05d5 \u05d4\u05d5\u05d0 \u05d9\u05d7\u05d9\u05d3 \u05d5\u05d0\u05d9\u05df \u05d9\u05d7\u05d9\u05d3\u05d5\u05ea \u05db\u05de\u05d5\u05d4\u05d5 \u05d1\u05e9\u05d5\u05dd \u05e4\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd \u05d5\u05d4\u05d5\u05d0 \u05dc\u05d1\u05d3\u05d5\n\u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5 \u05d4\u05d9\u05d4 \u05d4\u05d5\u05d4 \u05d5\u05d9\u05d4\u05d9\u05d4\u05c3\u200e\n\n\u200f\u05d2\u2014\u05e9\u05d4\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d9\u05ea\u05d1\u05e8\u05da \u05e9\u05de\u05d5 \u05d0\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5 \u05d2\u05d5\u05e3 \u05d5\u05dc\u05d0 \u05d9\u05e9\u05d9\u05d2\u05d5\u05d4\u05d5 \u05de\u05e9\u05d9\u05d2\u05d9 \u05d4\u05d2\u05d5\u05e3 \u05d5\u05d0\u05d9\u05df \u05dc\u05d5 \u05e9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d3\u05de\u05d9\u05d5\u05df\n\u05db\u05dc\u05dc\u05c3\u200e\n\n\u200f\u05d3\u2014\u05e9\u05d4\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d9\u05ea\u05d1\u05e8\u05da \u05e9\u05de\u05d5 \u05d4\u05d5\u05d0 \u05e8\u05d0\u05e9\u05d5\u05df \u05d5\u05d4\u05d5\u05d0 \u05d0\u05d7\u05e8\u05d5\u05df\u05c3\u200e\n\n\u200f\u05d4\u2014\u05e9\u05d4\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d9\u05ea\u05d1\u05e8\u05da \u05e9\u05de\u05d5 \u05dc\u05d5 \u05dc\u05d1\u05d3\u05d5 \u05e8\u05d0\u05d5\u05d9 \u05dc\u05d4\u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05dc \u05d5\u05d0\u05d9\u05df \u05e8\u05d0\u05d5\u05d9 \u05dc\u05d4\u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05dc \u05dc\u05d6\u05d5\u05dc\u05ea\u05d5\u05c3\u200e\n\n\u200f\u05d5\u2014\u05e9\u05db\u05dc \u05d3\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9 \u05d4\u05e0\u05d1\u05d9\u05d0\u05d9\u05dd \u05d0\u05de\u05ea\u05c3\u200e\n\n\u200f\u05d6\u2014\u05e9\u05e0\u05d1\u05d5\u05d0\u05ea \u05de\u05e9\u05d4 \u05e8\u05d1\u05e0\u05d5 \u05e2\u05dc\u05d9\u05d5 \u05d4\u05e9\u05dc\u05d5\u05dd \u05d4\u05d9\u05ea\u05d4 \u05d0\u05de\u05ea\u05d9\u05ea \u05d5\u05e9\u05d4\u05d5\u05d0 \u05d4\u05d9\u05d4 \u05d0\u05d1 \u05dc\u05e0\u05d1\u05d9\u05d0\u05d9\u05dd \u05dc\u05e7\u05d5\u05d3\u05de\u05d9\u05dd\n\u05dc\u05e4\u05e0\u05d9\u05d5 \u05d5\u05dc\u05d1\u05d0\u05d9\u05dd \u05d0\u05d7\u05e8\u05d9\u05d5\u05c3\u200e\n\n\u200f\u05d7\u2014\u05e9\u05db\u05dc \u05d4\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4 \u05d4\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05d9\u05d4 \u05e2\u05ea\u05d4 \u05d1\u05d9\u05d3\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5 \u05d4\u05d9\u05d0 \u05d4\u05e0\u05ea\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4 \u05dc\u05de\u05e9\u05d4 \u05e8\u05d1\u05e0\u05d5 \u05e2\u05dc\u05d9\u05d5 \u05d4\u05e9\u05dc\u05d5\u05dd\u05c3\u200e\n\n\u200f\u05d8\u2014\u05e9\u05d6\u05d0\u05ea \u05d4\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4 \u05dc\u05d0 \u05ea\u05d4\u05d9 \u05de\u05d7\u05dc\u05e4\u05ea \u05d5\u05dc\u05d0 \u05ea\u05d4\u05d9 \u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4 \u05d0\u05d7\u05e8\u05ea \u05de\u05d0\u05d3 \u05d4\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d9\u05ea\u05d1\u05e8\u05da \u05e9\u05de\u05d5\u05c3\u200e\n\n\u200f\u05d9\u2014\u05e9\u05d4\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d9\u05ea\u05d1\u05e8\u05da \u05e9\u05de\u05d5 \u05d9\u05d5\u05d3\u05e2 \u05db\u05dc \u05de\u05e2\u05e9\u05d9 \u05d1\u05e0\u05d9 \u05d0\u05d3\u05dd \u05d5\u05db\u05dc \u05de\u05d7\u05e9\u05d1\u05d5\u05ea\u05dd \u05e9\u05e0\u05d0\u05de\u05e8 \u05d4\u05d9\u05e6\u05e8 \u05d9\u05d7\u05d3 \u05dc\u05d1\u05dd\n\u05d4\u05de\u05d1\u05d9\u05df \u05d0\u05dc \u05db\u05dc \u05de\u05e2\u05e9\u05d9\u05d4\u05dd\u05c3\u200e\n\n\u200f\u05d9\u05d0\u2014\u05e9\u05d4\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d9\u05ea\u05d1\u05e8\u05da \u05e9\u05de\u05d5 \u05d2\u05d5\u05de\u05dc \u05d8\u05d5\u05d1 \u05dc\u05e9\u05d5\u05de\u05e8\u05d9 \u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea\u05d9\u05d5 \u05d5\u05de\u05e2\u05d5\u05d9\u05e9 \u05dc\u05e2\u05d5\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9 \u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea\u05d9\u05d5\u05c3\u200e\n\n\u200f\u05d9\u05d1\u2014\u05d1\u05d1\u05d9\u05d0\u05ea \u05d4\u05de\u05e9\u05d9\u05d7 \u05d5\u05d0\u05e3 \u05e2\u05dc \u05e4\u05d9 \u05e9\u05d9\u05ea\u05de\u05d4\u05de\u05d4 \u05e2\u05dd \u05db\u05dc \u05d6\u05d4 \u05d0\u05d7\u05db\u05d4\u05be\u05dc\u05d5 \u05d1\u05db\u05dc \u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05e9\u05d9\u05d1\u05d5\u05d0\u05c3\u200e\n\n\u200f\u05d9\u05d2\u2014\u05e9\u05ea\u05d4\u05d9\u05d4 \u05ea\u05d7\u05d9\u05ea \u05d4\u05de\u05ea\u05d9\u05dd \u05d1\u05e2\u05ea \u05e9\u05ea\u05e2\u05dc\u05d4 \u05e8\u05e6\u05d5\u05df \u05de\u05d0\u05ea \u05d4\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d9\u05ea\u05d1\u05e8\u05da \u05e9\u05de\u05d5 \u05d5\u05d9\u05ea\u05e2\u05dc\u05d4 \u05d6\u05db\u05e8\u05d5 \u05dc\u05e2\u05d3\n\u05d5\u05dc\u05e0\u05e6\u05d7 \u05e0\u05e6\u05d7\u05d9\u05dd\u05c3\u200e\n\n\nNote.\u2014\u200f\u05e9\u05ea\u05e2\u05dc\u05d4 \u05e8\u05e6\u05d5\u05df\u200e \u201cwhen it will be decreed,\u201d lit. \u201cwhen it\u2014the\nresurrection\u2014will ascend into the will.\u201d Comp. the Talmudical \u200f\u05e1\u05dc\u05e7\u05d0\n\u05d3\u05e2\u05ea\u05da\u200e \u201cyou think,\u201d lit. \u201cit ascends into your mind.\u201d\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nII.\n\nTHE JEWISH CALENDAR.\n\n\n1. Nisan.\u2014The Sabbath before Passover is called \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea \u05d4\u05d2\u05d3\u05d5\u05dc\u200e \u201cthe Great\nSabbath,\u201d on account of the importance of the approaching festival.\n\n 14th: \u200f\u05e2\u05e8\u05d1 \u05e4\u05e1\u05d7\u200e \u201cthe Eve of Passover.\u201d Fast of the First-born.\n 15th to 22nd: \u200f\u05e4\u05e1\u05d7\u200e \u201cPassover.\u201d\n 16th: \u201cBeginning of counting the Omer,\u201d \u200f\u05e1\u05e4\u05d9\u05e8\u05ea \u05d4\u05e2\u05d5\u05de\u05e8\u200e\n 17th to 20th: \u200f\u05d7\u05d5\u05dc \u05d4\u05de\u05d5\u05e2\u05d3\u200e \u201cHalf-holydays.\u201d\n 23rd: \u200f\u05d0\u05e1\u05e8\u05d5 \u05d7\u05d2\u200e \u201cFarewell to the Festival.\u201d\n\n2. Iyar.\u201414th: \u200f\u05e4\u05e1\u05d7 \u05e9\u05e0\u05d9\u200e \u201cSecond Passover\u201d (Num. ix. 9 sqq.).\n\n 18th: \u200f\u05dc\u05f4\u05d2 \u05d1\u05e2\u05d5\u05de\u05e8\u200e the 33rd of the Omer. \u201cScholar\u2019s feast.\u201d\n \u200f\u05e9\u05e0\u05d9 \u05d7\u05de\u05d9\u05e9\u05d9 \u05d5\u05e9\u05e0\u05d9\u200e Fasts kept by some, on the first Monday, Thursday,\n and Monday succeeding each other in the beginning of the month, in\n order to atone for sins they may have committed on the Holydays.\n\n3. Sivan.\u20143rd, 4th, and 5th: \u200f\u05e9\u05dc\u05e9\u05ea \u05d9\u05de\u05d9 \u05d4\u05d2\u05d1\u05dc\u05d4\u200e \u201cThe three days of\nbordering\u201d (Exod. xix. 10\u201312).\n\n 5th: \u200f\u05e2\u05e8\u05d1 \u05e9\u05d1\u05d5\u05e2\u05d5\u05ea\u200e \u201cThe eve of the Feast of Weeks.\u201d\n 6th and 7th: \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05d5\u05e2\u05d5\u05ea\u200e \u201cFeast of Weeks,\u201d also called \u201cPentecost.\u201d\n 8th: \u200f\u05d0\u05e1\u05e8\u05d5 \u05d7\u05d2\u200e \u201cFarewell to the Festival.\u201d\n\n4. Tammuz.\u201417th: \u201cFast of Tammuz,\u201d \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05e2\u05d4 \u05e2\u05e9\u05e8 \u05d1\u05ea\u05de\u05d5\u05d6\u200e\n\n5. Ab.\u2014\u201cSabbath before the Fast,\u201d \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea \u05d7\u05d6\u05d5\u05df\u200e (see p. 413)\n\n 9th: \u201cFast of Ab,\u201d \u200f\u05ea\u05e9\u05e2\u05d4 \u05d1\u05d0\u05d1\u200e\n \u201cSabbath after the Fast,\u201d \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea \u05e0\u05d7\u05de\u05d5\u200e (ibid.).\n 15th: \u200f\u05d7\u05de\u05e9\u05d4 \u05e2\u05e9\u05e8 \u05d1\u05d0\u05d1\u200e \u201c15th of Ab.\u201d Reconciliation of the Benjamites\n with the other Israelites (Judges xxi.).\n\n6. Ellul.\u2014\u200f\u05d9\u05de\u05d9 \u05d4\u05e1\u05dc\u05d9\u05d7\u05d5\u05ea\u200e \u201cDays of propitiatory prayers,\u201d beginning on\nthe first day of the month according to the Spanish Rite, and according\nto the German Rite, on the Sunday (or 2nd S.) before \u200f\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9 \u05d4\u05e9\u05e0\u05d4\u200e\n\n 29th: \u200f\u05e2\u05e8\u05d1 \u05e8\u05d0\u05e9 \u05d4\u05e9\u05e0\u05d4\u200e \u201cThe eve of New-year.\u201d\n\n7. Tishri.\u20141st and 2nd: \u201cNew-year,\u201d \u200f\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9 \u05d4\u05e9\u05e0\u05d4\u200e\n\n 3rd: \u201cFast of Gedaliah,\u201d \u200f\u05e6\u05d5\u05dd \u05d2\u05d3\u05dc\u05d9\u05d4\u05d5\u200e\n 1st to 10th: \u201cThe ten penitential days,\u201d \u200f\u05e2\u05e9\u05e8\u05ea \u05d9\u05de\u05d9 \u05ea\u05e9\u05d5\u05d1\u05d4\u200e\n \u201cThe Sabbath after New-year,\u201d \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea \u05e9\u05d5\u05d1\u05d4\u200e (see p. 405).\n 9th: \u200f\u05e2\u05e8\u05d1 \u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05db\u05e4\u05d5\u05e8\u200e \u201cThe eve of the Day of Atonement.\u201d\n 10th: \u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05db\u05e4\u05d5\u05e8\u200e or \u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d4\u05db\u05e4\u05d5\u05e8\u05d5\u05dd\u200e \u201cThe Day of Atonement.\u201d\n 14th: \u200f\u05e2\u05e8\u05d1 \u05e1\u05db\u05d5\u05ea\u200e \u201cThe eve of Sukkoth.\u201d\n 15th to 21st: \u200f\u05e1\u05db\u05d5\u05ea\u200e \u201cFeast of Tabernacles.\u201d\n 17th to 21st: \u200f\u05d7\u05d5\u05dc \u05d4\u05de\u05d5\u05e2\u05d3\u200e \u201cHalf-holyday.\u201d\n 21st: \u200f\u05d4\u05d5\u05e9\u05e2\u05e0\u05d0 \u05e8\u05d1\u05d0\u200e \u201cThe Great Hoshana Service.\u201d\n 22nd and 23rd: \u200f\u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05e0\u05d9 \u05e2\u05e6\u05e8\u05ea\u200e \u201cFeast of the eighth day.\u201d\n 23rd: \u200f\u05e9\u05de\u05d7\u05ea \u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e \u201cRejoicing of the Law.\u201d\n 24th: \u200f\u05d0\u05e1\u05e8\u05d5 \u05d7\u05d2\u200e \u201cFarewell to the Festival.\u201d\n Heshvan.\u2014\u200f\u05e9\u05e0\u05d9 \u05d4\u05de\u05d9\u05e9\u05d9 \u05d5\u05e9\u05e0\u05d9\u200e \u201cThe Fast of \u2018Monday, Thursday, and\n Monday,\u2019 kept by some in the course of the month.\u201d\n\n9. Kislev.\u201425th to 2nd (or 3rd) of Tebeth: \u200f\u05d7\u05e0\u05d5\u05db\u05d4\u200e \u201cFeast of\nDedication.\u201d\n\n10. Tebeth.\u201410th: \u200f\u05e2\u05e9\u05e8\u05d4 \u05d1\u05d8\u05d1\u05ea\u200e \u201cThe Fast of Tebeth.\u201d\n\n11. Shebhat.\u201415th: \u200f\u05d7\u05de\u05e9\u05d4 \u05e2\u05e9\u05e8 \u05d1\u05e9\u05d1\u05d8\u200e \u201cNew-year for trees.\u201d\n\n The last Sabbath in the month (or the first of Adar, if on\n Saturday) is \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea \u05e9\u05e7\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cThe Sabbath of Shekalim.\u201d Exod. xxx.\n 11\u201316 is read in addition to the weekly section.\n\n12. Adar.\u20147th: Anniversary of death of Moses.\n\n Sabbath before Purim, \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea \u05d6\u05db\u05d5\u05e8\u200e (Deut. xxv. 17\u201319).\n 13th: \u200f\u05ea\u05e2\u05e0\u05d9\u05ea \u05d0\u05e1\u05ea\u05e8\u200e \u201cFast of Esther.\u201d\n 14th: Purim, \u200f\u05e4\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cThe Feast of Lots.\u201d\n 15th: \u200f\u05e9\u05d5\u05e9\u05df \u05e4\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cPurim of Shushan.\u201d\n The last Sabbath but one, \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea \u05e4\u05e8\u05d4\u200e Num. xix. is read as an extra\n lesson.\n The last Sabbath in the month, or the first of Nisan, if on\n Saturday, is \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea \u05d4\u05d7\u05d5\u05d3\u05e9\u200e Exod. xii. 1\u201320 is read as an extra\n lesson.\n\n[13. Adar Sheni.\u2014\u200f\u05e9\u05d5\u05e9\u05df \u05e4\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e, \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea \u05d6\u05db\u05d5\u05e8\u200e, \u200f\u05ea\u05e2\u05e0\u05d9\u05ea \u05d0\u05e1\u05ea\u05e8\u200e, \u200f\u05e4\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd \u05e9\u05d1\u05ea\n\u05e4\u05e8\u05d4\u200e, and \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea \u05d4\u05d7\u05d3\u05e9\u200e which in an ordinary year are observed in Adar,\nare in a leap-year kept in Adar Sheni; and \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea \u05e9\u05e7\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd\u200e either on the\nlast Sabbath in Adar, or on the first of Adar Sheni, if on Saturday.]\n\n\nNote.\u2014The 15th of Shebhat is, according to the opinion of the\nHillelites (Mishnah, Rosh ha-shanah i. 1), \u201cNew-year for the trees;\u201d\ni.e., in reference to tithes, and to the fruit of the fourth or fifth\nyear (Lev. xix. 24, 25); the fruit that begins to grow on a tree\nbetween the 15th of Shebhat of one year and the same date next year is\nreckoned as the fruit of one year.\n\nVarious reasons are given for the distinction of the 15th of Ab: (a.)\nThe punishment decreed against the Israelites in the wilderness in\nconnection with the spies (Num. xiv. 29) was discontinued from the 15th\nof Ab. (b.) The posts set up by Jeroboam on the borders of his kingdom\nfor the purpose of preventing Israelites from going up to Jerusalem\nwere removed on this date. (c.) The preparation of the wood for the\naltar was completed on the 15th of Ab. (d.) On this day the Israelites\nobtained permission to bury the bodies of those killed in the war\nagainst Hadrian. (e.) The reconciliation between the Benjamites and the\nother Israelites took place on the 15th of Ab (Judges xxi. 21 sqq.).\n\nThe Mishnah (Taanith iv. 8) states that the 15th of Ab and the Day of\nAtonement were to the Israelites once days of the greatest national\nrejoicings for all alike, rich and poor. In memory of these general\nrejoicings the daughters of Jerusalem wore on these days borrowed white\ngarments, in order that those poor who had none of their own should not\nfeel ashamed. The Mishnah then describes the causes of the rejoicings;\nnamely, the dancings in the vineyards (Judges, l. c.) for the 15th of\nAb, and the giving of the Law (i.e., the giving of the second tables,\nwhich, according to Tradition, took place on the 10th of Tishri), and\nthe building of the Temple (i.e., the rearing of the Tabernacle, which,\naccording to Tradition, was commanded on the 10th of Tishri for the\nrejoicings on the Day of Atonement).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nIII.\n\nRELIGIOUS EDUCATION.\n\n\nProfessor Lazarus in his recent work \u201cDie Ethik des Judenthums\u201d made\nthe following observations: \u201cIn the continuity of the spirit of our\nnation we discover the solution of the riddle, which puzzled so many\nthinkers, viz.: how the small tribe of the Jews managed to outlive\ngreat and mighty nations.\u201d This continuity of the spirit has been\nsecured by our religious education. It has been said that education\naims at producing in the younger generation the capacity of receiving,\npreserving and developing the culture we have acquired; this applies\npre-eminently to religious education. That such continuity exists in\nour religious education, is evident from the fact that up to the\npresent day the chief text-book for religious instruction has remained\nthe same:\u2014the Torah, or in a wider sense, the Bible, that everflowing\nfountain of living waters, not only for us Jews, but for almost all\ncivilised nations. Our duty to preserve this continuity by handing over\nto the next generation the religious principles inherited from our\npredecessors is frequently insisted upon in Holy Writ, and emphasized\non every occasion. We have in this respect a double duty to perform:\nEvery parent is bound to secure as far as possible the well-being of\nhis children; religious education is indispensable for the children\u2019s\nwell-being. The Torah, the source of our religious education, is\nbesides, our National treasure and inheritance, and every member of our\ncommunity has as such the duty to guard and protect this treasure, that\nthe rising generation receive it in its integrity. It is therefore not\nsufficient for any one of us to provide for the religious instruction\nof his own children, it is his duty to contribute his share towards the\nmaintenance of the public schools or classes established for the\nreligious instruction of the young. The Israelites in the wilderness\njoyfully received the National treasure, and solemnly declared \u201cthe Law\nwhich Moses commanded us, has been handed to us as an inheritance,\u201d to\nbe transmitted from generation to generation. These very words form the\nbeginning of the religious education of our children, for as soon as\nthey are able to speak, they are taught to recite and to understand the\nverse \u200f\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4 \u05e6\u05d5\u05d4 \u05dc\u05e0\u05d5 \u05de\u05e9\u05d4 \u05de\u05d5\u05e8\u05e9\u05d4 \u05e7\u05d4\u05dc\u05ea \u05d9\u05e2\u05e7\u05d1\u200e \u201cThe Law which Moses commanded\nus, O congregation of Jacob, is an inheritance.\u201d (Deut. xxxiii. 4.). In\naccordance with this principle, the Torah, the reading of the Torah in\nits original language, in the Hebrew, the translation and the\nunderstanding of the Torah, must form the basis of Jewish Religious\nEducation, both in private and public instruction. The Torah is the\nessential element in the curriculum of Jewish Institutions for\nReligious instruction.\n\nOur Sages therefore teach (Aboth v. 2): \u201cRead the Torah again and\nagain, for everything is in it, and in it thou wilt see everything; and\neven when thou art old and worn out, remain faithful to it, and from it\ndo not move away, for there is no better measure for thee than the\nTorah.\u201d\n\nThere are other important subjects which Jewish children of both sexes\nare expected to learn and to know: The principles of Religion,\nScripture History, Jewish History and Literature, Geography of\nPalestine and Hebrew Grammar. None of these subjects should be excluded\nfrom the curriculum of a Jewish School. They must be taught, but must\nbe taught in such a way that they help to illustrate the lessons of the\nLaw, and to facilitate its study. It is certainly of great importance\nthat our children should acquire as much knowledge as possible of our\nHistory and Literature; of far greater importance, however, is the\ntraining of the heart in the faith of God, the inculcation of reverence\nfor the Torah and the creation of a desire to live a pure, good and\nholy life, based on the fear and love of God. Text-books of Religion,\nthough useful both to teacher and pupil, must by no means supersede the\noriginal, the Torah. Where for some cogent reason a minimum of time is\nspared for religious instruction\u2014as is e.g. the case in many Religion\nClasses connected with Public Schools and Colleges, special care should\nbe taken that the Torah receive its due attention. The best method must\nbe employed, the best possible teachers must be engaged, who are well\ntrained in the art of teaching, and possess a thorough knowledge of our\nholy religion and our history. If in addition to these qualifications,\nthe teacher devotes himself to his profession with love and enthusiasm,\nhis words, coming from the heart, will find their way into the heart of\nthe pupil. No time can be spared for metaphysical speculations or for\nproblems of Bible criticism. Besides, \u201cThe hidden things belong to the\nLord our God, but the things which have been revealed are for us and\nour children for ever: to do all the words of this Law.\u201d (Deut. xxix.\n28). According to the teaching of Aboth, (v. 22) \u201cone moment of victory\nover sin and temptation in this life surpasses all the blessings of the\nfuture life,\u201d and to train our youths in the way leading to such bliss,\nis the aim and motive of all Religious teaching.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nIV.\n\nPRAYER FOR BARMITZVAH.\n\n\nPrayer which the young Candidate, having previously undergone a\nreligious examination, should recite, when called to the Law, before\nthe Blessing.\n\n\n\u200f\u05d0\u05b1\u05dc\u05b9\u05d4\u05b7\u05d9 \u05d5\u05b5\u05d0\u05dc\u05b9\u05d4\u05b5\u05d9 \u05d0\u05b2\u05d1\u05d5\u05b9\u05ea\u05b7\u05d9\u200e\n\n\u200f\u05d1\u05b6\u05bc\u05d0\u05b1\u05de\u05b6\u05ea \u05d5\u05bc\u05d1\u05b0\u05ea\u05b8\u05de\u05b4\u05d9\u05dd \u05d0\u05b6\u05e9\u05b8\u05bc\u05c2\u05d0 \u05d0\u05b5\u05dc\u05b6\u05d9\u05da\u05b8 \u05d0\u05b6\u05ea \u05e2\u05b5\u05d9\u05e0\u05b7\u05d9 \u05d1\u05b7\u05bc\u05d9\u05bc\u05d5\u05b9\u05dd \u05d4\u05b7\u05d2\u05b8\u05bc\u05d3\u05d5\u05dc \u05d5\u05b0\u05d4\u05b7\u05e7\u05b8\u05bc\u05d3\u05d5\u05b9\u05e9\u05c1 \u05d4\u05b7\u05d6\u05b6\u05bc\u05d4 \u05dc\u05b5\u05d0\u05de\u05b9\u05bc\u05e8\u05c3 \u05d4\u05b4\u05e0\u05b5\u05bc\u05d4 \u05d9\u05b7\u05dc\u05b0\u05d3\u05d5\u05bc\u05ea\u05b4\u05d9\n\u05d7\u05b8\u05bd\u05dc\u05b0\u05e4\u05b8\u05d4 \u05d4\u05b8\u05bd\u05dc\u05b0\u05db\u05b8\u05d4 \u05dc\u05b8\u05d4\u05bc \u05d5\u05b0\u05d0\u05b8\u05e0\u05b9\u05db\u05b4\u05d9 \u05d4\u05b8\u05d9\u05b4\u05d9\u05ea\u05b4\u05d9 \u05dc\u05b0\u05d0\u05b4\u05d9\u05e9\u05c1\u05c3 \u05e2\u05b8\u05dc\u05b7\u05d9 \u05dc\u05b4\u05e9\u05b0\u05c1\u05de\u05b9\u05d5\u05e8 \u05d0\u05b6\u05ea \u05db\u05b8\u05bc\u05dc\u05be\u05d7\u05bb\u05e7\u05b5\u05bc\u05d9 \u05e8\u05b0\u05e6\u05d5\u05b9\u05e0\u05b6\u05da\u05b8. \u05d5\u05b0\u05e2\u05b8\u05dc\u05b7\u05d9 \u05dc\u05b7\u05e2\u05b2\u05e0\u05d5\u05b9\u05ea\n\u05d1\u05b0\u05bc\u05d9\u05d5\u05b9\u05dd \u05e4\u05b0\u05bc\u05e7\u05d5\u05bc\u05d3\u05b8\u05ea\u05b4\u05d9 \u05db\u05b7\u05d0\u05b2\u05e9\u05b6\u05c1\u05e8 \u05ea\u05b4\u05bc\u05d2\u05b0\u05de\u05d5\u05b9\u05dc \u05dc\u05b4\u05d9 \u05db\u05e4\u05b0\u05e8\u05b4\u05d9 \u05de\u05b7\u05e2\u05b2\u05dc\u05b8\u05dc\u05b7\u05d9\u05c3 \u05de\u05b4\u05d9\u05bc\u05d5\u05b9\u05dd \u05d4\u05b4\u05d5\u05b8\u05bc\u05bd\u05dc\u05b0\u05d3\u05b4\u05d9 \u05d1\u05b5\u05df \u05d9\u05b4\u05e9\u05b0\u05c2\u05e8\u05b8\u05d0\u05b5\u05dc \u05d0\u05b8\u05e0\u05b4\u05d9. \u05d0\u05b8\u05de\u05b0\u05e0\u05b8\u05dd\n\u05d1\u05b7\u05bc\u05d9\u05bc\u05d5\u05b9\u05dd \u05d4\u05b7\u05d6\u05b6\u05bc\u05d4 \u05d1\u05b8\u05d0\u05ea\u05b4\u05d9 \u05e9\u05b5\u05c1\u05e0\u05b4\u05d9\u05ea \u05d1\u05b7\u05bc\u05e7\u05b8\u05bc\u05d4\u05b8\u05dc \u05dc\u05b8\u05da\u05b0. \u05d5\u05b0\u05dc\u05b4\u05e4\u05b0\u05e0\u05b5\u05d9 \u05db\u05b8\u05dc\u05be\u05d4\u05b8\u05e2\u05b7\u05de\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05dd \u05d0\u05b6\u05ea\u05b0\u05e4\u05b8\u05bc\u05d0\u05b5\u05e8 \u05e2\u05b7\u05dc \u05e9\u05b4\u05c1\u05de\u05b0\u05da\u05b8 \u05d0\u05b2\u05e9\u05b6\u05c1\u05e8 \u05e0\u05b4\u05e7\u05b0\u05e8\u05b8\u05d0\n\u05e2\u05b8\u05dc\u05b5\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5\u05bc\u05c3\u200e\n\n\u200f\u05d5\u05b0\u05e2\u05b7\u05ea\u05b8\u05bc\u05d4 \u05d0\u05b8\u05d1\u05b4\u05d9 \u05e9\u05b6\u05c1\u05d1\u05b7\u05bc\u05e9\u05b8\u05bc\u05c1\u05de\u05b7\u05d9\u05b4\u05dd \u05e9\u05b0\u05c1\u05de\u05b7\u05e2 \u05d0\u05b6\u05dc \u05d4\u05b7\u05ea\u05b0\u05bc\u05e4\u05b4\u05dc\u05b8\u05bc\u05d4 \u05d5\u05b0\u05d0\u05b7\u05dc \u05d4\u05b7\u05ea\u05b0\u05bc\u05d7\u05b4\u05e0\u05b8\u05bc\u05d4 \u05d4\u05b7\u05d6\u05b9\u05bc\u05d0\u05ea. \u05e9\u05b0\u05c1\u05dc\u05b7\u05d7 \u05e2\u05b8\u05dc\u05b7\u05d9 \u05e9\u05b4\u05c1\u05e4\u05b0\u05e2\u05b7\u05ea \u05d1\u05b4\u05bc\u05e8\u05b0\u05db\u05d5\u05b9\u05ea\u05b6\u05d9\u05da\u05b8. \u05d2\u05b6\u05bc\u05e9\u05b6\u05c1\u05dd\n\u05e0\u05b0\u05d3\u05b8\u05d1\u05d5\u05b9\u05ea \u05d5\u05bc\u05d1\u05b0\u05e8\u05b8\u05db\u05d5\u05b9\u05ea \u05d4\u05b7\u05e0\u05b4\u05d9\u05e3 \u05e2\u05b8\u05dc\u05b7\u05d9. \u05dc\u05b0\u05de\u05b7\u05e2\u05b7\u05df \u05d9\u05b8\u05de\u05b7\u05d9 \u05d9\u05b4\u05e9\u05b0\u05c2\u05d1\u05b0\u05bc\u05e2\u05d5\u05bc\u05df \u05d5\u05b0\u05d9\u05b4\u05e8\u05b0\u05d5\u05b0\u05d9\u05d5\u05bc\u05df \u05de\u05b4\u05d3\u05b6\u05bc\u05e9\u05b6\u05c1\u05df \u05e2\u05b2\u05d3\u05b8\u05e0\u05b6\u05d9\u05da\u05b8. \u05d4\u05d5\u05b9\u05e8\u05b5\u05e0\u05b4\u05d9 \u05e0\u05b8\u05d0 \u05d3\u05b6\u05bc\u05e8\u05b6\u05da\u05b0\n\u05d7\u05bb\u05e7\u05b6\u05bc\u05d9\u05da\u05b8. \u05d4\u05b7\u05d3\u05b0\u05e8\u05b4\u05d9\u05db\u05b5\u05e0\u05b4\u05d9 \u05d1\u05b4\u05e0\u05b5\u05ea\u05b4\u05d9\u05d1 \u05de\u05b4\u05e6\u05b5\u05d5\u05b9\u05ea\u05b6\u05d9\u05da\u05b8 \u05ea\u05b5\u05bc\u05df \u05d1\u05b0\u05bc\u05dc\u05b4\u05d1\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9 \u05dc\u05b5\u05d0\u05b7\u05d4\u05b2\u05d1\u05b8\u05d4 \u05d5\u05bc\u05dc\u05b0\u05d9\u05b4\u05e8\u05b0\u05d0\u05b8\u05d4 \u05d0\u05b6\u05ea \u05e9\u05b0\u05c1\u05de\u05b6\u05da\u05b8. \u05d4\u05b7\u05d7\u05b2\u05d6\u05b5\u05e7 \u05d1\u05b0\u05bc\u05d9\u05b8\u05d3\u05b4\u05d9 \u05d5\u05b0\u05d0\u05b7\u05dc\n\u05ea\u05b7\u05bc\u05e8\u05b0\u05e4\u05b5\u05bc\u05e0\u05bc\u05d9 \u05d5\u05b0\u05dc\u05b9\u05d0 \u05d0\u05b6\u05db\u05b8\u05bc\u05e9\u05b5\u05c1\u05dc \u05e2\u05b7\u05dc \u05d3\u05b7\u05e8\u05b0\u05db\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9 \u05d0\u05b2\u05e9\u05b6\u05c1\u05e8 \u05d0\u05b7\u05e0\u05b9\u05db\u05b4\u05d9 \u05d4\u05d5\u05b9\u05dc\u05b6\u05da\u05b0 \u05e2\u05b8\u05dc\u05b6\u05d9\u05d4\u05b8 \u05d4\u05b7\u05d9\u05bc\u05d5\u05b9\u05dd \u05d1\u05b8\u05bc\u05e8\u05b4\u05d0\u05e9\u05c1\u05d5\u05b9\u05e0\u05b8\u05d4\u05c3 \u05d4\u05b7\u05e6\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9\u05dc\u05b5\u05e0\u05b4\u05d9 \u05de\u05b4\u05d9\u05b5\u05bc\u05e6\u05b6\u05e8 \u05d4\u05b8\u05e8\u05b8\u05e2\n\u05d5\u05b0\u05ea\u05b5\u05bc\u05df \u05d1\u05b4\u05bc\u05d9 \u05db\u05b9\u05d7\u05b7 \u05dc\u05b4\u05e9\u05b0\u05c1\u05de\u05d5\u05b9\u05e8 \u05d0\u05b6\u05ea \u05ea\u05bc\u05d5\u05b9\u05e8\u05b8\u05bd\u05ea\u05b0\u05da\u05b8 \u05d4\u05b7\u05e7\u05b0\u05bc\u05d3\u05d5\u05b9\u05e9\u05b8\u05c2\u05d4 \u05d5\u05b0\u05d0\u05b6\u05ea \u05e4\u05b4\u05bc\u05e7\u05bc\u05d5\u05bc\u05d3\u05b6\u05d9\u05da\u05b8 \u05d0\u05b2\u05e9\u05b6\u05c1\u05e8 \u05d9\u05b7\u05e2\u05b2\u05e9\u05b6\u05c2\u05d4 \u05d0\u05d5\u05b9\u05ea\u05b8\u05dd \u05d4\u05b8\u05d0\u05b8\u05d3\u05b8\u05dd \u05d5\u05b8\u05d7\u05b7\u05d9 \u05d1\u05b8\u05bc\u05d4\u05b6\u05dd\u05c3\n\u05d5\u05bc\u05d1\u05b0\u05db\u05b8\u05dc\u05be\u05d9\u05b8\u05de\u05b7\u05d9 \u05d0\u05b6\u05e7\u05b0\u05e8\u05b8\u05d0 \u05d1\u05b0\u05bc\u05e7\u05d5\u05b9\u05dc \u05d2\u05b8\u05bc\u05d3\u05d5\u05b9\u05dc \u05d5\u05b0\u05dc\u05b9\u05d0 \u05d0\u05b5\u05d1\u05d5\u05b9\u05e9\u05c1 \u05e9\u05b0\u05c1\u05de\u05b7\u05e2 \u05d9\u05b4\u05e9\u05b0\u05c2\u05e8\u05b8\u05d0\u05b5\u05dc \u05d9\u05b0\u05d9\u05b8 \u05d0\u05b1\u05dc\u05b9\u05d4\u05b5\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5\u05bc \u05d9\u05b0\u05d9\u05b8 \u05d0\u05b6\u05d4\u05b8\u05d3\u05c3\u200e\n\n\n\n\n\n\nIV.\n\nO MY GOD AND GOD OF MY FOREFATHERS!\n\n\nOn this solemn and sacred day, which marketh my passage from boyhood to\nmanhood, I humbly venture to raise my eyes unto Thee, and to declare,\nwith sincerity and truth, that henceforth I will observe all Thy\ncommandments, and undertake and bear the responsibility of all mine\nactions towards Thee. In my earliest infancy I was brought within Thy\nsacred covenant with Israel, and to-day I again enter as an active\nresponsible member, the pale of Thine elect congregation, in the midst\nof which I will never cease to glorify Thy holy name in the face of all\nnations.\n\nDo Thou, O Heavenly Father, hearken unto this my humble prayer, and\nvouchsafe unto me Thy gracious blessings, so that my earthly life may\nbe sustained and made happy by Thine ineffable mercies. Teach me the\nway of Thy statutes, that I may obey them, and faithfully carry out\nThine ordinances. Dispose my heart to love Thee and to fear Thy holy\nname, and grant me Thy support and the strength necessary to avoid the\nworldly dangers which encompass the path lying before me. Save me from\ntemptation, so that I may with fortitude observe Thy holy Law, and\nthose precepts on which human happiness and eternal life depend. Thus I\nwill every day of my life trustfully and gladly proclaim:\n\n\n \u201cHear, O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One!\u201d\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nV.\n\nBIBLIOGRAPHY.\n\n\nReligious books for the use of children at home or in school were\nunknown in olden times. The Torah was taught, and with it every thing\nelse. A great part of the Book of Proverbs and many of the Psalms may\nhave been intended for the education of the young. In the early\npost-Biblical time we meet with books like The Wisdom of Solomon, The\nWisdom of Joshua, son of Sirach, and Sayings of the Fathers, which may\nhave served the same purpose. To these may be added \u201cThe Duties of the\nHeart,\u201d by Bachya ibn Pekuda, \u201cThe Examination of the World\u201d (Bechinath\nOlam), \u201cThe Choice of the Pearls,\u201d by Ibn Gabirol, Abraham ibn Ezra\u2019s\n\u201cFoundation of the Fear of God, and Principle of the Law,\u201d and \u201cThe\nBook of the Righteous,\u201d by Rabbenu Jacob Tam, and \u201cThe Moral Lessons\u201d\n(Toaliyyoth) by Rabbi Levi ben Gerson, and \u201cThe Shulhan Aruch\u201d of R.\nJudah Aryeh di Modena. All these works are excellent books for the\ninstruction of the young. They inculcate religious lessons, and shew\nthe way to a pious life, but they are not text books of religion in the\nmodern sense of the term. This branch of literature began to develop in\nthe last century, with the exception of Abraham Jaghel\u2019s Lekach-tob,\nwhich was written in the beginning of the seventeenth century, and was\nthe first Catechism of Jewish Religion. It was composed in the Hebrew\nLanguage and subsequently translated into Latin and English. Since last\ncentury, however, religious books of all sizes, forms and tendencies\nhave been produced in all countries, especially in Germany. The\nfollowing list contains such books as are included in the Jews\u2019 College\nLibrary:\u2014\n\n\nENGLISH\u2014\n\nAlbu, I., \u200f\u05d7\u05e7 \u05dc\u05d9\u05e9\u05e8\u05d0\u05dc\u200e. London, 1860.\n\nAsher, B. H., Initiation of the Youth. London, 1850.\n\nAsher, D., Outlines of Jewish Religion. Manchester, 1845.\n\nCahen, M., Catechism of Religion. Liverpool, 1890.\n\nCahun, B., The Thirteen Articles of Faith. English and French. London,\n1885.\n\nCohen, M. R., Principles of Judaism. Sydney, 1855.\n\nCohen, S. I., Elements of Jewish Faith. Philadelphia, 1813.\n\nCohen, S. I., Elements of Hebrew and English. London, 1815.\n\nDavidson, M., Moral and Religious Guide. London, 1855.\n\nEarly lesson in the Jewish Religion, adopted from the Catechism of\nGiuseppi Levi. London, 1869.\n\nFestivals of the Lord. London, 1839.\n\nFriedl\u00e4nder, M., Text book of Jewish Religion. London, 1891.\n\nGoodman, T., Faith of Israel. 1835.\n\nJoseph, N., Religion: Natural and Revealed. London, 1879.\n\nKley, E., Catechism, translated from the German by I. Lutomirski.\nOxford, 1842.\n\nLesser, Isaac, Instruction in the Mosaic Religion. Philadelphia, 1830.\n\nMeldola, R., Way of Faith. London, 1848.\n\nMendez, A. P., The Law of Moses. London, 1861.\n\nMoss, Ph., Calendar, Hebrew and English. London, 1853.\n\nVan Oven, J., Manual of Judaism. London, 1835.\n\nPicciotto, M. H., Translation of Reggio\u2019s Guide for the Religious\nInstruction. London, 1855.\n\n\nIN GERMAN\u2014\n\nArnhein, A., Leitfaden. Glasgow, 1829.\n\nP. Beer, Handbuch. Prague, 1818.\n\nBen-Zev, \u200f\u05d9\u05e1\u05d5\u05d3\u05d9 \u05d4\u05d3\u05ea\u200e. Wien, 1806.\n\nBing, A., Hauptlehren des Judenthums. M\u00fcnchen, 1827.\n\nBock, M. H., Catechismus. Berlin, 1814.\n\nBr\u00fcck, M., Ceremonialgebr\u00e4uche. Breslau, 1857.\n\nB\u00fcdinger, A., \u200f\u05de\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4 \u05dc\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e. Cassel, 1830.\n\nFassel, H. B., Mosaisch-rabbinische Religionslehre. Gross Kanisza,\n1858.\n\nFeilchenfeld, W., Systematisches Lehrbuch der israelitischen Religion.\nPosen, 1878.\n\nFriedenthal, M. B., \u200f\u05e2\u05e7\u05e8\u05d9 \u05d0\u05de\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4\u200e Prag, 1827.\n\nFunk, B., Die Zehngebote. Breslau, 1816.\n\nGr\u00fcnbaum, E., Die Sittenlehre des Judenthums. Mannheim, 1867.\n\nDr. Heinemann, \u200f\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05ea \u05d0\u05de\u05d5\u05e0\u05ea \u05d1\u05d9\u05ea \u05d9\u05e9\u05e8\u05d0\u05dc\u200e (Hebrew and German). Cassel,\n1812.\n\nDr. Herxheimer, Glaubens- und Pflichtenlehre. Bernburg, 1843.\n\nHirsch, R., \u200f\u05d7\u05d5\u05e8\u05d1\u200e Israel\u2019s Pflichten. Altona, 1837.\n\nHochst\u00e4dter, B., Glaubenslehre. Ems, 1862.\n\nJohlson, J., Leitfaden, \u200f\u05d0\u05dc\u05d5\u05de\u05d9 \u05d9\u05d5\u05e1\u05e3\u200e Pf. a/M. 1839.\n\nKaufmann D., Catechismus. Pest, 1884.\n\nKohn, S., Religionslehre. Wien, 1853.\n\nLandau, T., Das Levitenhaus, H\u00e4usliche Ritual-Gesetze. Fkft. a/M. 1859.\n\nLash, G., Die g\u00f6ttlichen Gesetze. Halberstadt, 1857.\n\nProf. Lazarus, Die Ethik des Judenthums. Berlin, 1898.\n\nLehrbuch der israelitischen Religion. Stuttgart, 1837.\n\nLeimdoerfer, D., Religionslehre. Nordhausen, 1876.\n\nLoewenheim, Die mosaische Religion. Liesnach, 1864.\n\nMannheimer, I., Gebetbuch und Religions Unterricht. Darmstadt, 1881.\n\nMira. H., Leitfaden. Breslau, 1839.\n\nNeuman, M. S., Religionslehre. Pest, 1826.\n\nPhilippson, L., Israelitische Religionslehre. Leipzig, 1861.\n\nPhilippson, S., Catechismus. Leipzig, 1843.\n\nPlessner, S., J\u00fcdisch-Mosaischer Religions unterricht. Berlin, 1839.\n\nStein, L., Torah u. Mizwa. Fkft. o/M. 1850.\n\nStern, M. E., Handbuch zum j\u00fcdischen Religions-unterrichte. Wien, 1861.\n\n\nFRENCH AND ITALIAN\u2014\n\nBloch, S., La Foi d\u2019Israel. Paris, 1859.\n\nLambert, L. M., Cat\u00e9chisme Hebreu, Allemand et Fran\u00e7ais. Paris, 1837.\n\nLoeb, H., Chemin de la foi. Paris, 1859.\n\nVogue, L., La guide du croyant Israelite. Metz, 1857.\n\nCastiglioni, I. V., Dottrina Religiosa. Trieste, 1861.\n\nTremellius, Imm., Dottrina Religiosa. English translation. London,\n1818.\n\nModena, D. Z., Catechism. Reggio, 1825.\n\n\nJUDAEO-GERMAN\u2014\n\n\u200f\u05d4\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5\u05da \u05d4\u05d9\u05dc\u05d3\u05d9\u05dd\u200e. Warsaw, 1852.\n\n\u200f\u05d8\u05d4\u05e0\u05d4 \u05d9\u05e9\u05e9\u05db\u05e8\u200e Moral lessons, illustrated by tales from Talmud and\nMidrash. R\u00f6delheim, 1837.\n\n\nCOLLECTIONS OF MORAL SAYINGS\u2014\n\nMaier, J., Spr\u00fcche. Texts for Moral Lessons. Tf o/M, 1830.\n\nSteinschneider, M., \u200f\u05d0\u05de\u05e8\u05d9 \u05d1\u05d9\u05e0\u05d4\u200e. Berlin, 1847.\n\nMocatta, M., Sayings from Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. London, 1837.\n\nJosh. Steinberg, \u200f\u05de\u05e9\u05dc\u05d9 \u05d9\u05d4\u05d5\u05e9\u05e2\u200e. Wilna, 1871.\n\nEdelmann, H., \u200f\u05d3\u05e8\u05da \u05d8\u05d5\u05d1\u05d9\u05dd\u200e. London, 1852.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNOTES\n\n\n[1] When our great theologians, Saadiah, Bachya, Maimonides, Albo, &c.,\nconsidered it necessary to write long and abstruse metaphysical essays\nin order to firmly establish certain truths, it was done rather for the\npurpose of combating the views of opponent theologians than for the\ninstruction of the multitude, and it may fairly be said that Maimonides\nhas done far greater service to his brethren by the composition of a\nsystematic code of laws than by his philosophical \u201cGuide.\u201d The former,\nthe Mishneh-Torah, never fails to enlighten those who seek in it\nenlightenment with regard to some religious duty, whilst the \u201cGuide\u201d\nwould scarcely relieve anyone of his perplexities in matters of\nreligious belief. There is a saying in the Talmud Jerus. (Chagigah, ch.\ni.), \u201cWould that they had forgotten me, and kept my commandments!\u201d or,\nin other words, \u201cTheologians would do better if they were less eager to\ninvestigate into the essence of God and His attributes, and were more\nanxious to study and to do God\u2019s commandments.\u201d Instead of devoting\ntheir chief attention to the knowledge and the practice of the Law,\nthey waste their energy and their time in attempts to solve problems to\nwhich the human mind is unequal (S. Plessner, Religions-Unterricht, p.\nxxxviii.).\n\n[2] Post-biblical authors frequently employ the term \u200f\u05d0\u05de\u05d5\u05e0\u05d4\u200e in the\nsense of religious belief, and \u200f\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e in the sense of religious duties;\nthe equivalent for religion is \u200f\u05d3\u05ea\u200e.\n\n[3] For the Hebrew see Appendix I.\n\n[4] The Hebrew \u200f\u05e0\u05d1\u05d9\u05d0\u200e as well as the Greek \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03b7\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u201cprophet,\u201d\nsignifies \u201cspeaker\u201d or \u201cpreacher.\u201d\n\n[5] i.e., that the war with the Canaanite tribes was to be carried on\nas a holy war, in fulfilment of God\u2019s command, and not for the purpose\nof spoil and plunder.\n\n[6] King Amaziah of Judah challenged Joash, king of Israel, to fight\nwith him. Joash considered this challenge as an arrogance to be\ncompared to the arrogance of the thistle in the above fable.\n\n[7] The faith of Israel in the Omnipotence of God, who can do wonders\nfor the salvation of His people, is figuratively represented as a\nchild, called \u201cThe Almighty, &c., deviseth wonders,\u201d &c.\n\n[8] Comp. p. 83.\n\n[9] i.e., he who is truthful in ordinary conversation is also a\ntrustworthy witness in a court of justice; those who are accustomed to\nsay falsehood cannot be trusted in important matters.\n\n[10] It seems that the author copied the dream as Daniel had written it\ndown, but the interpretation was handed down by tradition.\n\n[11] The Israelites. Comp. Exod. xix. 6.\u2014Part of this vision refers to\nthe time of the Maccabees, part to the Messianic period.\n\n[12] Some are of opinion that the term \u201cweeks\u201d is not to be taken\nliterally, but in the sense of \u201cyear,\u201d or \u201ca period of seven years.\u201d\nThere is, however, no proof for such interpretation. The many attempts\nto explain the seventy year-weeks have without exception proved a\nfailure.\n\n[13] See p. 121.\n\n[14] It is, however, possible that \u200f\u05d3\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u200e, lit. \u201cwords,\u201d means here\n\u201chistory.\u201d\n\n[15] The Talmud is also called \u200f\u05e9\u05f4\u05e1\u200e (Shass), the initials of \u200f\u05e9\u05e9\u05d4\n\u05e1\u05d3\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e.\n\n[16] The word \u200f\u05d9\u05d3\u200e is intended to indicate the number 14, the work\nbeing divided into 14 books.\n\n[17] According to Rashi, Rabbi Hillel meant to say that the Jews would\nnot be redeemed by any Messiah, but by God Himself. Comp. Haggadah for\nSeder-evening, \u201cAnd I will pass through the land of Egypt; I myself,\nand not an angel.\u201d\n\n[18] Comp. supra, p. 122.\n\n[19] See Essays on the Writings of Ibn Ezra, by M. Friedl\u00e4nder, p. 7\nnote 1.\n\n[20] The Piel of a verb has frequently this meaning, e.g., \u200f\u05e7\u05d3\u05e9\u200e \u201cto be\nholy;\u201d Pi., \u201cto declare as holy;\u201d \u200f\u05d8\u05d4\u05e8\u200e \u201cto be pure;\u201d Pi., \u201cto declare\nas pure;\u201d so \u200f\u05db\u05dc\u05d4\u200e \u201cto be at an end;\u201d Pi., \u201cto declare as being\nfinished.\u201d\n\n[21] Die Religions-Philosophie der Juden, by S. Hirsch. p. 445 ff.\n\n[22] The phrase \u200f\u05e2\u05d9\u05d5\u05df \u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d4\u200e is also used in the sense of \u201cdevotion\nduring prayer.\u201d\n\n[23] I.e., the name or God consisting of four letters (\u200f\u05d9\u200e, \u200f\u05d4\u200e, \u200f\u05d5\u200e\nand \u200f\u05d4\u200e). The correct pronunciation of the word not being known,\nadonai, \u201cLord,\u201d is substituted for it.\n\n[24] The \u201csecond day\u201d (Neh. viii. 13), as a day of devotion and\nmeditation on the Word of God, is probably the Day of Atonement.\n\n[25] It is here assumed that the Torah was not intended to be written\nin a chronological order, and that this commandment was given after the\nBlessing of Moses was written.\n\n[26] Maimonides accepts for this verse the Midrashic explanation:\nnothing of the Torah has remained in heaven for later revelations.\n\n[27] \u200f\u05d0\u05ea \u05e6\u05de\u05d7 \u05d3\u05d5\u05d3 \u05e2\u05d1\u05d3\u05da\u200e.\n\n[28] He is probably called Elijah on account of the zeal which he will\ndisplay in bringing men back to the service of God.\n\n[29] Mishnah Eduyoth viii. 7.\n\n[30] Lit., \u201cThe accepting of the yoke of the heaven\u2019s dominion;\u201d \u201cThe\naccepting of the yoke of the precepts.\u201d The expression \u201cyoke\u201d is here\nby no means derogatory. It simply indicates the duty which in the one\ncase \u201cthe dominion of heaven,\u201d and in the other case \u201cthe Divine\nprecepts,\u201d impose upon us.\n\n[31] Hebrew titles of books are often fanciful names, which more or\nless distinctly imply either the nature or contents of the books, or\nthe name of their authors. The Hebrew names for the fourteen books of\nMishneh-torah are as follows: (1) \u200f\u05de\u05d3\u05e2\u200e \u201cKnowledge;\u201d (2) \u200f\u05d0\u05d4\u05d1\u05d4\u200e \u201cLove;\u201d\n(3) \u200f\u05d6\u05de\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cSeasons;\u201d (4) \u200f\u05e0\u05e9\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cWomen;\u201d (5) \u200f\u05e7\u05d3\u05d5\u05e9\u05d4\u200e\n\u201cSanctification;\u201d (6) \u200f\u05d4\u05e4\u05dc\u05d0\u05d4\u200e \u201cDistinction;\u201d (7) \u200f\u05d6\u05e8\u05e2\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cSeeds;\u201d (8)\n\u200f\u05e2\u05d1\u05d5\u05d3\u05d4\u200e \u201cService;\u201d (9) \u200f\u05e7\u05e8\u05d1\u05e0\u05d5\u05ea\u200e \u201cSacrifices;\u201d (10) \u200f\u05d8\u05d4\u05e8\u05d4\u200e \u201cPurity;\u201d\n(11) \u200f\u05e0\u05d6\u05d9\u05e7\u05d9\u05df\u200e \u201cDamages;\u201d (12) \u200f\u05e7\u05e0\u05d9\u05df\u200e \u201cAcquisition:\u201d (13) \u200f\u05de\u05e9\u05e4\u05d8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e\n\u201cDisputes;\u201d (14) \u200f\u05e9\u05d5\u05e4\u05d8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cJudges.\u201d Rabbenu Jakob calls his work \u200f\u05d0\u05e8\u05d1\u05e2\u05d4\n\u05d8\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cFour Rows,\u201d a name borrowed from Exod. xxviii. 17. The names of\nthe four parts are: \u200f\u05d0\u05e8\u05d7 \u05d7\u05d9\u05d9\u05dd\u200e \u201cPath of Life\u201d (Ps. xvi. 11); \u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4 \u05d3\u05e2\u05d4\u200e\n\u201cTeacher of knowledge\u201d (Isa. xxviii. 9); \u200f\u05d0\u05d1\u05df \u05d4\u05e2\u05d6\u05e8\u200e \u201cStone of Help\u201d (1\nSam. vii. 12, and Gen. ii. 18), and \u200f\u05d7\u05e9\u05df \u05de\u05e9\u05e4\u05d8\u200e \u201cBreastplate of\nJudgment\u201d (Exod. xxviii. 15).\n\n[32] I.e., if a person has no fear of God, he is himself the sole cause\nof its absence, and he alone is responsible for it.\n\n[33] The words of the Mishnah are \u200f\u05d1\u05db\u05dc \u05de\u05d3\u05d4 \u05d5\u05de\u05d3\u05d4 \u05e9\u05d4\u05d5\u05d0 \u05de\u05d5\u05d3\u05d3 \u05dc\u05da \u05d4\u05d5\u05d9 \u05de\u05d5\u05d3\u05d4\n\u05dc\u05d5 \u05de\u05d0\u05d3\u200e The meanings of three roots are combined in this interpretation\nof the words \u200f\u05d1\u05db\u05dc \u05de\u05d0\u05d3\u05da\u200e viz., \u200f\u05de\u05d0\u05d3\u200e \u201cexceedingly,\u201d \u200f\u05de\u05d5\u05d3\u05d3\u200e \u201cmeasuring,\u201d\nand \u200f\u05de\u05d5\u05d3\u05d4\u200e \u201cthanking.\u201d The three words are similar in sound.\n\n[34] The term \u200f\u05e2\u05d9\u05d5\u05df \u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d4\u200e (lit., \u201creflecting on prayer\u201d) has two\nmeanings: (1) reflecting on the prayer while uttering it; devotion; in\nGerman, Andacht; (2) reflecting on the prayer after having uttered it,\nwhile we are waiting for the sure fulfilment of the wishes expressed in\nit.\n\n[35] In the whole Book of Esther the name of God does not occur even\nonce. It is not mere chance; there are several passages where the\nmention of the Divine Being is expected, and it is believed that the\nomission is due to the fear of a subsequent desecration of the book in\nthe hands of the Persians.\n\n[36] I.e., the word consisting of four letters, yod, h\u00e9, vav and h\u00e9.\n\n[37] E.g., by giving bad advice and transgressing the law, \u201cThou shalt\nnot put a stumbling block before the blind\u201d (Lev. xix. 14).\n\n[38] Comp. the saying, \u200f\u05dc\u05d0 \u05e2\u05db\u05d1\u05e8\u05d0 \u05d2\u05de\u05d1\u05d0 \u05d0\u05dc\u05d0 \u05d7\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0\u200e \u201cNot the mouse is the\nthief, but the hole.\u201d\n\n[39] Those who become security for a stranger are blamed (Prov. vi. 1\nseq.) as acting rashly, and foolishly endangering their peace and\nwelfare.\n\n[40] See p. 294.\n\n[41] The Hebrew is composed of the names of the three consecutive\nSidras, Lev. xvi.\u2013xxiv.\n\n[42] Lit., inquiring, scil., what the condition of the patient is, and\nwhat is needed for his recovery.\n\n[43] Comp. supra, p. 261.\n\n[44] The prayer for the head of the State, beginning \u200f\u05d4\u05e0\u05ea\u05df \u05ea\u05e9\u05d5\u05e2\u05d4\n\u05dc\u05de\u05dc\u05db\u05d9\u05dd\u200e has its origin in this sense of loyalty towards the State in\nwhich we live.\n\n[45] I.e., When the old and experienced counsel to pull down a house,\nthe pulling down is essential to its rebuilding; whilst the counsel of\nyoung and inexperienced men to build may imply destructive elements.\n\n[46] There are some exceptions to this rule:\u2014The Reader wears the\ntalith during every Service; in some congregations mourners wear it\nwhen they recite kaddish. On the Day of Atonement the whole\ncongregation wear the talith during all the Services. On the Fast of Ab\nthe talith is put on before the Afternoon Service instead of during the\nMorning Service.\n\n[47] There are two forms of the blessing which accompanies the\nperformance of a Divine precept: the precept is expressed (1) by a noun\nwhich is preceded by the preposition \u200f\u05e2\u05d0\u200e \u201cconcerning;\u201d (2) by the\ninfinitive of a verb preceded by the preposition \u200f\u05dc\u200e \u201cto,\u201d e.g.,\n\u201cconcerning the commandment of tsitsith,\u201d and \u201cto wrap ourselves with a\ngarment provided with tsitsith.\u201d The latter form is used (1) when the\nblessing is recited before the performance of the mitsvah has\ncommenced; (2) when he who performs the mitsvah is personally commanded\nto perform it. In all other cases the first form is used. Hence \u200f\u05e2\u05dc\n\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea \u05e6\u05d9\u05e6\u05ea\u200e, because we are, as a rule, not in a fit state for prayer\nwhen we put it on, and therefore recite the blessing later on; \u200f\u05e2\u05dc \u05de\u05e7\u05e8\u05d0\n\u05de\u05d2\u05dc\u05d4\u200e; because he who reads might just as well be one of the listeners.\nWe say \u200f\u05dc\u05d4\u05e0\u05d9\u05d7 \u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d9\u05df\u200e at the commencement of the mitsvah; \u200f\u05e2\u05dc \u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea\n\u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d9\u05df\u200e before the second part. (See Babyl. Talm. Pesachim, p. 7.)\n\n[48] The term \u200f\u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d9\u05df\u200e reminds us of \u200f\u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d4\u200e \u201cprayer,\u201d and denotes things\nused during prayer. Originally it had probably the more general\nsignification: ornament or head-ornament; in the Chaldee Version it is\nthe translation of \u200f\u05d8\u05d8\u05e4\u05d5\u05ea\u200e, which denotes \u201chead-ornament.\u201d (Comp.\nMishnah Shabbath vi. 1.)\n\n[49] Two sides of the bayith have the shin impressed on them, the right\nand the left; but in different forms, on the right the letter has three\nstrokes (\u200f\u05e9\u200e), on the left it has four strokes (\u200f\u05e9\u200e), in order to\nensure the right order of the four paragraphs (\u200f\u05e4\u05e8\u05e9\u05d9\u05d5\u05ea\u200e) which the\nbayith contains from right to left.\n\n[50] The knot formed by the \u200f\u05e8\u05e6\u05d5\u05e2\u05d5\u05ea\u200e of the tefillah shel rosh has the\nshape of a daleth, that of the tefillah shel yad is like a yod; these\ntwo letters added to the shin of the tefillin shel rosh read shaddai,\n\u201cAlmighty.\u201d\n\n[51] In the evening it was but natural that tsitsith and tefillin\nshould be laid aside, as the greater part of the night was devoted to\nsleep; the rule was therefore generally adopted: \u201cThe night is not the\nproper time for laying tefillin\u201d (\u200f\u05dc\u05d9\u05dc\u05d4 \u05dc\u05d0\u05d5 \u05d6\u05de\u05df \u05ea\u05e4\u05d9\u05dc\u05d9\u05df\u200e). The opposite\nprinciple, however, \u201cThe night is likewise a suitable time for laying\ntefillin\u201d (\u200f\u05dc\u05d9\u05dc\u05d4 \u05d6\u05de\u05df \u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d9\u05df\u200e), had also its advocates among Rabbinical\nauthorities (Babyl. Talm. Menachoth 36b).\n\n[52] With the completion of the thirteenth year a boy becomes of age in\nreference to the fulfilment of all religious duties. He is then called\nBar-mitsvah (lit. \u201ca son of the commandment\u201d), a member of the Jewish\ncommunity, upon whom devolve all such duties as a Jew has to perform.\nOn the Sabbath following that birthday he is called to the Law, either\nto read a portion of the Sidra or to listen to its reading, and\npublicly acknowledge God as the Giver of the Law.\n\n[53] Compare p. 329.\n\n[54] See Daily Prayer Book, Morning Service.\n\n[55] There are, besides, on the back of the scroll, just behind the\nnames of God in the first line three words of a mystic character\nconsisting of the letters following in the alphabet the letters of\nthese divine names. The words have in themselves no meaning, and it may\nbe that their object is simply to indicate from outside where the names\nof God are written, and to prevent a nail being driven through that\npart in fixing the mezuzah to the door-post.\n\n[56] Mishneh-torah III., Zemannim, Hil. Shabbath, ch. xxx. \u00a7 1.\n\n[57] Maimonides applies these terms to Sabbath; but they apply\ngenerally with equal force to the Festivals.\n\n[58] We \u201cremember\u201d also the Sabbath or Festival by naming after it the\npreceding day, the night following, and in the case of Festivals the\nday following: the eve of Sabbath or Festival \u200f\u05e2\u05e8\u05d1 \u05e9\u05d1\u05ea\u200e, \u200f\u05e2\u05e8\u05d1 \u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d8\u05d5\u05d1\u200e;\nthe night after Sabbath or Festival, \u200f\u05de\u05d5\u05e6\u05d0\u05d9 \u05e9\u05d1\u05ea\u200e, \u200f\u05de\u05d5\u05e6\u05d0\u05d9 \u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d8\u05d5\u05d1\u200e; \u201cthe\nday after the Festival,\u201d \u200f\u05d0\u05e1\u05e8\u05d5 \u05d7\u05d2\u200e (lit., \u201cbind the Festival,\u201d with\nreference to Ps. cxviii. 27).\n\n[59] A similar ceremony takes place before the first meal in the\nmorning. A cup of wine or other spirituous liquor is poured out, some\nBiblical passages referring to the Sabbath are recited, and the usual\nblessing is said before partaking of the beverage. The blessing\ncontaining the Kiddush is not said, and the ceremony has the name\nKiddush or Kiddusha rabba, \u201cgreat Kiddush,\u201d only on account of its\nsimilarity with the evening Kiddush. The passages recited are the\nfollowing: Exod. xxxi. 16, 17, xx. 8\u201311; Isa. lviii. 13, 14.\n\n[60] \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05da \u05d0\u05ea\u05d4 \u2026 \u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0 \u05e4\u05e8\u05d9 \u05d4\u05d2\u05e4\u05df\u200e \u201cBlessed art thou, O Lord, our God,\nKing of the universe, who hast created the fruit of the vine.\u201d In the\nabsence of wine, or if wine is disliked or injurious to health, the\nblessing over bread is substituted for that over wine.\u2014The blessings\nare generally preceded by the word \u200f\u05e1\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u200e \u201cIs it your pleasure, scil.,\nthat I read?\u201d whereby it is simply intended to call the attention of\nthe company to the prayer.\n\n[61] See p. 352, on the difference between the holiness of Sabbath and\nthat of Festivals.\u2014The last two \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05d5\u05ea\u200e, viz. \u200f\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0 \u05de\u05d0\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9 \u05d4\u05d0\u05e9\u200e and\n\u200f\u05d4\u05de\u05d1\u05d3\u05d9\u05dc\u200e are added; the second part of the latter is slightly modified\nin order to suit the transition from Sabbath to Festival.\u2014The Habhdalah\non the night following the Day of Atonement consists of three \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05d5\u05ea\u200e,\nthat over spices being omitted, except if Jom-kippur falls on Sabbath;\nin that case the Habhdalah includes all the four \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05d5\u05ea\u200e.\n\n[62] Habhdalah is likewise omitted when Sabbath is closely followed by\nthe Fast of Ab. On Sabbath night, eating and drinking being forbidden,\nonly the one blessing, \u200f\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0 \u05de\u05d0\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9 \u05d4\u05d0\u05e9\u200e is recited; that over spices is\nomitted, and the remaining two blessings are recited on Sunday evening\nafter the fast.\n\n[63] Although the whole of the Day of Atonement is devoted to Divine\nService, less time is given to reading from the Law than on Sabbath, in\norder to leave more time for Prayers, Confessions, and Meditations.\nRabbi Akiba, however, was of opinion that seven should be called up to\nthe Law on the Day of Atonement, and six on Sabbath (B. Talm. Megillah\n23a).\n\n[64] The distance allowed is called \u200f\u05ea\u05d7\u05d5\u05dd \u05e9\u05d1\u05ea\u200e \u201ca Sabbath-journey,\u201d and\nis 2000 cubits in every direction; it is reckoned from the outskirts of\nthe place in which we live. If, however, a person desires to perform a\nmitsvah, such as milah, at a place distant about a double\nSabbath-journey from his domicile, he may fix before Sabbath his abode\nfor that day half-way between the two places, and then traverse on\nSabbath the whole distance from the one place to the other. This change\nof abode is called erubhe thechumin, \u201ccombination of two\nSabbath-journeys into one,\u201d by changing the centre from which they are\nmeasured.\n\n[65] They are called \u200f\u05d0\u05d1\u05d5\u05ea \u05de\u05dc\u05d0\u05db\u05d5\u05ea\u200e \u201cprincipal kinds of work,\u201d and are\nthose which directly or indirectly were wanted in the erection of the\nTabernacle, and were therefore included in the prohibition of doing any\nwork for this purpose (Exod. xxxi. 15 and xxxv. 2).\n\nThere are certain things which cannot be brought under any of these\nheads, and are nevertheless prohibited, because they frequently lead to\na breach of the Sabbath laws; e.g., riding in a carriage or in any kind\nof conveyance; playing music. These prohibitions are called \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05d5\u05ea\u200e\ni.e., acts prohibited on Sabbath and Holy-days by our Sages; or \u200f\u05d2\u05d6\u05e8\u05d4\u200e\n(lit., \u201cdecree\u201d), safeguard against breaking the Law.\n\nDivine precepts, however, ordained for the Sabbath\u2014e.g., sacrifices\u2014or\nfor a certain day, which happens to fall on a Sabbath\u2014e.g., initiation\nof a male child into the covenant of Abraham on the eighth day of its\nbirth, or saving the life of a fellow-man in case of illness or any\nother danger\u2014must be performed although they may involve any of the\nacts otherwise prohibited on the day of rest.\n\n[66] The preparation of food is only permitted on Holy-days if wanted\nfor the same day, except when Sabbath follows immediately after the\nHoly-day. In that case it is allowable to prepare the food for Sabbath\non the Holy-day, provided such preparation has commenced before and\nneed only be continued on the Holy-day. The preparation made for\nSabbath before the Holy-day comes in is called erubh tabhshilin,\n\u201ccombination of dishes,\u201d i.e., of the dishes prepared for Sabbath on\nthe eve of the Festival (\u200f\u05e2\u05e8\u05d1 \u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05d8\u05d5\u05d1\u200e) and of those prepared on the\nFestival itself; it is accompanied by a blessing and a declaration of\nthe significance of the erubh. The following is the blessing: \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05da \u2026\n\u05d0\u05e9\u05e8 \u05e7\u05d3\u05e9\u05e0\u05d5 \u05d1\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea\u05d9\u05d5 \u05d5\u05e6\u05d5\u05e0\u05d5 \u05e2\u05dc \u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea \u05e2\u05e8\u05d5\u05d1\u200e \u201cBlessed art thou ... who hast\nsanctified us by thy commandments, and hast ordained for us the mitsvah\nof erubh.\u201d\n\nIt may here be noted that there are, besides, three kinds of erubh,\nviz.:\u2014\n\n1. Erubh techumim. See above, page 350.\n\n2. Erubh chatseroth (lit., \u201ccombination of the houses in a court\u201d).\nAccording to the traditional law, we must not carry anything on Sabbath\nfrom a private place (\u200f\u05e8\u05e9\u05d5\u05ea \u05d4\u05d9\u05d7\u05d9\u05d3\u200e) into the street (\u200f\u05e8\u05e9\u05d5\u05ea \u05d4\u05e8\u05d1\u05d9\u05dd\u200e). The\nformer is defined to be a locality belonging to one person or family,\nand separated from the public by a fence. The Jewish inhabitants of a\ncourt or a town closed on all sides combine to form one family, and\nthus turn the \u200f\u05e8\u05e9\u05d5\u05ea \u05d4\u05e8\u05d1\u05d9\u05dd\u200e into \u200f\u05e8\u05e9\u05d5\u05ea \u05d4\u05d9\u05d7\u05d9\u05d3\u200e. The symbol of such\ncombination consists of some food kept in a room, to which all have\naccess (e.g., the Synagogue). This is the origin and meaning of the\nPassover-cake (\u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d4\u200e) which may still be noticed in some of the\nContinental Synagogues.\n\n3. Erubh par excellence.\u2014An opening left in a fence or wall round a\n\u200f\u05e8\u05e9\u05d5\u05ea \u05d4\u05d9\u05d7\u05d9\u05d3\u200e must at least have some token that indicates the closing\nof the space; e.g., a wire drawn through the open space from one part\nof the fence to the other. Such symbol is called erubh, \u201ccombination of\nthe various parts of the fence or wall into one.\u201d Such erubh may\nlikewise be noticed in some of the Continental towns. In all these\ncases the symbol was not introduced for the purpose of permitting the\nactual transgression of a law, but rather for the purpose of reminding\nus of what the law forbids us to do; since, in fact, that which becomes\npermitted through these symbols is even in their absence no direct\nbreach of any of the Sabbath laws.\n\n[67] Comp. the two forms of the prayer \u200f\u05d4\u05e9\u05db\u05d9\u05d1\u05e0\u05d5\u200e in the Evening Service\nfor week-days and for Sabbath, in the Spanish Ritual.\n\n[68] \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea \u05d4\u05d9\u05d0 \u05de\u05dc\u05d6\u05e2\u05d5\u05e7 \u05d5\u05e8\u05e4\u05d5\u05d0\u05d4 (\u05d5\u05e0\u05d7\u05de\u05d4) \u05e7\u05e8\u05d5\u05d1\u05d4 \u05dc\u05d1\u05d5\u05d0 \u05d5\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea\u05d5 \u05d1\u05e9\u05dc\u05d5\u05dd\u200e\n\n\u201cTo-day is Sabbath and we must not lament, for recovery (comfort) is\nnear to come; now keep Sabbath in peace.\u201d\n\n[69] \u200f\u05e2\u05e9\u05d4 \u05e9\u05d1\u05ea\u05da \u05d7\u05d5\u05dc \u05d5\u05d0\u05dc \u05ea\u05e6\u05d8\u05e8\u05da \u05dc\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05d5\u05ea\u200e (B. Talm. Shabbath, 18a).\n\n[70] Exod. xvi. 13, 14.\n\n[71] Another explanation of this custom has been suggested. Bread and\nwine being before us, it is doubtful which should have the preference\nfor the purpose of Kiddush; the bread is therefore covered, so that no\nchoice is left (Tur Orach Chayyim 271). Bread being the ordinary\nrequisite at our meals, the use of wine for Kiddush is considered more\nindicative of the distinction of the day. If, however, wine is disliked\nor injurious, bread is used us its substitute (page 341, note 2).\n\n[72] A peculiar ceremony may here be noticed. Some pass the knife over\nthe bread before the berachah is said. The origin of this custom is\nthis: the rule has been laid down that there should not be a long\ninterval between the berachah and the partaking of the food. The knife\nand the bread are therefore kept ready, and originally an incision was\nmade into the loaf in order to shorten that interval as much as\npossible.\n\n[73] \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05da \u05d0\u05f3 \u05d9\u05f3 \u05d0\u05f3 \u05de\u05f3 \u05d4\u05f3 \u05d0\u05e9\u05e8 \u05e7\u05d3\u05e9\u05e0\u05d5 \u05d1\u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05ea\u05d9\u05d5 \u05d5\u05e6\u05d5\u05e0\u05d5 \u05dc\u05d4\u05e4\u05e8\u05d9\u05e9 \u05d7\u05dc\u05d4\u200e, \u201cBlessed\nart thou, O Lord, our God, King of the Universe, who hast sanctified us\nby thy commandments, and commanded us to separate challah.\u201d\n\n[74] Comp. Mishnah Shabbath ii. 16.\n\n[75] Some kindle the lights first, and then say the blessing whilst\ntheir hands are spread out before the lights. The origin of this latter\npractice is this: It happens sometimes that the housewife is not ready\nin time for kindling the lights, and lets another do it for her, she\nreserving to herself the privilege of saying the berachah later on. In\nthat case the holding of the hands before the lights and withdrawing\nthem after the blessing represents symbolically the kindling of the\nlights. What was originally done in exceptional cases became\nsubsequently the rule.\n\n[76] Calendar is derived from the Latin Calend\u00e6, which signifies the\nfirst of the month. The Hebrew term \u200f\u05dc\u05d5\u05d7\u200e, used for \u201cCalendar\u201d or\n\u201cAlmanac,\u201d denotes \u201ctable\u201d or \u201ctablet.\u201d In the Talmud. Sod (or Yesod)\nha-ibbur is used in the sense of \u201cthe theory of the Calendar:\u201d\nliterally, the term denotes the fixing of the additional day to the\nmonth or the additional month to the year.\n\n[77] Or more exactly, 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 3\u2153 seconds. The\ntechnical formula in Hebrew is: \u200f\u05db\u05f4\u05d8 \u05d9\u05f4\u05d1 \u05ea\u05e9\u05f4\u05e6\u05d2\u200e 29 days, 12\u200b793\u20441080\nhours.\n\n[78] In the first month the barley becomes ripe; in the second the\nwhole vegetation of the country stands in its full splendour; in the\nseventh the hardy fruit, which withstood the heat of the summer,\nripens; and in the eighth the first rain of the season comes down.\n\n[79] The meaning of most of these names is uncertain. The two names\nElul and Tishri seem to denote \u201cthe disappearance\u201d and \u201cthe beginning\u201d\nof the year.\n\n[80] The adjustment is necessary for the right observance of Passover,\nwhich must be celebrated in the first month (Exod. xii. 2), the month\nof Abib (Deut. xvi. 1), that is, in the spring, when in Palestine the\ncorn begins to ripen. Without the periodical insertion of a month,\nPassover would be celebrated in every succeeding year eleven days\nearlier than in the previous one, and in course of time at different\nseasons, contrary to the Law.\n\n[81] The Hebrew term \u200f\u05d7\u05d3\u05e9\u200e has a double meaning \u201cbeginning of the\nmonth\u201d and \u201cmonth;\u201d comp. \u200f\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea\u200e, \u201cday of rest,\u201d and also \u201cweek,\u201d or the\nperiod that passes between two consecutive Sabbaths.\n\n[82] In Hebrew molad, \u201cbirth.\u201d\n\n[83] The molad of Tishri in the year 1 is assumed to have been on\nSunday evening between eleven and twelve. (\u200f\u05d1\u05d4\u05e8\u05f4\u05d3\u200e)\n\n[84] In this tradition the period of the Persian rule in Palestine,\nwhich lasted over two centuries, is contracted to thirty-four years. It\nis possible that the years were counted according to the years of\nRelease (\u200f\u05e9\u05de\u05d8\u05d4\u200e) or the years of the Jubilee, and these were probably\nnot kept immediately after the return of the Jews from Babylon.\n\n[85] See Mishnah, Megillah iii. 4.\n\n[86] Talm. Jerush., Shekalim i. 1.\n\n[87] Mishnah, Shekalim i. 1.\n\n[88] According to Tradition, Exod. xii. 2 not only deals with the\nappointment of Nisan as the first month of the year, but implies also\nthe rules for fixing \u200f\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9 \u05d7\u05d3\u05e9\u200e, New-moon, or the first of the month;\nand this verse, with its traditional interpretation, was therefore\nconsidered as the basis of the Jewish Calendar. Hence the prominence\ngiven to this section of the Pentateuch by having it read on the 1st of\nNisan or on the Sabbath before the 1st of Nisan.\n\n[89] Various reasons are given for this title. According to Tradition,\nthe 10th of Nisan in the year of the Exodus was on Saturday; it was\nconsidered a great event, a miracle, in fact, that the Israelites could\non that day select a lamb for sacrifice without being molested by their\nEgyptian masters, who at other times would have stoned them for such\ndaring (Exod. viii. 22). Another reason is this: The Sabbath before any\nof the chief Festivals was called the great Sabbath on account of the\ninstruction sought and given respecting the importance and the\nobservances of the coming Festival (see Zunz, Ritus. p. 9). This name\nhas only been preserved in the case of the Sabbath before Passover.\u2014It\nis, however, possible that \u201cthe great day,\u201d the predominant idea in the\nhaphtarah of the day, suggested the name.\n\nIt is the custom in some congregations to read in the Afternoon-service\nof Shabbath haggadol part of the Haggadah instead of the Psalms (civ.\nand cxx.\u2013cxxxiv.).\n\n[90] The word \u200f\u05e4\u05e1\u05d7\u200e \u201cPassover,\u201d signifies (1) the act of passing over\nor sparing (Exod. xii. 11); (2) the sacrifice of passover, especially\nas object to the verb \u200f\u05e2\u05e9\u05d4\u200e \u201cto make\u201d (ibid. 47, 48); (3) the time when\nthe passover was offered and consumed; i.e., the 14th of Nisan,\nafternoon and evening (Lev. xxiii. 5; Num. xxviii. 16); (4) the whole\nof Passover (Mishnah, and in all post-Biblical literature).\n\nThe day on which an Israelite brought a sacrifice was a Festival to him\nand his family; and no work was done on that day. Accordingly on the\nafternoon of the 14th of Nisan, \u200f\u05e2\u05e8\u05d1 \u05e4\u05e1\u05d7\u200e, the time fixed for the\nPassover-offering, no work was done; some abstained from work the whole\nday (Mishnah, Pesachim iv. 1; comp. also ibid. 5).\u2014It is customary for\nthe first-born to fast the whole or part of \u200f\u05e2\u05e8\u05d1 \u05e4\u05e1\u05d7\u200e (Talm. Jerus. x.\n1, and Masecheth Soferim xxi. 3). They might rather be expected to\nfeast in memory of the deliverance of the first-born Israelites in\nEgypt. But the case is similar to that of Purim. Both the day of danger\nand the day of victory are celebrated; the one by fasting (fast of\nEsther), the other by feasting (Purim). So here the 14th of Nisan was\nfor the first-born the day of danger, the following night the season of\ndeliverance. Hence the fasting during the day and the feasting in the\nevening. The day suggests thoughts like the following: Our forefathers\nwere saved from danger: should we deserve to be saved if danger\nthreatened us? Such reflections may have been the origin of the fast of\nthe first-born on the eve of Passover. Some also fast on this day, or\nat least abstain on it from a full meal, in order to do honour to the\nfestive meal in the evening and approach it with appetite (\u200f\u05dc\u05ea\u05d9\u05d0\u05d1\u05d5\u05df\u200e).\nA similar custom obtains, though not to the same extent, on the eve of\nSabbath and of every Festival (Mishnah, Pesachim x. 1).\n\n[91] Within the four days there was ample time for examining the lamb,\nwhether it was really \u200f\u05ea\u05de\u05d9\u05dd\u200e, without blemish, and fit both for\nsacrifice and for human food.\u2014Some suggest that the keeping of the lamb\nfor four days was to be a test of the faith of the Israelites, whether\nthey would obey the Will of God in spite of the dreaded wrath of the\nEgyptians.\n\n[92] Their faith in God had to be shown by their willingly going forth\nwhither the command of God led them, without taking with them any\nprovision for the journey. The lamb which they had prepared was to be\nconsumed before they left Egypt, and whatever was left had to be burnt.\nThis was probably also the object of the precepts that no bone of the\nlamb was to be broken, and no part of it was to be carried from one\nhouse to another; for the breaking of the bones and the carrying part\nof the meat about from place to place would facilitate its being stored\naway for the journey.\u2014Other precepts, which implied haste and\nreadiness, e.g., the roasting it with fire, eating it with loins\ngirded, &c., were to teach the Israelites the lesson that they were to\nbe always ready and willing to do God\u2019s bidding.\n\n[93] An instance of Passover being put off because of the unfitness of\nthe priests to offer up sacrifices is met with in the Second Book of\nChronicles (xxx. 2). It seems similar to the rule of Pesach sheni, but\nis in reality different from it. King Hezekiah did not put off the\nPassover sacrifice for a month on account of the uncleanness of the\npriests, but he made the preceding year a leap-year, and the month\nwhich would have been the second became the first, whilst the first was\ncounted as the thirteenth of the past year (comp. Mishnah, Pesachim iv.\n9).\n\n[94] It is only the fermentation of any of these five kinds of grain\nthat forms \u200f\u05d7\u05de\u05e5\u200e. Fermentation of grapes or other fruit constitutes no\n\u200f\u05d7\u05de\u05e5\u200e.\n\n[95] \u200f\u05d7\u05de\u05e5\u200e is both \u200f\u05d0\u05e1\u05d5\u05e8 \u05d1\u05d0\u05db\u05d9\u05dc\u05d4\u200e and \u200f\u05d0\u05e1\u05d5\u05e8 \u05d1\u05d4\u05e0\u05d0\u05d4\u200e (Mishnah, Pesachim\nii. 1).\n\n[96] It is now the custom to eat \u200f\u05d7\u05de\u05e5\u200e on Erebh Pesach, only during the\nfirst third of the day; i.e., till about ten o\u2019clock in the morning\n(ibid. i. 4).\n\n[97] Ibid. i. 1.\u2014The evening was chosen for this task, because with a\ntaper or lamp the corners and dark recesses can be better searched than\nby daylight. Besides, in the evening, when every one has finished his\nday\u2019s work, people are more at ease to do the searching in a thorough\nmanner.\n\n[98] The formula with \u200f\u05e2\u05dc\u200e is employed here, because we need not do the\nsearching by ourselves; it may be done by a substitute.\u2014Although we\nonly search in the evening, we use the term \u200f\u05e2\u05dc \u05d1\u05d9\u05e2\u05d5\u05e8 \u05d7\u05de\u05e5\u200e \u201cconcerning\nthe removal or the destruction of the chamets,\u201d because this removal or\ndestruction is the object of the searching.\n\n[99] The declaration, printed usually on the first page of the\nHaggadah, is made twice: once in the evening after the searching of the\nchamets, and once in the morning after its removal; with this\ndifference, that in the evening only the chamets that has not been\nfound is disclaimed; in the morning all chamets, if left in the house,\nis disclaimed, whether it has been noticed in the course of searching\nor not.\n\n[100] There are different kinds of the process of kasher: (1) by making\nthe articles in question red hot\u2014this applies to the iron oven and\nother iron vessels; (2) by dipping the vessel in boiling water, or\npouring boiling water over it, or letting the water in the vessel boil\nover. The object of this process is to free the vessel from any chamets\nit may have absorbed.\u2014Before the process of kasher begins, the vessel\nmust, of course, be thoroughly cleaned.\n\n[101] The four cups of wine are not taken at once; but one serves for\nKiddush, as on Sabbath and Holy-days; the second is taken at the\nconclusion of the first part of the Seder; the third after Grace, it\nbeing customary also on ordinary days to take a cup of wine after\nGrace; the fourth at the conclusion of the second part of the Seder.\nThe four cups are also said to indicate our joy in reference to four\nelements constituting the redemption, and implied in the four terms:\n\u200f\u05d5\u05d4\u05d5\u05e6\u05d0\u05ea\u05d9\u200e, \u200f\u05d5\u05d2\u05d0\u05dc\u05ea\u05d9\u200e, \u200f\u05d5\u05d4\u05e6\u05dc\u05ea\u05d9\u200e, and \u200f\u05d5\u05dc\u05e7\u05d7\u05ea\u05d9\u200e, (Exod. vi. 6, 7),\nliberation from bondage, deliverance from service, redemption from all\ndependence on Egypt, and appointment as \u201cthe people of the Lord.\u201d\u2014These\nfour cups were considered of such importance for the Seder-evening that\nthe poor were provided as of right with wine for the arba kosoth\n(Mishnah, Pesachim x. 1).\u2014Although the number of the four cups of wine\nis sanctioned by the reference to the above four expressions of\nredemption, a fifth cup may, if needed, be interpolated before singing\nPs. cxxxvi. (Tosaphoth, Pesachim 117b).\n\nIt is customary to pour in an extra cup and keep it ready for any\nnew-comer that might join the company. The cup is called \u200f\u05db\u05d5\u05e1 \u05e9\u05dc \u05d0\u05dc\u05d9\u05d4\u05d5\u200e\n\u201cthe cup of Elijah,\u201d because his advent may be looked for at any time.\nComp. Mal. iii. 23.\n\n[102] Two of them are the \u201cdouble portion,\u201d \u200f\u05dc\u05d7\u05dd \u05de\u05e9\u05e0\u05d4\u200e, of Sabbath and\nHoly-day. The third represents the \u200f\u05dc\u05d7\u05dd \u05e2\u05e0\u05d9\u200e \u201cbread of poverty,\u201d and is\ntherefore broken into pieces, in order to be distinguished from the\nothers as \u201cbread of poverty.\u201d The bread of poverty is intended to\nremind us of the bread of poverty or affliction eaten by our\nforefathers when kept as slaves in Egypt. But les extr\u00e8mes se touchent;\nit is remarkable that this very term \u200f\u05dc\u05d7\u05dd \u05e2\u05e0\u05d9\u200e admits also of the\nmeaning \u201cbread of song,\u201d and has been interpreted to signify the bread\neaten at a joyous meal, such as the Israelites in Egypt ate the night\nof their liberation. It is possible that the author of the opening\nparagraph of the Haggadah purposely employed the term \u200f\u05dc\u05d7\u05dd \u05e2\u05e0\u05d9\u05d0\u200e in\nthis double sense (Pes. 115a).\n\nAmong some Israelites it is the custom to style the three unleavened\ncakes, Cohen, Levi, and Israel. The three matsoth, as a play upon\nwords, are also called mitsvoth, \u201ccommandments;\u201d i.e., matsoth employed\nin fulfilment of the commandment, \u201cIn the evening ye shall eat\nunleavened bread.\u201d These matsoth are distinguished from the rest by\nbeing baked especially for this purpose. Some are careful in regard to\nthese matsoth to have every process in their preparation, from the\ncutting of the wheat to the baking of the matsoth, done for the express\npurpose of the Seder, and to have the wheat and the flour well guarded\nfrom moisture or any foreign admixture. Matsoth prepared in this way\nare called \u200f\u05de\u05e6\u05d4 \u05e9\u05de\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e, \u201cguarded matsoth.\u201d People still more particular\nhave all their unleavened bread for Passover prepared in this way.\n\n[103] The vegetables, that were ordinarily taken as a relish and a\nmeans of producing appetite for the meal, have only been introduced\nhere (Pesachim 114b) for the purpose of attracting the attention of the\nchildren. According to the custom of those ancient days, the master of\nthe house had before him a table covered with the different dishes\nrequired for the meal, and sent portions to every member of the\ncompany. When the meal was finished, before Grace, this table was\nremoved. But on the Seder-evening the table was removed immediately\nafter the partaking of a little parsley or other vegetables. The child,\naccustomed on ordinary evenings to have supper without such an\nintroduction, asks expressly or implicitly why things are different\nto-night, adding also other questions. Instead of parsley, other\nvegetables, or even some of the bitter herbs, may be taken. This last\nact not being an essential element in the Service, and not being\nobligatory, is not preceded by the berachah, \u201cBlessed art thou ... who\nhast commanded us, &c.,\u201d but \u201cBlessed art thou ... who hast created the\nfruit of the earth.\u201d\u2014At present the table is not removed, but the\nlifting up of the Seder-dish while reciting the first paragraph (\u200f\u05d4\u05d0\n\u05dc\u05d7\u05de\u05d0\u200e) is the survival of that custom.\n\n[104] Two views are expressed in the Talmud concerning charoseth: (1)\nit is a medicinal protective against the evil effects of the bitter\nherbs; (2) it is an essential part of the mitsvah, a symbol and\nreminder of the bricks and mortar with which the Israelites had to do\nthe work imposed on them by their taskmasters (B. Talm., Pesachim\n115b); it may also serve to suggest to us the idea that there is a\nmeans of softening the bitterness of oppression, viz., faith in God\n(Mishnah, Pesachim x. 3).\n\n[105] The bone and the egg are symbols of two dishes that used in the\ntime of the Temple to be on the table: the Passover sacrifice and the\nfestive offering called \u200f\u05d7\u05d2\u05d9\u05d2\u05d4\u200e; the latter was added when the company\nwas large (ibid. vi. 3, and B. Talm., Pes. 114b).\n\n[106] The eating of anything dipped in water or in any other liquid was\nusually preceded by the washing of the hands. But as the eating of\nvegetables at this point is not obligatory, the reader alone washes his\nhands, but without reciting the blessing, \u200f\u05e2\u05dc \u05e0\u05d8\u05d9\u05dc\u05ea \u05d9\u05d3\u05d9\u05dd\u200e.\n\n[107] See p. 381, note 1.\n\n[108] Comp. p. 380, note 1. The part laid aside is called afikuman, a\nname of which many curious etymologies have been suggested. The meaning\nis clear; it is that which is eaten just before the table is removed\n(p. 381, note 1), or before the dishes are cleared away: the dessert.\nThe name is therefore a compound of two Chaldaic words, afiku-man,\n\u201cdish-remover,\u201d i.e., the dessert after which all dishes are removed\nand the company is ready for Grace (B. T. Pesachim 86a Rashi).\n\n[109] The term is derived from the words of the Pentateuch, \u200f\u05d5\u05d4\u05d2\u05d3\u05ea\n\u05dc\u05d1\u05e0\u05da\u200e \u201cAnd thou shall tell thy son\u201d (Exod. xiii. 8). Hence also the\nname of the book Haggadah.\n\n[110] The first paragraph is not an invitation sent forth to those whom\nit cannot reach, but an appeal to those present to join heartily in the\nService and the succeeding meal; that none should feel ashamed of his\npoverty, none elated on account of his possessions; all having been\nbrethren in past troubles, and in the deliverance from them, and all\ndestined alike to share in the glories of the coming redemption.\n\n[111] The questions have been arranged according to their importance;\notherwise the third question might have been expected first (see p.\n381, note 1). The expression \u201cdipping\u201d (\u200f\u05d8\u05d1\u05d5\u05dc\u200e) used in this question\nmerely signifies \u201ctaking some relish,\u201d in distinction from the real and\nsolid meal, and the meaning of the question is, \u201cWhy do we to-night\npartake twice of the vegetables before approaching the actual meal? It\nindicates a festive supper. What is the reason for this?\u201d\n\n[112] The three different forms correspond perhaps to the three\ncharacters or ages of the inquirers: the ignorant, the simple, and the\nsceptic; whilst the answer to the wise has not been formulated, but\ndepends on his question, and the capacity of the father to instruct\nhim. It is only the general question as to the difference between the\nSeder-evening and other evenings that is answered in these three forms.\nEach of these forms was probably followed by the explanation of Pesach,\nMatsah, and Maror.\n\n[113] The Midrashic comparison of \u201cfinger of God\u201d to \u201cHis hand\u201d and the\nmultiplication of the number of plagues must not be understood as\nintended to gratify our feeling of revenge, but merely as a simple and\nchild-like illustration of the greatness of the Divine Power displayed\non those occasions.\u2014Rabbi Jehudah, probably from a feeling of tender\nsympathies with the sufferers, would not mention even the full names of\nthe plagues, but merely indicated them by initial letters.\n\n[114] It seems that in the time of the Talmud the one piece was eaten\nafter the first blessing, and the other after the second. As,\ntherefore, the partaking of matsah has taken place before the second\nblessing, the formula \u200f\u05e2\u05dc \u05d0\u05db\u05d9\u05dc\u05ea \u05de\u05e6\u05d4\u200e is used (see p. 329, note 2). The\nsame is the case with regard to the blessing before \u201ceating bitter\nherbs,\u201d as it was not contrary to usage to partake of bitter herbs\ninstead of karpas at the beginning of the Service.\n\n[115] The afikuman has been reserved wrapped in a napkin (reminding of\nExod. xii. 34), in order that the meal should finish up with matsah,\njust as in the time of the Temple it finished up with meat of the\nPassover-sacrifice.\u2014In the Talmud (Pes. 109a) the rule is given\n\u200f\u05d5\u05d7\u05d5\u05d8\u05e4\u05d9\u05df \u05de\u05e6\u05d4\u200e \u201cWe make haste to come quickly to the eating of matsah,\u201d\nbefore the younger members of the company become drowsy or fall asleep.\nThe words \u200f\u05d5\u05d7\u05d5\u05d8\u05e4\u05d9\u05df \u05de\u05e6\u05d4\u200e have erroneously been interpreted, \u201cWe should\nsnatch away the matsah,\u201d and this interpretation caused the Service to\nbe accompanied by a certain kind of childish amusement: some one of the\ncompany stealthily possesses himself of the matsah laid aside for\nafikuman, and does not surrender it until the master of the house\npromises him some present\u2014The custom is unseemly and ought to be\ndiscouraged.\n\n[116] After Grace a few verses from the Bible (Ps. lxxix. 6, 7, and\nLam. iii. 66) have been added, beginning \u200f\u05e9\u05e4\u05da \u05d7\u05de\u05ea\u05da\u200e and containing a\nprayer for God\u2019s wrath to be poured forth over the godless people who\nseek the destruction of Israel. The cause of the addition is this: The\nseason of Passover was, in the Middle Ages, a season of constant terror\nand danger to the Jews, because of the hostilities of their Christian\nneighbours against them. Helpless and defenceless, the Jews had no\nother way of meeting their foe than to cry to Him \u201cwho is near to all\nwho call upon Him in truth.\u201d The conduct of their neighbours towards\nthem hardly suggested thoughts of love, especially at that moment. For\nit frequently happened that several families met in one house for the\npurpose of hearing the Seder-Service. They dispersed after the first\npart of the Service, took their meals at home, and assembled later in\nthe evening for the second part of the Seder. Sometimes another course\nwas taken. One person read the Service in several houses consecutively\nfor the benefit of those who were not capable of doing so for\nthemselves; then, after having had his meal, he began his circuit again\nfor reading the second part of the Service. The return of the Reader or\nof the several families was anxiously waited for. The opening of the\ndoor before \u200f\u05e9\u05e4\u05da \u05d7\u05de\u05ea\u05da\u200e, at present meaningless, had its origin in this\ncircumstance. On returning to the second part of the Service, the\nguests had too often a sad tale to tell of their experiences in the\nstreet, and filled with indignation, they gave expression to their\nfeeling in the above verses. We continue to read these verses now, but\nin a different spirit. We live in peace with our neighbours, protected\nby the laws of the country and unmolested in the performance of our\nreligious duties. We have nothing but feelings and thoughts of love for\nour fellow-men, and in reciting these verses we merely condemn the\nwickedness of those who seek the destruction of the people of the Lord.\nOur Christian neighbours may certainly join us in this condemnation.\n\n[117] Comp. Isa. xl. 2.\n\n[118] An omer is, according to Tradition, equal to the space occupied\nby 43\u2159 eggs of ordinary size; it is about half a gallon.\n\n[119] Or \u200f\u05d4\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u2026 \u05dc\u05e2\u05de\u05e8 \u05e9\u05d4\u05dd \u2026\u200f\u200e (Portug. Ritual).\n\n[120] As the month of Iyar corresponds to some extent to May, some\nassert, without foundation, that the Jews hold no weddings this month,\nbecause May is held by non-Jews to be an unlucky season for marriages.\nJews who refuse to celebrate marriages in May for this reason are\nguilty of gross superstition.\n\n[121] According to the traditional interpretation of \u200f\u05de\u05de\u05d7\u05e8\u05ea \u05d4\u05e9\u05d1\u05ea\u200e \u201cfrom\nthe morrow after the Sabbath,\u201d the term \u201cSabbath\u201d signifies \u201cday of\nrest\u201d or \u201cfestival,\u201d and refers to the first day of Passover (comp.\nLev. xxiii. 32). The Sadducees, and afterwards the Karaites, contested\nthe correctness of this interpretation, but without success (see Babyl.\nTalm., Menachoth 65; and Ibn Ezra on Lev. xxiii. 15).\n\n[122] The collection of these passages is called \u200f\u05ea\u05e7\u05d5\u05df \u05dc\u05dc\u05d9\u05dc \u05e9\u05d1\u05d5\u05e2\u05d5\u05ea\u200e. A\nsimilar collection for the seventh night of Tabernacles is called \u200f\u05ea\u05e7\u05d5\u05df\n\u05dc\u05dc\u05d9\u05dc \u05d4\u05d5\u05e9\u05e2\u05e0\u05d0 \u05e8\u05d1\u05d0\u200e. See p. 398, note 1.\n\n[123] On Sabbath the lulabh is not taken, because it might be necessary\nto carry it from place to place through the street (\u200f\u05e8\u05e9\u05d5\u05ea \u05d4\u05e8\u05d1\u05d9\u05dd\u200e), and\nthis is forbidden (see Mishnah, Shabbath i. 1 and vii. 2). For the same\nreason the shofar is not blown on the first day of New-year, if it\nhappens to fall on Saturday. In the Temple, however, there was no\noccasion for the above apprehension; the lulabh was therefore taken and\nthe shofar was blown on Sabbath (Mishnah, Succah iv. 1, and Rosh\nha-shanah iv. 1).\n\n[124] In the Temple willow-branches were placed round the altar, the\nshofar was blown, and the priests made then a circuit round the altar,\nwith the lulabh in their hands, and singing part of Hallel.\u2014The\nhoshaanoth refer chiefly to the redemption of Israel and the rebuilding\nof the Temple.\u2014The circuit round the altar reminds us of the taking of\nJericho, and strengthens our hope that in future also the Almighty will\nbe with us, and help us through all difficulties to ultimate victory.\n\n[125] The lulabh alone is mentioned in the blessing, because it is the\nmost prominent, and the other three species seem to be its\nappendages.\u2014The form \u200f\u05e2\u05dc \u05e0\u05d8\u05d9\u05dc\u05ea \u200e is explained by the fact that we\ngenerally hold the four species in our hand, and thus commence the\nmitsvah, before the berachah (see p. 329, note 2).\u2014The three species,\npalm-branch, myrtle, and willow, are usually bound together by means of\nleaves of the palm-tree. Some used to add golden bands to these leaves\n(Mishnah, Succah iii. 8).\n\n[126] Mishnah, Succah iv. 5.\u2014In the Temple the shofar was sounded\nduring the priests\u2019 circuit round the altar. A similar custom exists in\nthe Spanish and Portuguese Synagogues on Hoshaana-rabba.\u2014Tradition\nattributed great importance to the Morning Service on Hoshaana-rabba,\nand made it a kind of sequel to the Service on the \u201cSolemn Days,\u201d as if\nto give another opportunity of repentance to those who had not made\nfull use of the means of grace afforded by the Day of Atonement, before\nthe final sentence (\u200f\u05d2\u05de\u05e8 \u05d7\u05ea\u05d9\u05de\u05d4 \u05ea\u05d5\u05d1\u05d4\u200e) is pronounced. The preceding\nevening is therefore spent by many in devotional exercises (\u200f\u05ea\u05e7\u05d5\u05df \u05dc\u05dc\u05d9\u05dc\n\u05d4\u05d5\u05e9\u05e2\u05e0\u05d0 \u05e8\u05d1\u05d0\u200e). Comp. p. 394.\n\nIt is an old custom to take a few extra twigs of the willow-tree on\nthis day and keep them in one\u2019s hand during the chanting of the\nhoshaanoth. These branches, when shaken or struck, lose their leaves\none after the other; so do the trees from which the branches have been\ncut, and so also all other trees. But the rain and heat sent by God in\ndue time give them fresh life, and they produce new leaves. A similar\nexperience is ours. The struggle for life reduces our strength and\nweakens our health; cares and troubles discourage us. But faith in God\nand trust in His Providence renew our strength; our health improves,\nour cares and troubles are diminished, and we feel ourselves restored\nto fresh life.\n\n[127] Lit. \u201cthe eighth day, a festival.\u201d\u2014A prayer for rain (\u200f\u05d2\u05e9\u05dd\u200e) is\ninserted in the Musaf-Service, and corresponds to the prayer for dew on\nthe first day of Passover; for fine weather we pray on the first day of\nthe Festival, for rain on the eighth day. From Shemini-atsereth to the\nMusaf of the first day of Passover the words \u200f\u05de\u05e9\u05d9\u05d1 \u05d4\u05e8\u05d5\u05d7 \u05d5\u05de\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9\u05d3 \u05d4\u05d2\u05e9\u05dd\u200e\n\u201cThou causest the wind to blow and the rain to fall,\u201d are inserted in\nthe second paragraph of the Amidah. The words do not contain a direct\nprayer for rain, but a praise of Him who causes the rain to fall\n(\u200f\u05d2\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u05d5\u05ea \u05d2\u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd\u200e), whilst the daily direct prayer for rain (\u200f\u05d5\u05ea\u05df \u05d8\u05dc\n\u05d5\u05de\u05d8\u05e8\u200e \u201cGive dew and rain\u201d) begins about two months later,\u2014the time when\nthe pilgrims that had come from distant countries to Jerusalem to the\nFestival were assumed to have reached their homes.\n\n[128] It has always been considered a special mitsvah and honour to be\ncalled to the reading either of the last or of the first section of the\nPentateuch. Those on whom this honour is conferred are called\nrespectively \u200f\u05d7\u05ea\u05df \u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e \u201cBridegroom of the Law,\u201d and \u200f\u05d7\u05ea\u05df \u05d1\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9\u05d9\u05ea\u200e\n\u201cBridegroom of the first section of the Law.\u201d In the rejoicing with the\nLaw special efforts are made to induce the younger members of the\ncongregation to take part. They are usually invited to join the\nprocession with the scrolls of the Law round the Synagogue, and have\nalso the privilege of being called to the Torah, although they are not\nyet thirteen years old. This and similar things are done in order to\ninspire our children with love for the Torah and for the study of the\nTorah.\n\n[129] Whilst the three Festivals demanded great sacrifices of each\nindividual Israelite\u2014to undertake a pilgrimage to the Temple, and not\nto appear empty before the Lord\u2014the \u201cSolemn Days\u201d demanded only\nabstention from work, and on one day also from food. The Sacrificial\nService on the Day of Atonement concerned directly the High-Priest and\nthe priests in the Temple, the public at large but indirectly; and if\ngreat multitudes assembled in the Temple, it was curiosity rather than\nduty that brought them there. More importance was therefore attached by\nchroniclers and historians to the three Festivals and the national\ngathering in and round the Temple on the Feasts of Pilgrimage than to\nthe Day of Memorial or the Day of Atonement. The Law deemed it\nnecessary to urge on the Israelites the celebration of the former more\nfrequently than that of the latter. When Solomon at the dedication of\nthe Temple celebrated with the Israelites twice seven days, the first\nseven days probably commenced the 1st of Tishri on the Festival (1\nKings viii. 2), and the second seven days on the 15th of the month;\ntherefore they are reckoned separately (ibid. viii. 65; 2 Chron. vii.\n9, 10). Ezra, who read the Law to the Jews on the 1st of Tishri (Neh.\nviii. 2), which was a Holy-day (ibid. 10), read it also on the second\nday, which may likewise have been a special day for reading the Law,\nprobably the Day of Atonement, and here they learnt that they were\ncommanded to build booths for the next Festival. They must therefore\nhave heard Leviticus xxiii., which includes the commandment concerning\nthe fasting on the Day of Atonement. It may also be noticed that,\nalthough the commandment concerning the Day of Atonement is not\nmentioned in Exodus, the day is referred to as a well-known institution\n(Exod. xxx. 10).\n\n[130] The reason Tradition assigns for this observance is as follows:\nAfter the giving of the Law Moses ascended Mount Sinai on the 7th of\nSivan, and descended on the fortieth day, the 17th of Tammuz, with the\ntables of testimony. On the 18th he ascended again, and spent forty\ndays in prayer for forgiveness for Israel; and ascended for the third\ntime on the 1st of Elul, and returned on the 10th of Tishri with the\nDivine message, \u201cI have pardoned in accordance with thy words of\nprayer.\u201d Cherishing the hope that we may ourselves receive such a\nheavenly response on the Day of Atonement, we follow the example of\nMoses, and add these Selichoth or devotional exercises to our daily\nprayers, while the sound of the shofar aids in awakening us to earnest\nreflection and true improvement.\n\nThere are various names for these additional prayers: \u200f\u05ea\u05d7\u05e0\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e\n\u201cSupplications,\u201d and \u200f\u05e1\u05dc\u05d9\u05d7\u05d5\u05ea\u200e \u201cPrayers for forgiveness,\u201d the latter\nbeing the general name for the early additional Service. Some of them\nhave special names: \u200f\u05e4\u05ea\u05d9\u05d7\u05d4\u200e \u201copening\u201d (i.e., the first prayer); \u200f\u05e4\u05d6\u05de\u05d5\u05df\u200e\n\u201cpsalm,\u201d a hymn sung or recited alternately by the Reader and the\ncongregation; \u200f\u05e2\u05e7\u05d3\u05d4\u200e a composition referring to the binding of Isaac;\n\u200f\u05ea\u05d7\u05e0\u05d4\u200e \u201csupplication,\u201d generally at the end of the Selichoth. Prominent\namong these prayers is the recitation of the Thirteen Attributes of\nMercy (Exod. xxxiv. 6, 7) and the \u201cConfession of sins\u201d (\u200f\u05d5\u05d3\u05d5\u05d9\u200e).\n\n[131] Although Nisan, the month of the departure of the Israelites from\nEgypt, is the first month, and Passover the first of the Festivals of\nthe year, Tishri, though the seventh month, was in many respects the\nbeginning of the year. In the month of Tishri the Jubilee year\ncommenced, the slaves were liberated, and landed property returned to\nthe original owners (comp. Mishnah, Rosh ha-shanah i. 1).\n\n[132] The name does, however, occur in the Mishnah as a term long in\nuse and well known. It is impossible to decide when the name was\nintroduced. The words \u200f\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9 \u05d4\u05e9\u05e0\u05d4\u200e in Ez. (xl. 1) denote the beginning of\nthe year, including ten days or more, but do not signify \u201cNew-year.\u201d\n\n[133] The blowing of the shofar is preceded by the blessing: \u200f\u2026 \u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05da\n\u05d0\u05e9\u05e8 \u05e7\u05d3\u05e9\u05e0\u05d5 \u2026 \u05dc\u05e9\u05de\u05d5\u05e2 \u05e7\u05d5\u05dc \u05e9\u05d5\u05e4\u05e8\u200e \u201cBlessed art thou ... who hast sanctified\nus by thy commandments and hast commanded us to hear the sound of the\nshofar.\u201d This blessing is followed by \u200f\u05e9\u05d4\u05d7\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5\u200e.\n\n[134] According to Saadiah, the shofar reminds us of the following ten\nthings with which it is directly or indirectly connected:\u2014(1) Creation;\n(2) Our duty to return to God; (3) Revelation on Mount Sinai; (4) The\nexhortations of the Prophets; (5) Destruction of the Temple; (6) The\nbinding of Isaac for sacrifice; (7) Imminent danger; (8) Day of\nJudgment; (9) Redemption of Israel; (10) Resurrection.\n\n[135] In some congregations it is the custom to walk in the afternoon\nof New-year along the banks of a river or the sea-shore, in order to\nreflect on the purifying effect which water has on the body, and to be\nreminded that even as the body is purified by water, so ought our souls\nbe purified by repentance and the appeal to the help and mercy of God.\nAn appropriate passage from Micah (vii. 18\u201320) is recited, and the\ncustom has received its name tashlich from the word \u200f\u05d5\u05ea\u05e9\u05dc\u05d9\u05da\u200e \u201cand thou\nwilt cast,\u201d which occurs in the passage.\n\n[136] The confession of sins (\u200f\u05d5\u05d3\u05d5\u05d9\u200e) as contained in our Prayer-book\nis made by the whole community collectively; and those who have not\nthemselves committed the sins mentioned in the confession regret that\nthey were unable to prevent them from being committed by others. The\nform of the confession is therefore in the plural: \u201cWe have been\nguilty,\u201d &c. The words \u200f\u05d0\u05d1\u05dc \u05d0\u05e0\u05d7\u05e0\u05d5 \u05d7\u05d8\u05d0\u05e0\u05d5\u200e \u201cIndeed we have sinned,\u201d would\nsuffice for the purpose of confession. But the long lists of various\nforms of sins in the sections beginning \u200f\u05d0\u05e9\u05de\u05e0\u05d5\u200e, \u200f\u05e2\u05dc \u05d7\u05d8\u05d0\u200e or \u200f\u05e2\u05dc \u05d7\u05d8\u05d0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e\nand which are repeatedly recited during the Service, help us to\nremember our misdoings; what has escaped our attention the first time\nmay be revived in our memory, when we read the confession a second or\nthird time. Especially numerous are the terms denoting sins committed\nwith our tongue; and indeed they are numerous! And where is the person\nthat could say that his tongue has never been employed in falsehood, or\nslander, or self-praise, or hasty promises, and similar offences? It is\nnecessary that we should reflect over and over again on these vices,\nand on the way in which to obtain better control over our tongue, and\nthereby a fuller mastery over the passions of our heart.\n\n[137] The Evening Service is preceded by a formal rescinding of\nprevious vows. Of what kind were the vows which are thus annulled? None\nof those that were made by a member of the community individually. No\none can by means of this formula free himself from the obligation to\nfulfil what he has promised to his fellow-man. The declaration concerns\nthe whole congregation, and has probably its origin in the customs of\nformer days, when those who refused to join in the communal work, or to\nsubmit to the law of the congregation, or shocked by any act of theirs\nthe conscience of their brethren, or abandoned Judaism outwardly, were\nexcommunicated and shut out from all contact with their\nco-religionists. Such transgressors, abarjanim, when desirous to pray\nin the Synagogue on the Day of Atonement, were admitted, and all\nopposition was silenced by the solemn declaration.\n\nThat such was the original object of Kol-nidre is sufficiently clear\nfrom its surroundings. It is preceded by the following announcement:\n\u201cIn the name of God, and in the name of the congregation, with the\nsanction of the Court above, and that of the Court below, we declare\nthat it is permitted to pray together with those who have been\ntransgressors (abarjanim).\u201d Kol-nidre is followed by the verse, \u201cAnd it\nshall be forgiven all the congregation of the children of Israel, and\nthe stranger that sojourneth among them; seeing all the people were in\nignorance\u201d (Num. xv. 26).\n\nThe original object of this declaration does not apply at present; but\nit serves as a reminder of the following principles:\u2014\n\n1. We should always be disposed to forgive those who, in the heat of\nstrife, acting under strong irritation, have offended us.\n\n2. We should be careful with regard to vows, and before making them\nconsider their effect.\n\n3. We should reflect on human weakness, and consider that what we\nbelieve to be able to do to-day may prove impossible for us to-morrow.\nThis reflection would remove every thought of pride from our heart and\ninspire us with humility.\n\n[138] At the conclusion of the Service we once more proclaim the Unity\nof God (\u200f\u05e9\u05de\u05e2 \u05d9\u05e9\u05e8\u05d0\u05dc\u200e), repeat three times the praise of His kingdom, and\nseven times that He alone is the Almighty. The sound of the shofar\nannounces, as on the occasion of the Revelation on Mount Sinai, the\nconclusion of the Holy-day.\n\n[139] The idea of introduction is implied in the term minchah,\n\u201cintroduction\u201d (from the root \u200f\u05e0\u05d7\u05d4\u200e \u201cto lead,\u201d \u201cto conduct\u201d).\u2014Minchah,\noriginally denoting any present or offering, was the special name of\nflour-offerings, probably because flour or corn was the most common\nminchah offered by people to their sovereign.\u2014Comp. \u201cI will appease him\nwith the present (minchah) that goeth before me, and afterwards I will\nsee his face\u201d (Gen. xxxii. 21).\n\n[140] \u200f\u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d4\u200e from \u200f\u05e4\u05dc\u05dc\u200e \u201cto judge,\u201d implies self-examination whether we\nare worthy of addressing the Most Holy. As to the purifying effect of\nprayer, see above, p. 183.\n\n[141] This was necessary for two reasons: it served to foster a\ndisposition for devotion and to assist the multitude in their endeavour\nto give expression to their feelings; it gave also uniformity to the\nprayers, which is indispensable in public Divine Worship (\u200f\u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d4\n\u05d1\u05e6\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u200e).\u2014The free effusion of our heart before our Creator is by no\nmeans restrained, and is certainly not intended to be excluded by these\nregulations.\n\n[142] \u200f\u05de\u05e0\u05d4\u05d2 \u05e2\u05d5\u05e7\u05e8 \u05d4\u05dc\u05db\u05d4\u200e \u201cCustom overrules law,\u201d is a well-known saying\nthat is frequently acted upon (Soferim xiv. 18).\n\n[143] Comp. supra, page 183 sqq., on the efficacy of prayer. Comp. page\n280 sqq.\n\n[144] This is one of the three explanations suggested in Babyl. Talm.,\nBerachoth 29b: (1) A burdensome task, of which one desires to get rid;\n(2) a claim and not a supplication; (3) fixed without any spontaneous\naddition.\n\n[145] Hence the phrases in the Talmud, \u201cHe went down toward the Ark\u201d\n(tebhah), or simply \u201cHe went down\u201d to read the tefillah. It was not so\nin all places of worship, because another phrase is sometimes used, \u201cHe\npassed toward the tebhah.\u201d\n\n[146] On such occasions a large congregation was expected, coming from\nthe whole neighbourhood, and the Synagogue was considered too small. It\nis also possible that a prayer-meeting in the open air was intended to\nattract the indifferent, who did not attend the regular Services in the\nSynagogue.\n\n[147] See Mishnah, Berachoth iv. 5, 6, and Babyl. Talm., Berachoth 30a.\n\n[148] As our religion demands frequent recitations of berachoth in the\ncourse of the day, the custom spread among the Jews of keeping the head\nalways covered. Comp. Babyl. T., Kiddushin 31a; Shulchan aruch, Orach\nChayyim ii. 6.\n\n[149] Attempts have been made to modify and to soften down the\nseemingly harsh words against those who design our ruin; some even wish\nto have the whole paragraph expunged from the prayer. In these attempts\nit has been ignored that the prayer is not directed against certain\npersons or nations; it is a petition for the protection of Israel from\nthe wicked plans of evildoers.\n\n[150] This fact is probably the source of the statement in Midrash\nRabboth (Num. xviii.), that the tefillah before the birchath\nha-tsadukim was added contained seventeen paragraphs.\n\n[151] In the Temple the priests recited daily the Decalogue, and no\nobjection was raised, because the congregation\u2014priests, Levites, and\ngeneral worshippers\u2014constantly changed; and secondly, the very Service\nin the Temple sufficiently proved the existence of other Divine\nlaws.\u2014This ruling applies only to the addition of the Decalogue to the\nshema, not to its introduction into any other part of the Service.\n\n[152] The priests were classed in twenty-four divisions; they had to\nperform a week\u2019s active Service in the Temple by turns; the same was\nthe case with the Levites. The Israelites of the district of which it\nwas the turn of the priests and the Levites to serve in the Temple sent\na deputation (Maamad) to Jerusalem, who represented them in the Temple;\nwhilst they themselves held special prayer meetings, called Maamadoth.\n\n[153] E.g., the addition of \u200f\u05d4\u05e0\u05d5\u05ea\u05df \u05dc\u05d9\u05e2\u05e3 \u05db\u05d7\u200e to, and the omission of\n\u200f\u05e9\u05dc\u05d0 \u05e2\u05e9\u05e0\u05d9 \u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u200e from, the \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05d5\u05ea \u05d4\u05e9\u05d7\u05e8\u200e.\n\n[154] Machzor, lit., \u201cCycle\u201d of prayers, both the obligatory and the\noptional, or the ordinary tefilloth and the piyyutim, for the various\nseasons of the whole year. It is called Machzor Vitry, after its\ncompiler, Simcha of Vitry (about 1100).\n\n[155] As to the importance of minhag in our religious life, see above,\np. 420.\n\n[156] According to the Mishnah (Berachoth iv. 1), the time fixed for\nthis Service is the first fourth of the day; but the notions of \u201cearly\u201d\nand \u201clate\u201d are now different from what they were in ancient times. An\nextension of the time has long been conceded, especially for the Public\nService on Sabbaths and Festivals.\n\n[157] As to the principle expressed in these three berachoth, see\nsupra, p. 170.\n\n[158] In the German Ritual for week-days a third berachah, beginning\n\u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05da \u05d9\u05d9 \u05dc\u05e2\u05d5\u05dc\u05dd\u200e and concluding \u200f\u05d5\u05e2\u05dc \u05db\u05dc \u05de\u05e2\u05e9\u05d9\u05d5\u200e, is added. This berachah\nseems to have been at first a substitute for the Amidah, which was\noptional in the Maaribh Service. The substitute became in many\ncongregations an integral part of the Maaribh, and was retained even\nwhen the Amidah was generally adopted as obligatory. On the eve of\nSabbath and Festivals the Amidah was always recited, and there was no\nneed for the substitute. The third berachah is therefore absent from\nthe Maaribh on these evenings.\n\n[159] See note 2 on p. 446 sq.\n\n[160] As to the merits of Public Service, see above, p. 284. Ten male\npersons of thirteen years and upwards constitute a congregation, \u200f\u05e6\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u200e\n(or \u200f\u05de\u05e0\u05d9\u05df\u200e \u201cnumber\u201d or \u201cquorum\u201d), and their united devotions form\nPublic Service (\u200f\u05ea\u05e4\u05dc\u05d4 \u05d1\u05e6\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u200e), into which the additions enumerated\nabove are introduced.\n\n[161] Before meals we wash our hands, say the blessing, \u200f\u05e2\u05dc \u05e0\u05d8\u05d9\u05dc\u05ea\n\u05d9\u05d3\u05d9\u05dd\u200e, and eat a piece of bread after having said the berachah,\n\u200f\u05d4\u05de\u05d5\u05e6\u05d9\u05d0\u200e.\u2014Some wash their hands a second time (\u200f\u05de\u05d9\u05dd \u05d0\u05d7\u05e8\u05d5\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e) before\nGrace. See Shulchan-aruch, Orach-chayyim clxxxi.\n\n[162] Comp. Babyl. Talm., Berachoth, p. 48b.\n\n[163] \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05da \u05e8\u05d7\u05de\u05e0\u05d0 \u05de\u05e8\u05d9\u05d4 \u05d3\u05d4\u05d0\u05d9 \u05e4\u05d9\u05ea\u05d0\u200e or \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05da \u05e9\u05d0\u05db\u05dc\u05e0\u05d5 \u05de\u05e9\u05dc\u05d5\u200e.\n\n[164] \u200f\u05de\u05ea\u05d5\u05da \u05e9\u05dc\u05d0 \u05dc\u05e9\u05de\u05d4 \u05d1\u05d0 \u05dc\u05e9\u05de\u05d4\u200e.\n\n[165] The Reader must be \u200f\u05e9\u05dc\u05d9\u05d7 \u05e6\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8\u200e the real representative of, and\nacceptable to the congregants (Shulchan-aruch I. liii. 4).\n\n[166] See above, page 417.\n\n[167] E.g., \u200f\u05d2\u05e9\u05dd\u200e and \u200f\u05d8\u05dc\u200e in the Musaph of the first day of Pesach and\nthe eighth day of Succoth are based on the climatic conditions of\nPalestine.\n\n[168] Those who fear that the seemingly harsh expressions might imply\nor suggest ideas and feelings of a baser kind can easily modify them\nand remove the sting.\u2014Similarly, expressions contrary to our taste and\nsense of propriety ought to be removed.\n\n[169] I.e., of the new corn. This law of \u200f\u05d7\u05d3\u05e9\u200e applied to the corn sown\nduring the year preceding the festival of Passover and beginning with\nthe previous Passover (Babyl. Talm., Menachoth 69).\n\n[170] The grafting of two species of trees one upon the other is\nincluded in this prohibition.\n\n[171] E.g., \u201cNeither shall there come upon thee a garment of two kinds\nof stuff mingled together.\u201d Such mixture is called \u200f\u05e9\u05e2\u05d8\u05e0\u05d6\u200e, and applies\nonly to the mixture of wool and linen (Deut. xxii. 11). Another\ncommandment belonging to this category is this: \u201cThou shalt not plow\nwith an ox and an ass together\u201d (ibid. 10). Ibn Ezra, in his Commentary\non the Pentateuch (ad locum), suggests the following reason for this\ncommandment, \u201cThe Almighty has mercy upon all His creatures; the\nstrength of the ass being inferior to that of the ox, an unfair demand\nwould be made upon the strength of the former when drawing the\nploughshares together with the latter.\u201d\n\n[172] \u200f\u05d8\u05e8\u05e4\u05d4\u200e originally designated meat of animals torn by wild beasts,\nbut it is used to designate food, especially meat, forbidden by the\nLaw. All permitted food is called kasher (\u200f\u05db\u05e9\u05e8\u200e).\n\n[173] In accordance with the traditional explanation of the\ncommandment, \u201cThou shalt not destroy the corners of thy beard\u201d (Lev.\nxix. 27), a razor is not employed, and shaving is avoided; the hair of\nthe beard and the face is clipped with scissors. This prohibition, like\nthat of \u201crounding the corners of the head\u201d (ibid.), belongs to a group\nof precepts which aimed at keeping the Israelites away from the\nidolatrous customs of their heathen neighbours. The second prohibition\nhas led to the fashion noticeable among Russian and Polish Jews of\nletting the hair of \u201cthe corners of the head\u201d (in Hebrew peoth) grow\nvery long.\u2014In the Mishnah (Kethubhoth vii. 6) it is mentioned as a\ndistinctively \u201cJewish custom\u201d that married women have their head\ncovered when going out. Many Jewish women observe also this custom\nwithin the house.\u2014With these exceptions there is nothing in his dress\nand appearance that need distinguish the Jew from the Gentile, only\nthat sometimes Jews are more conservative with regard to fashion than\ntheir neighbours, and old-fashioned style is then mistaken for \u201cJewish\nfashion.\u201d\n\n[174] Some people leave on one of the walls of the house a certain\npiece unpapered and unpainted as a sign of mourning for the destruction\nof Jerusalem and the Temple. From the same reason, in some\ncongregations, the bridegroom on the wedding-day has ashes strewn on\nhis head. In accordance with Ps. cxxxvii. 6 we remember Jerusalem on\nvarious occasions. We recite Ps. cxxxvii. on week-days, and Ps. cxxvi.\non Sabbath and Holy-days, after every meal. Again, when we give\nexpression to our sympathy with mourners we pray that God may comfort\nthem together with those who mourn for the destruction of Jerusalem.\n\n[175] The above-mentioned exceptions, and the fact that the woman is\npassive in the marriage ceremony as well as in the case of a divorce,\nhave been erroneously interpreted as evidence of the low estimate in\nwhich she is held by the Jewish Law. How the Jews were taught to honour\ntheir wives may be gathered from the Jewish marriage document, in which\nthe husband promises \u201cto honour his wife in accordance with the rule in\npractice among Jews, that every husband honours his wife.\u201d There are,\nunfortunately, also bad Jews who ill-treat, neglect, or entirely\nabandon their wives; but these cases are exceptions, and\nproportionately less numerous than among non-Jews. On the whole, Jewish\nwomen are treated by their husbands with love and regard, and the good\nrelations that exist between husband and wife ensure the comfort and\nhappiness of both.\n\n[176] To this respect for feminine modesty is due the arrangement made\nin the Synagogue for female worshippers (see p. 426). It is also the\nreason why girls have no ceremony corresponding to the celebration of\nthe bar-mitsvah.\n\n[177] Women do not like to do needlework on Saturday evening\nimmediately after the close of Sabbath; it was considered a mitsvah to\nprolong the Sabbath, just as it is a sign of love and esteem if we\ninduce a friend to defer his departure. The saying that only shrouds\nare to be sewn on Sabbath evening may perhaps be traced to Mishnah,\nShabbath xxiii. 4.\n\n[178] In order to have warm food on Sabbath without breaking any of the\nSabbath laws, the food is put in an oven which is heated in such a\nmanner that the fire continues to burn without requiring to be stirred\nor rekindled, or in which the heat is otherwise retained. Such food is\ncalled chalet, which is probably a French word, corresponding to the\nHebrew \u200f\u05d7\u05de\u05d9\u05df\u200e \u201cwarm.\u201d\n\n[179] Or \u200f\u05d7\u05d1\u05d5\u05d1 \u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05d4\u200e \u201clove of mitsvah.\u201d\n\n[180] See p. 357.\n\n[181] See p. 357 sqq.\n\n[182] Jews consider it a duty to have guests (\u200f\u05d0\u05d5\u05e8\u05d7\u05d9\u05dd\u200e) at the table on\nthree occasions, viz., the Seder-evening, Purim, and Succoth.\n\n[183] The blessing generally consists of the priestly benediction, and\nthe words of Jacob, \u201cGod make thee like Ephraim and like Manasseh\u201d\n(Gen. xlviii. 20); Sarah, Rebeccah, Rachel, and Leah being substituted\nfor Ephraim and Manasseh when females are addressed.\n\n[184] A special Service of the day is called \u200f\u05d9\u05d5\u05dd \u05db\u05e4\u05d5\u05e8 \u05e7\u05d8\u05df\u200e.\n\n[185] Friday evening was especially selected for this purpose; the\nvisitors were treated with fruit and sweets; and this secondary element\nin the custom became in course of time the principal thing. The custom\nreceived the name Shalom-zachar, probably from the usual greeting,\n\u201cShalom! (\u201cPeace,\u201d corresponding to our \u201cHow do you do?\u201d) O male\nchild!\u201d\n\n[186] In different countries there were different ways of expressing\nthis sentiment. In some congregations a band (mappah) for the Sepher,\nwith the name and birthday of the child inscribed on it, and ornamented\nwith verses expressive of various good wishes, is presented to the\nSynagogue.\n\n[187] I.e., a person who circumcises.\n\n[188] Of those who assist in the mitsvah, the sandek (godfather), who\nholds the child during the operation, is the most prominent, and is\ncalled \u200f\u05d1\u05e2\u05dc \u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\u200e (\u201cwho is in possession of the covenant,\u201d i.e., of the\nchild to be initiated into the covenant). The religious enthusiasm\nrequired for the performance of this mitsvah is symbolically\nrepresented by \u201cthe chair of Elijah\u201d (\u200f\u05db\u05e1\u05d0 \u05e9\u05dc \u05d0\u05dc\u05d9\u05d4\u05d5\u200e), upon which the\nchild is placed before the operation; Elijah in Jewish Tradition being\nthe type of religious zeal.\n\n[189] The Service for the occasion is included in the Daily\nPrayer-book, by Rev. S. Singer, p. 304.\n\n[190] For the Blessing and Prayers on this occasion, see Prayer-book,\np. 308.\n\n[191] The chief element in this Service is \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05db\u05ea \u05d4\u05d2\u05d5\u05de\u05dc\u200e, the\nthanksgiving for the Divine protection enjoyed in the moment of danger.\nThis Blessing is pronounced by (1) those who have crossed the sea, (2)\nor a desert, (3) or have recovered from a serious illness, (4) or have\nbeen released from prison. (Comp. Ps. cvii.)\n\n[192] Leviticus was generally taken first.\n\n[193] A misinterpretation of the dictum of Rabbi Eliezer, \u201cWhoso\nteaches his daughter torah, teaches her, as it were, levity\u201d (Mishnah,\nSotah iii. 4), led many to believe that the Rabbis did not wish the\ndaughters of Israel to know the Law. The dictum refers to a discussion\nwhich immediately precedes on the efficacy of the \u201cbitter waters.\u201d\nRabbi Eliezer holds that it is dangerous to the morality of a woman to\nengage her thoughts with the details of the Law concerning a wife\nsuspected of adultery (Num. v.).\n\n[194] The feast in honour of the bar-mitsvah is \u200f\u05e1\u05e2\u05d5\u05d3\u05ea \u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05d4\u200e only when\nit is accompanied by \u200f\u05d3\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9 \u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e (\u201cWords of the Law\u201d) spoken by him.\n\n[195] At festivities a glass was broken in order to remind those\npresent of the transient nature of all earthly things, and thus warn\nthem against excess of joy (Babyl. Talm., Berachoth 31a).\u2014The same is\ndone after the wedding ceremony.\n\n[196] In the Talmud the custom of the ring is not mentioned; anything\ncould be used, provided it had the value of a perutah, a small coin,\nand was the property of the bridegroom. Among Jews the use of the ring\nis a modern fashion. The ring must not contain any jewel or precious\nstone, the value of which can in many cases not easily be estimated,\nand which might therefore lead to misunderstanding and dispute.\n\n[197] There are, besides, various explanations of the term chuppah:\n(1.) The wreath on the head of the bride when led to the marriage\nceremony (\u200f\u05d4\u05d9\u05e0\u05d5\u05de\u05d0\u200e, Mishnah, Kethubhoth ii. 10). (2.) A cover over the\nhead of the bride; in some countries, therefore, instead of erecting a\ncanopy, a talith is held over the bride and bridegroom during the\nceremony; in others a separate ceremony of covering the head of the\nbride takes place before the actual marriage (comp. supra, p. 467, note\n1). (3.) A private chamber into which bride and bridegroom retire for\nbreakfast when the ceremony is over.\n\n[198] In order to prevent mistakes the minister reads the formula\nslowly, and the bridegroom repeats it; the minister omits the word \u200f\u05dc\u05d9\u200e\n\u201cunto me,\u201d and the bridegroom inserts the word by himself, or assisted\nby some one else.\n\n[199] \u201cAnd of Israel\u201d signifies: \u201cAccording to the Jewish traditional\ninterpretation of the Law of Moses;\u201d these words are added because the\nrules of kiddushin are not directly mentioned in the Torah.\n\n[200] The kethubhah is in its essential elements very old, and dates\nprobably back to the time when the Jews in Palestine spoke Aramaic. The\nsettlement described in this document should be made to correspond with\nthe actual deed of settlement legally executed. On the other hand, even\nthe poorer bridegrooms should be induced to make a real settlement\ncorresponding to the promises made in the kethubhah. The system of life\ninsurance facilitates such a course. Otherwise the kethubhah has no\nimportance.\n\n[201] The contents of these Blessings are: (1) Benediction over wine;\n(2) praise of God as the Creator of the Universe, (3) as the Creator of\nman, (4) and of woman; (5) prayer for the comfort of Zion, (6) for the\nrejoicing of the young couple, and (7) for their united happiness.\n\n[202] Lit., \u201cGood planet.\u201d The term has entirely lost its original\nmeaning, and denotes simply \u201chearty congratulation.\u201d\n\n[203] In the Torah polygamy is not forbidden, but not encouraged. It\nwas a luxury inaccessible to the multitude, and the king is distinctly\ntold that he must not have many wives (Deut. xvii. 17). The principle\nof monogamy is implied in many Biblical passages, as, e.g., Gen. ii. 20\nsqq.; Mal. ii. 14; Ps. cxxviii. 3; Prov. v. 18 sqq.\n\n[204] A woman divorced from her husband by \u200f\u05d2\u05d8\u200e or from her\nbrother-in-law by \u200f\u05d7\u05dc\u05d9\u05e6\u05d4\u200e cannot marry a kohen.\n\n[205] In every congregation there is a special society of those who\ndevote themselves to the needs of the sick (\u200f\u05d7\u05d1\u05e8\u05ea \u05d1\u05e7\u05d5\u05e8 \u05d7\u05d5\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd\u200e). See\nabove, p. 302.\n\n[206] \u201cMany have made confession and have afterwards recovered\u201d are the\nvery words to be addressed to the patient according to the\nShulchan-aruch, Jore deah cccxxxviii.\n\n[207] See Sefer ha-chayyim, and Daily Prayer-book, p. 314 sqq.\n\n[208] See supra, p. 302.\n\n[209] Those present exclaim: \u200f\u05d1\u05e8\u05d5\u05da \u05d3\u05d9\u05df \u05d0\u05de\u05ea\u200e \u201cBlessed art thou ... who\nart the true Judge.\u201d The same is done by those who are not present on\nhearing the sad news. Relatives rend also their garments (\u200f\u05e7\u05e8\u05d9\u05e2\u05d4\u200e).\n\n[210] In Hebrew \u200f\u05d0\u05d5\u05e0\u05e0\u05d9\u05dd\u200e and \u200f\u05d0\u05d1\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd\u200e; the former term is applied to the\nmourners during the time between the death and the interment of their\nrelatives; the latter after the interment during the whole period of\nmourning.\n\n[211] Some consider it a dishonour to the departed to leave the corpse\nunburied over night, since the Law does not allow even the body of a\ncriminal to be treated in this way. The practice may also have\ncommended itself on sanitary grounds.\n\n[212] The shroud is made of white linen. The kittel or sargenes is part\nof the raiment in which the dead are clothed. It is the custom in some\ncountries that the bride presents the bridegroom with this article on\nthe wedding-day; and it is worn by the husband on New-Year\u2019s Day and on\nthe Day of Atonement, and on the Seder-evening during the Service. Some\nthink that the object of wearing it is to remind us of death, and thus\nturn our thoughts away from the vanities of earthly life.\u2014The custom\nhas probably its origin in the fact that the white kittel was the\nfestive garment of the day.\n\n[213] In Hebrew \u200f\u05d1\u05d9\u05ea \u05d4\u05d7\u05d9\u05d9\u05dd\u200e or \u200f\u05d1\u05d9\u05ea \u05e2\u05dc\u05de\u05d9\u05df\u200e \u201cthe house of life\u201d or \u201cthe\nhouse of eternity.\u201d\n\n[214] The case is known by the name of \u200f\u05de\u05ea \u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05d4\u200e \u201cthe corpse which\nclaims attention as a mitsvah.\u201d\n\n[215] The usual formula is, \u201cMay the Almighty comfort you together with\nthose who mourn for Zion and Jerusalem.\u201d These words are addressed to\nthe mourners when they return from the grave to the Hall, while passing\nthe line (\u200f\u05e9\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e) formed by those present, and are repeated during the\nweek of mourning, especially on Friday evening when the mourners enter\nthe Synagogue. When the Service is over, the mourners return home, and\npartake of a meal prepared for them by friends or neighbours (\u200f\u05e1\u05e2\u05d5\u05d3\u05ea\n\u05d4\u05d1\u05e8\u05d0\u05d4\u200e). In days of old wine was taken on that occasion (Kethubhoth\n8b), but this custom, like several others, has dropped into oblivion.\nIn the Grace the section which begins \u200f\u05d5\u05d1\u05e0\u05d4\u200e \u201cAnd build,\u201d is modified\nduring the week of mourning in order to give expression to the\nsentiments of the mourners.\n\n[216] During the week of mourning the mourners (1) remain at home, with\nthe exception of Sabbath; (2) abstain from work and business; (3) hold\nthe Morning and the Evening Services at home, and add appropriate\npsalms (such as xvi. and xlix.), prayers, and meditations; (4) sit on\nthe floor or on low chairs; (5) listen to no music, avoid play, and all\nkinds of amusement, and (6) let the hair grow long.\u2014During the rest of\nthe month\u2014or of the year, in case of mourning for father or mother\u2014the\nlast two observances are followed; the hair is only cut when it has\nbecome cumbersome as well as unsightly, and a banquet is only attended\nwhen it is a \u200f\u05e1\u05e2\u05d5\u05d3\u05ea \u05de\u05e6\u05d5\u05d4\u200e.\n\n[217] A symbol of the soul of the departed, in reference to Prov. xx.\n27.\n\n[218] The three principal mitsvoth are: Study of the Law (\u200f\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8\u05d4\u200e),\nDivine Service (\u200f\u05e2\u05d1\u05d5\u05d3\u05d4\u200e), and Charity (\u200f\u05d2\u05de\u05dc\u05d5\u05ea \u05d7\u05e1\u05d3\u05d9\u05dd\u200e). As regards the\nfirst, a section of the Mishnah is studied daily; as regards the\nsecond, the bereaved, during the year of mourning, or on the Jahrzeit,\nacts as Reader in the Synagogue for the whole or part of the Service;\nand as regards the third, relief is given to the poor in memoriam.\n\n[219] Babyl. Talm., Gittin 14b.\n\n[220] The numbers refer to pages in the Authorized Daily Prayer-book,\nwith a new translation by the Rev. S. Singer.","title":"The Jewish religion","tradition":"scripture-revelation","translated_text":null,"word_count":153497}