{"collection":"folklore-oral-tradition","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_7966/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_7966","id":"gutenberg_7966","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/7966","summary":null,"tags":["Category: Archaeology & Anthropology","Category: Parenthood & Family Relations","Category: Psychiatry/Psychology","Category: Sociology","Child rearing","Children -- Folklore","Folklore and children"],"text":"Produced by David Moynihan, Lee Dawei, V-M \u00d6sterman,\nCharles Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team\n\n\n\n\n\nTHE CHILD AND CHILDHOOD IN FOLK-THOUGHT\n\nSTUDIES OF THE ACTIVITIES AND INFLUENCES OF\nTHE CHILD AMONG PRIMITIVE PEOPLES, THEIR\nANALOGUES AND SURVIVALS IN THE\nCIVILIZATION OF TO-DAY\n\n\nTHE CHILD AND CHILDHOOD\nIN FOLK-THOUGHT\n(THE CHILD IN PRIMITIVE CULTURE)\n\nBY\nALEXANDER FRANCIS CHAMBERLAIN\nM.A., PH.D.\n\n\nTO\n\nHIS FATHER AND HIS MOTHER\n\nTHEIR SON\n\n\nDedicates this Book\n\n \"Vom Vater hab' ich die Statur,\n  Des Lebens ernstes F\u00fchren;\n  Vom Mutterchen die Frohnatur\n  Und Lust zu fabulieren.\"--_Goethe_.\n\n\n\n\nPREFATORY NOTE.\n\nThe present volume is an elaboration and amplification of lectures on\n\"The Child in Folk-Thought,\" delivered by the writer at the summer\nschool held at Clark University in 1894. In connection with the\ninteresting topic of \"Child-Study\" which now engages so much the\nattention of teachers and parents, an attempt is here made to indicate\nsome of the chief child-activities among primitive peoples and to point\nout in some respects their survivals in the social institutions and\nculture-movements of to-day. The point of view to be kept in mind is the\nchild and what he has done, or is said to have done, in all ages and\namong all races of men.\n\nFor all statements and citations references are given, and the writer\nhas made every effort to place himself in the position of those whose\nopinion he records,--receiving and reporting without distortion or\nalteration.\n\nHe begs to return to his colleagues in the University, especially to its\ndistinguished president, the _genius_ of the movement for\n\"Child-Study\" in America, and to the members of the summer school of\n1894, whose kind appreciation of his efforts has mainly led to the\npublication of this work, his sincerest gratitude for the sympathy and\nencouragement which they have so often exhibited and expressed with\nregard to the present and allied subjects of study and investigation in\nthe field of Anthropology, pedagogical and psychological.\n\nA. F. CHAMBERLAIN\n\nCLARK UNIVERSITY,\nWORCESTER, Mass., April, 1895.\n\n\n\n\nCONTENTS.\n\n\nI. CHILD-STUDY\n\nII. THE CHILD'S TRIBUTE TO THE MOTHER\n\nIII. THE CHILD'S TRIBUTE TO THE MOTHER (Continued)\n\nIV. THE CHILD'S TRIBUTE TO THE FATHER\n\nV. THE NAME CHILD\n\nVI. THE CHILD IN THE PRIMITIVE LABORATORY\n\nVII. THE BRIGHT SIDE OF CHILD-LIFE: PARENTAL AFFECTION\n\nVIII. CHILDHOOD THE GOLDEN AGE\n\nIX. CHILDREN'S FOOD\n\nX. CHILDREN'S SOULS\n\nXI. CHILDREN'S FLOWERS, PLANTS, AND TREES\n\nXII. CHILDREN'S ANIMALS, BIRDS, ETC.\n\nXIII. CHILD-LIFE AND EDUCATION IN GENERAL\n\nXIV. THE CHILD AS MEMBER AND BUILDER OF SOCIETY\n\nXV. THE CHILD AS LINGUIST\n\nXVI. THE CHILD AS ACTOR AND INVENTOR\n\nXVII. THE CHILD AS POET AND MUSICIAN\n\nXVIII. THE CHILD AS TEACHER AND WISEACRE\n\nXIX. THE CHILD AS JUDGE\n\nXX. THE CHILD AS ORACLE-KEEPER AND ORACLE-INTERPRETER\n\nXXI. THE CHILD AS WEATHER-MAKER\n\nXXII. THE CHILD AS HEALER AND PHYSICIAN\n\nXXIII. THE CHILD AS SHAMAN AND PRIEST\n\nXXIV. THE CHILD AS HERO, ADVENTURER, ETC.\n\nXXV. THE CHILD AS FETICH AND DIVINITY\n\nXXVI. THE CHILD AS GOD: THE CHRIST-CHILD\n\nXXVII. PROVERBS, SAYINGS, ETC., ABOUT PARENTS, FATHER AND MOTHER\n\nXXVIII. PROVERBS, SAYINGS, ETC., ABOUT THE CHILD, MANKIND, GENIUS\n\nXXIX. PROVERBS, SAYINGS, ETC., ABOUT MOTHER AND CHILD\n\nXXX. PROVERBS, SAYINGS, ETC., ABOUT FATHER AND CHILD\n\nXXXI. PROVERBS, SAYINGS, ETC., ABOUT CHILDHOOD, YOUTH, AND AGE\n\nXXXII. PROVERBS, SAYINGS, ETC., ABOUT THE CHILD AND CHILDHOOD\n\nINDEX TO PROVERBS\n\nXXXIII. CONCLUSION\n\nBIBLIOGRAPHY\n\nSUBJECT-INDEX TO SECTION A OF BIBLIOGRAPHY\n\nSUBJECT-INDEX TO SECTION B OF BIBLIOGRAPHY\n\nINDEX I.--AUTHORITIES\n\nINDEX II.--PLACES, PEOPLES, TRIBES, LANGUAGES\n\nINDEX III.--SUBJECTS\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\n\nCHILD-STUDY.\n\nOneness with Nature is the glory of Childhood;\noneness with Childhood is the\nglory of the Teacher.--_G. Stanley Hall_.\n\n\n  Homes ont l'estre comme metaulx,\n  Vie et augment des vegetaulx,\n  Instinct et sens comme les bruts,\n  Esprit comme anges en attributs.\n  [Man has as attributes: Being like metals,\n  Life and growth like plants,\n  Instinct and sense like animals,\n  Mind like angels.]--_Jehan de Meung_.\n\n\nThe Child is Father of the Man.--_Wordsworth_.\n\nAnd he [Jesus] called to him a little child, and set him in the midst\nof them.--_Matthew_ xviii. 2.\n\n\nIt was an Oriental poet who sang:--\n\n  \"On parent knees, a naked, new-born child,\n  Weeping thou sat'st, while all around thee smiled;\n  So live, that, sinking in thy last, long sleep,\n  Calm thou mayst smile, while all around thee weep,\"\n\n\nand not so very long ago even the anthropologist seemed satisfied with\nthe approximation of childhood and old age,--one glance at the babe in\nthe cradle, one look at the graybeard on his deathbed, gave all the\nknowledge desired or sought for. Man, big, burly, healthy, omniscient,\nwas the subject of all investigation. But now a change has come over the\nface of things. As did that great teacher of old, so, in our day, has\none of the ministers of science \"called to him a little child and set\nhim in the midst of them,\"--greatest in the kingdom of anthropology is\nassuredly that little child, as we were told centuries ago, by the\nprophet of Galilee, that he is greatest in the kingdom of heaven. The\nchild, together with woman, who, in so many respects in which the\nessential human characteristics are concerned, so much resembles him, is\nnow beyond doubt the most prominent figure in individual, as well as in\nracial, anthropology. Dr. D. G. Brinton, in an appreciative notice of\nthe recent volume on _Man and Woman_, by Havelock Ellis, in which\nthe secondary sexual differences between the male and the female\nportions of the human race are so well set forth and discussed, remarks:\n\"The child, the infant in fact, alone possesses in their fulness 'the\nchief distinctive characters of humanity. The highest human types, as\nrepresented in men of genius, present a striking approximation to the\nchild-type. In man, from about the third year onward, further growth is\nto some extent growth in degeneration and senility.' Hence the true\ntendency of the progressive evolution of the race is to become\nchild-like, to become feminine.\" (_Psych. Rev._ I. 533.)\n\nAs Dr. Brinton notes, in this sense women are leading evolution--Goethe\nwas right: _Das Ewig-weibliche zieht uns hinan_. But here belongs\nalso the child-human, and he was right in very truth who said: \"A little\nchild shall lead them.\" What new meaning flashes into the words of the\nChrist, who, after declaring that \"the kingdom of God cometh not with\nobservation: neither shall they say, Lo, here! or, There! for lo, the\nkingdom of God is within you,\" in rebuke of the Pharisees, in rebuke of\nhis own disciples, \"called to him a little child and set him in the\nmidst of them, and said, Verily I say unto you, Except ye turn, and\nbecome as little children, ye shall in no wise enter into the kingdom of\nheaven.\" Even physically, the key to the kingdom of heaven lies in\nchildhood's keeping.\n\nVast indeed is now the province of him who studies the child. In\nSomatology,--the science of the physical characteristics and\nconstitution of the body and its members,--he seeks not alone to observe\nthe state and condition of the skeleton and its integuments during life,\nbut also to ascertain their nature and character in the period of\nprenatal existence, as well as when causes natural, or unnatural,\ndisease, the exhaustion of old age, violence, or the like, have induced\nthe dissolution of death.\n\nIn Linguistics and Philology, he endeavours to discover the essence and\nimport of those manifold, inarticulate, or unintelligible sounds, which,\nwith the long flight of time, develop into the splendidly rounded\nperiods of a Webster or a Gladstone, or swell nobly in the rhythmic\nbeauties of a Swinburne or a Tennyson.\n\nIn Art and Technology, he would fain fathom the depths of those rude\nscribblings and quaint efforts at delineation, whence, in the course of\nages, have been evolved the wonders of the alphabet and the marvellous\ncreations of a Rubens and an Angelo.\n\nIn Psychology, he seeks to trace, in childish prattlings and lore of the\nnursery, the far-off beginnings of mythology, philosophy, religion.\nBeside the stories told to children in explanation of the birth of a\nsister or a brother, and the children's own imaginings concerning the\nlittle new-comer, he may place the speculations of sages and theologians\nof all races and of all ages concerning birth, death, immortality, and\nthe future life, which, growing with the centuries, have ripened into\nthe rich and wholesome dogmas of the church.\n\nEthnology, with its broad sweep over ages and races of men, its\nsearchings into the origins of nations and of civilizations, illumined\nby the light of Evolution, suggests that in the growth of the child from\nhelpless infancy to adolescence, and through the strong and trying\ndevelopment of manhood to the idiosyncrasies of disease and senescence,\nwe have an epitome in miniature of the life of the race; that in\nprimitive tribes, and in those members of our civilized communities,\nwhose growth upward and onward has been retarded by inherited tendencies\nwhich it has been out of their power to overcome, or by a _milieu_\nand environment, the control and subjugation of which required faculties\nand abilities they did not possess, we see, as it were, ethnic children;\nthat in the nursery, the asylum, the jail, the mountain fastnesses of\nearth, or the desert plains, peopled by races whose ways are not our\nways, whose criteria of culture are far below ours, we have a panorama\nof what has transpired since, alone and face to face with a new\nexistence, the first human beings partook of the fruit of the tree of\nknowledge and became conscious of the great gulf, which, after\nmillenniums of struggle and fierce competition, had opened between the\nnew, intelligent, speaking anthropoids and their fellows who straggled\nso far behind.\n\nWordsworth has said: \"The child is father of the man,\" and a German\nwriter has expanded the same thought:--\n\n\n  \"Die Kindheit von heute\n   Ist die Menschheit von morgen,\n   Die Kindheit von heute\n   Ist die Menschheit von gestern.\"\n [\"The childhood of to-day\n   Is the manhood of to-morrow,\n   The childhood of to-day\n   Is the manhood of yesterday.\"]\n\n\nIn brief, the child is father of the man and brother of the race.\n\nIn all ages, and with every people, the arcana of life and death, the\nmysteries of birth, childhood, puberty, adolescence, maidenhood,\nwomanhood, manhood, motherhood, fatherhood, have called forth the\nprofoundest thought and speculation. From the contemplation of these\nstrange phenomena sprang the esoteric doctrines of Egypt and the East,\nwith their horrible accompaniments of vice and depravity; the same\nthoughts, low and terrible, hovered before the devotees of Moloch and\nCybele, when Carthage sent her innocent boys to the furnace, a sacrifice\nto the king of gods, and Asia Minor offered up the virginity of her\nfairest daughters to the first-comer at the altars of the earth-mother.\nPurified and ennobled by long centuries of development and unfolding,\nthe blossoming of such conceptions is seen in the great sacrifice which\nthe Son of Man made for the children of men, and in the cardinal\ndoctrine of the religion which he founded,--\"Ye must be born\nagain,\"--the regeneration, which alone gave entrance into Paradise.\n\nThe Golden Age of the past of which, through the long lapse of years,\ndreamers have dreamt and poets sung, and the Golden City, glimpses of\nwhose glorious portal have flashed through the prayers and meditations\nof the rapt enthusiast, seem but one in their foundation, as the Eden of\nthe world's beginning and the heaven that shall open to men's eyes, when\ntime shall be no more, are but closely allied phases, nay, but one and\nthe same phase, rather, of the world-old thought,--the ethnic might have\nbeen, the ought to be of all the ages. The imagined, retrospect\nchildhood of the past is twin-born with the ideal, prospective childhood\nof the world to come. Here the savage and the philosopher, the child and\nthe genius, meet; the wisdom of the first and of the last century of\nhuman existence is at one. Childhood is the mirror in which these\nreflections are cast,--the childhood of the race is depicted with the\nsame colours as the childhood of the individual. We can read a larger\nthought into the words of Hartley Coleridge:--\n\n\n \"Oh what a wilderness were this sad world,\n  If man were always man, and never child.\"\n\n\nBesides the anthropometric and psycho-physical investigations of the\nchild carried on in the scientific laboratory with exact instruments and\nunexceptionable methods, there is another field of \"Child-Study\" well\nworthy our attention for the light it can shed upon some of the dark\nplaces in the wide expanse of pedagogical science and the art of\neducation.\n\nIts laboratory of research has been the whole wide world, the\nexperimenters and recorders the primitive peoples of all races and all\ncenturies,--fathers and mothers whom the wonderland of parenthood\nencompassed and entranced; the subjects, the children of all the\ngenerations of mankind.\n\nThe consideration of \"The Child in Folk-Thought,\"--what tribe upon\ntribe, age after age, has thought about, ascribed to, dreamt of, learned\nfrom, taught to, the child, the parent-lore of the human race, in its\ndevelopment through savagery and barbarism to civilization and\nculture,--can bring to the harvest of pedagogy many a golden sheaf.\n\nThe works of Dr. Ploss, _Das kleine Kind_, _Das Kind_, and\n_Das Weib_, encyclop\u00e6dic in character as the two last are, covering\na vast field of research relating to the anatomy, physiology, hygiene,\ndietetics, and ceremonial treatment of child and mother, of girl and\nboy, all over the world, and forming a huge mine of information\nconcerning child-birth, motherhood, sex-phenomena, and the like, have\nstill left some aspects of the anthropology of childhood practically\nuntouched. In English, the child has, as yet, found no chronicler and\nhistorian such as Ploss. The object of the present writer is to treat of\nthe child from a point of view hitherto entirely neglected, to exhibit\nwhat the world owes to childhood and the motherhood and the fatherhood\nwhich it occasions, to indicate the position of the child in the march\nof civilization among the various races of men, and to estimate the\ninfluence which the child-idea and its accompaniments have had upon\nsociology, mythology, religion, language; for the touch of the child is\nupon them all, and the debt of humanity to the little children has not\nyet been told. They have figured in the world's history and its\nfolk-lore as _magi_ and \"medicine-men,\" as priests and\noracle-keepers, as physicians and healers, as teachers and judges, as\nsaints, heroes, discoverers, and inventors, as musicians and poets,\nactors and labourers in many fields of human activity, have been\ncompared to the foolish and to the most wise, have been looked upon as\nfetiches and as gods, as the fit sacrifice to offended Heaven, and as\nthe saviours and regenerators of mankind. The history of the child in\nhuman society and of the human ideas and institutions which have sprung\nfrom its consideration can have here only a beginning. This book is\nwritten in full sympathy with the thought expressed in the words of the\nLatin poet Juvenal: _Maxima debetur pueris reverentia_, and in the\ndeclaration of Jean Paul: \"I love God and every little child.\"\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\n\nTHE CHILD'S TRIBUTE TO THE MOTHER.\n\nA good mother is worth a hundred schoolmasters.--_English Proverb_.\n\nThe first poet, the first priest, was the first mother.\nThe first empire was a woman and her children.--_O. T. Mason_.\n\nWhen society, under the guidance of the \"fathers of the church,\" went\nalmost to destruction in the dark ages, it was the \"mothers of the\npeople\" who saved it and set it going on the new right path.\n--_Zmigrodski_ (adapted).\n\nThe story of civilization is the story of the mother.\n--_Zmigrodski_.\n\nOne mother is more venerable than a thousand fathers.\n--_Laws of Manu_.\n\nIf the world were put into one scale, and my mother into the other, the\nworld would kick the beam.--_Lord Langdale_.\n\n\n_Names of the Mother_.\n\nIn _A Song of Life_,--a book in which the topic of sex is treated\nwith such delicate skill,--occurs this sentence: \"The motherhood of\nmammalian life is the most sacred thing in physical existence\" (120.\n92), and Professor Drummond closes his _Lowell Institute Lectures on\nthe Evolution of Man_ in the following words: \"It is a fact to which\ntoo little significance has been given, that the whole work of organic\nnature culminates in the making of Mothers--that the animal series end\nwith a group which even the naturalist has been forced to call the\n_Mammalia_. When the savage mother awoke to her first tenderness, a\nnew creative hand was at work in the world\" (36. 240). Said Henry Ward\nBeecher: \"When God thought of Mother, he must have laughed with\nsatisfaction, and framed it quickly,--so rich, so deep, so divine, so\nfull of soul, power, and beauty, was the conception,\" and it was unto\nbabes and sucklings that this wisdom was first revealed. From their lips\nfirst fell the sound which parents of later ages consecrated and\npreserved to all time. With motherhood came into the world song,\nreligion, the thought of immortality itself; and the mother and the\nchild, in the course of the ages, invented and preserved most of the\narts and the graces of human life and human culture. In language,\nespecially, the mother and the child have exercised a vast influence. In\nthe names for \"mother,\" the various races have recognized the debt they\nowe to her who is the \"fashioner\" of the child, its \"nourisher\" and its\n\"nurse.\" An examination of the etymologies of the words for \"mother\" in\nall known languages is obviously impossible, for the last speakers and\ninterpreters of many of the unwritten tongues of the earth are long\nsince dead and gone. How primitive man--the first man of the\nrace--called his mother, we can but surmise. Still, a number of\ninteresting facts are known, and some of these follow.\n\nThe word _mother_ is one of the oldest in the language; one of the\nvery few words found among all the great branches of the widely\nscattered Aryan race, bearing witness, in ages far remote, before the\nCelt, the Teuton, the Hellene, the Latin, the Slav, and the Indo-Iranian\nwere known, to the existence of the family, with the _mother_\noccupying a high and honourable place, if not indeed the highest place\nof all. What the etymological meaning was, of the primitive Aryan word\nfrom which our _mother_ is descended, is uncertain. It seems,\nhowever, to be a noun derived, with the agent-suffix _-t-r_, from\nthe root _ma_, \"to measure.\" Skeat thinks the word meant originally\n\"manager, regulator [of the household],\" rejecting, as unsupported by\nsufficient evidence, a suggested interpretation as the \"producer.\"\nKluge, the German lexicographer, hesitates between the \"apportioner,\nmeasurer,\" and the \"former [of the embryo in the womb].\" In the language\nof the Klamath Indians of Oregon, _p'gishap_, \"mother,\" really\nsignifies the \"maker.\"\n\nThe Karankawas of Texas called \"mother,\" _kaninma_, the \"suckler,\"\nfrom _kanin_, \"the female breast.\" In Latin _mamma_, seems to\nsignify \"teat, breast,\" as well as \"mother,\" but Skeat doubts whether\nthere are not two distinct words here. In Finnish and some other\nprimitive languages a similar resemblance or identity exists between the\nwords for \"breast\" and \"mother.\" In Lithuanian, _m\u00f3te_--cognate\nwith our _mother_--signifies \"wife,\" and in the language of the\nCaddo Indians of Louisiana and Texas _s\u00e1ssin_ means both \"wife\" and\n\"mother.\" The familiar \"mother\" of the New England farmer of the \"Old\nHomestead\" type, presents, perhaps, a relic of the same thought. The\nword _dame_, in older English, from being a title of respect for\nwomen--there is a close analogy in the history of _sire_--came to\nsignify \"mother.\" Chaucer translates the French of the _Romaunt of the\nRose_, \"Enfant qui craint ni p\u00e8re ni m\u00e8re Ne pent que bien ne le\ncomperre,\" by \"For who that dredeth sire ne dame Shall it abie in bodie\nor name,\" and Shakespeare makes poor Caliban declare: \"I never saw a\nwoman, But only Sycorax, my dam.\" Nowadays, the word _dam_ is\napplied only to the female parent of animals, horses especially. The\nword, which is one with the honourable appellation _dame_, goes\nback to the Latin _domina_, \"mistress, lady,\" the feminine of\n_dominus_, \"lord, master.\" In not a few languages, the words for\n\"father\" and \"mother\" are derived from the same root, or one from the\nother, by simple phonetic change. Thus, in the Sandeh language of\nCentral Africa, \"mother\" is _n-amu_, \"father,\" _b-amu_; in the\nCholona of South America, _pa_ is \"father,\" _pa-n_, \"mother\";\nin the PEntlate of British Columbia, \"father\" is _m\u00e3a_, \"mother,\"\n_t\u00e3a_, while in the Songish _m\u00e3n_ is \"father\" and _tan_\n\"mother\" (404. 143).\n\nCertain tongues have different words for \"mother,\" according as it is a\nmale or a female who speaks. Thus in the Okanak\u00b7\u00ean, a Salish dialect of\nBritish Columbia, a man or a boy says for \"mother,\" _sk'\u00f5i_, a\nwoman or a girl, _t\u00f5m_; in Kalispelm the corresponding terms for\n\"my mother\" are _isk'\u00f5i_ and _intoop_. This distinction,\nhowever, seems not to be so common as in the case of \"father.\"\n\nIn a number of languages the words for \"mother\" are different when the\nlatter is addressed and when she is spoken of or referred to. Thus in\nthe Kwakiutl, Nootka, and \u00c7atloltq, three British Columbia tongues, the\ntwo words for \"mother\" are respectively _\u00e2t_, _ab\u00f3uk_;\n_\u00e3t_, _abEmp_; _nikH_, _t\u00e3n_. It is to be noted,\napparently, that the word used in address is very often simpler, more\nprimitive, than the other. Even in English we find something similar in\nthe use of _ma_ (or _mama_) and _mother_.\n\nIn the Gothic alone, of all the great Teutonic dialects,--the language\ninto which Bishop Wulfila translated the Scriptures in the fourth\ncentury,--the cognate equivalent of our English _mother_ does not\nappear. The Gothic term is _aithiei,_ evidently related to\n_atta,_ \"father,\" and belonging to the great series of nursery\nwords, of which our own _ma, mama,_ are typical examples. These are\neither relics of the first articulations of the child and the race,\ntransmitted by hereditary adaptation from generation to generation, or\nare the coinages of mother and nurse in imitation of the cries of\ninfancy.\n\nThese simple words are legion in number and are found over the whole\ninhabited earth,--in the wigwam of the Redskin, in the tent of the nomad\nBedouin, in the homes of cultured Europeans and Americans. Dr. Buschmann\nstudied these \"nature-sounds,\" as he called them, and found that they\nare chiefly variations and combinations of the syllables _ab, ap, am,\nan, ad, at, ba, pa, ma, na, da, ta,_ etc., and that in one language,\nnot absolutely unrelated to another, the same sound will be used to\ndenote the \"mother\" that in the second signifies \"father,\" thus\nevidencing the applicability of these words, in the earliest stages of\ntheir existence, to either, or to both, of the parents of the child\n(166. 85). Pott, while remarking a wonderful resemblance in the names\nfor parents all over the world, seeks to establish the rather doubtful\nthesis that there is a decided difference in the nature of the words for\n\"father\" and those for \"mother,\" the former being \"man-like, stronger,\"\nthe latter \"woman-like, mild\" (517. 57).\n\nSome languages apparently do not possess a single specialized word for\n\"mother.\" The Hawaiian, for example, calls \"mother and the sisters of\nthe mother\" _makua wahine,_ \"female parent,\" that being the nearest\nequivalent of our \"mother,\" while in Tonga, as indeed with us to-day,\nsometimes the same term is applied to a real mother and to an adopted\none (100. 389). In Japan, the paternal aunt and the maternal aunt are\ncalled \"little mother.\" Similar terms and appellations are found in\nother primitive tongues. A somewhat extended discussion of names for\n\"mother,\" and the questions connected with the subject, will be found in\nWestermarck (166. 85). Here also will be found notices of the names\namong various peoples for the nearest relatives of the mother and\nfather. Incidentally it is worth noting that Westermarck controverts\nProfessor Vamb\u00e9ry's opinion that the Turko-Tartar words for \"mother,\"\n_ana_, _ene_, originally meant \"nurse\" or \"woman\" (from the\nroot _an_, _en_), holding that exactly the reverse is the\nfact, \"the terms for _mother_ being the primitive words.\" He is\nalso inclined to think that the Aryan roots _pa_, \"to protect, to\nnourish,\" and _ma_, \"to fashion,\" came from _pa_, \"father,\"\nand _ma_, \"mother,\" and not _vice vers\u00e2_. Mr. Bridges, the\nmissionary who has studied so well the Yahgans of Tierra del Fuego,\nstates that \"the names _imu_ and _dabi_--father and\nmother--have no meaning apart from their application, neither have any\nof their other very definite and ample list of terms for relatives,\nexcept the terms _macu_ [cf. _magu_, \"parturition\"] and\n_macipa_ [cf. _cipa_, \"female\"], son and daughter.\" This\nstatement is, however, too sweeping perhaps (166. 88).\n\nAccording to Colonel Mallery, the Ute Indians indicate \"mother\" by\nplacing the index finger in the mouth (497a. 479). Clark describes the\ncommon Indian sign as follows: \"Bring partially curved and compressed\nright hand, and strike with two or three gentle taps right or left\nbreast, and make sign for _female_; though in conversation the\nlatter is seldom necessary. Deaf mutes make sign for _female_, and\ncross hands as in their sign for _baby_, and move them to front and\nupwards\" (420. 262). Somewhat similar is the sign for \"father\": \"Bring\nthe compressed right hand, back nearly outwards, in front of right or\nleft breast, tips of fingers few inches from it; move the hand, mostly\nby wrist action, and gently tap the breast with tips of fingers two or\nthree times, then make sign for _male_. Some Indians tap right\nbreast for 'father,' and left for 'mother.' Deaf-mutes make sign for\n_male_, and then holding hands fixed as in their sign for\n_baby_, but a little higher, move the hands to front and upwards\"\n(420. 167).\n\nInteresting is the following statement of Mr. Codrington, the well-known\nmissionary to the Melanesians:--\n\n\"In Mota the word used for 'mother' is the same that is used for the\ndivision [tribe?] _veve_, with a plural sign _ra veve_. And it\nis not that a man's kindred are so called after his mother, but that his\nmother is called his kindred, as if she were the representative of the\ndivision to which he belongs; as if he were not the child of a\nparticular woman, but of the whole kindred for whom she brought him into\nthe world.\" Moreover, at Mota, in like fashion, \"the word for 'consort,'\n'husband,' or 'wife,' is in a plural form _ra soai_, the word used\nfor members of a body, or the component parts of a canoe\" (25. 307-8).\n\n\n_Mother-Right_.\n\nSince the appearance of Bachofen's famous book on the matriarchate,\n\"mother-right,\" that system of society in which the mother is paramount\nin the family and the line of inheritance passes through her, has\nreceived much attention from students of sociology and primitive\nhistory.\n\nPost thus defines the system of mother-right:--\n\n\"The matriarchate is a system of relationship according to which the\nchild is related only to his mother and to the persons connected with\nhim through the female line, while he is looked upon as not related to\nhis father and the persons connected with him through the male line.\nAccording to this system, therefore, the narrowest family circle\nconsists not, as with us to-day, of father, mother, and child, but of\nmother, mother's brother, and sister's child, whilst the father is\ncompletely wanting, and the mother's brother takes the father's place\nwith the sister's children. The real father is not the father of his own\nchildren, but of his nephews and nieces, whilst the brother of his wife\nis looked upon as father to his children. The brothers and sisters of\nthe mother form with her a social group, to which belong also the\nchildren of the sisters, the children of the daughters of the sisters,\netc., but not the children of the brothers, the children of the sisters'\nsons, etc. With every husband the relationship ceases\" (127. I. 13-14).\n\nThe system of mother-right prevails widely over the whole globe; in some\nplaces, however, only in fragmentary condition. It is found amongst\nnearly all the native tribes of America; the peoples of Malaysia,\nMelanesia, Australia, Micronesia, and Polynesia, the Dravidian tribes of\nIndia; in Africa it is found in the eastern Sahara, the Soudan, the east\nand west coast, and in the centre of the continent, but not to the\nexclusion, altogether, of father-right, while in the north the intrusion\nof Europeans and the followers of Islam has tended to suppress it.\nTraces of its former existence are discovered among certain of the\nancient tribes of Asia Minor, the old Egyptians, Arabs, Greeks, Romans,\nTeutons, the Aryans of India, the Chinese, Japanese, etc.\n\nMother-right has been recognized by many sociologists as a system of\nfamily relationship, perhaps the most widespread, perhaps the most\nprimitive of all. Dr. Brinton says:--\n\n\"The foundation of the gentile system, as of any other family life, is\n... the mutual affection between kindred. In the primitive period this\nis especially between children of the same mother, not so much because\nof the doubt of paternity, as because physiologically and obviously, it\nis the mother in whom is formed, and from whom alone proceeds, the\nliving being\" (412. 47).\n\nProfessor O. T. Mason, in the course of his interesting address on\n\"Woman's Share in Primitive Culture,\" remarks (112. 10):--\n\n\"Such sociologists as Morgan and McLennan affirm that the primitive\nsociety had no family organization at all. They hypothecate a condition\nin which utter promiscuity prevailed. I see no necessity for this. There\nis some organization among insects. Birds mate and rear a little family.\nMany animals set up a kind of patriarchal horde. On the other hand, they\nerr greatly who look among savages for such permanent home life as we\nenjoy. Marriages are in groups, children are the sons and daughters of\nthese groups; divorces are common. The fathers of the children are not\nknown, and if they were, they would have no authority on that account.\nThe mother never changes her name, the children are named after her, or,\nat least, are not named after the father. The system of gentes prevails,\neach gens consisting of a hypothetical female ancestress, and all her\ndescendants through females. These primitive men and women, having no\nother resort, hit upon this device to hold a band of kin together. Here\nwas the first social tie on earth; the beginning of the state. The first\nempire was a woman and her children, regardless of paternity. This was\nthe beginning of all the social bonds which unite us. Among our own\nIndians mother-right was nearly universal. Upon the death of a chief\nwhose office was hereditary, he was succeeded, not by his son, but by\nthe son of a sister, or an aunt, or a niece; all his property that was\nnot buried with him fell to the same parties, could not descend to his\nchildren, since a child and the father belonged to different gentes.\"\nMcLennan has discussed at some length the subject of kinship in ancient\nGreece (115. 193-246), and maintains that \"the system of double kinship,\nwhich prevailed in the time of Homer, was preceded by a system of\nkinship through females only,\" referring to the cases of Lycaon,\nTlepolemus, Helen, Arnaeus, Glaucus, and Sarpedon, besides the evidence\nin the _Orestes_ of Euripides, and the _Eumenides_ of\nAeschylus. In the last, \"the jury are equally divided on the plea [that\nOrestes was not of kin to his mother, Clytemnestra, whom he had killed,\n--\"Do you call _me_ related by blood to my mother?\"], and Orestes\ngains his cause by the casting vote of Athene.\" According to tradition,\n\"in Greece, before the time of Cecrops, children always bore the name of\ntheir mothers,\" in marked contrast to tha state of affairs in Sparta,\nwhere, according to Philo, \"the marriage tie was so loose that men lent\ntheir wives to one another, and cared little by whom children were\nbegotten, provided they turned out strong and healthy.\"\n\nWe have preserved for us, by Plutarch and others, some of the opinions\nof Greek philosophers on the relation of the father and the mother to\nthe child. Plato is represented as calling \"mind the conception, idea,\nmodel, and _father_; and matter the mother, _nurse_, or seat\nand region capable of births.\" Chrysippus is said to have stated: \"The\nfoetus is nourished in the womb like a plant; but, being born, is\nrefrigerated and hardened by the air, and its spirit being changed it\nbecomes an animal,\" a view which, as McLennan points out, \"constitutes\nthe mother the mere nurse of her child, just as a field is of the seed\nsown in it.\"\n\nThe view of Apollo, which, in the council of the gods, influenced Athene\nto decide for Orestes, is this:--\n\n\"The bearer of the so-called offspring is not _the mother_ of it,\nbut only the nurse of the newly conceived foetus. It is the male who is\nthe author of its being; while she, as a stranger, for a stranger,\npreserves the young plant for those for whom the god has not blighted it\nin the bud. And I will show you a proof of this assertion; one\n_may_ become a father without a mother. There stands by a witness\nof this in the daughter of Olympian Zeus, who was not even nursed [much\nless engendered or begotten] in the darkness of the womb\" (115. 211).\n\"This is akin to the wild discussion in the misogynistic Middle Ages\nabout the possibility of _lucina sine concubitu_. The most recent\nand most scholarly discussion of all questions involved in\n\"mother-right\" will be found people in the world; for it stands on\nrecord that the five companies (five hundred men) recruited from the\nIroquois of New York and Canada during our civil war stood first on the\nlist among all the recruits of our army for height, vigour, and\ncorporeal symmetry\" (412. 82). And it was this people too who produced\nHiawatha, a philosophic legislator and reformer, worthy to rank with\nSolon and Lycurgus, and the founder of a great league whose object was\nto put an end to war, and unite all the nations in one bond of\nbrotherhood and peace.\n\nAmong the Choctaw-Muskogee tribes, women-chiefs were also known; the\nYuchis, Chetimachas, had \"Queens\"; occasionally we find female rulers\nelsewhere in America, as among the Winnebagos, the Nah-ane, etc.\nScattered examples of gynocracy are to be found in other parts of the\nworld, and in their later development some of the Aryan races have been\nrather partial to women as monarchs, and striking instances of a like\npredilection are to be met with among the Semitic tribes,--Boadicea,\nDido, Semiramis, Deborah are well-known cases in point, to say nothing\nof the Christian era and its more enlightened treatment of woman.\n\nThe fate of women among those peoples and in those ages where extreme\nexaltation of the male has been the rule, is sketched by Letourneau in\nhis chapter on _The Condition of Women_ (100. 173-185); the\ncontrast between the Australians, to whom \"woman is a domestic animal,\nuseful for the purposes of genesic pleasure, for reproduction, and, in\ncase of famine, for food,\" the Chinese, who can say \"a newly-married\nwoman ought to be merely as a shadow and as an echo in the house,\" the\nprimitive Hindus, who forbade the wife to call her husband by name, but\nmade her term him \"master, lord,\" or even \"god,\" and even some of our\nmodern races in the eye of whose law women are still minors, and the\nIroquois, is remarkable. Such great differences in the position and\nrights of women, existing through centuries, over wide areas of the\nglobe, have made the study of comparative pedagogy a most important\nbranch of human sociology. The mother as teacher has not been, and is\nnot now, the same the world over.\n\nAs men holding supreme power have been termed \"father,\" women have in\nlike manner been called \"mother.\" The title of the queen-mother in\nAshanti is _nana,_ \"Grandmother\" (438. 259), and to some of the\nIndian tribes of Canada Queen Victoria is the \"Great White Mother,\" the\n\"Great Mother across the Sea.\" In Ashanti the \"rich, prosperous, and\npowerful\" are termed _oman enna,_ \"mothers of the tribe,\" and are\nexpected to make suitably large offerings to the dead, else there will\nbe no child born in the neglectful family for a certain period (438.\n228).\n\nWith the Romans, _mater_ and its derivative _matrona,_ came to\nbe applied as titles of honour; and beside the rites of the\n_parentalia_ we find those of the _matronalia_ (492. 454).\n\nIn the ancient Hebrew chronicles we find mention of Deborah, that\n\"mother in Israel.\"\n\nWith us, off whose tongues \"the fathers,\" \"forefathers,\" \"ancestors\"\n(hardly including ancestresses) and the like rolled so glibly, the\n\"Pilgrim Fathers\" were glorified long before the \"Pilgrim Mothers,\" and\nhardly yet has the mother of the \"father of his country\" received the\njust remembrance and recognition belonging to her who bore so noble and\nso illustrious a son. By and by, however, it is to be hoped, we shall be\nfree from the reproach cast upon us by Colonel Higginson, and wake up to\nthe full consciousness that the great men of our land have had mothers,\nand proceed to re-write our biographical dictionaries and encyclop\u00e6dias\nof life-history.\n\nIn Latin _mater,_ as does _mother_ with us, possessed a wide\nextent of meaning, \"mother, parent, producer, nurse, preparer, cause,\norigin, source,\" etc. _Mater omnium artium necessitas,_ \"Necessity\nis the mother of invention,\" and similar phrases were in common use, as\nthey are also in the languages of to-day. Connected with _mater_ is\n_materia,_ \"matter,\"--_mother_-stuff, perhaps,--and from it\nis derived _matrimonium,_ which testifies concerning primitive\nRoman sociology, in which the mother-idea must have been prominent,\nsomething we cannot say of our word _marriage,_ derived ultimately\nfrom the Latin _mas,_ \"a male.\"\n\nWestermarck notes the Nicaraguans, Dyaks, Minahassers, Andaman\nIslanders, P\u00e1dam, Munda Kols, Santals, Moors of the Western Soudan,\nTuaregs, Teda, among the more or less primitive peoples with whom woman\nis held in considerable respect, and sometimes, as among the Munda Kols,\nbears the proud title \"mistress of the house\" (166. 500, 501). As\nHavelock Ellis remarks, women have shown themselves the equals of men as\nrulers, and most beneficial results have flowed from their exercise of\nthe great political wisdom, and adaptation to statecraft which seems to\nbelong especially to the female sex. The household has been a\ntraining-school for women in the more extended spheres of human\nadministrative society.\n\n\n_Alma Mater._\n\nThe college graduate fondly calls the institution from which he has\nobtained his degree _Alma Mater_, \"nourishing, fostering,\ncherishing mother,\" and he is her _alumnus_ (foster-child,\nnourished one). For long years the family of the benign and gracious\nmother, whose wisdom was lavished upon her children, consisted of sons\nalone, but now, with the advent of \"sweeter manners, purer laws,\"\ndaughters have come to her also, and the _alumnae_, \"the sweet\ngirl-graduates in their golden hair,\" share in the best gifts their\nparent can bestow. To Earth also, the term _Alma Mater_ has been\napplied, and the great nourishing mother of all was indeed the first\nteacher of man, the first university of the race.\n\n_Alma, alumnus, alumna_, are all derived from _alo_, \"I\nnourish, support.\" From the radical _al_, following various trains\nof thought, have come: _alesco_, \"I grow up\"; _coalesco_, \"I\ngrow together\"; _adolesco_, \"I grow up,\"--whence _adolescent_,\netc.; _obsolesco_, \"I wear out\"; _alimentum_, \"food\";\n_alimonium_, \"support\"; _altor, altrix_, \"nourisher\";\n_altus_, \"high, deep\" (literally, \"grown\"); _elementum_,\n\"first principle,\" etc. Connected With _adolesco_ is\n_adultus_, whence our _adult_, with the radical of which the\nEnglish word _old_ (_eld_) is cognate. From the root\n_al_, \"to grow, to make to grow, to nourish,\" spring also the Latin\nwords _pr\u00f4les_, \"offspring,\" _suboles_, \"offspring, sprout,\"\n_ind\u00f4les_, \"inborn or native quality.\"\n\n\n_\"Mother's Son.\"_\n\nThe familiar expression \"every mother's son of us\" finds kin in the\nModern High German _Muttersohn, Mutterkind_, which, with the even\nmore significant _Muttermensch_ (human being), takes us back to the\ndays of \"mother-right.\" Rather different, however, is the idea called up\nby the corresponding Middle Low German _modersone_, which means\n\"bastard, illegitimate child.\"\n\n\n_Lore of Motherhood_\n\nA synonym of _Muttermensch_ is _Mutterseele_, for soul and man\nonce meant pretty much, the same. The curious expression\n_mutterseelenallein_, \"quite alone; alone by one's self,\" is given\na peculiar interpretation by Lippert, who sees in it a relic of the\nburial of the dead (soul) beneath the hearth, threshold, or floor of the\nhouse; \"wessen Mutter im Hause ruht, der kann daheim immer nur mit\nseiner Mutterseele selbander allein sein.\" Or, perhaps, it goes back to\nthe time when, as with the Seminoles of Florida, the babe was held over\nthe mouth of the mother, whose death resulted from its birth, in order\nthat her departing spirit might enter the new being.\n\nIn German, the \"mother-feeling\" makes its influence felt in the\nnomenclature of the lower brute creation. As contrasted with our English\nfemale donkey (she-donkey), mare, ewe, ewe-lamb, sow, doe-hare (female\nhare), queen-bee, etc., we find _Mutteresel_, \"mother-donkey \";\n_Mutterpferd_, \"mother-horse\"; _Mutterschaf_, \"mother-sheep\";\n_Mutterlamm_, \"mother lamb\"; _Mutterschwein_, \"mother swine\";\n_Mutterhase_, \"mother-hare\"; _Mutterbiene_, \"mother-bee.\"\n\nNor is this feeling absent from the names of plants and things\ninanimate. We have _Mutterbirke_, \"birch\"; _Mutterblume_,\n\"seed-flower\"; _Mutternelke_, \"carnation\"; _Mutternagelein_\n(our \"mother-clove\"); _Mutterholz_. In English we have \"mother of\nthyme,\" etc. In Japan a triple arrangement in the display of the\nflower-vase--a floral trinity--is termed _chichi_, \"father\";\n_haha_, \"mother\"; _ten_, \"heaven\" (189. 74).\n\nIn the nursery-lore of all peoples, as we can see from the fairy-tales\nand child-stories in our own and other languages, this attribution of\nmotherhood to all things animate and inanimate is common, as it is in\nthe folk-lore and mythology of the adult members of primitive races now\nexisting.\n\n\n_Mother Poet._\n\nThe arts of poetry, music, dancing, according to classic mythology, were\npresided over by nine goddesses, or Muses, daughters of Mnemosyne,\ngoddess of memory, \"Muse-mother,\" as Mrs. Browning terms her. The\nhistory of woman as a poet has yet to be written, but to her in the\nearly ages poetry owed much of its development and its beauty. Mr. Vance\nhas remarked that \"among many of the lowest races the only love-dances\nin vogue are those performed by the women\" (545a. 4069). And Letourneau\nconsiders that \"there are good grounds for supposing that women may have\nespecially participated in the creation of the lyric of the erotic\nkind.\" Professor Mason, in the course of his remarks upon woman's labour\nin the world in all ages, says (112. 12):--\n\n\"The idea of a _maker_, or creator-of-all-things found no congenial\nsoil in the minds of savage men, who manufactured nothing. But, as the\nfirst potters, weavers, house-builders were women, the idea of a divine\ncreator as a moulder, designer, and architect originated with her, or\nwas suggested by her. The three Fates, Clotho, who spins the thread of\nlife; Lachesis, who fixes its prolongation; and Atropos, who cuts this\nthread with remorseless shears, are necessarily derived from woman's\nwork. The mother-goddess of all peoples, culminating in the apotheosis\nof the Virgin Mary, is an idea, either originated by women, or devised\nto satisfy their spiritual cravings.\"\n\nAnd we have, besides the goddesses of all mythologies, personifying\nwoman's devotion, beauty, love. What shall we say of that art, highest\nof all human accomplishments, in the exercise of which men have become\nalmost as gods? The old Greeks called the singer [Greek: poiaetaes],\n\"maker,\" and perhaps from woman the first poets learned how to worship\nin noble fashion that great _maker_ of all, whose poem is the\nuniverse. Religion and poetry have ever gone hand in hand; Plato was\nright when he said: \"I am persuaded, somehow, that good poets are the\ninspired interpreters of the gods.\" Of song, as of religion, it may\nperhaps be said: _Dux foemina facti_.\n\nTo the mother beside the cradle where lies her tender offspring, song is\nas natural as speech itself to man. Lullabies are found in every land;\neverywhere the joyous mother-heart bursts forth into song. The German\nproverb is significant: \"Wer ein saugendes Kind hat, der hat eine\nsingende Frau,\" and Fischer, a quaint poet of the sixteenth century, has\nbeautifully expressed a like idea:--\n\n\"Wo Honig ist, da sammlen sieb die Fliegen, Wo Kinder sind, da singt man\num die Wiegen.\"\n\nPloss, in whose book is to be found a choice collection of lullabies\nfrom all over the globe, remarks: \"The folk-poetry of all peoples is\nrich in songs whose texts and melodies the tender mother herself\nimagined and composed\" (326. II. 128).\n\nThe Countess Martinengo-Cesaresco devotes an interesting chapter of her\n_Essays in the Study of Folk-Song_ to the subject of lullabies. But\nnot cradle-songs alone have sprung from woman's genius. The world over,\ndirges and funeral-laments have received their poetical form from the\nmother. As name-giver, too, in many lands, the mother exercised this\nside of her imaginative faculty. The mother and the child, from whom\nlanguage received its chief inspiration, were also the callers forth of\nits choicest and most creative form.\n\n\n_Mother-Wit._\n\n\"An ounce o' mother-wit is worth a pound o' clergy,\" says the Scotch\nproverb, and the \"mother-wit,\" _Muttergeist_ and _Mutterwitz_,\nthat instructive common-sense, that saving light that make the genius\nand even the fool, in the midst of his folly, wise, appear in folk-lore\nand folk-speech everywhere. What the statistics of genius seem to show\nthat great men owe to their mothers, no less than fools, is summed up by\nthe folk-mind in the word _mother-wit_. Jean Paul says: \"Die M\u00fctter\ngeben uns von Geiste W\u00e3rme und die V\u00e3ter Licht,\" and Goethe, in a\nfamiliar passage in his _Autobiography_, declares:--\n\n\n  \"Vom Vater hab'ich die Statur,\n  Des Lebens ernstes F\u00fchren;\n  Vom M\u00fctterchen die Frobnatur,\n  Und Lust zu fabulieren.\"\n\n\nShakespeare makes Petruchio tell the shrewish Katherine that his \"goodly\nspeech\" is \"_extempore_ from my mother-wit,\" and Emerson calls\n\"mother-wit,\" the \"cure for false theology.\" Quite appropriately\nSpenser, in the _Faerie Queene_, speaks of \"all that Nature by her\nmother-wit could frame in earth.\" It is worth noting that when the\nancient Greeks came to name the soul, they personified it in Psyche, a\nbeautiful female, and that the word for \"soul\" is feminine in many\nEuropean languages.\n\nAmong the Teton Indians, according to the Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, the\nfollowing peculiar custom exists: \"Prior to the naming of the infant is\nthe ceremony of the transfer of character; should the infant be a boy, a\nbrave and good-tempered man, chosen beforehand, takes the infant in his\narms and breathes into his mouth, thereby communicating his own\ndisposition to the infant, who will grow up to be a brave and\ngood-natured man. It is thought that such an infant will not cry as much\nas infants that have not been thus favoured. Should the infant be a\ngirl, it is put into the arms of a good woman, who breathes into its\nmouth\" (433. 482).\n\nHere we have _father_-wit as well as _mother_-wit.\n\n\n_Mother-Tongue_.\n\nWhere women have no voice whatever in public affairs, and are\nsubordinated to the uttermost in social and family matters, little that\nis honourable and noble is named for them. In East Central Africa, a Yao\nwoman, asked if the child she is carrying is a boy or a girl, frequently\nreplies: \"My child is of the sex that does not speak\" (518. XLIII. 249),\nand with other peoples in higher stages of culture, the \"silent woman\"\nlingers yet. _Taceat mulier in ecclesi\u00e2_ still rings in our ears\nto-day, as it has rung for untold centuries. Though the poet has said:--\n\n\n  \"There is a sight all hearts beguiling--\n  A youthful mother to her infant smiling,\n  Who, with spread arms and dancing feet,\n  And cooing voice, returns its answer sweet,\"\n\n\nand mothers alone have understood the first babblings of humanity, they\nhave waited long to be remembered in the worthiest name of the language\nthey have taught their offspring.\n\nThe term _mother-tongue_, although Middle English had\n\"birthe-tonge,\" in the sense of native speech, is not old in our\nlanguage; the _Century Dictionary_ gives no examples of its early\nuse. Even immortal Shakespeare does not know it, for, in _King Richard\nII._, he makes Mowbray say:--\n\n\n  \"The language I have learned these forty years\n  (My native English) now must I forego.\"\n\n\nThe German version of the passage has, however, _mein m\u00fctterliches\nEnglisch_.\n\nCowper, in the _Task_, does use \"mother-tongue,\" in the connection\nfollowing:--\n\n\n  \"Praise enough\n  To fill the ambition of a private man,\n  That Chatham's language was his mother-tongue.\"\n\n\n_Mother-tongue_ has now become part and parcel of our common\nspeech; a good word, and a noble one.\n\nIn Modern High German, the corresponding _Mutterzunge_, found in\nSebastian Franck (sixteenth century) has gradually given way to\n_Muttersprache_, a word whose history is full of interest. In\nGermany, as in Europe generally, the esteem in which Latin was held in\nthe Middle Ages and the centuries immediately following them, forbade\nalmost entirely the birth or extension of praiseworthy and endearing\nnames for the speech of the common people of the country. So long as men\nspoke of \"hiding the beauties of Latin in homely German words,\" and a\nBacon could think of writing his chief work in Latin, in order that he\nmight be remembered after his death, it were vain to expect aught else.\n\nHence, it does not surprise us to learn that the word\n_Muttersprache_ is not many centuries old in German. Dr. L\u00fcbben,\nwho has studied its history, says it is not to be found in Old High\nGerman or Middle High German (or Middle Low German), and does not appear\neven in Luther's works, though, judging from a certain passage in his\n_Table Talk_, it was perhaps known to him. It was only in the\nseventeenth century that the word became quite common. Weigand states\nthat it was already in the _Dictionarium latino-germanicum_\n(Zurich, 1556), and in Maaler's _Die Teutsch Spraach_ (Zurich,\n1561), in which latter work (S. 262 a) we meet with the expressions\n_vernacula lingua_, _patrius sermo_, _landspraach_,\n_muoterliche spraach_, and _muoterspraach_ (S. 295 c). Opitz\n(1624) uses the word, and it is found in Schottel's _Teutsche\nHaupt-Sprache_ (Braunschweig, 1663). Apparently the earliest known\ncitation is the Low German _modersprake_, found in the introduction\nof Dietrich Engelhus' (of Einbeck) _Deutsche Chronik_ (1424).\n\nNowadays _Muttersprache_ is found everywhere in the German\nbook-language, but Dr. L\u00fcbben, in 1881, declared that he had never heard\nit from the mouth of the Low German folk, with whom the word was always\n_lantsprake, gemene sprake_. Hence, although the word has been\nimmortalized by Klaus Groth, the Low German Burns, in the first poem of\nhis _Quickborn:_--\n\n\n  \"Min Modersprak, so slicht un recht,\n  Du ole frame Red!\n  Wenn blot en Mund 'min Vader' seggt,\n  So klingt mi't as en Bed,\"\n\n\nand by Johann Meyer, in his _Ditmarscher Gedichte:_--\n\n\n  \"Vaderhus un Modersprak!\n  Lat mi't n\u00f6m'n un lat mi't rop'n;\n  Vaderhus, du belli Sted,\n  Modersprak, da frame Red,\n  Sch\u00f6nres klingt der Nix tohopen,\"\n\n\nit may be that _modersprak_ is not entirely a word of Low German\norigin; beautiful though it is, this dialect, so closely akin to our own\nEnglish, did not directly give it birth. Nor do the corresponding terms\nin the other Teutonic dialects,--Dutch _moederspraak, moedertaal_,\nSwedish _modersm\u00e5l_, etc.,--seem more original. The Romance\nlanguages, however, offer a clue. In French, _langue m\u00e8re_ is a\npurely scientific term of recent origin, denoting the root-language of a\nnumber of dialects, or of a \"family of speech,\" and does not appear as\nthe equivalent of _Muttersprache_. The equivalents of the latter\nare: French, _langue maternelle_; Spanish, _lengua materna_;\nItalian, _lingua materna_, etc., all of which are modifications or\nimitations of a Low Latin _lingua materna_, or _lingua\nmaternalis_. The Latin of the classic period seems not to have\npossessed this term, the locutions in use being _sermo noster, patrius\nsermo_, etc. The Greek had [Greek: _ae egchorios glossa ae idia\nglossa,_] etc. Direct translations are met with in the _moderlike\nsprake_ of Daniel von Soest, of Westphalia (sixteenth century), and\nthe _muoterliche spraach_ of Maaler (1561). It is from an Italian-\nLatin source that Dr. L\u00fcbben supposes that the German prototypes of\n_modersprak_ and _Muttersprache_ arose. In the _B\u00f4k der\nByen_, a semi-Low German translation (fifteenth century) of the\n_Liber Apium_ of Thomas of Chantimpr\u00e9, occurs the word\n_modertale_ in the passage \"Christus sede to er [the Samaritan\nwoman] mit sachte stemme in erre modertale.\" A municipal book of\nTreuenbrietzen informs us that in the year 1361 it was resolved to write\nin the _ydeoma maternale_--what the equivalent of this was in the\ncommon speech is not stated--and in the _Relatio_ of Hesso, we find\nthe term _materna lingua_ (105 a).\n\nThe various dialects have some variants of _Muttersprache_, and in\nG\u00f6ttingen we meet with _moimen spraken_, where _moime_\n(cognate with Modern High German _Muhme_, \"aunt\"), signifies\n\"mother,\" and is a child-word.\n\nFrom the _mother-tongue_ to the _mother-land_ is but a step.\nAs the speech she taught her babe bears the mother's name, so does also\nthe land her toil won from the wilderness.\n\n\n_Mother-Land._\n\nAs we say in English most commonly \"native city,\" so also we say \"native\nland.\" Even Byron sings:--\n\n\n  \"Adieu, adieu I my native shore\n  Fades o'er the waters blue;\n\n       *        *        *        *        *\n\n  My native land--good night!\"\n\n\nand Fitz-Greene Halleck, in his patriotic poem \"Marco Bozzaris,\" bids\nstrike \"For God, and your native land.\"\n\nScott's far-famed lines:--\n\n\n  \"Breathes there a man with soul so dead,\n  Who never to himself has said,\n  This is my own, my native land!\"\n\n\nand Smith's national hymn, \"My country,'tis of thee,\" know no\n_mother-land_.\n\nIn the great _Century Dictionary_, the only illustration cited of\nthe use of the word _mother-land_ is a very recent one, from the\n_Century Magazine_ (vol. xxix. p. 507).\n\nShakespeare, however, comes very near it, when, in _King John_\n(V. ii.), he makes the Bastard speak of \"your dear Mother-England,\"\n--but this is not quite \"mother-land.\"\n\nIn German, though, through the sterner influences which surrounded the\nEmpire in its birth and reorganization, _Vaterland_ is now the\nword, _Mutterland_ was used by Kant, Wieland, Goethe, Herder,\nUhland, etc. Lippert suggests an ingenious explanation of the origin of\nthe terms _Mutterland_, _Vaterland_, as well as for the\npredominance of the latter and younger word. If, in primitive times, man\nalone could hold property,--women even and children were his\nchattels,--yet the development of agriculture and horticulture at the\nhands of woman created, as it were, a new species of property, property\nin land, the result of woman's toil and labour; and this new property,\nin days when \"mother-right\" prevailed, came to be called\n_Mutterland_, as it was essentially \"mothers' land.\" But when men\nbegan to go forth to war, and to conquer and acquire land that was not\n\"mothers' land,\" a new species of landed property,--the \"land of the\nconquering father,\"--came into existence (and with it a new theory of\nsuccession, \"father-right\"), and from that time forward \"Vaterland\" has\nextended its signification, until it has attained the meaning which it\npossesses in the German speech of to-day (492. 33, 36).\n\nThe inhabitants of the British colonies scattered all over the world\nspeak of Britain as the \"mother country,\" \"Mother England\"; and R. H.\nStoddard, the American poet, calls her \"our Mother's Mother.\" The French\nof Canada term France over-sea \"la m\u00e8re patrie\" (mother fatherland).\n\nEven Livy, the Roman historian, wrote _terra quam matrem\nappellamus_,--\"the land we call mother,\"--and Virgil speaks of\nApollo's native Delos as _Delum maternum_. But for all this, the\nproud Roman called his native land, not after his mother, but after his\nfather, _patria_; so also in corresponding terms the Greek, [Greek:\n_patris_], etc. But the latter remembered his mother also, as the\nword _metropolis_, which we have inherited, shows. [Greek:\n_Maetropolis_] had the meanings: \"mother-state\" (whence\ndaughter-colonies went forth); \"a chief city, a capital, metropolis;\none's mother-city, or mother-country.\" In English, _metropolis_ has\nbeen associated with \"mother-church,\" for a _metropolis_ or a\n_metropolitan_ city, was long one which was the seat of a\nbishopric.\n\nAmong the ancient Greeks the Cretans were remarkable for saying not\n[Greek: _patris_] (father-land), but [Greek: _maetris_]\n(mother-land), by which name also the Messenians called their native\nland. Some light upon the loss of \"mother-words\" in ancient Greece may\nbe shed from the legend which tells that when the question came whether\nthe new town was to be named after Athene or Poseidon, all the women\nvoted for the former, carrying the day by a single vote, whereupon\nPoseidon, in anger, sent a flood, and the men, determining to punish\ntheir wives, deprived them of the power of voting, and decided that\nthereafter children were not to be named after their mothers (115. 235).\n\nIn Gothic, we meet with a curious term for \"native land, home,\"\n_gabaurths_ (from _gabairan_ \"to bear\"), which signifies also\n\"birth.\" As an exemplification of the idea in the Sophoclean phrase\n\"all-nourishing earth,\" we find that at an earlier stage in the history\nof our own English tongue _erd_ (cognate with our _earth_)\nsignified \"native land,\" a remembrance of that view of savage and\nuncivilized peoples in which _earth, land_ are \"native country,\"\nfor these are, in the true sense of the term, _Landesleute,\nhomines_.\n\nIn the language of the Hervey Islands, in the South Pacific, \"the place\nin which the placenta of an infant is buried is called the\n_ipukarea_, or _native soil_\" (459. 26).\n\nOur English language seems still to prefer \"native city, native town,\nnative village,\" as well as \"native land,\" \"mother-city\" usually\nsignifying an older town from which younger ones have come forth. In\nGerman, though _Vaterstadt_ in analogy with _Vaterland_ seems\nto be the favorite, _Mutterstadt_ is not unknown.\n\nBesides _Mutterland_ and _Mutterstadt_, we find in German the\nfollowing:--\n\n_Mutterboden_, \"mother-land.\" Used by the poet Uhland.\n_Muttergefilde_, \"the fields of mother-earth.\" Used by Schlegel.\n_Muttergrund_, \"the earth,\" as productive of all things. Used by\nGoethe.\n_Mutterhimmel_, \"the sky above one's native land.\" Used by the\npoet Herder.\n_Mutterluft_, \"the air of one's native land.\"\n_Mutterhaus_, \"the source, origin of anything.\" Uhland even has:--\n\n\n  \"Hier ist des Stromes Mutterhaus,\n  Ich trink ihn frisch vom Stein heraus.\"\n\n\nMore far-reaching, diviner than \"mother-land,\" is \"mother-earth.\"\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER III.\n\n\nTHE CHILD'S TRIBUTE TO THE MOTHER (_Continued_).\n\nTo the child its mother should be as God.--_G. Stanley Hall_.\n\nA mother is the holiest thing alive.--_Coleridge_.\n\nGod pardons like a mother, who kisses the offence into everlasting\nforgetfulness.--_Henry Ward Beecher_.\n\nWhen the social world was written in terms of mother-right, the\nreligious world was expressed in terms of mother-god.\n\nThere is nothing more charming than to see a mother with a child in her\narms, and nothing more venerable than a mother among a number of her\nchildren.--_Goethe_.\n\n\n_Mother-Earth_.\n\n\"Earth, Mother of all,\" is a world-wide goddess. Professor O.T. Mason,\nsays: \"The earth is the mother of all mankind. Out of her came they. Her\ntraits, attributes, characteristics, they have so thoroughly inherited\nand imbibed, that, from any doctrinal point of view regarding the origin\nof the species, the earth may be said to have been created for men, and\nmen to have been created out of the earth. By her nurture and tuition\nthey grow up and flourish, and, folded in her bosom, they sleep the\nsleep of death. The idea of the earth-mother is in every cosmogony.\nNothing is more beautiful in the range of mythology than the conception\nof Demeter with Persephone, impersonating the maternal earth, rejoicing\nin the perpetual return of her daughter in spring, and mourning over her\ndeparture in winter to Hades\" (389 (1894). 140).\n\nDr. D.G. Brinton writes in the same strain (409. 238): \"Out of the earth\nrises life, to it it returns. She it is who guards all germs, nourishes\nall beings. The Aztecs painted her as a woman with countless breasts;\nthe Peruvians called her '_Mama_ Allpa,' _mother_ Earth; in\nthe Algonkin tongue, the words for earth, mother, father, are from the\nsame root. _Homo, Adam, chamaigenes_, what do all these words mean\nbut earth-born, the son of the soil, repeated in the poetic language of\nAttica in _anthropos_, he who springs up like a flower?\"\n\nMr. W. J. McGee, treating of \"Earth the Home of Man,\" says (502. 28):--\n\n\"In like manner, mankind, offspring of Mother Earth, cradled and nursed\nthrough helpless infancy by things earthly, has been brought well\ntowards maturity; and, like the individual man, he is repaying the debt\nunconsciously assumed at the birth of his kind, by transforming the face\nof nature, by making all things better than they were before, by aiding\nthe good and destroying the bad among animals and plants, and by\nprotecting the aging earth from the ravages of time and failing\nstrength, even as the child protects his fleshly mother. Such are the\nrelations of earth and man.\"\n\nThe Roman babe had no right to live until the father lifted him up from\n\"mother-earth\" upon which he lay; at the baptism of the ancient Mexican\nchild, the mother spoke thus: \"Thou Sun, Father of all that live, and\nthou Earth, our Mother, take ye this child and guard it as your son\"\n(529. 97); and among the Gypsies of northern Hungary, at a baptism, the\noldest woman present takes the child out, and, digging a circular trench\naround the little one, whom she has placed upon the earth, utters the\nfollowing words: \"Like this Earth, be thou strong and great, may thy\nheart be free from care, be merry as a bird\" (392 (1891). 20). All of\nthese practices have their analogues in other parts of the globe.\n\nIn another way, infanticide is connected with \"mother-earth.\" In the\nbook of the \"Wisdom of Solomon\" (xiv. 23) we read: \"They slew their\nchildren in sacrifices.\" Infanticide--\"murder most foul, as in the best\nit is, but this most foul, strange, and unnatural\"--has been sheltered\nbeneath the cloak of religion. The story is one of the darkest pages in\nthe history of man. A priestly legend of the Khonds of India attributes\nto child-sacrifice a divine origin:--\n\n\"In the beginning was the Earth a formless mass of mud, and could not\nhave borne the dwelling of man, or even his weight; in this liquid and\never-moving slime neither tree nor herb took root. Then God said: 'Spill\nhuman blood before my face!' And they sacrificed a child before Him. ...\nFalling upon the soil, the bloody drops stiffened and consolidated it.\"\n\nBut too well have the Khonds obeyed the command: \"And by the virtues of\nthe blood shed, the seeds began to sprout, the plants to grow, the\nanimals to propagate. And God commanded that the Earth should be watered\nwith blood every new season, to keep her firm and solid. And this has\nbeen done by every generation that has preceded us.\"\n\nMore than once \"the mother, with her boys and girls, and perhaps even a\nlittle child in her arms, were immolated together,\"--for sometimes the\nwretched children, instead of being immediately sacrificed, were allowed\nto live until they had offspring whose sad fate was determined ere their\nbirth. In the work of Reclus may be read the fearful tale of the cult of\n\"Pennou, the terrible earth-deity, the bride of the great Sun-God\" (523.\n315).\n\nIn Tonga the paleness of the moon is explained by the following legend:\nVatea (Day) and Tonga-iti (Night) each claimed the first-born of Papa\n(Earth) as his own child. After they had quarrelled a great deal, the\ninfant was cut in two, and Vatea, the husband of Papa, \"took the upper\npart as his share, and forthwith squeezed it into a ball and tossed it\ninto the heavens, where it became the sun.\" But Tonga-iti, in sullen\nhumour, let his half remain on the ground for a day or two. Afterward,\nhowever, \"seeing the brightness of Vatea's half, he resolved to imitate\nhis example by compressing his share into a ball, and tossing it into\nthe dark sky during the absence of the sun in Avaiki, or netherworld.\"\nIt became the moon, which is so pale by reason of \"the blood having all\ndrained out and decomposition having commenced,\" before Tonga-iti threw\nhis half up into the sky (458. 45). With other primitive peoples, too,\nthe gods were infanticidal, and many nations like those of Asia Minor,\nwho offered up the virginity of their daughters upon the altars of their\ndeities, hesitated not to slay upon their high places the first innocent\npledges of motherhood.\n\nThe earth-goddess appears again when the child enters upon manhood, for\nat Brahman marriages in India, the bridegroom still says to the bride,\n\"I am the sky, thou art the earth, come let us marry\" (421. 29).\n\nAnd last of all, when the ineluctable struggle of death is over, man\nreturns to the \"mother-earth\"--dust to dust. One of the hymns of the\nRig-Veda has these beautiful words, forming part of the funeral\nceremonies of the old Hindus:--\n\n\n \"Approach thou now the lap of Earth, thy mother,\n    The wide-extending Earth, the ever-kindly;\n  A maiden soft as wool to him who comes with gifts,\n    She shall protect thee from destruction's bosom.\n\n \"Open thyself, O Earth, and press not heavily;\n    Be easy of access and of approach to him,\n  As mother with her robe her child,\n    So do thou cover him, O Earth!\" (421. 31).\n\n\nThe study of the mortuary rites and customs of the primitive peoples of\nall ages of the world's history (548) reveals many instances of the\nbelief that when men, \"the common growth of mother-earth,\" at last rest\ntheir heads upon her lap, they do not wholly die, for the immortality of\nEarth is theirs. Whether they live again,--as little children are often\nfabled to do,--when Earth laughs with flowers of spring, or become\nincarnate in other members of the animate or inanimate creation, whose\nkinship with man and with God is an article of the great folk-creed, or,\nin the beautiful words of the burial service of the Episcopal Church,\nsleep \"earth to earth, ashes to ashes, dust to dust, in sure and certain\nhope of the resurrection,\" all testifies that man is instinct with the\nlife that throbs in the bosom of Earth, his Mother. As of old, the story\nran that man grew into being from the dust, or sprang forth in god-like\nmajesty, so, when death has come, he sinks to dust again, or\ntriumphantly scales the lofty heights where dwell the immortal deities,\nand becomes \"as one of them.\"\n\nWith the idea of the earth-mother are connected the numerous myths of\nthe origin of the first human beings from clay, mould, etc., their\nprovenience from caves, holes in the ground, rocks and mountains,\nespecially those in which the woman is said to have been created first\n(509. 110). Here belong also not a few ethnic names, for many primitive\npeoples have seen fit to call themselves \"sons of the soil, _terrae\nfilii_, _Landesleute_.\"\n\nMuller and Brinton have much to say of the American earth-goddesses,\n_Toci_, \"our mother,\" and goddess of childbirth among the ancient\nMexicans (509. 494); the Peruvian _Pachamama_, \"mother-earth,\" the\nmother of men (509. 369); the \"earth-mother\" of the Caribs, who through\nearthquakes manifests her animation and cheerfulness to her children,\nthe Indians, who forthwith imitate her in joyous dances (509. 221); the\n\"mother-earth\" of the Shawnees, of whom the Indian chief spoke, when he\nwas bidden to regard General Harrison as \"Father\": \"No, the sun yonder\nis my father, and the earth my mother; upon her bosom will I repose,\"\netc. (509. 117).\n\nAmong the earth-goddesses of ancient Greece and Rome are Demeter, Ceres,\nTellus, Rhea, Terra, Ops, Cybele, Bona Dea, Bona Mater, Magna Mater,\nGaea, Ge, whose attributes and ceremonies are described in the books of\nclassical mythology. Many times they are termed \"mother of the gods\" and\n\"mother of men\"; Cybele is sometimes represented as a woman advanced in\npregnancy or as a woman with many breasts; Rhea, or Cybele, as the\nhill-enthroned protectress of cities, was styled _Mater turrita_.\n\nThe ancient Teutons had their _Hertha_, or _Erdemutter_, the\n_Nertha_ of Tacitus, and fragments of the primitive earth-worship\nlinger yet among the folk of kindred stock. The Slavonic peoples had\ntheir \"earth-mother\" also.\n\nThe ancient Indian Aryans worshipped Prith\u00eev\u00ee-m\u00e2tar, \"earth-mother,\" and\nDyaus pitar, \"sky-father,\" and in China, Yang, Sky, is regarded as the\n\"father of all things,\" while Yu, Earth, is the \"mother of all things.\"\n\nAmong the ancient Egyptians the \"earth-mother,\" the \"parent of all\nthings born,\" was Isis, the wife of the great Osiris. The natal\nceremonies of the Indians of the Sia Pueblo have been described at great\nlength by Mrs. Stevenson (538. 132-143). Before the mother is delivered\nof her child the priest repeats in a low tone the following prayer:--\n\n\"Here is the child's sand-bed. May the child have good thoughts and know\nits mother-earth, the giver of food. May it have good thoughts and grow\nfrom childhood to manhood. May the child be beautiful and happy. Here is\nthe child's bed; may the child be beautiful and happy. Ashes man, let me\nmake good medicine for the child. We will receive the child into our\narms, that it may be happy and contented. May it grow from childhood to\nmanhood. May it know its mother Ct's\u00eat [the first created woman], the\nKo'pishtaia, and its mother-earth. May the child have good thoughts and\ngrow from childhood to manhood. May it be beautiful and happy\" (538.\n134).\n\nOn the fourth morning after the birth of the child, the doctress in\nattendance, \"stooping until she almost sits on the ground, bares the\nchild's head as she holds it toward the rising sun, and repeats a long\nprayer, and, addressing the child, she says: 'I bring you to see your\nSun-father and Ko'pishtaia, that you may know them and they you'\" (538.\n141).\n\n\n_Mother-Mountain._\n\nThough we are now accustomed, by reason of their grandeur and sublimity,\nto personify mountains as masculine, the old fable of Ph\u00e6drus about the\n\"mountain in labour, that brought forth a mouse,\"--as Horace has it,\n_Montes laborabant et parturitur ridiculus mus_,--shows that\nanother concept was not unknown to the ancients. The Armenians call\nMount Ararat \"Mother of the World\" (500. 39), and the Spaniards speak of\na chief range of mountains as _Sierra Madre_. In mining we meet\nwith the \"mother-lode,\" _veta, madre_, but, curiously enough, the\nmain shaft is called in German _Vaterschacht_.\n\nWe know that the Lapps and some other primitive peoples \"transferred to\nstones the domestic relations of father, mother, and child,\" or regarded\nthem as children of Mother-Earth (529. 64); \"eggs of the earth\" they are\ncalled in the magic songs of the Finns. In Suffolk, England,\n\"conglomerate is called 'mother of stones,' under the idea that pebbles\nare born of it\"; in Germany _Mutterstein_. And in litholatry, in\nvarious parts of the globe, we have ideas which spring from like\nconceptions.\n\n\n_Mother-Night._\n\nMilton speaks of the \"wide womb of uncreate night,\" and some of the\nancient classical poets call _Nox_ \"the mother of all things, of\ngods as well as men.\" \"The Night is Mother of the Day,\" says Whittier,\nand the myth he revives is an old and wide-spread one. \"Out of Night is\nborn day, as a child comes forth from the womb of his mother,\" said the\nGreek and Roman of old. As Bachofen (6. 16, 219) remarks: \"Das\nMutterthum verbindet sich mit der Idee der den Tag aus sich gebierenden\nNacht, wie das Vaterrecht dem Reiche des Lichts, dem von der Sonne mit\nder Mutter Nacht gezeugten Tage.\" Darkness, Night, Earth, Motherhood,\nseem all akin in the dim light of primitive philosophy. Yet night is not\nalways figured as a woman. James Ferguson, the Scotch poet, tells us how\n\n\n  \"Auld Daddy Darkness creeps frae his hole,\n  Black as a blackamoor, blin' as a mole,\"\n\n\nand holds dominion over earth till \"Wee Davie Daylicht comes keekin'\nowre the hill\" (230. 73).\n\nAn old Anglo-Saxon name for Christinas was _modra-neht,_ \"mother's\nnight.\"\n\n\n_Mother-Dawn._\n\nIn Sanskrit mythology Ushas, \"Dawn,\" is daughter of Heaven, and\npoetically she is represented as \"a young wife awakening her children\nand giving them new strength for the toils of the new day.\"\n\nSometimes she is termed _gavam ganitri,_ \"the mother of the cows,\"\nwhich latter mythologists consider to be either \"the clouds which pour\nwater on the fields, or the bright mornings which, like cows, are\nsupposed to step out one by one from the stable of the night\" (510.\n431).\n\nIn an ancient Hindu hymn to Ushas we read:--\n\n\"She shines upon us like a young wife, rousing every living being to go\nto his work. When the fire had to be kindled by men, she made the light\nby striking down darkness.\n\n\"She rose up, spreading far and wide, and moving everywhere. She grew in\nbrightness, wearing her brilliant garment. The mother of the cows, the\nleader of the days, she shone gold-coloured, lovely to behold\" (421.\n29).\n\nThis daughter of the sky was the \"lengthener of life, the love of all,\nthe giver of food, riches, blessings.\" According to Dr. Brinton, the\nQuiche Indians of Guatemala speak of Xmucane and Xpiyacoc as being \"the\ngreat ancestress and the great ancestor\" of all things. The former is\ncalled _r'atit zih, r'atit zak,_ \"primal mother of the sun and\nlight\" (411. 119).\n\n\n_Mother-Days_.\n\nIn Russia we meet with the days of the week as \"mothers.\" Perhaps the\nmost remarkable of these is \"Mother Friday,\" a curious product of the\nmingling of Christian hagiology and Slavonic mythology, of St. Prascovia\nand the goddess Siwa. On the day sacred to her, \"Mother Friday\" wanders\nabout the houses of the peasants, avenging herself on such as have been\nso rash as to sew, spin, weave, etc., on a Friday (520. 206).\n\nIn a Wallachian tale appear three supernatural females,--the holy\nmothers Friday, Wednesday, and Sunday,--who assist the hero in his quest\nof the heroine, and in another Wallachian story they help a wife to find\nher lost husband.\n\n\"Mother Sunday\" is said \"to rule the animal world, and can collect her\nsubjects by playing on a magic flute. She is represented as exercising\nauthority over both birds and beasts, and in a Slovak story she bestows\non the hero a magic horse\" (520. 211). In Bulgaria we even find\nmother-months, and Miss Garnett has given an account of the superstition\nof \"Mother March\" among the women of that country (61.I. 330). William\nMiller, the poet-laureate of the nursery, sings of _Lady Summer_:--\n\n\n  \"Birdie, birdie, weet your whistle!\n     Sing a sang to please the wean;\n   Let it be o' Lady Summer\n     Walking wi' her gallant train!\n   Sing him how her gaucy mantle,\n     Forest-green, trails ower the lea,\n   Broider'd frae the dewy hem o't\n     Wi' the field flowers to the knee!\n\n  \"How her foot's wi' daisies buskit,\n    Kirtle o' the primrose hue,\n   And her e'e sae like my laddie's,\n     Glancing, laughing, loving blue!\n   How we meet on hill and valley,\n     Children sweet as fairest flowers,\n   Buds and blossoms o' affection,\n     Rosy wi' the sunny hours\" (230. 161).\n\n\n\n_Mother-Sun_.\n\nIn certain languages, as in Modern German, the word for \"sun\" is\nfeminine, and in mythology the orb of day often appears as a woman. The\nGerman peasant was wont to address the sun and the moon familiarly as\n\"Frau Sonne\" and \"Herr Mond,\" and in a Russian folk-song a fair maiden\nsings (520. 184):--\n\n\n  \"My mother is the beauteous Sun,\n   And my father, the bright Moon;\n   My brothers are the many Stars,\n   And my sisters the white Dawns.\"\n\n\nJean Paul beautifully terms the sun \"Sonne, du Mutterauge der Welt!\" and\nH\u00f6lty sings: \"Geh aus deinem Gezelt, Mutter des Tags hervor, und\nverg\u00fclde die wache Welt\"; in another passage the last writer thus\napostrophizes the sun: \"Heil dir, Mutter des Lichts!\" These terms\n\"mother-eye of the world,\" \"mother of day,\" \"mother of light,\" find\nanalogues in other tongues. The Andaman Islanders have their _ch\u00e4n-a\nb\u00f4-d\u00f4_, \"mother-sun\" (498. 96), and certain Indians of Brazil call\nthe sun _coara\u00e7y_, \"mother of the day or earth.\" In their sacred\nlanguage the Dakota Indians speak of the sun as \"grandmother\" and the\nmoon as \"grandfather.\" The Chiquito Indians \"used to call the sun their\nmother, and, at every eclipse of the sun, they would shoot their arrows\nso as to wound it; they would let loose their dogs, who, they thought,\nwent instantly to devour the moon\" (100. 289).\n\nThe Yuchi Indians called themselves \"children of the sun.\" Dr. Gatschet\ntells us: \"The Yuchis believe themselves to be the offspring of the sun,\nwhich they consider to be a female. According to one myth, a couple of\nhuman beings were born from her monthly efflux, and from, these the\nYuchis afterward originated.\" Another myth of the same people says: \"An\nunknown mysterious being once came down upon the earth and met people\nthere who were the ancestors of the Yuchi Indians. To them this being\n(_Hi'ki_, or _Ka'la hi'ki_) taught many of the arts of life,\nand in matters of religion admonished them to call the sun their mother\nas a matter of worship\" (389 (1893). 280).\n\n\n_Mother-Moon_.\n\nShelley sings of\n\n\n  \"That orbed maiden, with white fire laden,\n     Whom mortals call the moon,\"\n\n\nand in other languages besides Latin the word for moon is feminine, and\nthe lunar deity a female, often associated with childbirth. The\nmoon-goddesses of the Orient--Diana (Juno), Astarte, Anahita,\netc.--preside over the beginnings of human life. Not a few primitive\npeoples have thought of the moon as mother. The ancient Peruvians\nworshipped _Mama-Quilla_, \"mother-moon,\" and the Hurons regarded\nAtaensic, the mother or grandmother of Jouskeha, the sun, as the\n\"creatress of earth and man,\" as well as the goddess of death and of the\nsouls of the departed (509. 363). The Tarahumari Indians of the Sierra\nof Chihuahua, Mexico, call the sun _au-nau-ru-a-mi_, \"high father,\"\nand the moon, _je-ru-a-mi_, \"high mother.\" The Tupi Indians of\nBrazil term the moon _jacy_, \"our mother,\" and the same name occurs\nin the Omagua and other members of this linguistic stock. The Muzo\nIndians believe that the sun is their father and the moon their mother\n(529. 95).\n\nHorace calls the moon _siderum regina_, and Apuleius, _regina\ncoeli_, and Milton writes of\n\n\n  \"mooned Ashtaroth,\n  Heaven's queen and mother both.\"\n\n\nFroebel's verses, \"The Little Girl and the Stars,\" are stated to be\nbased upon the exclamation of the child when seeing two large stars\nclose together in the heavens, \"Father-Mother-Star,\" and a further\ninstance of like nature is cited where the child applied the word\n\"mother\" to the moon.\n\n\n_Mother-Fire._\n\nAn ancient Greek philosopher, Heraclitus of Ephesus, taught that the\nworld was created from fire, the omnipotent and omniscient essence, and\nwith many savage and barbaric peoples fire-worship has nourished or\nstill flourishes. The Indie Aryans of old produced fire by the method of\nthe twirling stick, and in their symbolism \"the turning stick, Pramanta,\nwas the father of the god of fire; the immovable stick was the mother of\nthe adorable and luminous Agni [fire]\"--a concept far-reaching in its\nmystic and mythological relations (100. 564).\n\nAccording to Mr. Gushing the Zu\u00f1i Indians term fire the \"Grandmother of\nMen.\"\n\nIn their examination of the burial-places of the ancient Indian\npopulation of the Salado River Valley in Arizona, the Hemenway Exploring\nExpedition found that many children were buried near the kitchen\nhearths. Mr. Cushing offers the following explanation of this custom,\nwhich finds analogies in various parts of the world: \"The matriarchal\ngrandmother, or matron of the household deities, is the fire. It is\nconsidered the guardian, as it is also, being used for cooking, the\nprincipal 'source of life' of the family. The little children being\nconsidered unable to care for themselves, were placed, literally, under\nthe protection of the family fire that their soul-life might be\nnourished, sustained, and increased\" (501. 149). Boecler tells us that\nthe Esthonian bride \"consecrates her new home and hearth by an offering\nof money cast into the fire, or laid on the oven, for _Tule-ema_,\n[the] Fire Mother\" (545. II. 285). In a Mongolian wedding-song there is\nan invocation of \"Mother Ut, Queen of Fire,\" who is said to have come\nforth \"when heaven and earth divided,\" and to have issued \"from the\nfootsteps of Mother-Earth.\" She is further said to have \"a manly son,\na beauteous daughter-in-law, bright daughters\" (484. 38).\n\n\n_Mother-Water._\n\nThe poet Homer and the philosopher Thales of Miletus agreed in regarding\nwater as the primal element, the original of all existences, and their\ntheory has supporters among many primitive peoples. At the baptism\nfestivals of their children, the ancient Mexicans recognized the goddess\nof the waters. At sunrise the midwife addressed the child, saying, among\nother things: \"Be cleansed with thy mother, Chalchihuitlicue, the\ngoddess of water.\" Then, placing her dripping finger upon the child's\nlips, she continued: \"Take this, for on it thou must live, grow, become\nstrong, and flourish. Through it we receive all our needs. Take it.\"\nAnd, again, \"We are all in the hands of Chalchihuitlicue, our mother\";\nas she washed the child she uttered the formula: \"Bad, whatever thou\nart, depart, vanish, for the child lives anew and is born again; it is\nonce more cleansed, once more renewed through our mother\nChalchihuitlicue.\" As she lifted the child up into the air, she prayed,\n\"O Goddess, Mother of Water, fill this child with thy power and virtue\"\n(326. I. 263).\n\nIn their invocation for the restoration of the spirit to the body, the\nNagualists,--a native American mystic sect,--of Mexico and Central\nAmerica, make appeal to \"Mother mine, whose robe is of precious gems,\"\n_i.e._ water, regarded as \"the universal mother.\" The \"robe of\nprecious stones\" refers to \"the green or vegetable life\" resembling the\ngreen of precious stones. Another of her names is the \"Green Woman,\"--a\nterm drawn from \"the greenness which follows moisture\" (413. 52-54).\n\nThe idea of water as the source of all things appears also in the\ncosmology of the Indie Aryans. In one of the Vedic hymns it is stated\nthat water existed before even the gods came into being, and the\nRig-veda tells us that \"the waters contained a germ from which\neverything else sprang forth.\" This is plainly a myth of the motherhood\nof the waters, for in the Br\u00e2hmanas we are told that from the water\narose an egg, from which came forth after a year Prag\u00e2pati, the creator\n(510. 248). Variants of this myth of the cosmic egg are found in other\nquarters of the globe.\n\n\n_Mother-Ocean._\n\nThe Chinchas of Peru looked upon the sea as the chief deity and the\nmother of all things, and the Peruvians worshipped _Mama-Cocha_,\n\"mother sea\" (509. 368), from which had come forth everything, even\nanimals, giants, and the Indians themselves. Associated with\n_Mama-Cocha_ was the god _Vira-Cocha_, \"sea-foam.\" In Peru\nwater was revered everywhere,--rivers and canals, fountains and\nwells,--and many sacrifices were made to them, especially of certain\nsea-shells which were thought to be \"daughters of the sea, the mother of\nall waters.\" The traditions of the Incas point to an origin from Lake\nTiticaca, and other tribes fabled their descent from fountains and\nstreams (412. 204). Here belong, doubtless, some of the myths of the\nsea-born deities of classical mythology as well as those of the\nwater-origin of the first of the human race, together with kindred\nconceits of other primitive peoples.\n\nIn the Bengalese tale of \"The Boy with the Moon on his Forehead,\"\nrecorded by Day, the hero pleads: \"O mother Ocean, please make way for\nme, or else I die\" (426. 250), and passes on in safety. The poet\nSwinburne calls the sea \"fair, white mother,\" \"green-girdled mother,\"\n\"great, sweet mother, mother and lover of men, the sea.\"\n\n\n_Mother-River._\n\nAccording to Russian legend \"the Dnieper, Volga, and Dvina used once to\nbe living people. The Dnieper was a boy, and the Volga and Dvina his\nsisters.\" The Russians call their great river \"Mother Volga,\" and it is\nsaid that, in the seventeenth century, a chief of the Don Cossacks,\ninflamed with wine, sacrificed to the mighty stream a Persian princess,\naccompanying his action with these words: \"O Mother Volga, thou great\nRiver! much hast thou given me of gold and of silver, and of all good\nthings; thou hast nursed me and nourished me, and covered me with glory\nand honor. But I have in no way shown thee my gratitude. Here is\nsomewhat for thee; take it!\" (520. 217-220).\n\nIn the Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata, the great Sanskrit epic, King S\u00e1ntanu is said to\nhave walked by the side of the river one day, where \"he met and fell in\nlove with a beautiful girl, who told him that she was the river Ganges,\nand could only marry him on condition he never questioned her conduct.\nTo this he, with a truly royal gallantry, agreed; and she bore him\nseveral children, all of whom she threw into the river as soon as they\nwere born. At last she bore him a boy, Bh\u00edshma; and her husband begged\nher to spare his life, whereupon she instantly changed into the river\nGanges and flowed away\" (258. 317). Similar folk-tales are to be met\nwith in other parts of the world, and the list of water-sprites and\nriver-goddesses is almost endless. Greater than \"Mother Volga,\" is\n\"Mother Ganges,\" to whom countless sacrifices have been made. In the\nlanguage of the Caddo Indians, the Mississippi is called _b\u00e1hat\ns\u00e1ssin_, \"mother of rivers.\"\n\n\n_Mother-Plant._\n\nThe ancient Peruvians had their \"Mother Maize,\" _Mama Cora_, which\nthey worshipped with a sort of harvest-home having, as Andrew Lang\npoints out, something in common with the children's last sheaf, in the\nnorth-country (English and Scotch) \"kernaby,\" as well as with the\n\"Demeter of the threshing-floor,\" of whom Theocritus speaks (484. 18).\n\nAn interesting legend of the Indians of the Pueblos of Arizona and New\nMexico is recorded by Muller (509. 60). Ages ago there dwelt on the\ngreen plains a beautiful woman, who refused all wooers, though they\nbrought many precious gifts. It came to pass that the land was sore\ndistressed by dearth and famine, and when the people appealed to the\nwoman she gave them maize in plenty. One day, she lay asleep naked; a\nrain-drop falling upon her breast, she conceived and bore a son, from\nwhom are descended the people who built the \"Casas Grandes.\" Dr. Fewkes\ncites a like myth of the Hopi or Tusayan Indians in which appears\n_k\u00f3-kyan-w\u00fcq-ti_, \"the spider woman,\" a character possessing\ncertain attributes of the Earth-Mother. Speaking of certain ceremonies\nin which _C\u00e1-li-ko_, the corn-goddess, figures, he calls attention\nto the fact that \"in initiations an ear of corn is given to the novice\nas a symbolic representation of mother. The corn is the mother of all\ninitiated persons of the tribe\" (389 (1894). 48).\n\nMr. Lummis also speaks of \"Mother Corn\" among the Pueblos Indians: \"A\nflawless ear of pure white corn (type of fertility and motherhood) is\ndecked out with a downy mass of snow-white feathers, and hung with\nornaments of silver, coral, and the precious turquoise\" (302. 72).\n\nConcerning the Pawnee Indians, Mr. Grinnell tells us that after the\nseparation of the peoples, the boy (medicine-man) who was with the few\nwho still remained at the place from which the others had departed,\ngoing their different ways, found in the sacred bundle--the Shekinah of\nthe tribe--an ear of corn. To the people he said: \"We are to live by\nthis, this is our Mother.\" And from \"Mother Corn\" the Indians learned\nhow to make bows and arrows. When these Indians separated into three\nbands (according to the legend), the boy broke off the nub of the ear\nand gave it to the Mandans, the big end he gave to the Pawnees, and the\nmiddle to the Rees. This is why, at the present time, the Pawnees have\nthe best and largest corn, the Rees somewhat inferior, and the Mandans\nthe shortest of all--since they planted the pieces originally given them\n(480 (1893). 125).\n\nThe old Mexicans had in Cinteotl a corn-goddess and deity of fertility\nin whose honour even human sacrifices were made. She was looked upon as\n\"the producer,\" especially of children, and sometimes represented with a\nchild in her arms (509. 491).\n\nIn India there is a regular cult of the holy basil (_Ocymum\nsanetum_), or _Tulas\u00ee_, as it is called, which appears to be a\ntransformation of the goddess Lakshm\u00ee. It may be gathered for pious\npurposes only, and in so doing the following prayer is offered: \"Mother\n_Tulas\u00ee_, be thou propitious. If I gather thee with care, be\nmerciful unto me. O _Tulas\u00ee_, mother of the world, I beseech thee.\"\nThis plant is worshipped as a deity,--the wife of Vishnu, whom the\nbreaking of even a little twig grieves and torments,--and \"the pious\nHindus invoke the divine herb for the protection of every part of the\nbody, for life and for death, and in every action of life; but above\nall, in its capacity of ensuring children to those who desire to have\nthem.\" To him who thoughtlessly or wilfully pulls up the plant \"no\nhappiness, no health, no children.\" The _Tulas\u00ee_ opens the gates of\nheaven; hence on the breast of the pious dead is placed a leaf of basil,\nand the Hindu \"who has religiously planted and cultivated the\n_Tulas\u00ee_, obtains the privilege of ascending to the palace of\nVishnu, surrounded by ten millions of parents\" (448. 244).\n\nIn Denmark, there is a popular belief that in the elder\n(_Sambucus_) there lives a spirit or being known as the\n\"elder-mother\" (_hylde-moer_), or \"elder-woman\"\n(_hilde-qvinde_), and before elder-branches may be cut this\npetition is uttered: \"Elder-mother, elder-mother, allow me to cut thy\nbranches.\" In Lower Saxony the peasant repeats, on bended knees, with\nhands folded, three times the words: \"Lady Elder, give me some of thy\nwood; then will I also give thee some of mine, when it grows in the\nforest\" (448. 318-320). In Huntingdonshire, England, the belief in the\n\"elder-mother\" is found, and it is thought dangerous to pluck the\nflowers, while elder-wood, in a room, or used for a cradle, is apt to\nwork evil for children. In some parts of England, it is believed that\nboys beaten with an elder stick will be retarded in their growth; in\nSweden, women who are about to become mothers kiss the elder. In\nGermany, a somewhat similar personification of the juniper, \"Frau\nWachholder,\" exists. And here we come into touch with the dryads and\nforest-sprites of all ages, familiar to us in the myths of classic\nantiquity and the tales of the nursery (448. 396).\n\nIn a Bengalese tale, the hero, on coming to a forest, cries: \"O mother\n_kachiri_, please make way for me, or else I die,\" and the wood\nopens to let him pass through (426. 250).\n\nPerhaps the best and sweetest story of plant mythology under this head\nis Hans Christian Andersen's beautiful tale of \"The Elder-Tree\nMother,\"--the Dryad whose name is Remembrance (393. 215).\n\n\n_Mother-Thumb._\n\nOur word _thumb_ signifies literally \"thick or big finger,\" and the\nsame idea occurs in other languages. With not a few primitive peoples\nthis thought takes another turn, and, as in the speech of the\nKarankawas, an extinct Indian tribe of Texas, \"the _biggest_, or\n_thickest_ finger is called '_father_, _mother_, or\n_old_'\" (456. 68). The Creek Indians of the Southeastern United\nStates term the \"thumb\" _ingi itchki_, \"the hand its mother,\" and a\nlike meaning attaches to the Chickasaw _ilbak-ishke_, Hichiti\n_ilb-iki_, while the Muskogees call the \"thumb,\" the \"mother of\nfingers.\" It is worthy of note, that, in the Baka\u00efri language of Brazil,\nthe thumb is called \"father,\" and the little finger, \"child,\" or \"little\none\" (536. 406). In Samoa the \"thumb\" is named _lima-matua_,\n\"forefather of the hand,\" and the \"first finger\" _lima-tama_,\n\"child of the hand.\" In the Tshi language of Western Africa a finger is\nknown as _ensah-tsia-abbah_, \"little child of the hand,\" and in\nsome other tongues of savage or barbaric peoples \"fingers\" are simply\n\"children of the hand.\"\n\nProfessor Culin in his notes of \"Palmistry in China and Japan,\" says:\n\"The thumb, called in Japanese, _oya-ubi_, 'parent-finger,' is for\nparents. The little finger, called in Japanese, _ko-ubi_,\n'child-finger,' is for children; the index-finger is for uncle, aunt,\nand elder brother and elder sister. The third finger is for younger\nbrother and younger sister\" (423a). A short little finger indicates\nchildlessness, and lines on the palm of the hand, below the little\nfinger, children. There are very many nursery-games and rhymes of\nvarious sorts based upon the hand and fingers, and in not a few of these\nthe thumb and fingers play the _r\u00f4le_ of mother and children.\nFroebel seized upon this thought to teach the child the idea of the\nfamily. His verses are well-known:--\n\n\n \"Das ist die Groszmama,\n  Das ist der Groszpapa,\n  Das ist der Vater,\n  Das ist die Mutter,\n  Das ist's kleine Kindchen ja;\n  Seht die ganze Familie da.\n  Das ist die Mutter lieb und gut,\n  Das ist der Vater mit frohem Muth;\n  Das ist der Bruder lang und grosz;\n  Das ist die Schwester mit Puppchen im Schoosz;\n  Und dies ist das Kindchen, noch klein und zart,\n  Und dies die Familie von guter Art.\"\n\n\nReferring to Froebel's games, Elizabeth Harrison remarks:--\n\n\"In order that this activity, generally first noticed in the use of the\nhands, might be trained into right and ennobling habits, rather than be\nallowed to degenerate into wrong and often degrading ones, Froebel\narranged his charming set of finger-games for the mother to teach her\nbabe while he is yet in her arms; thus establishing the right activity\nbefore the wrong one can assert itself. In such little songs as the\nfollowing:--\n\n\n 'This is the mother, good and dear;\n  This the father, with hearty cheer;\n  This is the brother, stout and tall;\n  This is the sister, who plays with her doll;\n  And this is the baby, the pet of all.\n  Behold the good family, great and small,'\n\n\nthe child is led to personify his fingers and to regard them as a small\nbut united family over which he has control.\" (257 a. 14).\n\nMiss Wiltse, who devotes a chapter of her little volume to \"Finger-songs\nrelated to Family Life and the Imaginative Faculty,\" says:--\n\n\"The dawning consciousness of the child so turned to the family\nrelations is surely better than the old nursery method of playing 'This\nlittle pig went to market'\" (384. 45).\n\nAnd from the father and mother the step to God is easy.\n\nDr. Brewer informs us that in the Greek and Roman Church the Trinity is\nsymbolized by the thumb and first two fingers: \"The thumb, being strong,\nrepresents the _Father_; the long, or second finger, _Jesus\nChrist_; and the first finger, the _Holy Ghost_, which\nproceedeth from the Father and the Son\" (_Dict. of Phrase and\nFable_, P. 299).\n\n\n_Mother-God_.\n\nThe \"Motherhood of God\" is an expression that still sounds somewhat\nstrangely to our ears. We have come to speak readily enough of the\n\"Fatherhood of God\" and the \"Brotherhood of Man,\" but only a still small\nvoice has whispered of the \"Motherhood of God\" and the \"Sisterhood of\nWoman.\" Yet there have been in the world, as, indeed, there are now,\nmultitudes to whom the idea of Heaven without a mother is as blank as\nthat of the home without her who makes it. If over the human babe bends\nthe human mother who is its divinity,--\n\n\n  \"The infant lies in blessed ease\n    Upon his mother's breast;\n  No storm, no dark, the baby sees\n    Invade his heaven of rest.\n  He nothing knows of change or death--\n    Her face his holy skies;\n  The air he breathes, his mother's breath--\n    His stars, his mother's eyes,\"--\n\n\nso over the infant-race must bend the All-Mother, _das\nEwigweibliche._ Perhaps the greatest service that the Roman Catholic\nChurch has rendered to mankind is the prominence given in its cult of\nthe Virgin Mary to the mother-side of Deity. In the race's final concept\nof God, the embodiment of all that is pure and holy, there must surely\nbe some overshadowing of a mother's tender love. With the \"Father-Heart\"\nof the Almighty must be linked the \"Mother-Soul.\" To some extent, at\nleast, we may expect a harking back to the standpoint of the Buddhist\nKalmuck, whose child is taught to pray: \"O God, who art my father and my\nmother.\"\n\nIn all ages and over the whole world peoples of culture less than ours\nhave had their \"mother-gods,\" all the embodiments of motherhood, the joy\nof the _Magnificat_, the sacrosanct expression of the poet's\ntruth:--\n\n\n  \"Close to the mysteries of God art thou,\n  My brooding mother-heart,\"\n\n\nthe recognition of that outlasting secret hope and love, of which the\nGospel writer told in the simple words: \"Now there stood by the cross of\nJesus his mother,\" and faith in which was strong in the Mesopotamians of\nold, who prayed to the goddess Istar, \"May thy heart be appeased as the\nheart of a mother who has borne children.\" The world is at its best when\nthe last, holiest appeal is _ad matrem_. Professor O.T. Mason has\neloquently stated the debt of the world's religions to motherhood (112.\n12):--\"The mother-goddess of all peoples, culminating in the apotheosis\nof the Virgin Mary, is an idea either originated by women, or devised to\nsatisfy their spiritual cravings. So we may go through the pantheons of\nall peoples, finding counterparts of Rhea, mother-earth, goddess of\nfertility; Hera, queen of harvests, feeder of mankind; Hestia, goddess\nof the hearth and home, of families and states, giving life and warmth;\nAphrodite, the beautiful, patron of romantic love and personal charms;\nHera, sovereign lady, divine caciquess, embodiment of queenly dignity;\nPallas Athene, ideal image of that central inspiring force that we learn\nat our mother's knee, and that shone in eternal splendour; Isis, the\ngoddess of widowhood, sending forth her son Horus, to avenge the death\nof his father, Osiris; as moon-goddess, keeping alive the light until\nthe sun rises again to bless the world.\"\n\n\n_The All-Mother._\n\nIn Polynesian mythology we find, dwelling in the lowest depths of Avaiki\n(the interior of the universe), the \"Great Mother,\"--the originator of\nall things, _Vari-ma-te-takere_, \"the very beginning,\"--and her\npet child, Tu-metua, \"Stick by the parent,\" her last offspring,\ninseparable from her. All of her children were born of pieces of flesh\nwhich she plucked off her own body; the first-born was the man-fish\nVatea, \"father of gods and men,\" whose one eye is the sun, the other the\nmoon; the fifth child was Raka, to whom his mother gave the winds in a\nbasket, and \"the children of Raka are the numerous winds and storms\nwhich distress mankind. To each child is allotted a hole at the edge of\nthe horizon, through which he blows at pleasure.\" In the songs the gods\nare termed \"the children of Vatea,\" and the ocean is sometimes called\n\"the sea of Vatea.\" Mr. Gill tells us that \"the Great Mother\napproximates nearest to the dignity of creator\"; and, curiously enough,\nthe word _Vari_, \"beginning,\" signifies, on the island of\nRarotonga, \"mud,\" showing that \"these people imagined that once the\nworld was a 'chaos of mud,' out of which some mighty unseen agent, whom\nthey called _Vari_, evolved the present order of things\" (458. 3,\n21).\n\nAnother \"All-Mother\" is she of whom our own poets have sung, \"Nature,\"\nthe source and sustainer of all.\n\n\n_Mother-Nature_.\n\n\"So \u00fcbt Natur die Mutterpflicht,\" sang the poet Schiller, and \"Mother\nNature\" is the key-word of those modern poets who, in their mystic\nphilosophy, consciously or unconsciously, revive the old mythologies.\nWith primitive peoples the being, growing power of the universe was\neasily conceived as feminine and as motherly. Nature is the \"great\nparent,\" the \"gracious mother,\" of us all. In \"Mother Nature,\" woman,\nthe creator of the earliest arts of man, is recognized and personified,\nand in a wider sense even than the poet dreamt of: \"One touch of Nature\nmakes the whole world kin.\"\n\nPindar declared that \"gods and men are sons of the same mother,\" and\nwith many savage and barbaric tribes, gods, men, animals, and all other\nobjects, animate and inanimate, are akin(388.210). As Professor\nRobertson Smith has said: \"The same lack of any sharp distinction\nbetween the nature of different kinds of visible beings appears in the\nold myths in which all kinds of objects, animate and inanimate, organic\nand inorganic, appear as cognate with one another, with men, and with\nthe gods\" (535.85). Mr. Hartland, speaking of this stage of thought,\nsays: \"Sun and moon, the wind and the waters, perform all the functions\nof living beings; they speak, they eat, they marry and have children\"\n(258.26). The same idea is brought out by Count D'Alviella: \"The highest\npoint of development that polytheism could reach, is found in the\nconception of a monarchy or divine family, embracing all terrestrial\nbeings, and even the whole universe\" (388.211). Mr. Frank Cushing\nattributes like beliefs in the kinship of all existences to the Zuni\nIndians (388.66), and Mr. im Thurn to the Indians of Guiana (388.99).\n\nThis feeling of kinship to all that is, is beautifully expressed in the\nwords of the dying Greek Klepht: \"Do not say that I am dead, but say\nthat I am married in the sorrowful, strange countries, that I have taken\nthe flat stone for a mother-in-law, the black earth for my wife, and the\nlittle pebbles for brothers-in-law.\" (Lady Verney, _Essays_, II.\n39.)\n\nIn the Trinity of Upper Egypt the second person was Mut, \"Mother\nNature.\" the others being Armin, the chief god, and their son, Khuns.\n\nAmong the Slavs, according to Mone, Ziwa is a nature-goddess, and the\nWends regard her as \"many-breasted Mother Nature,\" the producing and\nnourishing power of the earth. Her consort is Zibog, the god of life\n(125. II. 23).\n\nCuriously reminiscent of the same train of ideas which has given to the\n_moderson_ of Low German the signification of \"bastard,\" is our own\nequivalent term \"natural son.\"\n\nPoets and orators have not failed to appeal to \"Mother Nature\" and to\nsing her panegyrics, but there is perhaps nothing more sweet and noble\nthan the words of Elizabeth Cady Stanton: \"Nature, like a loving mother,\nis ever trying to keep land and sea, mountain and valley, each in its\nplace, to hush the angry winds and waves, balance the extremes of heat\nand cold, of rain and drought, that peace, harmony, and beauty may reign\nsupreme,\" and the verses of Longfellow:--\n\n\n  \"And Nature, the old nurse, took\n    The child upon her knee,\n  Saying, 'Here is a story-book\n    Thy Father has--written for thee.\n\n  \"'Come wander with me,' she said,\n    'Into regions yet untrod;\n  And read what is still unread,\n    In the manuscripts of God.'\n\n  \"And he wandered away and away\n    With Nature, the dear old nurse,\n  Who sang to him, night and day,\n    The rhymes of the universe.\n\n  \"And whenever the way seemed long,\n    Or his heart began to fail,\n  She--would sing a more wonderful song,\n    Or tell a more marvellous tale.\"\n\n\nThrough the long centuries Nature has been the mother, nurse, and\nteacher of man.\n\n\n_Other Mother-Goddesses_.\n\nAmong other \"mother-goddesses\" of ancient Italy we find _Maia\nMater_, _Flora Mater_, both deities of growth and reproduction;\n_Lua Mater_, \"the loosing mother,\" a goddess of death; _Acca\nLarentia_, the mother of the Lares (_Acca_ perhaps =\n_Atta_, a child-word for mother, as Lippert suggests); _Mater\nmatuta_, \"mother of the dawn,\" a goddess of child-birth, worshipped\nespecially by married women, and to whom there was erected a temple at\nC\u00e6re.\n\nThe mother-goddesses of Germany are quite numerous. Among those minor\nones cited by Grimm and Simrock, are: Haulemutter, Mutter Holle, the\nKlagem\u00fctter or Klagemuhmen, Pudelmutter (a name applied to the goddess\nBerchta), Etelmutter, Kornmutter, Roggenmutter, Mutterkorn, and the\ninteresting Buschgroszmutter, \"bush grandmother,\" as the \"Queen of the\nWood-Folk\" is called. Here the mother-feeling has been so strong as to\ngrant to even the devil a mother and a grandmother, who figure in many\nproverbs and folk-locutions. When the question is asked a Mecklenburger,\nconcerning a social gathering: \"Who was there?\" he may answer: \"The\ndevil and his mother (_m\u00f6m_)\"; when a whirlwind occurs, the saying\nis: \"The Devil is dancing with his grandmother.\"\n\nIn China the position of woman is very low, and, as Mr. Douglas points\nout: \"It is only when a woman becomes a mother that she receives the\nrespect which is by right due to her, and then the inferiority of her\nsex disappears before the requirements of filial love, which is the\ncrown and glory of China\" (434. 125).\n\nIn Chinese cosmogony and mythology motherhood finds recognition. Besides\nthe great Earth-Mother, we meet with Se-wang-moo, the \"Western Royal\nMother,\" a goddess of fairy-land, and the \"Mother of Lightning,\" thunder\nbeing considered the \"father and teacher of all living beings.\"\nLieh-tze, a philosopher of the fifth century B.C., taught: \"My body is\nnot my own; I am merely an inhabitant of it for the time being, and\nshall resign it when I return to the 'Abyss Mother'\" (434. 222, 225,\n277).\n\nIn the Flowery Kingdom there is also a sect \"who worship the goddess\nPity, in the form of a woman holding a child in her arms.\"\n\nAmong the deities and semi-deities of the Andaman Islanders are\n_ch\u00e4n\u00b7a\u00b7\u00ea\u00b7lewadi_, the \"mother of the race,\"--Mother E\u00b7lewadi;\n_ch\u00e4n\u00b7a\u00b7erep_, _ch\u00e4n\u00b7a\u00b7ch\u00e2\u00b7ri\u00e2_, _ch\u00e4n\u00b7a\u00b7te\u00b7liu_,\n_ch\u00e4n\u00b7a\u00b7li\u00b7mi_, _ch\u00e4n\u00b7a\u00b7j\u00e4r\u00b7a\u00b7ng\u00fbd_, all inventors and\ndiscoverers of foods and the arts. In the religious system of the\nAndaman Islanders, _P\u00fb\u00b7luga-_, the Supreme Being, by whom were\ncreated \"the world and all objects, animate and inanimate, excepting\nonly the powers of evil,\" and of whom it is said, \"though his appearance\nis like fire, yet he is (nowadays) invisible,\" is \"believed to live in a\nlarge stone house in the sky with a wife whom he created for himself;\nshe is green in appearance, and has two names, _ch\u00e4n\u00b7a\u00b7\u00e0u\u00b7lola_\n(Mother Freshwater Shrimp) and _ch\u00e4n\u00b7a\u00b7p\u00e2\u00b7lak-_--(Mother Eel); by\nher he has a large family, all except the eldest being girls; these\nlast, known as _m\u00f4\u00b7ro-win--_ (sky-spirits or angels), are said to be\nblack in appearance, and, with their mother, amuse themselves from time\nto time by throwing fish and prawns into the streams and sea for the use\nof the inhabitants of the world\" (498. 90). With these people also the\nfirst woman was _ch\u00e4n\u00b7a\u00b7\u00ea\u00b7lewadi_ (Mother E-lewadi), the ancestress\nof the present race of natives. She was drowned, while canoeing, and\n\"became a small crab of a description still named after her\n_\u00ea\u00b7lewadi_\" (498. 96):\n\nQuite frequently we find that primitive peoples have ascribed the origin\nof the arts or of the good things of life to women whom they have\ncanonized as saints or apotheosized into deities.\n\nWe may close our consideration of motherhood and what it has given the\nworld with the apt words of Zmigrodzki:--\n\n\"The history of the civilization (Kulturgeschichte) of our race, is, so\nto speak, _the history of the mother-influence_. Our ideas of\nmorality, justice, order, all these are simply _mother-ideas_. The\nmother began our culture in that epoch in which, like the man, she was\n_autodidactic_. In the epoch of the Church Fathers, the highly\neducated mother saved our civilization and gave it a new turn, and only\nthe highly educated mother will save us out of the moral corruption of\nour age. Taken individually also, we can mark the ennobling, elevating\ninfluence which educated mothers have exercised over our great men. Let\nus strive as much as possible to have highly accomplished mothers,\nwives, friends, and then the wounds which we receive in the struggle for\nlife will not bleed as they do now\" (174. 367).\n\nThe history of civilization is the story of the mother, a story that\nstales not with repetition. Richter, in his _Levana_, makes\neloquent appeal:--\n\n\"Never, never has one forgotten his pure, right-educating mother! On the\nblue mountains of our dim childhood, towards which we ever turn and\nlook, stand the mothers who marked out for us from thence our life; the\nmost blessed age must be forgotten ere we can forget the warmest heart.\nYou wish, O woman, to be ardently loved, and forever, even till death.\nBe, then, the mothers of your children.\"\n\nTennyson in _The Foresters_ uses these beautiful words: \"Every man\nfor the sake of the great blessed Mother in heaven, and for the love of\nhis own little mother on earth, should handle all womankind gently, and\nhold them in all honour.\" Herein lies the whole philosophy of life. The\nancient Germans were right, who, as Tacitus tells us, saw in woman\n_sanctum aliquid et providum_, as indeed the Modern German\n_Weib_ (cognate with our _wife_) also declares, the original\nsignification of the word being \"the animated, the inspirited.\"\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IV.\n\n\nTHE CHILD'S TRIBUTE TO THE FATHER.\n\nIf the paternal cottage still shuts us in, its roof still screens us;\nand with a father, we have as yet a prophet, priest, and king, and an\nobedience that makes us free.--_Carlyle_.\n\nTo you your father should be as a god.--_Shakespeare_.\n\nOur Father, who art in Heaven.--_Jesus_.\n\n\n  Father of all! in every age,\n  In every clime adored,\n  By saint, by savage, and by sage,\n  Jehovah, Jove, or Lord.--_Pope_.\n\n\n_Names of the Father._\n\n_Father_, like _mother_, is a very old word, and goes back,\nwith the cognate terms in Italic, Hellenic, Teutonic, Celtic, Slavonic,\nand Indo-Aryan speech, to the primitive Indo-European language, and,\nlike _mother_, it is of uncertain etymology.\n\nAn English preacher of the twelfth century sought to derive the word\nfrom the Anglo-Saxon _f\u00e9dan_, \"to feed,\" making the \"father\" to be\nthe \"feeder\" or \"nourisher,\" and some more modern attempts at\nexplanation are hardly better. This etymology, however incorrect, as it\ncertainly is, in English, does find analogies in the tongues of\nprimitive peoples. In the language of the Klamath Indians, of Oregon,\nthe word for \"father\" is _t'shishap_ (in the Modoc dialect,\n_p'tishap_), meaning \"feeder, nourisher,\" from a radical\n_tshi_, which signifies \"to give somebody liquid food (as milk,\nwater).\" Whether there is any real connection between our word\n_pap_,--with its cognates in other languages,--which signifies\n\"food for infants,\" as well as \"teat, breast,\" and the child-word\n_papa_, \"father,\" is doubtful, and the same may be said of the\nattempt to find a relation between _teat, tit_, etc., and the\nwidespread child-words for \"father,\" _tat_, _dad_. Wedgewood\n(Introd. to _Dictionary_), however, maintained that: \"Words formed\nof the simplest articulations, _ma_ and _pa_, are used to\ndesignate the objects in which the infant takes the earliest\ninterest,--the mother, the father, the mother's breast, the act of\ntaking or sucking food.\" Tylor also points out how, in the language of\nchildren of to-day, we may find a key to the origin of a mass of words\nfor \"father, mother, grandmother, aunt, child, breast, toy, doll,\" etc.\nFrom the limited supply of material at the disposal of the early\nspeakers of a language, we can readily understand how the same sound had\nto serve for the connotation of different ideas; this is why\n\"_mama_ means in one tongue _mother_, in another\n_father_, in a third, _uncle_; _dada_ in one language\n_father_, in a second _nurse_, in another _breast_;\n_tata_ in one language _father_, in another _son_,\" etc.\nThe primitive Indo-European _p-tr_, Skeat takes to be formed, with\nthe agent-suffix _tr_, from the radical _p\u00e2_, \"to protect, to\nguard,\"--the father having been originally looked upon as the\n\"protector,\" or \"guarder.\" Max M\u00fcller, who offers the same derivation,\nremarks: \"The father, as begetter, was called in Sanskrit\n_ganit\u00e1r_, as protector and supporter of his posterity, however,\n_pit\u00e1r_. For this reason, in the Veda both names together are used\nin order to give the complete idea of 'father.' In like manner,\n_m\u00e2tar_, 'mother,' is joined with _ganit_, 'genetrix,' and\nthis shows that the word _m\u00e2tar_ must have soon lost its\netymological signification and come to be a term, of respect and caress.\nWith the oldest Indo-Europeans, _m\u00e2tar_ meant 'maker,' from\n_m\u00e2_, 'to form.'\"\n\nKluge, however, seems to reject the interpretation \"protector,\ndefender,\" and to see in the word a derivative from the \"nature-sound\"\n_pa_. So also Westermarck (166. 86-94). In Gothic, presumably the\noldest of the Teutonic dialects, the most common word for \"father\" is\n_atta_, still seen in the name of the far-famed leader of the Huns,\n_Attila_, i.e. \"little father,\" and in the _\u00e4tti_ of modern\nSwiss dialects. To the same root attach themselves Sanskrit _atta_,\n\"mother, elder sister\"; Ossetic _\u00e4dda_, \"little father\n(V\u00e4terchen)\"; Greek _\u00e5rra_, Latin _atta_, \"father\"; Old\nSlavonic _ot\u00ed-ci_, \"little father\"; Old Irish _aite_,\n\"foster-father.\" _Atta_ belongs to the category of \"nature-words\"\nor \"nursery-words\" of which our _dad_ (_daddy_) is also a\nmember.\n\nAnother member is the widespread _papa, pa._ Our word _papa_,\nSkeat thinks, is borrowed, through the French, from Latin _papa_,\nfound as a Roman cognomen. This goes back in all probability to ancient\nGreek, for, in the Odyssey (vi. 57), Nausicaa addresses her father as\n[Greek: pappa phile], \"dear _papa_.\" The Papa of German is also\nborrowed from French, and, according to Kluge, did not secure a firm,\nplace in the language until comparatively late in the eighteenth\ncentury.\n\nIn some of the Semitic languages the word for \"father\" signifies\n\"maker,\" and the same thing occurs elsewhere among primitive people\n(166. 91).\n\nAs with \"mother,\" so with \"father\"; in many languages a man (or a boy)\ndoes not employ the same term as a woman (or a girl). In the Haida,\nOkanak'en, and Kootenay, all Indian languages of British Columbia, the\nwords used by males and by females are, respectively: _kun, qat;\nlEe'u, mistm; tito, so._\n\nIn many languages the word for \"father,\" as is also the case with\n\"mother,\" is different when the parent is addressed from that used when\nhe is spoken of or referred to. In the Tsimshian, Kwakiutl, Nootka,\nNtlakyapamuq, four Indian languages of British Columbia, the words for\n\"father\" when addressed, are respectively _a'bo, ats, no'we, pap,_\nand for \"father\" in other cases, _nEgua'at, au'mp, nuwe'k'so,\nska'tsa._ Here, again, it will be noticed that the words used in\naddress seem shorter and more primitive in character.\n\nIn the Chinantee language of Mexico, _nuh_ signifies at the same\ntime \"father\" and \"man.\" In Gothic _aba_ means both \"father\" and\n\"husband\" (492. 33). Here belongs also perhaps the familiar \"father\"\nwith which the New England housewife was wont to address her husband.\n\nWith many peoples the name \"father\" is applied to others than the male\nparent of the child. The following remarks of McLennan, regarding the\nTamil and Telugu of India, will stand for not a few other primitive\ntribes: \"All the brothers of a father are usually called fathers, but,\nin strictness, those who are older than the father are called _great\nfathers_, and those who are younger, _little fathers_. With the\nPuharies, all the brothers of a father are equally fathers to his\nchildren.\" In Hawaii, the term \"male parent\" \"applied equally to the\nfather, to the uncles, and even to distant relations.\" In Japan, the\npaternal uncle is called \"little father\" and the maternal uncle \"second\nlittle father\" (100. 389, 391).\n\nA lengthy discussion of these terms, with a wealth of illustration from\nmany primitive languages, will be found in Westermarck (166. 86-94).\n\n\n_Father-Right_.\n\nOf the Roman family it has been said: \"It was a community comprising men\nand things. The members were maintained by adoption as well as by\nconsanguinity. The father was before all things the chief, the general\nadministrator. He was called father even when he had no son; paternity\nwas a question of law, not one of persons. The heir is no more than the\ncontinuing line of the deceased person; he was heir in spite of himself\nfor the honour of the defunct, for the lares, the hearth, the manes, and\nthe hereditary sepulchre\" (100. 423). In ancient Rome the\n_paterfamilias_ and the _patina potestas_ are seen in their\nextreme types. Letourneau remarks further: \"Absolute master, both of\nthings and of people, the paterfamilias had the right to kill his wife\nand to sell his sons. Priest and king in turn, it was he who represented\nthe family in their domestic worship; and when, after his death, he was\nlaid by the side of his ancestors in the common tomb, he was deified,\nand helped to swell the number of the household gods\" (100. 433).\n\nPost thus defines the system of \"father-right\":--\n\n\"In the system of 'father-right' the child is related only to the father\nand to the persons connected with him through the male line, but not\nwith his mother and the persons connected with him through the female\nline. The narrowest group organized according to father-right consists\nof the father and his children. The mother, for the most part, appears\nin the condition of a slave to the husband. To the patriarchal family in\nthe wider sense belong the children of the sons of the father, but not\nthe children of his daughters; the brothers and sisters of the same\nfather, but not those merely related to the same mother; the children of\nthe brother of the same father, but not the children of the sisters of\nthe same father, etc. With every wife the relationship ceases every\ntime\" (127. I. 24).\n\nThe system of father-right is found scattered over the whole globe. It\nis found among the Indo-European peoples (Aryans of Asia, Germans,\nSlavs, Celts, Romans), the Mongol-Tartar tribes, Chinese, Japanese, and\nsome of the Semitic nations; in northern Africa and scattered through\nthe western part of the continent, among the Kaffirs and Hottentots;\namong some tribes in Australia and Polynesia and the two Americas (the\nculture races).\n\nThe position of the father among those peoples with whom strict\nmother-right prevails is thus sketched by Zmigrodski (174.206):--\n\n\"The only certain thing was motherhood and the maternal side of the\nfamily,--mother, daughter, granddaughter, that was the fixed stem\ncontinuing with certainty. Father, son, grandson, were only the leaves,\nwhich existed only until the autumnal wind of death tore them away, to\nhurl them into the abyss of oblivion. In that epoch no one said, 'I am\nthe son of such a father and the grandson of such a grandfather,' but 'I\nam the son of such a mother and the grandson of such a grandmother.' The\ninheritance went not to the son and grandson, but to the daughter and to\nthe granddaughter, and the sons received a dowry as do the daughters in\nour society of to-day. In marriage the woman did not assume the name of\nthe man, but _vice versa._ The husband of a woman, although the\nfather of her children, was considered not so near a relative of them as\nthe wife's brother, their uncle.\"\n\nDr. Brinton says, concerning mother-right among the Indians of North\nAmerica (412. 48):--\n\n\"Her children looked upon her as their parent, but esteemed their father\nas no relation whatever. An unusually kind and intelligent Kolosch\nIndian was chided by a missionary for allowing his father to suffer for\nfood. 'Let him go to his own people,' replied the Kolosch, 'they should\nlook after him.' He did not regard a man as in any way related or bound\nto his paternal parent.\"\n\nIn a certain Polynesian mythological tale, the hero is a young man, \"the\nname of whose father had never been told by his mother,\" and this has\nmany modern parallels (115. 97). On the Gold Coast of West Africa there\nis a proverb, \"Wise is the son that knows his own father\" (127.1. 24), a\nsaying found elsewhere in the world,--indeed, we have it also in\nEnglish, and Shakespeare presents but another view of it when he tells\nus: \"It is a wise father that knows his own child.\"\n\nIn many myths and folk-and fairy-tales of all peoples the discovery by\nthe child of its parent forms the climax, or at least one of the chief\nfeatures of the plot; and we have also those stories which tell how\nparents have been killed unwittingly by their own children, or children\nhave been slain unawares by their parents.\n\n\n_Father-King_.\n\nIn his interesting study of \"Royalty and Divinity\" (75), Dr. von Held\nhas pointed out many resemblances between the primitive concepts \"King\"\nand \"God.\" Both, it would seem, stand in close connection with \"Father.\"\nTo quote from Dr. von Held: \"Fathership (Vaterschaft,\n_patriarcha_), lordship (Herrentum), and kingship (Konigtum) are,\ntherefore (like _rex_ and [Greek: _Basileus_]), ideas not only\nlinguistically, but, to even a greater degree really, cognate, having\naltogether very close relationship to the word and idea 'God.' Of\nnecessity they involve the existence and idea of a people, and therefore\nare related not only to the world of faith, but also to that of\nintellect and of material things.\"\n\nThe Emperor of China is the \"father and mother of the empire,\" his\nmillions of subjects being his \"children\"; and the ancient Romans had no\nnobler title for their emperor than _pater patrice_, the \"father of\nhis country,\" an appellation bestowed in these later days upon the\nimmortal first President of the United States.\n\nIn the Yajnavalkya, one of the old Sanskrit law-books, the king is\nbidden to be \"towards servants and subjects as a father\" (75. 122), and\neven Mirabeau and Gregoire, in the first months of the States-General,\ntermed the king \"le pere de tous les Franqais,\" while Louis XII. and\nHenry IV. of France, as well as Christian III. of Denmark, had given to\nthem the title \"father of the people.\" The name _pater patrice_ was\nnot borne by the Caesars alone, for the Roman Senate conferred the title\nupon Cicero, and offered it to Marius, who refused to accept it. \"Father\nof his Country\" was the appellation of Cosmo de' Medici, and the Genoese\ninscribed the same title upon the base of the statue erected to Andrea\nDoria. One of the later Byzantine Emperors, Andronicus Pal\u00e6ologus, even\nwent so far as to assume this honoured title. Nor has the name \"Father\nof the People\" been confined to kings, for it has been given also to\nGabriel du Pineau, a French lawyer of the seventeenth century.\n\nThe \"divinity that doth hedge a king\" and the fatherhood of the\nsovereign reach their acme in Peru, where the Inca was king, father,\neven god, and the halo of \"divine right\" has not ceased even yet to\nencircle the brows of the absolute monarchs of Europe and the East.\n\n_Landesvater_ (Vater des Volkes) is the proudest designation of the\nGerman Kaiser. \"Little Father\" is alike the literal meaning of\n_Attila_, the name of the far-famed leader of the \"Huns,\" in the\ndark ages of Europe, and of _batyushka_, the affectionate term by\nwhich the peasant of Russia speaks of the Czar.\n\n_Nana_, \"Grandfather,\" is the title of the king of Ashanti in\nAfrica, and \"Sire\" was long in France and England a respectful form of\naddress to the monarch.\n\nSome of the aboriginal tribes of America have conferred upon the\nPresident of the United States the name of the \"Great Father at\nWashington,\" the \"Great White Father,\" and \"Father\" was a term they were\nwont to apply to governors, generals, and other great men of the whites\nwith whom they came into contact.\n\nThe father as head of the family is the basis of the idea of\n\"father-king.\" This is seen among the Matchlapis, a Kaffir tribe, where\n\"those who own a sufficient number of cattle to maintain a family have\nthe right to the title of chief\"; this resembles the institution of the\n_pater familias_ in ancient Latium (100. 459,533).\n\nDr. von Held thus expresses himself upon this point: \"The first, and one\nmay say also the last, naturally necessary society of man is the family\nin the manifold forms out of which it has been historically developed.\nIts beginning and its apex are, under given culture-conditions, the man\nwho founds it, the father. What first brought man experientially to\ncreation as a work of love was fatherhood. This view is not altered by\nthe fact that the father, in order to preserve, or, what is the same, to\ncontinue to produce, to bring up, must command, force, punish. If the\nfamily depends on no higher right, it yet appears as the first state,\nand then the father appears not only as father, but also as king\" (75.\n119).\n\nThe occurrence to-day of \"King\" as a surname takes us back to a time\nwhen the head of the family enjoyed the proud title, which the Romans\nconferred upon C\u00e6sar Augustus, _Pater et Princeps_, the natural\ndevelopment from Ovid's _virque paterque gregis_.\n\nThe Romans called their senators _patres_, and we now speak of the\n\"city fathers,\" aldermen, _elder_men, in older English, and the\n\"fathers\" of many a primitive people are its rulers and legislators. The\nterm \"father\" we apply also to those who were monarchs and chiefs in\nrealms of human activity other than that of politics. Following in the\nfootsteps of the Latins, who spoke of Zeno as _Pater stoicorum_, of\nHerodotus as _Pater historioe_, and even of the host of an inn as\n_Pater cenoe_, we speak of \"fathering\" an idea, a plot, and the\nlike, and denominate \"father,\" the pioneer scientists, inventors, sages,\npoets, chroniclers of the race.\n\nFrom _pater_ the Romans derived _patrimonium_, patrimony,\n\"what was inherited from the father,\" an interesting contrast to\n_matrimonium_; _patronus_, \"patron, defender, master of\nslaves\"; _patria_ (_terra_), \"fatherland,\"--Ovid uses\n_paterna terra_, and Horace speaks of _paternum flumen_;\n_patricius_, \"of fatherly dignity, high-born, patrician,\" etc. Word\nafter word in the classic tongues speaks of the exalted position of the\nfather, and many of these have come into our own language through the\ninfluence of the peoples of the Mediterranean.\n\n\n_Father-Priest_.\n\nSaid Henry Ward Beecher: \"Look at home, father-priest, mother-priest;\nyour church is a hundred-fold heavier responsibility than mine can be.\nYour priesthood is from God's own hands.\" The priesthood of the father\nis widespread. Mr. Gomme tells us: \"Certainly among the Hindus, the\nGreeks, the Romans, and, so late down as Tacitus, the Germans, the\nhouse-father was priest and judge in his own clan\" (461.104). Max M\u00fcller\nspeaks to the same effect: \"If we trace religion back to the family, the\nfather or head of the family is _ipso facto_ the priest. When\nfamilies grew into clans, and clans into tribes and confederacies, a\nnecessity would arise of delegating to some heads of families the\nperformance of duties which, from having been the spontaneous acts of\nindividuals, had become the traditional acts of families and clans\"\n(510.183). Africa, Asia, America, furnish us abundant evidence of this.\nOur own language testifies to it also. We speak of the \"Fathers of the\nChurch,\"--_patres_, as they were called,--and the term \"Father\" is\napplied to an ecclesiastic of the Roman Catholic Church, just as in the\nRomance languages of Europe the descendants of the Latin _pater_\n(French _pere_, Spanish _padre_, Italian _padre_, etc.)\nare used to denote the same personage. In Russian an endearing term for\n\"priest\" is _batyushka_, \"father dear\"; the word for a\nvillage-priest, sometimes used disrespectfully, is _pop_. This\nlatter name is identical with the title of the head of the great\nCatholic Church, the \"Holy Father,\" at Rome, viz. _papa_,\nsignifying literally \"papa, father,\" given in the early days of Latin\nChristianity, and the source of our word _Pope_ and its cognates in\nthe various tongues of modern Europe. The head of an abbey we call an\n_abbot_, a name coming, through the Church-Latin _abbas_, from\nthe Syriac _abba_, \"father\"; here again recurs the correlation of\npriest and father. It is interesting to note that both the words\n_papa_ and _abba_, which we have just discussed, and which are\nof such importance in the history of religion, are child-words for\n\"father,\" bearing evidence of the lasting influence of the child in this\nsphere of human activity. Among the ancient Romans we find a _pater\npatratus_, whose duty it was to ratify treaties with the proper\nreligious rites. Dr. von Held is of opinion that, \"in the case of a\nspecial priesthood, it is not so much the character of its members as\nspiritual fathers, as their calling of servants of God, of servants of a\nFather-God, which causes them to be termed fathers, papas\" (75. 120).\n\n\n_Father-God_.\n\nShakespeare has aptly said, in the words which Theseus addresses to the\nfair Hermia:--\n\n\n \"To you your father should be as a god;\n  One that composed your beauties, yea, and one\n  To whom you are but as a form in wax,\n  By him imprinted, and within his power\n  To leave the figure or disfigure it,\"\n\n\nand widespread indeed, in the childhood of the race, has been the belief\nin the Fatherhood of God. Concerning the first parents of human kind the\nancient Hebrew Scripture declares: \"And God created man in His own\nimage,\" and long centuries afterwards, in his memorable oration to the\nwise men of Athens upon Mars' Hill, the Apostle Paul quoted with\napproval the words of the Greek poet, Cleanthes, who had said: \"For we\nare all His off-spring.\" Epictetus, appealing to a master on behalf of\nhis slaves, asked: \"Wilt thou not remember over whom thou rulest, that\nthey are thy relations, thy brethren by nature, the offspring of Zeus?\"\n(388.210).\n\nAt the battle of Kadshu, Rameses II., of Egypt, abandoned by his\nsoldiers, as a last appeal, exclaimed: \"I will call upon thee, O my\nfather Amon!\" (388. 209).\n\nMany prophets and preachers have there been who taught to men the\ndoctrine of \"God, the Father,\" but last and best of all was the \"Son of\nMan,\" the Christ, who taught his disciples the world-heard prayer: \"Our\nFather, who art in Heaven,\" who pro-claimed that \"in my Father's house\nare many mansions,\" and whose words in the agony of Gethsemane were:\n\"Abba, Father, all things are possible unto Thee; remove this cup from\nme: howbeit not what I will, but what Thou wilt.\"\n\nBetween the Buddhist Kalmucks, with whom the newly married couple\nreverently utter these words: \"I incline myself this first time to my\nLord God, who is my father and my mother\" (518. I. 423), and the deistic\nphilosophers of to-day there is a vast gulf, as there is also between\nthe idea of Deity among the Cakchiquel Indians of Guatemala, where the\nwords for God _alom_ and _achalom_ signify respectively\n\"begetter of children,\" and \"begetter of sons,\" and the modern Christian\nconcept of God, the Father, with His only begotten Son, the Saviour of\nthe world.\n\nThe society of the gods of human creation has everywhere been modelled\nupon that of man. He was right who said Olympus was a Greek city and\nZeus a Greek father. According to D'Alviella: \"The highest point of\ndevelopment that polytheism could reach is found in the conception of a\nmonarchy or divine family, embracing all terrestrial beings, and even\nthe whole universe. The divine monarch or father, however, might still\nbe no more than the first among his peers. For the supreme god to become\nthe Only God, he must rise above all beings, superhuman as well as\nhuman, not only in his power, but in his very nature\" (388. 211).\n\nThough the mythology of our Teutonic forefathers knew of the\n\"All-Father,\"--the holy Odin,--it is from those children-loving people,\nthe Hebrews, that our Christian conception of \"God the Father,\" with\nsome modifications, is derived. As Professor Robertson Smith has pointed\nout, among the Semites we find the idea of the tribal god as father\nstrongly developed: \"But in heathen religions the fatherhood of the gods\nis a physical fatherhood. Among the Greeks, for example, the idea that\nthe gods fashioned men out of clay, as potters fashion images, is\nrelatively modern. The older conception is that the races of men have\ngods for their ancestors, or are the children of the earth, the common\nmother of gods and men, so that men are really of the same stock or kin\nof the gods. That the same conception was familiar to the older Semites\nappears from the Bible. Jeremiah describes idolaters as saying to a\nstock, Thou art my father; and to a stone, Thou hast brought me forth.\nIn the ancient poem, Num. xxi. 29, the Moabites are called the sons and\ndaughters of Chemosh, and, at a much more recent date, the prophet\nMalachi calls a heathen woman, 'the daughter of a strange god'\" (535.\n41-43).\n\nProfessor Smith cites also the evidence furnished by genealogies and\npersonal names: \"The father of Solomon's ally, Hiram, King of Tyre, was\ncalled _Abibaal_, 'my father is Baal'; Ben-Hadad, of Damascus, is\n'the son of the god Hadad'; in Aram\u00e6an we find names like\n_Barl\u00e2h\u00e2_, 'son of God,' _Barba'shm\u00een_, 'son of the Lord of\nHeaven,' _Barate_, 'son of Ate,' etc.\" We have also that passage in\nGenesis which tells how the \"sons of God saw the daughters of men that\nwere fair; and they took them wives of all which they chose\" (vi. 2),\nwhile an echo of the same thought dwells with the Polynesians, who term\nillegitimate children _tamarika na te Atua_, \"children of the gods\"\n(458. 121). D'Alviella further remarks: \"Presently these family\nrelations of the gods were extended till they embraced the whole\ncreation, and especially mankind. The confusion between the terms for\ncreating and begetting, which still maintained itself in half-developed\nlanguages, must have led to a spontaneous fusion of the ideas of creator\nand father.\" But there is another aspect of this question. Of the\nAmazulu Callaway writes: \"Speaking generally, the head of each house is\nworshipped by the children of that house; for they do not know the\nancients who are dead, nor their laud-giving names, nor their names. But\ntheir father whom they knew is the head by whom they begin and end in\ntheir prayer, for they know him best, and his love for his children;\nthey remember his kindness to them whilst he was living; they compare\nhis treatment of them whilst he was living, support themselves by it,\nand say, 'He will treat us in the same way now he is dead. We do not\nknow why he should regard others beside us; he will regard us only.'\" Of\nthese people it is true, as they themselves say: \"Our father is a great\ntreasure to us, even when he is dead\" (417.144).\n\nHere we pass over to ancestor worship, seen at its height in China,\nwhose great sage, Confucius, taught: \"The great object of marriage is to\nbeget children, and especially sons, who may perform the required\nsacrifices at the tombs of their parents\" (434. 126).\n\nIn this connection, the following passage from Max M\u00fcller is of\ninterest: \"How religious ideas could spring from the perception of\nsomething infinite or immortal in our parents, grandparents, and\nancestors, we can see even at the present day. Among the Zulus, for\ninstance, _Unkulunkulu_ or _Ukulukulu_, which means the\ngreat-great-grandfather, has become the name of God. It is true that\neach family has its own _Unkulunkulu,_ and that his name varies\naccordingly. But there is also an _Unkulunkulu_ of all men\n(_unkulunladu wabantu bonke_), and he comes very near to being a\nfather of all men. Here also we can watch a very natural process of\nreasoning. A son would look upon his father as his progenitor; he would\nremember his father's father, possibly his father's grandfather. But\nbeyond that his own experience could hardly go, and therefore the father\nof his own great-grandfather, of whom he might have heard, but whom he\nhad never seen, would naturally assume the character of a distant\nunknown being; and, if the human mind ascended still further, it would\nalmost by necessity be driven to a father of all fathers, that is to a\ncreator of mankind, if not of the world\" (510. 156).\n\nAgain we reach the \"Father\" of Pope's \"Universal Prayer\"--\n\n\n  \"Father of all! in every age,\n     In every clime adored,\n   By saint, by savage, and by sage,\n     Jehovah, Jove, or Lord,\"\n\n\nhaving started from the same thought as the Hebrews in the infancy of\ntheir race. An Eastern legend of the child Abraham has crystallized the\nidea. It is said that one morning, while with his mother in the cave in\nwhich they were hiding from Nimrod, he asked his mother, \"Who is my\nGod?\" and she replied, \"It is I.\" \"And who is thy God?\" he inquired\nfarther. \"Thy father\" (547.69). Hence also we derive the declaration of\nDu Vair, \"Nous devons tenir nos p\u00e8res comme des dieux en terre,\" and the\nstatement of another French writer, of whom Westermarck says: \"Bodin\nwrote, in the later part of the sixteenth century, that, though the\nmonarch commands his subjects, the master his disciples, the captain his\nsoldiers, there is none to whom nature has given any command except the\nfather, 'who is the true image of the great sovereign God, universal\nfather of all things'\" (166. 238).\n\n\n_Father-Sky._\n\n\n  \"Sweet day, so cool, so calm, so bright,\n  The bridal of the earth and sky,\"\n\n\nsang the poet Herbert, unconsciously renewing an ancient myth. As many\ncosmologies tell, Day and Dawn were born of the embraces of Earth and\nSky. Ushas, Eos, Aurora, is the daughter of heaven, and one story of the\nbirth is contained in the Maori myth of Papa and Rangi. Ushas, Max\nMuller tells us, \"has two parents, heaven and earth, whose lap she fills\nwith light\" (510. 431). From Rangi, \"Father-Sky,\" and Papa,\n\"Mother-Earth,\" say the Maoris of New Zealand, sprang all living things;\nand, in like manner, the Chinese consider the Sky or Heaven,--Yang, the\nmasculine, procreative, active element,--to be the \"father of all\nthings,\" while the Earth,--Yu, the feminine, conceiving, passive\nelement,--is the \"mother of all things.\" From the union of these two\neverything in existence has arisen, and consequently resembles the one\nor the other (529. 107).\n\nAmong the primitive Aryans, the Sky, or Heaven God, was called \"Father,\"\nas shown by the Sanskrit _Dyaus Pit\u00e2r_, Greek _Zeus Pat\u00e6r_,\nLatin _Jupiter_, all of which names signify \"sky father.\" Dyaus is\nalso called _janit\u00e2r_, \"producer, father,\" and Zeus, the \"eternal\nfather of men,\" the \"father of gods and men, the ruler and preserver of\nthe world.\" In the Vedic hymns are invocations of Dyaus (Sky), as \"our\nFather,\" and of Prithivi (Earth), as \"our Mother\" (388. 210).\n\nDyaus symbolizes the \"bright sky\"; from the same primitive Indo-European\nroot come the Latin words _dies_ (day), _deus_ or _divus_\n(god); the dark sombre vault of heaven is Varuna, the Greek [Greek:\n_Ouran\u00f3s_], Latin _Uranus_.\n\nOther instances of the bridal of earth and sky,--of \"mother earth,\" and\n\"father sky,\"--are found among the tribes of the Baltic, the Lapps, the\nFinns (who have Ukko, \"Father Heaven,\" Akka, \"Mother Earth\"), and other\nmore barbaric peoples.\n\nIn Ashanti, the new deity, which the introduction of Christianity has\nadded to the native pantheon, is called _Nana Nyankupon_,\n\"Grandfather-sky\" (438. 24).\n\nThe shaman of the Buryats of Alarsk prays to \"Father Heaven\"; in the\nAltai Mountains the prayer is to\n\n\n  \"Father Yulgen, thrice exalted,\n  Whom the edge of the moon's axe shuns,\n  Who uses the hoof of the horse.\n  Thou, Yulgen, hast created all men,\n  Who are stirring round about us,\n  Thou, Yulgen, hast endowed us with all cattle;\n  Let us not fall into sorrow!\n  Grant that we may resist the evil one!\" (504. 70, 77).\n\n\nWe too have recollections of that \"Father-Sky,\" whom our far-off\nancestors adored, the bright, glad, cheerful sky, the \"ancestor of all.\"\nMax M\u00fcller has summed up the facts of our inheritance in brief terms:--\n\n\"Remember that this _Dyaush Pitar_ is the same as the Greek [Greek:\n_Zeus Pat\u00e6r_], and the Latin _Jupiter_, and you will see how\nthis one word shows us the easy, the natural, the almost inevitable\ntransition from the conception of the active sky as a purely physical\nfact, to the _Father-Sky_ with all his mythological accidents, and\nlastly to that Father in heaven whom \u00c6schylus meant when he burst out in\nhis majestic prayer to Zeus, _whosoever he is_\" (510. 410).\n\nUnnumbered centuries have passed, but the \"witchery of the soft blue\nsky\" has still firm hold upon the race, and we are, as of old, children\nof \"our Father, who art in Heaven.\"\n\n\n_Father-Sea._\n\nMontesinos tells us that Viracocha, \"sea-foam,\" the Peruvian god of the\nsea, was regarded as the source of all life and the origin of all\nthings,--world-tiller, world-animator, he was called (509. 316).\nXenophanes of Kolophon, a Greek philosopher of the sixth century B.C.,\ntaught that \"the mighty sea is the father of clouds and winds and\nrivers.\" In Greek mythology Oceanus is said to be the father of the\nprincipal rivers of earth. Neptune, the god of the sea,--\"Father\nNeptune,\" he is sometimes called,--had his analogue in a deity whom the\nLibyans looked upon as \"the first and greatest of the gods.\" To Neptune,\nas the \"Father of Streams,\" the Romans erected a temple in the Campus\nMartius and held games and feasts in his honour. The sea was also spoken\nof as _pater aequoreus_.\n\n\n_Father-River._\n\nThe name \"Father of Waters\" is assigned, incorrectly perhaps, to certain\nAmerican Indian languages, as an appellation of the Mississippi. From\nMacaulay's \"Lay of Horatius,\" we all know\n\n\n  \"O Tiber, Father Tiber,\n  To whom the Romans pray,\"\n\n\nand \"Father Thames\" is a favourite epithet of the great English river.\n\n\n_Father-Frost._\n\nIn our English nursery-lore the frost is personified as a mischievous\nboy, \"Jack Frost,\" to whose pranks its vagaries are due. In old Norse\nmythology we read of the terrible \"Frost Giants,\" offspring of Ymir,\nborn of the ice of Niflheim, which the warmth exhaled from the sun-lit\nland of Muspelheim caused to drop off into the great Ginnunga-gap, the\nvoid that once was where earth is now. In his \"Frost Spirit\" Whittier\nhas preserved something of the ancient grimness.\n\nWe speak commonly of the \"Frost-King,\" whose fetters bind the earth in\nwinter.\n\nIn Russia the frost is called \"Father Frost,\" and is personified as a\nwhite old man, or \"a mighty smith who forges strong chains with which to\nbind the earth and the waters,\" and on Christmas Eve \"the oldest man in\neach family takes a spoonful of kissel (a sort of pudding), and then,\nhaving put his head through the window, cries: 'Frost, Frost, come and\neat kissel! Frost, Frost, do not kill our oats! Drive our flax and hemp\ndeep into the ground'\" (520.223-230).\n\nQuite different is the idea contained in Grimm's tale of \"Old Mother\nFrost,\"--the old woman, the shaking of whose bed in the making causes\nthe feathers to fly, and \"then it snows on earth.\"\n\n\n_Father Fire_.\n\nFire has received worship and apotheosis in many parts of the globe. The\nMuskogee Indians of the southeastern United States \"gave to fire the\nhighest Indian title of honour, _grandfather_, and their priests\nwere called 'fire-makers'\" (529. 68). The ancient Aztecs called the god\nof fire \"the oldest of the gods, _Huehueteotl_, and also 'our\nFather,' _Tota_, as it was believed that from him all things were\nderived.\" He was supposed \"to govern the generative proclivities and the\nsexual relations,\" and he was sometimes called _Xiuhtecutli_, \"'God\nof the Green Leaf,' that is, of vegetable fecundity and productiveness.\"\nHe was worshipped as \"the life-giver, the active generator of animate\nexistence,\"--the \"primal element and the immediate source of life\"\n(413). These old Americans were in accord with the philosopher,\nHeraclitus of Ephesus, who held that \"fire is the element, and all\nthings were produced in exchange for fire\"; and Heraclitus, in the\nfragments in which he speaks of \"God,\" the \"one wise,\" that which \"knows\nall things,\" means \"Fire.\" In the rites of the Nagualists occurs a\n\"baptism by fire,\" which was \"celebrated on the fourth day after the\nbirth of the child, during which time it was deemed essential to keep\nthe fire burning in the house, but not to permit any of it to be carried\nout, as that would bring bad luck to the child,\" and, in the work of one\nof the Spanish priests, a protest is made: \"Nor must the lying-in women\nand their assistants be permitted to speak of Fire as the father and\nmother of all things, and the author of nature; because it is a common\nsaying with them that Fire is present at the birth and death of every\ncreature.\" It appears also that the Indians who followed this strange\ncult were wont to speak of \"what the Fire said and how the Fire wept\"\n(413. 45-46).\n\nAmong various other peoples, fire is regarded as auspicious to children;\nits sacred character is widely recognized. In the Zend-Avesta, the\nBible of the ancient Persians, whose religion survives in the cult of\nthe Parsees, now chiefly resident in Bombay and its environs, we read of\nAhura-Mazda, the \"Wise Lord,\" the \"Father of the pure world,\" the \"best\nthing of all, the source of light for the world.\" Purest and most sacred\nof all created things was fire, light (421. 32). In the Sar Dar, one of\nthe Parsee sacred books, the people are bidden to \"keep a continual fire\nin the house during a woman's pregnancy, and, after the child is born,\nto burn a lamp [or, better, a fire] for three nights and days, so that\nthe demons and fiends may not be able to do any damage and harm.\" It is\nsaid that when Zoroaster, the founder of the ancient religion of Persia,\nwas born, \"a demon came at the head of a hundred and fifty other demons,\nevery night for three nights, to slay him, but they were put to flight\nby seeing the fire, and were consequently unable to hurt him\" (258. 96).\n\nIn ancient Rome, among the Lithuanians on the shores of the Baltic, in\nIreland, in England, Denmark, Germany, \"while a child remained\nunbaptized,\" it was, or is, necessary \"to burn a light in the chamber.\"\nAnd in the island of Lewis, off the northwestern coast of Scotland,\n\"fire used to be carried round women before they were churched, and\nchildren before they were christened, both night and morning; and this\nwas held effectual to preserve both mother and infant from evil spirits,\nand (in the case of the infant) from being changed.\"\n\nIn the Gypsy mountain villages of Upper Hungary, during the baptism of a\nchild, the women kindle in the hut a little fire, over which the mother\nwith the baptized infant must step, in order that milk may not fail her\nwhile the child is being suckled (392. II. 21).\n\nIn the East Indies, the mother with her new-born child is made to pass\nbetween two fires.\n\nSomewhat similar customs are known to have existed in northern and\nwestern Europe; in Ireland and Scotland especially, where children were\nmade to pass through or leap over the fire.\n\nTo Moloch (\"King\"), their god of fire, the Phoenicians used to sacrifice\nthe first-born of their noblest families. A later development of this\ncult seems to have consisted in making the child pass between two fires,\nor over or through a fire. This \"baptism of fire\" or \"purification by\nfire,\" was in practice among the ancient Aztecs of Mexico. To the second\nwater-baptism was added the fire-baptism, in which the child was drawn\nthrough the fire four times (509. 653).\n\nAmong the Tarahumari Indians of the Mexican Sierra Madre, the\nmedicine-man \"cures\" the infant, \"so that it may become strong and\nhealthy, and live a long life.\" The ceremony is thus described by\nLumholtz: \"A big fire of corn-cobs, or of the branches of the\nmountain-cedar, is made near the cross [outside the house], and the baby\nis carried over the smoke three times towards each cardinal-point, and\nalso three times backward. The motion is first toward the east, then\ntoward the west, then south, then north. The smoke of the corn-cobs\nassures him of success in agriculture. With a fire-brand the\nmedicine-man makes three crosses on the child's forehead, if it is a\nboy, and four, if a girl\" (107. 298).\n\nAmong certain South American tribes the child and the mother are\n\"smoked\" with tobacco (326. II. 194).\n\nWith marriage, too, fire is associated. In Yucatan, at the betrothal,\nthe priest held the little fingers of bridegroom and bride to the fire\n(509. 504), and in Germany, the maiden, on Christmas night, looks into\nthe hearth-fire to discover there the features of her future husband\n(392. IV. 82). Rademacher (130a) has called attention to the great\nimportance of the hearth and the fireplace in family life. In the Black\nForest the stove is invoked in these terms: \"Dear oven, I beseech thee,\nif thou hast a wife, I would have a man\" (130 a. 60). Among the White\nRussians, before the wedding, the house of the bridegroom and that of\nthe bride are \"cleansed from evil spirits,\" by burning a heap of straw\nin the middle of the living-room, and at the beginning of the\nceremonies, after they have been elevated upon a cask, as \"Prince\" and\n\"Princess,\" the guests, with the wedding cake and two tapers in their\nhands, go round the cask three times, and with the tapers held crosswise\nburn them a little on the neck, the forehead, and the temples, so that\nthe hair is singed away somewhat. At church the wax tapers are of\nimportance: if they burn brightly and clearly, the young couple will\nhave a happy, merry married life; if feeble, their life will be a quiet\none; if they flicker, there will be strife and quarrels between them\n(392 (1891). 161).\n\nWriting of Manabozho, or Michabo, the great divinity of the Algonkian\ntribes of the Great Lakes, Dr. D. G. Brinton says: \"Michabo, giver of\nlife and light, creator and preserver, is no apotheosis of a prudent\nchieftain, still less the fabrication of an idle fancy, or a designing\npriestcraft, but, in origin, deeds, and name, the not unworthy\npersonification of the purest conceptions they possessed concerning the\nFather of All\" (409. 469).\n\nTo Agni, fire, light, \"in whom are all the gods,\" the ancient Hindu\nprayed: \"Be unto us easy of access, as a father to his son\" (388. 210),\nand later generations of men have seen in light the embodiment of God.\nAs Max M\u00fcller says, \"We ourselves also, though we may no longer use the\nname of Morning-Light for the Infinite, the Beyond, the Divine, still\nfind no better expression than _Light_ when we speak of the\nmanifestations of God, whether in nature or in our mind\" (510. 434).\n\nIn the Christian churches of to-day hymns of praise are sung to God as\n\"Father of Light and Life,\" and their neophytes are bidden, as of old,\nto \"walk as Children of Light.\"\n\n\n_Father-Sun._\n\nAt the naming of the new-born infant in ancient Mexico, the mother thus\naddressed the Sun and the Earth: \"Thou Sun, Father of all that live, and\nthou Earth, our Mother, take ye this child, and guard it as your son.\" A\ncommon affirmation with them was: \"By the life of the Sun, and of our\nLady, the Earth\" (529. 97).\n\nMany primitive tribes have the custom of holding the newborn child up to\nthe sun.\n\nNot a few races and peoples have called themselves \"children of the\nsun.\" The first of the Incas of Peru--a male and a female--were children\nof the Sun \"our Father,\" who, \"seeing the pitiable condition of mankind,\nwas moved to compassion, and sent to them, from Heaven, two of his\nchildren, a son and a daughter, to teach them how to do him honour, and\npay him divine worship \"; they were also instructed by the sun in all\nthe needful arts of life, which they taught to men (529. 102). When the\n\"children of the Sun\" died, they were said to be \"called to the home of\nthe Sun, their Father\" (100. 479).\n\nThe Comanche Indians, who worship the sun with dances and other rites,\ncall him _taab-apa_, \"Father Sun,\" and the Sarcees speak of the sun\nas \"Our Father,\" and of the earth as \"Our Mother\" (412. 122, 72).\n\nWith the Piute Indians \"the sun is the father and ruler of the heavens.\nHe is the big chief. The moon is his wife, and the stars are their\nchildren. The sun eats his children whenever he can catch them. They\nfall before him, and are all the time afraid when he is passing through\nthe heavens. When he (their father) appears in the morning, you see all\nthe stars, his children, fly out of sight,--go away back into the blue\nof the above,--and they do not wake to be seen again until he, their\nfather, is about going to his bed\" (485. I. 130).\n\nDr. Eastman says of the Sioux Indians: \"The sun was regarded as the\nfather, and the earth as the mother, of all things that live and grow;\nbut, as they had been married a long time and had become the parents of\nmany generations, they were called the great-grandparents\" (518 (1894).\n89).\n\nWidespread over the earth has been, and still is, the worship of the\nsun; some mythologists, indeed, would go too far and explain almost\nevery feature of savage and barbarous religion as a sun-myth or as\nsmacking of heliolatry.\n\nImagery and figurative language borrowed from the consideration of the\naspect and functions of the great orb of day have found their way into\nand beautified the religious thought of every modern Christian\ncommunity. The words of the poet Thomson:\n\n\n \"Prime cheerer light!\n  Of all material beings first and best!\n  Efflux divine! Nature's resplendent robe!\n  Without whose vesting beauty all were wrapt\n  In unessential gloom; and thou, O Sun!\n  Soul of surrounding worlds! in whom best seen\n  Shines out thy Maker!\"\n\n\nfind briefer expression in the simple speech of the dying Turner: \"The\nsun is God.\"\n\n\n_Father-Earth_.\n\nThough, in nearly every portion of the globe the apotheosis of earth is\nas a woman, we find in America some evidences of a cult of the\nterrestrial Father-God. Concerning the cave-worship of the Mexican\naborigines, Dr. Brinton says (413. 38, 50): \"The intimate meaning of\nthis cave-cult was the worship of the Earth. The Cave-God, the Heart of\nthe Hills, really typified the Earth, the Soil, from whose dark recesses\nflow the limpid streams and spring the tender shoots of the food-plants\nas well as the great trees. To the native Mexican the Earth was the\nprovider of food and drink, the common Father of All; so that, to this\nday, when he would take a solemn oath, he stoops to the earth, touches\nit with his hand, and repeats the solemn formula: '_Cuix amo nechitla\nin toteotzin?_ Does not our Great God see me?'\"\n\n\n_Father-Wind_.\n\nDr. Berendt, when travelling through the forests of Yucatan, heard his\nMaya Indian guide exclaim in awe-struck tones, as the roar of a tornado\nmade itself heard in the distance: _He catal nohoch yikal nohoch\ntat_, \"Here comes the mighty wind of the Great Father.\" As Dr.\nBrinton points out, this belief has analogues all over the world, in the\nnotion of the wind-bird, the master of breath, and the spirit, who is\nfather of all the race, for we learn also that \"the whistling of the\nwind is called, or attributed to, _tat acmo_, words which mean\n'Father Strong-Bird'\" (411. 175).\n\nThe cartography of the Middle Ages and the epochs of the great maritime\ndiscoveries has made us familiar with the wind-children, offspring of\nthe wind-father, from whose mouths came the breezes and the storms, and\nold Boreas, of whom the sailors sing, has traces of the fatherhood about\nhim. More than one people has believed that God, the Father, is Spirit,\nbreath, wind.\n\n\n_Other Father-Gods_.\n\nThe ancient Romans applied the term _Pater_ to many of their gods\nbeside the great Jove. Vulcan was called _Lemnus Pater_, the\n\"Lemnian Father\"; Bacchus, _Pater Len\u00e6us_; Janus, the \"early god of\nbusiness,\" is termed by Horace, _Matutinus Pater,_ \"Early-morning\nFather\"; Mars is _Mars Pater,_ etc. The Guarayo Indians, of South\nAmerica, prayed for rain and bountiful harvests to \"Tamo\u00ef, the\ngrandfather, the old god in heaven, who was their first ancestor and had\ntaught them agriculture\" (100. 288).\n\nThe Abipones, of Paraguay, called the Pleiades their \"Grandfather\" and\n\"Creator.\" When the constellation was invisible, they said: \"Our\nGrandfather, Keebet, is ill\" (509. 274, 284).\n\nIn his account of the folk-lore of Yucatan, Dr. Brinton tells us that\nthe giant-beings known as _Hbalamob,_ or _balams,_ are\nsometimes \"affectionately referred to as _yum balam,_ or 'Father\nBalam.'\" The term _yum_ is practically the equivalent of the Latin\n_pater,_ and of the _\"father,\"_ employed by many primitive\npeoples in addressing, or speaking of, their great male divinities (411.\n176).\n\nIn his acute exposition of the philosophy of the Zu\u00f1i Indians, Mr.\nGushing tells us (424. 11) that \"all beings, whether deistic and\nsupernatural, or animistic and mortal, are regarded as belonging to one\nsystem; and that they are likewise believed to be related by blood seems\nto be indicated by the fact that human beings are spoken of as the\n'children of men,' while _all_ other beings are referred to as 'the\nFathers,' the 'All-Fathers (\u00c1-t\u00e4-tchu),' and 'Our Fathers.'\" The\n\"Priest'of the Bow,\" when travelling alone through a dangerous country,\noffers up a prayer, which begins: \"Si! This day, My Fathers, ye Animal\nBeings, although this country be filled with enemies, render me\nprecious\" (424. 41). The hunter, in the ceremonial of the \"Deer\nMedicine,\" prays: \"Si! This day, My Father, thou Game Animal, even\nthough thy trail one day and one night hast (been made) round about;\nhowever, grant unto me one step of my earth-mother. Wanting thy\nlife-blood, wanting that flesh, hence I address to thee good fortune,\naddress to thee treasure,\" etc. When he has stricken down the animal,\n\"before the 'breath of life' has left the fallen deer (if it be such),\nhe places its fore feet back of its horns, and, grasping its mouth,\nholds it firmly, closely, while he applies his lips to its nostrils and\nbreathes as much wind into them as possible, again inhaling from the\nlungs of the dying animal into his own. Then, letting go, he exclaims:\n'Ah! Thanks, my father, my child. Grant unto me the seeds of earth\n('daily bread') and the gift of water. Grant unto me the light of thy\nfavour, do\" (424. 36).\n\nSomething of a like nature, perhaps, attaches to the bear-ceremonials\namong the Ainu and other primitive peoples of northeastern Asia, with\nwhom that animal is held in great respect and reverence, approaching to\ndeification.\n\nOf P\u00f3-shai-an-k'ia, \"the God (Father) of the Medicine Societies, or\nsacred esoteric orders of the Zu\u00f1is,\" Mr. Gushing tells us: \"He is\nsupposed to have appeared in human form, poorly clad, and therefore\nreviled by men; to have taught the ancestors of the Zu\u00f1i, Taos, Oraibi,\nand Co\u00e7onino Indians their agricultural and other arts; their systems of\nworship by means of plumed and painted prayer-sticks; to have organized\ntheir medicine societies, and then to have disappeared toward his home\nin Shi-p\u00e4-pu-li-ma (from _shi-pa-a_ = mist, vapour; _u-lin_,\nsurrounding; and _i-mo-na_ = sitting-place of; 'The mist-enveloped\ncity'), and to have vanished beneath the world, whence he is said to\nhave departed for the home of the Sun. He is still the conscious auditor\nof the prayers of his children, the invisible ruler of the spiritual\nShi-p\u00e4-pu-li-ma, and of the lesser gods of the medicine orders, the\nprincipal 'Finisher of the Paths of our Lives.' He is, so far as any\nidentity can be established, the 'Montezuma' of popular and usually\nerroneous Mexican tradition\" (424. 16). Both on the lowest steps of\ncivilization and on the highest, we meet with this passing over of the\nFather into the Son, this participation of God in the affairs and\nstruggles of men.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER V.\n\n\nTHE NAME CHILD.\n\n\n  Liebe Kinder haben viele Namen\n  [Dear children have many names].--_German Proverb_.\n\n  Child or boy, my darling, which you will.--_Swinburne_.\n\n  Men ever had, and ever will have, leave\n  To coin new words well-suited to the age.\n  Words are like leaves, some wither every year,\n  And every year a younger race succeeds.--_Roscommon_.\n\n\n_Child and its Synonyms_.\n\nOur word _child_--the good old English term; for both _babe_\nand _infant_ are borrowed--simply means the \"product of the womb\"\n(compare Gothic _kilthei_, \"womb\"). The Lowland-Scotch dialect\nstill preserves an old word for \"child\" in _bairn_, cognate with\nAnglo-Saxon _bearn_, Icelandic, Swedish, Danish, and Gothic\n_barn_ (the Gothic had a diminutive _barnilo_, \"baby\"),\nSanskrit _bharna_, which signifies \"the borne one,\" \"that which is\nborn,\" from the primitive Indo-European root _bhr_, \"to bear, to\ncarry in the womb,\" whence our \"to _bear_\" and the German\n\"ge-_b\u00e4ren_.\" _Son_, which finds its cognates in all the\nprincipal Aryan dialects, except Latin, and perhaps Celtic,--the Greek\n[Greek: yios] is for [Greek: syios], and is the same word,--a widespread\nterm for \"male child, or descendant,\" originally meant, as the Old Irish\n_suth_, \"birth, fruit,\" and the Sanskrit _s\u00fb_, \"to bear, to\ngive birth to,\" indicate, \"the fruit of the womb, the begotten\"--an\nexpression which meets us time and again in the pages of the Hebrew\nBible. The words _offspring_, _issue_, _seed_, used in\nhigher diction, explain themselves and find analogues all over the\nworld. To a like category belong Sanskrit _g\u00e1rbha_, \"brood of\nbirds, child, shoot\"; Pali _gabbha_, \"womb, embryo, child\"; Old\nHigh German _chilburra_, \"female lamb\"; Gothic _kalb\u00f4_,\n\"female lamb one year old\"; German _Kalb_; English _calf_;\nGreek [Greek: _delphus_], \"womb\"; whence [Greek: _adelphus_],\n\"brother,\" literally \"born of the same womb.\" Here we see, in the words\nfor their young, the idea of the kinship of men and animals in which the\nprimitive races believed. The \"brought forth\" or \"born\" is also the\nsignification of the Niskwalli Indian _ba'-ba-ad_, \"infant\";\n_de-b\u00e1d-da_, \"infant, son\"; Maya _al_, \"son or daughter of a\nwoman\"; Cakchiquel 4_ahol_, \"son,\" and like terms in many other\ntongues. Both the words in our language employed to denote the child\nbefore birth are borrowed. _Embryo_, with its cognates in the\nmodern tongues of Europe, comes from the Greek [Greek: _embruon_],\n\"the fruit of the womb before delivery; birth; the embryo, foetus; a\nlamb newly born, a kid.\" The word is derived from _eu_, \"within\";\nand _bruo_, \"I am full of anything, I swell or teem with\"; in a\ntransitive sense, \"I break forth.\" The radical idea is clearly\n\"swelling,\" and cognates are found in Greek [Greek: _bruon_],\n\"moss\"; and German _Kraut_, \"plant, vegetable.\" _Foetus_ comes\nto us from Latin, where it meant \"a bearing, offspring, fruit; bearing,\ndropping, hatching,--of animals, plants, etc.; fruit, produce,\noffspring, progeny, brood.\" The immediate derivation of the word is\n_feto_, \"I breed,\" whence also _effetus_, \"having brought\nforth young, worn out by bearing, effete.\" _Feto_ itself is from an\nold verb _feuere_, \"to generate, to produce,\" possibly related to\n_fui_ and our _be_. The radical signification of _foetus_\nthen is \"that which is bred, or brought to be\"; and from the same root\n_fe_ are derived _feles_, \"cat\" (the fruitful animal);\n_fe-num_, \"hay\"; _fe-cundus_, \"fertile\"; _fe-lix,_\n\"happy\" (fruitful). The corresponding verb in Greek is [Greek:\n_phuein_], \"to grow, to spring forth, to come into being,\" whence\nthe following: [Greek: _phusis_], \"a creature, birth,\nnature,\"--nature is \"all that has had birth\"; [Greek: _phuton_]\n\"something grown, plant, tree, creature, child\"; [Greek: _phulae,\nphilon_] \"race, clan, tribe,\"--the \"aggregate of those born in a\ncertain way or place\"; [Greek: _phus_], \"son\"; [Greek:\n_phusas_], \"father,\" etc.\n\nIn English, we formerly had the phrase \"to look _babies_ in the\neyes,\" and we still speak of the _pupil_ of the eye, the old\nfolk-belief having been able to assert itself in the every-day speech of\nthe race,--the thought that the soul looked out of the windows of the\neyes. In Latin, _pupilla pupila,_ \"girl, pupil of the eye,\" is a\ndiminutive of _pupa_ (_puppa_), \"girl, damsel, doll, puppet\";\nother related words are _pupulus_, \"little boy\"; _pupillus_,\n\"orphan, ward,\" our _pupil_; _pupulus_, \"little child, boy\";\n_pupus_, \"child, boy.\" The radical of all these is _pu_, \"to\nbeget\"; whence are derived also the following: _puer_, \"child,\nboy\"; _puella_ (for _puerula_), a diminutive of _puer_,\n\"girl\"; _pusus_, \"boy\"; _pusio_, \"little boy,\"\n_pusillus_; \"a very little boy\"; _putus_, \"boy\";\n_putillus_, \"little boy\"; _putilla_, \"little girl,\"--here\nbelongs also _pusillanimus_, \"small-minded, boy-minded\";\n_pubis_, \"ripe, adult\"; _pubertas_, \"puberty, maturity\";\n_pullus_, \"a young animal, a fowl,\" whence our _pullet_. In\nGreek we find the cognate words [Greek: polos] \"a young animal,\" related\nto our _foal, filly_; [Greek: polion], \"pony,\" and, as some,\nperhaps too venturesome, have suggested, [Greek: pais], \"child,\" with\nits numerous derivatives in the scientifical nomenclature and\nphraseology of to-day. In Sanskrit we have _putra_, \"son,\" a word\nfamiliar as a suffix in river-names,--_Brahmaputra_, \"son of\nBrahma,\"--_pota_, \"the young of an animal,\" etc. Skeat thinks that\nour word _boy_, borrowed from Low German and probably related to\nthe Modern High German _Bube_, whence the familiar \"bub\" of\nAmerican colloquial speech, is cognate with Latin _pupus_.\n\nTo this stock of words our _babe_, with its diminutive _baby_,\nseems not akin. Skeat, rejecting the theory that it is a reduplicative\nchild-word, like _papa_, sees in it merely a modification\n(infantine, perhaps) of the Celtic _maban_, diminutive of\n_mab_, \"son,\" and hence related to _maid_, the particular\netymology of which is discussed elsewhere.\n\n_Infant_, also, is a loan-word in English. In Latin, _infans_\nwas the coinage of some primitive student of children, of some\nprehistoric anthropologist, who had a clear conception of \"infancy\" as\n\"the period of inability to speak,\"--for _infans_ signifies neither\nmore nor less than \"not speaking, unable to speak.\" The word, like our\n\"childish,\" assumed also the meanings \"child, young, fresh, new, silly,\"\nwith a diminutive _infantulus_. The Latin word _infans_ has\nits representatives in French and other Romance languages, and has given\nrise to _enfanter_, \"to give birth to a child,\" _enfantement_,\n\"labour,\" two of the few words relating to child-birth in which the\nchild is directly remembered. The history of the words _infantry_,\n\"foot-soldiers,\" and _Infanta_, \"a princess of the blood royal\" in\nSpain (even though she be married), illustrates a curious development of\nthought.\n\nOur word _daughter_, which finds cognates in Teutonic, Slavonic,\nArmenian, Zend, Sanskrit, and Greek, Skeat would derive from the root\n_dugh_, \"to milk,\" the \"daughter\" being primitively the \"milker,\"\n--the \"milkmaid,\"--which would remove the term from the list of names\nfor \"child\" in the proper sense of the word. Kluge, however, with\njustice perhaps, considers this etymology improbable.\n\nA familiar phrase in English is \"babes and sucklings,\" the last term of\nwhich, cognate with German _S\u00e4ugling_, meets with analogues far and\nwide among the peoples of the earth. The Latin words for children in\nrelation to their parents are _filius_ (diminutive _filiolus_),\n\"son,\" and _filia_ (diminutive _filiola_), \"daughter,\"\nwhich have a long list of descendants in the modern Neo-Latin or Romance\nlanguages,--French _fils, fille, filleul_, etc.; Italian _figlio,\nfiglia_, etc. According to Skeat, _filius_ signified originally\n\"infant,\" perhaps \"suckling,\" from _felare_, \"to suck,\" the radical\nof which, _fe_ (Indo-European _dhe_), appears also in\n_femina_, \"woman,\" and _femella_, \"female,\" the \"sucklers\"\n_par excellence_. In Greek the cognate words are [Greek:\n_titthae_], \"nurse,\" _thaelus_, \"female,\" _thaelae_,\n\"teat,\" etc.; in Lithuanian, _dels_, \"son.\" With _nonagan_,\n\"teat, breast,\" are cognate in the Delaware Indian language\n_nonoshellaan_, \"to suckle,\" _nonetschik_, \"suckling,\" and\nother primitive tongues have similar series.\n\nThe Modern High German word for child is _Kind_, which, as a\nsubstantive, finds representatives neither in Gothic nor in early\nEnglish, but has cognates in the Old Norse _kunde_, \"son,\" Gothic\n_-kunds_, Anglo-Saxon _-kund_, a suffix signifying \"coming\nfrom, originating from.\" The ultimate radical of the word is the\nIndo-European root _gen_ (Teutonic _ken_), \"to bear, to\nproduce,\" whence have proceeded also _kin_, Gothic _kuni_;\n_queen_, Gothic _qv\u00eans_, \"woman\"; _king_, Modern High\nGerman _K\u00f6nig_, originally signifying perhaps \"one of high origin\";\nGreek _genos_ and its derivatives; Latin _genus, gens, gigno_;\nLithuanian _gentis_, \"relative\"; Sanskrit _janas_, \"kin,\nstock,\" _jan\u00fas_, \"creature, kin, birth,\" _jant\u00fa_, \"child,\nbeing, stock,\" _j\u00e2t\u00e1_, \"son.\" _Kind_, therefore, while not the\nsame word as our _child_, has the same primitive meaning, \"the\nproduced one,\" and finds further cognates in _kid_ and _colt_,\nnames applied to the young of certain animals, and the first of which,\nin the slang of to-day, is applied to children also. In some parts of\nGermany and Switzerland _Kind_ has the sense of _boy_; in\nThuringia, for example, people speak of _zwei Kinder und ein\nM\u00e4dchen,_ \"two boys and a girl.\" From the same radical sprang the\nModern High German _Knabe_, Old High German _chnabo_, \"boy,\nyouth, young fellow, servant,\" and its cognates, including our English\n_knave_, with its changed meaning, and possibly also German\n_Knecht_ and English _knight_, of somewhat similar import\noriginally.\n\nTo the same original source we trace back Greek [Greek:\n_genetaer_], Latin _genitor_, \"parent,\" and their cognates, in\nall of which the idea of _genesis_ is prominent. Here belong, in\nGreek: [Greek: _genesis_], \"origin, birth, beginning\"; [Greek:\n_gynae_], \"woman\"; [Greek: _genea_], \"family, race\"; [Greek:\n_geinomai_], \"I beget, produce, bring forth, am born\"; [Greek:\n_gignomai_], \"I come into a new state of being, become, am born.\"\nIn Latin: _gigno_, \"I beget, bring forth\"; _gens_, \"clan,\nrace, nation,\"--those born in a certain way; _ingens_, \"vast, huge,\ngreat,\"--\"not _gens_,\" _i.e._ \"born beyond or out of its\nkind\"; _gentilis_, \"belonging to the same clan, race, tribe,\nnation,\" then, with various turns of meaning, \"national, foreign,\"\nwhence our _gentile, genteel, gentle, gentry,_ etc.; _genus_,\n\"birth, race, sort, kind\"; _ingenium_, \"innate quality, natural\ndisposition\"; _ingeniosus_, \"of good natural abilities, born\nwell-endowed,\" hence _ingenious; ingenuus_, \"native, free-born,\nworthy of a free man,\" hence \"frank, _ingenuous_\";\n_progenies_, \"descent, descendants, offspring, progeny\";\n_gener_, \"son-in-law\"; _genius_, \"innate superior nature,\ntutelary deity, the god born to a place,\" hence the _genius_, who\nis \"born,\" not \"made\"; _genuinus_, \"innate, born-in,\n_genuine_\"; _indigena_, \"native, born-there, indigenous\";\n_generosus_, \"of high, noble birth,\" hence \"noble-minded,\n_generous_\"; _genero_, \"I beget, produce, engender, create,\nprocreate,\" and its derivatives _degenero, regenero_, etc., with\nthe many words springing from them. From the same radical _gen_\ncomes the Latin _(g)nascor_, \"I am born,\" whose stem _(g)na_\nis seen also in _natio_, \"the collection of those born,\" or \"the\nbirth,\" and _natura_, \"the world of birth,\"--like Greek [Greek:\n_phnsis_],--for \"nations\" and \"nature\" have both \"sprung into\nbeing.\" The Latin _germen_ (our _germ_), which signified\n\"sprig, offshoot, young bud, sprout, fruit, embryo,\" probably meant\noriginally simply \"growth,\" from the root _ker_, \"to make to grow.\"\nFrom the same Indo-European radical have come the Latin _creare_,\n\"to create, make, produce,\" with its derivatives _procreare_ and\n_creator_, which we now apply to the Supreme Being, as the \"maker\"\nor \"producer\" of all things. Akin are also _crescere_, \"to come\nforth, to arise, to appear, to increase, to grow, to spring, to be\nborn,\" and _Ceres_, the name of the goddess of agriculture (growth\nand creation), whence our word _cereal_; and in Greek [Greek:\nKronos], the son of Uranus (Heaven) and G\u00e6a (Earth), [Greek: kratos],\n\"strength,\" and its derivatives (\"democracy,\" etc.).\n\nAnother interesting Latin word is _pario_, \"I bring forth,\nproduce,\" whence _parens_, \"producer, parent,\" _partus_,\n\"birth, bearing, bringing forth; young, offspring, foetus, embryo of any\ncreature,\" _parturio, parturitio_, etc. _Pario_ is used alike\nof human beings, animals, birds, fish, while _parturio_ is applied\nto women and animals, and, by Virgil, even to trees,--_parturit\narbos_, \"the tree is budding forth,\"--and by other writers to objects\neven less animate.\n\nIn the Latin _enitor_, \"I bring forth or bear children or\nyoung,\"--properly, \"I struggle, strive, make efforts,\"--we meet with the\nidea of \"labour,\" now so commonly associated with child-bearing, and\nderiving from the old comparison of the tillage of the soil and the\nbearing of the young. This association existed in Hebrew also, and Cain,\nthe first-born of Adam, was the first agriculturist. We still say the\ntree _bears_ fruit, the land _bears_ crops, is _fertile_,\nand the most characteristic word in English belonging to the category in\nquestion is \"to _bear_\" children, cognate with Modern High German\n_ge-b\u00e4ren_, Gothic _gabairan_, Latin _ferre_ (whence\n_fertilis_), Greek _[Greek: ferein]_, Sanskrit _bhri_,\netc., all from the Indo-European root _bher_, \"to carry\"--compare\nthe use of _tragen_ in Modern High German: _sie tr\u00e4gt ein Kind\nunter dem Herzen_. The passive verb is \"to be _born_\" literally,\n\"to be borne, to be carried, produced,\" and the noun corresponding,\n_birth_, cognate with German _Geburt_, and Old Norse\n_burthr_, which meant \"embryo\" as well. Related ideas are seen in\n_burden_, and in the Latin, _fors, fortuna_, for \"fortune\" is\nbut that which is \"borne\" or \"produced, brought forth,\" just as the\nModern High German _Heil_, \"fortune, luck,\" is probably connected\nwith the Indo-European radical _gen_, \"to produce.\"\n\nCorresponding to the Latin _parentes_, in meaning, we have the\nGothic _berusjos_, \"the bearers,\" or \"parents\"; we still use in\nEnglish, \"forbears,\" in the sense of ancestors. The good old English\nphrase \"with child,\" which finds its analogues in many other languages,\nhas, through false modesty, been almost driven out of literature, as it\nhas been out of conversational language, by _pregnant_, which comes\nto us from the Latins, who also used _gravidus_,--a word we now\napply only to animals, especially dogs and ants,--and _enceinte_,\nborrowed from French, and referring to the ancient custom of girding a\nwoman who was with child. Similarly barren of direct reference to the\nchild are _accouchement_, which we have borrowed from French, and\nthe German _Entbindung_.\n\nIn German, Grimm enumerates, among other phrases relating to\nchild-birth, the following, the particular meanings and uses of which\nare explained in his great dictionary: _Schwanger, gross zum Kinde,\nzum Kinde gehen, zum Kinde arbeiten, um's Kind kommen, mit Kinde, ein\nKind tragen, Kindesgrosz, Kindes schwer, Kinder haben, Kinder bekommen,\nKinder kriegen, niederkommen, entbinden,_ and the quaint and\nbeautiful _eines Kindes genesen_,--all used of the mother. Applied\nto both parents we find _Kinder machen_, _Kinder bekommen_\n(now used more of the mother), _Kinder erzeugen_ (more recently, of\nthe father only), _Kinder erzielen_.\n\nOur English word _girl_ is really a diminutive (from a stem\n_gir_, seen in Old Low German _g\u00f6r_, \"a child\") from some Low\nGerman dialect, and, though it now signifies only \"a female child, a\nyoung woman,\" in Middle English _gerl_ (_girl, gurl_) was\napplied to a young person of either sex. In the Swiss dialects to-day\n_gurre_, or _gurrli_, is a name given to a \"girl\" in a\ndepreciatory sense, like our own \"girl-boy.\" In many primitive tongues\nthere do not appear to be special words for \"son\" and \"daughter,\" or for\n\"boy\" and \"girl,\" as distinguished from each other, these terms being\nrendered \"male-child (man-child),\" and \"female-child (woman-child)\"\nrespectively. The \"man-child\" of the King James' version of the\nScriptures belongs in this category. In not a few languages, the words\nfor \"son\" and \"daughter\" and for \"boy\" and \"girl\" mean really \"little\nman,\" and \"little woman\"--a survival of which thought meets us in the\n\"little man\" with which his elders are even now wont to denominate \"the\nsmall boy.\" In the Nahuatl language of Mexico, \"woman\" is _ciuatl_,\n\"girl\" _ciuatontli_; in the Niskwalli, of the State of Washington,\n\"man\" is _stobsh_, \"boy\" _st\u00f3tomish_, \"woman\" _sl\u00e1ne_,\n\"girl\" _ch\u00e1chas_ (_i.e._ \"small\") _sl\u00e1ne_; in the Tacana,\nof South. America, \"man\" is _dreja_, \"boy\" _drejave_, \"woman\"\n_epuna_, \"girl\" _epunave_. And but too often the \"boys\" and\n\"girls\" even as mere children are \"little men and women\" in more\nrespects than that of name.\n\nIn some languages the words for \"son,\" \"boy,\" \"girl\" are from the same\nroot. Thus, in the Mazatec language, of Mexico, we find _indidi_\n\"boy,\" _tzadi_ \"girl,\" _indi_ \"son,\" and in the Cholona, of\nPeru, _nun-pullup_ \"boy,\" _ila-pullup_ \"girl,\" _pul_\n\"son,\"--where _ila_ means \"female,\" and _nun_ \"male.\"\n\nIn some others, as was the case with the Latin _puella_, from\n_puer_, the word for \"girl\" seems derived from that for \"boy.\"\nThus, we have in Maya, _mehen_ \"son,\" _ix-mehen_ \"daughter,\"--\n_-ix_ is a feminine prefix; and in the J\u00edvaro, of Ecuador,\n_vila_ \"son,\" _vilalu_, \"daughter.\"\n\nAmong very many primitive peoples, the words for \"babe, infant, child,\"\nsignify really \"small,\" \"little one,\" like the Latin _parvus_, the\nScotch _wean_ (for _wee ane_, \"wee one\"), etc. In Hawaiian,\nfor example, the \"child\" is called _keiki_, \"the little one,\" and\nin certain Indian languages of the Western Pacific slope, the Wiyot\n_kusha'ma_ \"child,\" Yuke _\u00fansil_ \"infant,\" Wintun\n_cru-tut_ \"infant,\" Niskwalli _ch\u00e1 chesh_ \"child (boy),\" all\nsignify literally \"small,\" \"little one.\"\n\nSome languages, again, have diminutives of the word for \"child,\" often\nformed by reduplication, like the _wee wean_ of Lowland Scotch, and\nthe _pilpil_, \"infant\" of the Nahuatl of Mexico.\n\nIn the Snanaimuq language, of Vancouver Island, the words\n_k\u00b7\u00e4'ela_, \"male infant,\" and _k\u00b7\u00e4'k\u00b7ela_, \"female infant,\"\nmean simply \"the weak one.\" In the Modoc, of Oregon, a \"baby\" is\nliterally, \"what is carried on one's self.\" In the Tsimshian, of British\nColumbia, the word _wok\u00b7\u00e2'\u00fbts_, \"female infant,\" signifies really\n\"without labrets,\" indicating that the creature is yet too young for the\nlip ornaments. In Latin, _liberi_, one of the words for \"children,\"\nshows on its face that it meant only \"children, as opposed to the slaves\nof the house, _servi_\"; for _liberi_ really denotes \"the free\nones.\" In \"the Galibi language of Brazil, _tigami_ signifies 'young\nbrother, son, and little child,' indiscriminately.\" The following\npassage from Westermarck recalls the \"my son,\" etc., of our higher\nconversational or even officious style (166.93):--\n\n\"Mr. George Bridgman states that, among the Mackay blacks of Queensland,\nthe word for 'daughter' is used by a man for any young woman belonging\nto the class to which his daughter would belong if he had one. And,\nspeaking of the Australians, Eyre says, 'In their intercourse with each\nother, natives of different tribes are exceedingly punctilious and\npolite; ... almost everything that is said is prefaced by the\nappellation of father, son, brother, mother, sister, or some other\nsimilar term, corresponding to that degree of relationship which would\nhave been most in accordance with their relative ages and\ncircumstances.\"\n\nSimilar phenomena meet us in the language of the criminal classes, and\nthe slang of the wilder youth of the country.\n\nAmong the Andaman Islanders: \"Parents, when addressing or referring to\ntheir children, and not using names, employ distinct terms, the father\ncalling his son _dar \u00f4-dire,_ i.e. 'he that has been begotten by\nme,' and his daughter, _dar \u00f4-dire-pail-;_ while the mother makes\nuse of the word _dab \u00ea-tire,_ i.e. 'he whom I have borne,' for the\nformer, and _dab \u00ea-tire pail-_ for the latter; similarly, friends,\nin speaking of children to their parents, say respectively, _ngar\n\u00f4-dire,_ or _ngab \u00ea-tire_ (your son), _ngar \u00f4-dire-pail-,_\nor _ngab \u00ea-tire-pail-_ (your daughter)\" (498. 59).\n\nIn the Tonkaw\u00e9 Indian language of Texas, \"to be born\" is _nikaman\nyek\u00e9wa,_ literally, \"to become bones,\" and in the Klamath, of Oregon,\n\"to give birth,\" is _nk\u00e2cg\u00ee,_ from _nk\u00e1k,_ \"the top of the\nhead,\" and _g\u00ee,_ \"to make,\" or perhaps from _k\u00e1k'g\u00ee,_ \"to\nproduce bones,\" from the idea that the seat of life is in the bones. In\nthe Nipissing dialect of the Algonkian tongue, _ni kanis,_ \"my\nbrother,\" signifies literally, \"my little bone,\" an etymology which, in\nthe light of the expressions cited above, reminds one of the Greek\n[Greek: adelphos], and the familiar \"bone of my bone,\" etc. A very\ninteresting word for \"child\" is Sanskrit _toka,_ Greek [Greek:\nteknon], from the Indo-European radical _tek,_ \"to prepare, make,\nproduce, generate.\" To the same root belong Latin _texere,_ \"to\nweave,\" Greek [Greek: technae] \"art\"; so that the child and art have\ntheir names from the same primitive source--the mother was the former of\nthe child as she was of the chief arts of life.\n\n\n_\"Flower-Names.\"_\n\nThe people who seem to have gone farthest in the way of words for\n\"child\" are the Andaman Islanders, who have an elaborate system of\nnomenclature from the first year to the twelfth or fifteenth, when\nchildhood may be said to end. There are also in use a profusion of\n\"flower-names\" and complimentary terms. The \"flower-names\" are confined\nto girls and young women who are not mothers. The following list shows\nthe peculiarity of the name-giving:--\n\n1. Proper name chosen before birth of child: ._d\u00f4'ra_.\n\n2. If child turns out to be a boy, he is called: ._d\u00f4'ra-\u00f4'ta_; if\na girl, ._d\u00f4'ra-k\u00e2'ta_; these names (_\u00f4'ta_ and _k\u00e2'ta_\nrefer to the genital organs of the two sexes) are used during the first\ntwo or three years only.\n\n3. Until he reaches puberty, the boy is called: ._d\u00f4'ra d\u00e2'la_, and\nthe girl, _.d\u00f4'ra-po'il'ola_.\n\n4. When she reaches maturity, the girl is said to be _\u00fan-l\u00e2-wi_, or\n_\u00e2'k\u00e0-l\u00e1-wi_, and receives a \"flower-name\" chosen from the one of\n\"the eighteen prescribed trees which blossom in succession\" happening to\nbe in season when she attains womanhood.\n\n5. If this should occur in the middle of August, when the _Pterocarpus\ndalbergoides_, called _ch\u00e2'langa_, is in flower,\n\"._d\u00f4'ra-po-ilola_ would become ._ch\u00e0'garu d\u00f4'ra_, and this\ndouble name would cling to the girl until she married and was a mother,\nthen the 'flower' name would give way to the more dignified term\n_ch\u00e4n'a_ (madam or mother)._d\u00f4'ra_; if childless, a woman has\nto pass a few years of married life before she is called _ch\u00e4n'a_,\nafter which no further change is made in her name.\"\n\nMuch other interesting information about name-giving may be found in the\npages of Mr. Man's excellent treatise on this primitive people (498.\n59-61; 201-208).\n\n\n_Sign Language._\n\nInteresting details about signs and symbols for \"child\" may be found in\nthe elaborate article of Colonel Mallery on \"Sign Language among North\nAmerican Indians\" (497a), and the book of Mr. W. P. Clark on _Indian\nSign Language_ (420).\n\nColonel Mallery tells us that \"the Egyptian hieroglyphists, notably in\nthe designation of Horus, their dawn-god, used the finger in or on the\nlips for 'child.' It has been conjectured in the last instance that the\ngesture implied, not the mode of taking nourishment, but inability to\nspeak, _in-fans_.\" This conjecture, however, the author rejects\n(497a. 304). Among the Arapaho Indians \"the sign for _child, baby_,\nis the forefinger in the mouth, _i.e._ a nursing child, and a\nnatural sign of a deaf-mute is the same;\" related seem also the ancient\nChinese forms for \"son\" and \"birth,\" as well as the symbol for the\nlatter among the Dakota Indians (494 a. 356). Clark describes the symbol\nfor \"child,\" which is based upon those for \"parturition\" and \"height,\"\nthus: \"Bring the right hand, back outwards, in front of centre of body,\nand close to it, fingers extended, touching, pointing outwards and\ndownwards; move the hands on a curve downwards and outwards; then carry\nthe right hand, back outwards, well out to front and right of body,\nfingers extended and pointing upwards, hand resting at supposed height\nof child; the hand is swept into last position at the completion of\nfirst gesture. In speaking of children generally, and, in fact, unless\nit is desired to indicate height or age of the child, the first sign is\nall that is used or is necessary. This sign also means the young of any\nanimal. In speaking of children generally, sometimes the signs for\ndifferent heights are only made. Deaf-mutes make the combined sign for\nmale and female, and then denote the height with right hand held\nhorizontally\" (420. 109).\n\nFor \"baby,\" deaf-mutes \"hold extended left hand back down, in front of\nbody, forearm about horizontal and pointing to right and front; then lay\nthe back of partially compressed right hand on left forearm near wrist\"\n(420. 57).\n\n\n_Names._\n\nThe interesting and extensive field of personal onomatology--the study\nof personal names--cannot be entered upon exhaustively here. Shakespeare\nhas said:--\n\n\n  \"What's in a name? That which we call a rose\n  By any other name would smell as sweet,\"--\n\n\nand the same remark might be made of the children of some primitive\npeoples. Not infrequently the child is named before it is born. Of the\nCentral Eskimo we read that often before the birth of the child, \"some\nrelative or friend lays his hand upon the mother's stomach, and decides\nwhat the infant is to be called; and, as the name serves for either sex,\nit is of no consequence whether it be a girl or a boy\" (402. 612, 590).\nPolle has a good deal to say of the deep significance of the name with\ncertain peoples--\"to be\" and \"to be named\" appearing sometimes as\nsynonymous (517. 99). \"Hallowed be Thy name\" expresses the ideas of many\ngenerations of men. With the giving of a name the soul and being of a\nformer bearer of it were supposed to enter into and possess the child or\nyouth upon whom it was conferred. Kink says of the Eskimo of East\nGreenland, that \"they seemed to consider man as consisting of three\nindependent parts,--soul, body, name\" (517. 122). One can easily\nunderstand the mysterious associations of the name, the taboos of its\nutterance or pronunciation so common among primitive peoples--the\nreluctance to speak the name of a dead person, as well as the desire to\nconfer the name of such a one upon a new-born child, spring both from\nthe same source.\n\nThe folk-lore and ceremonial of name-giving are discussed at length in\nPloss, and the special treatises on popular customs. In several parts of\nGermany, it is held to be ominous for misfortune or harm to the child,\nif the name chosen for it should be made known before baptism.\nSometimes, the child is hardly recognized as existing until he has been\ngiven a name. In Gerbstadt in Mansfeld, Germany, the child before it\nreceives its name is known as \"dovedung,\" and, curiously enough, in\nfar-off Samoa, the corresponding appellation is \"excrement of the\nfamily-god\" (517.103).\n\nThe following statement, regarding one of the American Indian tribes,\nwill stand for many other primitive peoples: \"The proper names of the\nDakotas are words, simple and compounded, which are in common use in the\nlanguage. They are usually given to children by the father, grandfather,\nor some other influential relative. When young men have distinguished\nthemselves in battle, they frequently take to themselves new names, as\nthe names of distinguished ancestors of warriors now dead. The son of a\nchief when he comes to the chieftainship, generally takes the name of\nhis father or grandfather, so that the same names, as in other more\npowerful dynasties, are handed down along the royal lines\" (524. 44-45).\n\nOf the same people we are also told: \"The Dakotas have no family or\nsurnames. But the children of a family have particular names which\nbelong to them, in the order of their birth up to the fifth child. These\nnames are for boys, Caske, Hepan, Hepi, Catan, and Hake. For girls they\nare, Windna, Hapan, Hapistinna, Wanske, and Wihake.\"\n\n\n_Terms applied to Children._\n\nAn interesting study might be made of the words we apply to children in\nrespect of size, _little, small, wee, tiny,_ etc., very many of\nwhich, in their etymology, have no reference to childhood, or indeed to\nsmallness. The derivation of little is uncertain, but the word is\nreasonably thought to have meant \"little\" in the sense of \"deceitful,\nmean,\" from the radical _lut_, \"to stoop\" (hence \"to creep, to\nsneak\"). Curiously enough, the German _klein_ has lost its original\nmeaning,--partly seen in our clean,--\"bright, clear.\" _Small_ also\nbelongs in the same category, as the German _schmal_, \"narrow,\nslim,\" indicates, though perhaps the original signification may have\nbeen \"small\" as we now understand it; a cognate word is the Latin\n_macer_, \"thin, lean,\" which has lost an s at the beginning. Even\nwee, as the phrase \"a little wee bit\" hints, is thought (by Skeat) to be\nnothing more than a Scandinavian form of the same word which appears in\nour English _way_. Skeat also tells us that \"a little teeny boy,\"\nmeant at first \"a little fractious (peevish) boy,\" being derived from an\nold word _teen_, \"anger, peevishness.\" Analogous to _tiny_ is\n_pettish_, which is derived from _pet_, \"mama's pet,\" \"a\nspoiled child.\" Endless would the list of words of this class be, if we\nhad at our disposal the projected English dialect dictionary; many other\nillustrations might be drawn from the numerous German dialect\ndictionaries and the great Swiss lexicon of Tobler.\n\nStill more interesting, perhaps, would be the discussion of the special\nwords used to denote the actions and movements of children of all ages,\nand the names and appellatives of the child derived from considerations\nof age, constitution, habits, actions, speech, etc., which are\nespecially numerous in Low German dialects and such forms of English\nspeech as the Lowland Scotch. Worthy of careful attention are the\nsynonyms of child, the comparisons in which the child figures in the\nspeech of civilized and uncivilized man; the slang terms also, which,\nlike the common expression of to-day, _kid_, often go back to a\nvery primitive state of mind, when \"children\" and \"kids\" were really\nlooked upon as being more akin than now. Beside the terms of contempt\nand sarcasm,--_goose_, _loon_, _pig_, _calf_,\n_donkey_, etc.,--those figures of speech which, the world over,\nexpress the sentiment of the writer of the _Wisdom of Solomon_\nregarding the foolishness of babes,--we, like the ancient Mexicans and\nmany another lower race, have terms of praise and endearment,--\"a jewel\nof a babe,\" and the like,--legions of caressives and diminutives in the\nuse of which some of the Low German dialects are more lavish even than\nLowland Scotch.\n\nIn Grimm's great _Deutsches W\u00f6rterbuch_, the synonymy of the word\n_Kind_ and its semasiology are treated at great length, with a\nmultitude of examples and explanations, useful to students of English,\nwhose dictionaries lag behind in these respects. The child in language\nis a fertile subject for the linguist and the psychologist, and the\nfield is as yet almost entirely unexplored.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VI.\n\n\nTHE CHILD IN THE PRIMITIVE LABORATORY.\n\nAs if no mother had made you look nice.--_Proverbial Saying of Songish\nIndians._\n\nSpare the rod and spoil the child.--_Hebrew Proverb._\n\nThou art weighed in the balance and found wanting.--_Daniel_ v. 27.\n\nHe has lost his measure.--_German Saying._\n\n_\"Licking into Shape.\"_\n\nPope, in the _Dunciad_, has the well-known lines:--\n\n\n  \"So watchful Bruin forms, with plastic care,\n   Each growing lump, and brings it to a bear,\"\n\n\na conceit found in Burton, Montaigne, Byron, and other writers, and\nbased upon an old folk-belief that the cubs are born a formless lump\nwhich the mother-bear has to \"lick into shape.\" The same idea gave rise\nto the \"ours mal l\u00e9ch\u00e9\" of French, and our own colloquial expression \"an\nill-licked cub.\" In an Alemanian lullaby sung while washing and combing\nthe child, occurs the following curious passage:--\n\n\n  \"I bin e chleine Pumpernickel,\n   I bin e chleine B\u00e4r,\n   Und wie mi Gott erschaffe h\u00e4t,\n   So wagglen ich derher,\"\n [\"I am a little Pumpernickel,\n   I am a little bear,\n   And just as God has fashioned me\n   I wiggle about,\"]\n\n\nwhich, perhaps, contains the same thought. In a recent article,\nProfessor E. W. Fay offers an etymology of the word \"livid\" which\nfacilitates the passage from animal to man: \"_Lividus_ meant\n'licked.' The word derives from an animal's licking hurts and sores on\nthe young. A mother of the human species still kisses (licks) a child's\nhurt to make it well\" (_Mod. Lang. Notes_, IX. 263). Who has not\nhad his mother say: \"Does it hurt? Come and let me kiss it, and make it\nwell.\"\n\nMoreover, Reclus tells us, \"There are Esquimaux who go further in their\ndemonstrations of affection, and carrying their complaisance as far as\nMamma Puss and Mamma Bruin, lick their babies to clean them, lick them\nwell over from head to foot\" (523. 38). Nor is it always the mother who\nthus acts. Mantegazza observes: \"I even know a very affectionate child,\nwho, without having learnt it from any one, licks the people to whom he\nwishes to show friendship\" (499. 144).\n\n\n_Massage._\n\n_Che nasce bella nasce maritata_,--\"the girl born pretty is born\nmarried,\"--says the Italian proverb, and many devices there are among\nprimitive races to ensure the beauty which custom demands, but which\nnature has failed to provide.\n\nAmong the Songish Indians of British Columbia, there is a saying: _T\u00f4u\n\u00f4'wuna t\u00e4ns ksEtctc\u00e2'ai_,--\"as if no mother had made you look nice.\"\nDoctor Boas describes the \"making the child look nice\" as follows (404.\n20):--\n\n\"As soon as it is born, the mother rubs it from the mouth towards the\nears, so as to press the cheek-bones somewhat upward. The outer corners\nof the eyes are pulled outward that they may not become round, which is\nconsidered ill-looking. The calves of the legs are pressed backward and\nupward, the knees are tied together to prevent the feet from turning\ninward, the forehead is pressed down.\" Among the Nootka Indians,\naccording to the same authority: \"Immediately after birth, the eyebrows\nof the babe are pressed upward, its belly is pressed forward, and the\ncalves of the legs are squeezed from the ankles upward. All these\nmanipulations are believed to improve the appearance of the child. It is\nbelieved that the pressing of the eyebrows will give them the peculiar\nshape that may be noticed in all carvings of the Indians of the North\nPacific Coast. The squeezing of the legs is intended to produce slim\nankles\" (404. 39).\n\nThe subject of the human physiognomy and physical characteristics in\nfolk-lore and folk-speech is a very entertaining one, and the practices\nin vogue for beautifying these are legion and found all over the world\n(204).\n\n\n_Face-Games._\n\nSome recollection of such procedure as that of the Songish Indians seems\nto linger, perhaps, in the game, which Sicilian nurses play on the\nbaby's features. It consists in \"lightly touching nose, mouth, eyes,\netc., giving a caress or slap to the chin,\" and repeating at the same\ntime the verses:--\n\n\n  \"Varvaruttedu\n  Vucca d'aneddu,\n  Nasu affilatu,\n  Ocehi di stiddi\n  Frunti quatrata\n  E te 'cc\u00e0 'na timpulata.\"\n\n\nIn French we have corresponding to this:--\n\n\n  \"Beau front\n  Petits yeux,\n  Nez can can,\n  Bouche d'argent,\n  Menton fleuri,\n  Chichirichi.\"\n\n\nIn Scotch:--\n\n\n  \"Chin cherry,\n  Moo merry,\n  Nose nappie,\n  Ee winkie,\n  Broo brinkie,\n  Cock-up jinkie.\"\n\n\nIn English:--\n\n\n  \"Eye winker,\n  Tom Tinker,\n  Nose dropper,\n  Mouth eater.\n  Chin chopper.\"\n\n\nAnd cognate practices exist all over the globe (204. 21).\n\n\n_Primitive Weighing._\n\n\"Worth his weight in gold\" is an expression which has behind it a long\nhistory of folk-thought. Professor Gaidoz, in his essay on _Ransom by\nWeight_ (236), and Haberlandt, in his paper on the _Tul\u00e2purusha,\nMan-Weighing_ (248) of India, have shown to what extent has prevailed\nin Europe and Asia the giving of one's weight in gold or other precious\nsubstances by prisoners to their captors, in order to secure their\nliberty, by devotees to the church, or to some saint, as a cure for, or\na preventitive of disease, or as an act of charity or of gratitude for\nfavours received.\n\nThe expression used of Belshazzar in Daniel v. 27, \"Thou art weighed in\nthe balance, and found wanting\" (and the analogue in Job xxxi. 6), has\nbeen taken quite literally, and in Brittany, according to the Abbot of\nSoissons, there was a Chapel of the Balances, \"in which persons who came\nto be cured miraculously, were weighed, to ascertain whether their\nweight diminished when prayer was made by the monks in their behalf.\"\nBrewer informs us that \"Rohese, the mother of Thomas Becket, used to\nweigh her boy every year on his birthday, against the money, clothes,\nand provisions which she gave to the poor\" (191.41). From Gregory of\nTours we learn that Charicus, King of the Suevi, when his son was ill,\n\"hearing of the miraculous power of the bones of St. Martin, had his son\nweighed against gold and silver, and sent the amount to his sepulchre\nand sanctuary at Tours\" (236. 60).\n\nWeighing of infants is looked upon with favour in some portions of\nwestern Europe, and to the same source we may ultimately trace the\nmodern baby's card with the weight of the newcomer properly inscribed\nupon it,--a fashion which bids fair to be a valuable anthropometric\nadjunct. \"Hefting the baby\" has now taken on a more scientific aspect\nthan it had of yore.\n\nThe following curious custom of the eastern Eskimo is perhaps to be\nmentioned here, a practice connected with their treatment of the sick.\n\"A stone weighing three or four pounds, according to the gravity of the\nsickness, is placed by a matron under the pillow. Every morning she\nweighs it, pronouncing meanwhile words of mystery. Thus she informs\nherself of the state of the patient and his chances of recovery. If the\nstone grows constantly heavier, it is because the sick man cannot\nescape, and his days are numbered\" (523. 39).\n\nIt is a far cry from Greenland to England, but there are connecting\nlinks in respect of folk-practice. Mr. Dyer informs us that in the\nparish church of Wingrove, near Ailesbury, as late as 1759, a certain\nMrs. Hammokes was accused of witchcraft, and her husband demanded the\n\"trial by the church Bible.\" So \"she was solemnly conducted to the\nparish church, where she was stript of all her clothes to her shift, and\nweighed against the great parish Bible in the presence of all her\nneighbours. The result was that, to the no small mortification of her\naccuser, she outweighed the Bible, and was triumphantly acquitted of the\ncharge\" (436. 307, 308).\n\nHow often has not woman, looked upon in the light of a child, been\nsubjected to the same practices and ceremonies!\n\n\n_Primitive Measurements._\n\nThe etymology and original significance of our common English words,\n_span_, _hand_, _foot_, _cubit_, _fathom_, and\ntheir cognates and equivalents in other languages, to say nothing of the\nself-explanatory _finger's breadth_, _arm's length_,\n_knee-high_, _ankle-deep_, etc., go back to the same rude\nanthropometry of prehistoric and primitive times, from which the classic\npeoples of antiquity obtained their canons of proportion and symmetry of\nthe human body and its members. Among not a few primitive races it is\nthe child rather than the man that is measured, and we there meet with a\nrude sort of anthropometric laboratory. From Ploss, who devotes a single\nparagraph to \"Measurements of the Body,\" we learn that these crude\nmeasurements are of great importance in folk-medicine:--\n\n\"In Bohemia, the new-born child is usually measured by an old woman, who\nmeasures all the limbs with a ribbon, and compares them with one\nanother; the hand, _e.g._, must be as long as the face. If the\nright relations do not subsist, prayers and various superstitious\npractices are resorted to in order to prevent the devil from injuring\nthe child, and the evil spirits are driven out of the house by means of\nfumigation. In the case of sick children in Bohemia the measuring is\nresorted to as a sympathetic cure. In other parts of Germany, on the\nother hand, in Schleswig-Holstein, Thuringia, Oldenburg, it is thought\nthat measuring and weighing the new-born child may interfere with its\nthriving and growth\" (326. I. 302).\n\nSibree states that in Madagascar, at circumcision, the child is measured\nand sprinkled with water (214. 6), and Ellis, in his history of that\nisland, gives the following details of the ceremony (_History of\nMadagascar_, Vol. I. p. 182):--\n\n\"The children on whom the rite is to be performed are next led across\nthe blood of the animal just killed, to which some idea of sacredness is\nattached. They are then placed on the west side of the house, and, as\nthey stand erect, a man holding a light cane in his hand, measures the\nfirst child to the crown of the head, and at one stroke cuts off a piece\nof the cane measured to that height, having first carefully dipped the\nknife in the blood of the slaughtered sheep. The knife is again dipped\nin the blood, and the child measured to the waist, when the cane is cut\nto that height. He is afterwards measured to the knee with similar\nresults. The same ceremony is performed on all the children\nsuccessively. The meaning of this, if indeed any meaning can be attached\nto it, seems to be the symbolical removal of all evils to which the\nchildren might be exposed,--first from the head to the waist, then from\nthe waist to the knees, and finally, from the knees to the sole of the\nfoot.\"\n\nThe general question of the measurement of sick persons (not especially\nchildren), and of the payment of an image or a rod of precious metal of\nthe height of a given person, or the height of his waist, shoulders,\nknee, etc., of the person, in recompense for some insult or injury, has\nbeen treated of by Grimm, Gaidoz, and Haberlandt. Gaidoz remarks (236.\n74): \"It is well known that in Catholic countries it is customary to\npresent the saints with votive offerings in wax, which are\nrepresentative of the sicknesses for which the saints are invoked; a wax\nlimb, or a wax eye, for instance, are representative of a sore limb or\nof a sore eye, the cure of which is expected from the saint. Wax bodies\nwere offered in the same way, as we learn from a ludicrous story told by\nHenri Estienne, a French writer of the sixteenth century. The story is\nabout a clever monk who made credulous parents believe he had saved\ntheir child by his prayers, and he says to the father, 'Now your son is\nsafe, thanks to God; one hour ago I should not have thought you would\nhave kept him alive. But do you know what you are to do? You ought to\nhave a wax effigy of his own size made for the glory of God, and put it\nbefore the image of the holy Ambrose, at whose intercession our Lord did\nthis favour to you.'\" Even poorer people were in the habit of offering\nwax candles of the height or of the weight of the sick person.\n\nIn 1888, M. Letourneau (299) called attention to the measurement of the\nneck as a test of puberty, and even of the virginity of maidens. In\nBrittany, \"According to popular opinion, there is a close relation\nbetween the volume of the neck and puberty, sometimes even the virginity\nof girls. It is a common sight to see three young girls of uncertain age\nmeasure in sport the circumference of the neck of one of them with a\nthread. The two ends of this thread are placed between the teeth of the\nsubject, and the endeavour is made to make the loop of the thread pass\nover the head. If the operation succeeds, the young girl is declared\n'bonne \u00e0 marier.'\" MM. Hanoteau and Letourneau state that among the\nKabyles of Algeria a similar measurement is made of the male sex. In\nKabylia, where the attainment of the virile state brings on the\nnecessity of paying taxes and bearing arms, families not infrequently\nendeavour to conceal the puberty of their young men. If such deceit is\nsuspected, recourse is had to the test of neck-measurement. Here again,\nas in Brittany, if the loop formed by the thread whose two ends are held\nin the teeth passes over the head, the young man is declared of age, and\nenrolled among the citizens, whilst his family is punished by a fine. M.\nManouvrier also notes that the same test is also employed to discover\nwhether an adolescent is to be compelled to keep the fast of Rhamadan.\n\n\n_Measurements of Limbs and Body._\n\nM. Mahoudeau cites from Tillaux's _Anatomie topographique,_ and MM.\nPerdrizet and Gaidoz in _M\u00e9lusine_ for 1893, quote from the\n_Secrets merveilleux de la magie naturette et cabalistique du Petit\nAlbert_ (1743) extracts relating to this custom, which is also\nreferred to by the Roman writers C. Valerius, Catullus, Vossius, and\nScaliger. The subject is an interesting one, and merits further\ninvestigation. Ellis (42. 233) has something to say on the matter from a\nscientific point of view. Grimm has called attention to the very ancient\ncustom of measuring a patient, \"partly by way of cure, partly to\nascertain if the malady were growing or abating.\" This practice is\nfrequently mentioned in the German poems and medical books of the\nfourteenth and fifteenth centuries. In one case a woman says of her\nhusband, \"I measured him till he forgot everything,\" and another,\ndesirous of persuading hers that he was not of sound mind, took the\nmeasure of his length and across his head. In a Z\u00fcrich Ms. of 1393,\n\"measuring\" is included among the unchristian and forbidden things of\nsorcery. In the region about Treves, a malady known as night-grip\n(_Nachtgriff_) is ascertained to be present by the following\nprocedure: \"Draw the sick man's belt about his naked body lengthwise and\nbreadthwise, then take it off and hang it on a nail with the words 'O\nGod, I pray thee, by the three virgins, Margarita, Maria Magdalena, and\nUrsula, be pleased to vouchsafe a sign upon the sick man, if he have the\nnightgrip or no'; then measure again, and if the belt be shorter than\nbefore, it is a sign of the said sickness.\" In the Liegnitz country, in\n1798, we are told there was hardly a village without its _messerin_\n(measuress), an old woman, whose _modus operandi_ was this: \"When\nshe is asked to say whether a person is in danger from consumption, she\ntakes a thread and measures the patient, first from head to heel, then\nfrom tip to tip of the outspread arms; if his length be less than his\nbreadth then he is consumptive; the less the thread will measure his\narms, the farther has the disease advanced; if it reaches only to the\nelbow, there is no hope for him. The measuring is repeated from time to\ntime; if the thread stretches and reaches its due length again, the\ndanger is removed. The wise woman must never ask money for her trouble,\nbut take what is given.\" In another part of Germany, \"a woman is stript\nnaked and measured with a piece of red yarn spun on a Sunday.\"\nSembrzycki tells us that in the Elbing district, and elsewhere in that\nportion of Prussia, the country people are firmly possessed by the idea\nthat a decrease in the measure of the body is the source of all sorts of\nmaladies. With an increase of sickness the hands and feet are believed\nto lose more and more their just proportional relations one with\nanother, and it is believed that one can determine how much measure is\nyet to be lost, how long the patient has yet to live. This belief has\ngiven rise to the proverbial phrase _das Maas verlieren_--\"to lose\none's measure\" (462. III. 1163-5).\n\nNot upon adults alone, however, were these measurements carried out, but\nupon infants, children, and youths as well. Even in the New World, among\nthe more conservative of the population of Aryan origin, these customs\nstill nourish, as we learn from comparatively recent descriptions of\ntrustworthy investigators. Professor J. Howard Gore, in the course of an\ninteresting article on \"The Go-Backs,\" belief in which is current among\nthe dwellers in the mountain regions of the State of Virginia, tells us\nthat when some one has suggested that \"the baby has the 'go-backs,'\" the\nfollowing process is gone through: \"The mother then must go alone with\nthe babe to some old lady duly instructed in the art or science of\ncuring this blighting disease. She, taking the infant, divests it of its\nclothing and places it on its back. Then, with a yarn string, she\nmeasures its length or height from the crown of the head to the sole of\nthe heel, cutting off a piece which exactly represents this length. This\nshe applies to the foot, measuring off length by length, to see if the\npiece of yarn contains the length of the foot an exact number of times.\nThis operation is watched by the mother with the greatest anxiety, for\non this coincidence of measure depends the child's weal or woe. If the\nlength of the string is an exact multiple of the length of the foot,\nnothing is wrong, but if there is a remainder, however small, the baby\nhas the go-backs, and the extent of the malady is proportional to this\nremainder. Of course in this measuring, the elasticity of the yarn is\nnot regarded, nor repetitions tried as a test of accuracy\" (244. 108).\nMoreover, \"the string with which the determination was made must be hung\non the hinge of a gate on the premises of the infant's parents, and as\nthe string by gradual decay passes away, so passes away the 'go-backs.'\nBut if the string should be lost, the ailment will linger until a new\ntest is made and the string once more hung out to decay. Sometimes the\ncure is hastened by fixing the string so that wear will come upon it.\"\n\nProfessor Gore aptly refers to the Latin proverb _ex pede\nHerculem_, which arose from the calculation of Pythagoras, who from\nthe _stadium_ of 6000 feet laid out by Hercules for the Olympian\ngames, by using his own foot as the unit, obtained the length of the\nfoot of the mighty hero, whence he also deduced his height. We are not\ntold, however, as the author remarks, whether or not Hercules had the\n\"go-backs.\"\n\nAmong the white settlers of the Alleghanies between southwestern Georgia\nand the Pennsylvania line, according to Mr. J. Hampden Porter, the\nfollowing custom is in vogue: \"Measuring an infant, whose growth has\nbeen arrested, with an elastic cord that requires to be stretched in\norder to equal the child's length, will set it right again. If the spell\nbe a wasting one, take three strings of similar or unlike colours, tie\nthem to the front door or gate in such a manner that whenever either are\nopened there is some wear and tear of the cords. As use begins to tell\nupon them, vigour will recommence\" (480. VII. 116). Similar practices\nare reported from Central Europe by Sartori (392 (1895). 88), whose\narticle deals with the folk-lore of counting, weighing, and measuring.\n\n\n_Tests of Physical Efficiency._\n\nThat certain rude tests of physical efficiency, bodily strength, and\npower of endurance have been and are in use among primitive peoples,\nespecially at the birth of children, or soon after, or just before, at,\nor after, puberty, is a well-known fact, further testified to by the\noccurrence of these practices in folk-tales and fairy-stories. Lifting\nstones, jumping over obstacles, throwing stones, spears, and the like,\ncrawling or creeping through holes in stones, rocks, or trees, have all\nbeen in vogue, and some of them survive even to-day in England and in\nother parts of Europe as popular tests of puberty and virginity. Mr.\nDyer, in his _Church Lore Gleanings_, mentions the \"louping,\" or\n\"petting\" stone at Belford, in Northumberland (England), a stone \"placed\nin the path outside the church porch, over which the bridal pair with\ntheir attendants must leap\"--the belief is that \"the bride must leave\nall her pets and humours behind her when she crosses it.\" At\nHigh-Coquetdale, according to Mr. Henderson, in 1868, a bride was made\nto jump over a stick held by two groomsmen at the church door (436.\n125). Another very curious practice is connected with St. Wilfrid's\n\"needle\" at Ripon Cathedral--said to be an imitation of the Basilican\ntransenna. Through this passage maidens who were accused of unchastity\ncrept in order to prove their innocence. If they could not pass through,\ntheir guilt was presumed. It is also believed that \"poor palsied folk\ncrept through in the expectation of being healed.\" At Boxley Church in\nKent, there was a \"small figure of St. Rumbold, which only those could\nlift who had never sinned in thought or deed\" (436. 312, 313).\n\nAt a marriage among the Nootka Indians of Vancouver Island, the groom's\nparty essay feats like these: \"Heavy weights are lifted; they try who is\nthe best jumper. A blanket with a hole in the centre is hung up, and men\nwalk up to it blindfolded from a distance of about twenty steps. When\nthey get near it they must point with their fingers towards the blanket,\nand try to hit the hole. They also climb a pole, on top of which an\neagle's nest, or something representing an eagle's nest, is placed. The\nwinner of each game receives a number of blankets from the girl's\nfather. When the games are at an end, the groom's father distributes\nblankets among the other party\" (404. 43). This reminds us of the games\nat picnics and social gatherings of our own people.\n\nIn the _Gentleman's Magazine_ for January, 1895, S. O. Addy, in an\narticle entitled \"English Surnames and Heredity,\" points out how the\netymologies give us some indications of the physical characteristics of\nthe persons on whom the names were conferred. In primitive times and\namong the lower races names are even of more importance in this respect.\n\nClark says: \"I have seen a baby not two days old snugly tied up in one\nof these little sacks; the rope tied to the pommel of the saddle, the\nsack hanging down alongside of the pony, and mother and child\ncomfortably jogging along, making a good day's march in bitter cold\nwinter weather, easily keeping up with a column of cavalry which was\nafter hostile Indians. After being carefully and firmly tied in the\ncradle, the child, as a rule, is only taken out to be cleaned in the\nmorning, and again in the evening just before the inmates of a lodge go\nto sleep; sometimes also in the middle of the day, but on the march only\nmorning and evening\" (420. 57).\n\nIn his account of the habits of the Tarahumari Indians, Lumholtz\nobserves: \"Heat never seems to trouble them. I have seen young babies\nsleeping with uncovered heads on the backs of their mothers, exposed to\nthe fierce heat of the summer sun.\" The same writer tells us that once\nhe pulled six hairs at once from a sleeping child, \"without causing the\nleast disturbance,\" and only when twenty-three had been extracted at\nonce did the child take notice, and then only scratched its head and\nslept on (107. 297).\n\nColonel Dodge notes the following practice in vogue among the wild\nIndians of the West:--\n\n\"While the child, either boy or girl, is very young, the mother has\nentire charge, control, and management of it. It is soon taught not to\ncry by a very summary process. When it attempts to 'set up a yell,' the\nmother covers its mouth with the palm of her hand, grasps its nose\nbetween her thumb and forefinger, and holds on until the little one is\nnearly suffocated. It is then let go, to be seized and smothered again\nat the first attempt to cry. The baby very soon comprehends that silence\nis the best policy\" (432.187).\n\nOf the Indians of Lower California, who learn to stand and walk before\nthey are a year old, we are told on the authority of the missionary\nBaegert: \"When they are born they are cradled in the shell of a turtle\nor on the ground. As soon as the child is a few months old, the mother\nplaces it perfectly naked astraddle on her shoulders, its legs hanging\ndown on both sides in front. In this guise the mother roves about all\nday, exposing her helpless charge to the hot rays of the sun and the\nchilly winds that sweep over the inhospitable country\" (306. 185).\n\n\n_Sleep._\n\nCurious indeed are some of the methods in use among primitive peoples to\ninduce sleep. According to Mr. Fraser, the natives of a village near the\nbanks of the Girree, in the Himalayan region of India, had the following\ncustom (_Quart. Rev._ XXIV. 109):--\n\n\"The mother, seizing the infant with both arms and aided by the knees,\ngives it a violent whirling motion, that would seem rather calculated to\nshake the child in pieces than to produce the effect of soft slumber;\nbut the result was unerring, and in a few seconds the child was fast\nasleep.\"\n\nSomewhat akin to this procedure is the practice our modern mothers and\nnurses have of swinging the baby through a sort of semicircle in their\narms, accompanying it with the familiar song,--\n\n\n  \"This way,\n  And that way,\" etc.\n\n\nThis song and action, their dolls doing duty as children, have been\nintroduced into the kindergarten, and even figure now in \"doll-drills\"\non the stage, and at church festivals and society entertainments.\n\nOf the same village the author goes on to say:--\n\n\"Several straw sheds are constructed on a bank, above which a cold clear\nstream is led to water their fields, and a small portion of this,\nprobably of three fingers' breadth, is brought into the shed by a hollow\nstick or piece of bark, and falls from this spout into a small drain,\nwhich carries it off about two feet below. The women bring their\nchildren to these huts in the heat of the day, and having lulled them to\nsleep and wrapt their bodies and feet warm in a blanket, they place them\non a small bench or tray horizontally, in such a way that the water\nshall fall upon the crown of the head, just keeping the whole top wet\nwith its stream. We saw two under this operation, and several others\ncame in while we remained, to place their children in a similar way.\nMales and females are equally used thus, and their sleep seemed sound\nand unruffled.\"\n\n\n_\"Heroic Treatment.\"_\n\nThe Andamanese baby \"within a few hours of its birth has its head shaved\nand painted with _k\u00f2vob_--(an ochre-mixture), while its diminutive\nface and body are adorned with a design in _tiela-og_--(white\nclay); this latter, as may be supposed, is soon obliterated, and\nrequires therefore to be constantly renewed.\" We are further informed\nthat before shaving an infant, \"the mother usually moistens the head\nwith milk which she presses from her breast,\" while with older children\nand adults water serves for this purpose (498. 114).\n\nThe \"heroic treatment,\" meted out by primitive peoples to children, as\nthey approach puberty, has been discussed in detail by Ploss, Kulischer,\nDaniels. Religion and the desire to attract the affection or attention\nof the other sex seem to lie very close to the fundamental reasons for\nmany of these practices, as Westermarck points out in his chapter on the\n\"Means of Attraction.\" (166. 165-212). A divine origin is often ascribed\nto these strange mutilations. \"The Australian Dieyerie, on being asked\nwhy he knocks out two front teeth of the upper jaw of his children, can\nanswer only that, when they were created, the Muranaura, a good spirit,\nthus disfigured the first child, and, pleased at the sight, commanded\nthat the like should be done to every male or female child for ever\nafter. The Pelew Islanders believe that the perforation of the septum of\nthe nose is necessary for winning eternal bliss; and the Nicaraguans say\nthat their ancestors were instructed by the gods to flatten their\nchildren's heads. Again, in Fiji it is supposed that the custom of\ntattooing is in conformity with the appointment of the god Dengei, and\nthat its neglect is punished after death. A similar idea prevails among\nthe Kingsmill Islanders and Ainos; and the Greenlanders formerly\nbelieved that the heads of those girls who had not been deformed by long\nstitches made with a needle and black thread between the eyes, on the\nforehead, and upon the chin, would be turned into train tubs and placed\nunder the lamps in heaven, in the land of souls\" (165. 170, 171).\n\nWere all the details of the fairy-tales true, which abound in every\nland, the cruelty meted out to the child suspected of being a changeling\nwould surpass human belief. Hartland enumerates the following procedures\nas having been in use, according to legend, to determine the justice of\nthe suspicion: Flinging the child on a dung-heap; putting in the oven;\nholding a red-hot shovel before the child's face; heating a poker\nred-hot to mark a cross on its forehead; heating the tongs red-hot to\nseize it by the nose; throwing on, or into, the fire; suspending over\nthe fire in a pot; throwing the child naked on the glowing embers at\nmidnight; throwing into lake, river, or sea (258. 120-123). These and\nmany more figure in story, and not a few of them seem to have been\nactually practised upon the helpless creatures, who, like the heathen,\nwere not supposed to call for pity or love. Mr. Hartland cites a case of\nactual attempt to treat a supposed changeling in a summary manner, which\noccurred no later than May 17,1884, in the town of Clonmel, Ireland. In\nthe absence of the mother of a three-year-old child (fancied by the\nneighbours to be a changeling), two women \"entered her house and placed\nthe child naked on a hot shovel, 'under the impression that it would\nbreak the charm,'\"--the only result being, of course, that the infant\nwas very severely burned (258. 121).\n\nOn the other hand, children of true Christian origin, infants who\nafterwards become saints, are subject to all sorts of torment at the\nhands of Satan and his angels, at times, but come forth, like the\n\"children\" of the fiery furnace in the time of Daniel, in imitation of\nwhose story many of the hagiological legends have doubtless been put\nforth, unscathed from fire, boiling water, roaring torrents, and other\nperilous or deadly situations (191. 9,122).\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VII.\n\n\nTHE BRIGHT SIDE OF CHILD-LIFE: PARENTAL AFFECTION.\n\n\nThese are my jewels.--_Cornelia (mother of the Gracchi)_.\n\n  A simple child\n  That lightly draws its breath,\n  And feels its life in every limb,\n  What should it know of death?--_Wordsworth_.\n\nChildren always turn towards the light.--_Hare_.\n\n  That I could bask in Childhood's sun\n  And dance o'er Childhood's roses!--_Praed_.\n\nGrief fills the room up of my absent child.--_Shakespeare_.\n\n\n\n_Parental Love_.\n\nIn his essay on _The Pleasures of Home_, Sir John Lubbock makes the\nfollowing statement (494. 102):--\n\n\"In the _Origin of Civilization_, I have given many cases showing\nhow small a part family affection plays in savage life. Here I will only\nmention one case in illustration. The Algonquin (North America) language\ncontained no word for 'to love,' so that when the missionaries\ntranslated the Bible into it they were obliged to invent one. What a\nlife, and what a language, without love!\"\n\nHow unfortunately inaccurate, how entirely unjustifiable, such a\ndeclaration is, may be seen from the study of the words for love in two\nof the Algonkian dialects,--Cree and Chippeway,--which Dr. Brinton has\nmade in one of his essays, _The Conception of Love in some American\nLanguages_. Let us quote the _ipsissima verba_ (411. 415):--\n\n(1) \"In both of them the ordinary words for love and friendship are\nderived from the same monosyllabic root, _sak_. On this, according\nto the inflectional laws of the dialects, are built up the terms for the\nlove of man to woman, a lover, love in the abstract, a friend,\nfriendship, and the like. It is also occasionally used by the\nmissionaries for the love of man to God and of God to man.\"\n\n(2) \"The Cree has several words which are confined to parental and\nfilial love, and to that which the gods have for men.\"\n\n(3) \"In the Chippeway there is a series of expressions for family love\nand friendship which in their origin carry us back to the same\npsychological process which developed the Latin _amare_ from the\nSanscrit _sam_.\"\n\n(4) \"The highest form of love, however, that which embraces all men and\nall beings, that whose conception is conveyed in the Greek [Greek:\n_agap\u00e6_], we find expressed in both the dialects by derivatives\nfrom a root different from any I have mentioned. It is in its dialectic\nforms _kis_, _keche_, or _kiji_, and in its origin it is\nan intensive interjectional expression of pleasure, indicative of what\ngives joy. Concretely, it signifies what is completed, permanent,\npowerful, perfected, perfect. As friendship and love yield the most\nexalted pleasure, from this root the natives drew a fund of words to\nexpress fondness, attachment, hospitality, charity; and from the same\nworthy source they selected that adjective [_kije, kise_], which\nthey applied to the greatest and most benevolent divinity.\"\n\nSurely this people cannot be charged with a lack of words for love,\nwhose language enables them so well to express its every shade of\nmeaning. Nay, they have even seen from afar that \"God is Love,\" as their\nconcept of Michabo tells us they had already perceived that He was\n\"Light.\"\n\n\n_Motherhood and Fatherhood_.\n\nThe nobility and the sanctity of motherhood have found recognition among\nthe most primitive of human races. A Mussulman legend of Adam and Eve\nrepresents the angel Gabriel as saying to the mother of mankind after\nthe expulsion from Paradise: \"Thou shalt be rewarded for all the pains\nof motherhood, and the death of a woman in child-bed shall be accounted\nas martyrdom\" (547. 38). The natives of the Highlands of Borneo hold\nthat to a special hereafter, known as \"Long Julan,\" go those who have\nsuffered a violent death (been killed in battle, or by the falling of a\ntree, or some like accident), and women who die in child-birth; which\nlatter become the wives of those who have died in battle. In this\nParadise everybody is rich, with no need for labour, as all wants are\nsupplied without work (475. 199).\n\nSomewhat similar beliefs prevailed in ancient Mexico and among the\nEskimo.\n\nEven so with the father. Zoroaster said in the book of the law: \"I name\nthe married before the unmarried, him who has a household before him who\nhas none, the father of a family before him who is childless\" (125. I.\n108). Dr. Winternitz observes of the Jews: \"To possess children was\nalways the greatest good-fortune that could befall a Jew. It was deemed\nthe duty of every man to beget a son; the Rabbis, indeed, considered a\nchildless man as dead. To the Cabbalists of the Middle Ages, the man who\nleft no posterity behind him seemed one who had not fulfilled his\nmission in this world, and they believed that he had to return once more\nto earth and complete it\" (385. 5).\n\nPloss (125. I. 108) and Lallemand (286. 21) speak in like terms of this\nchildren-loving people. The Talmud ranks among the dead \"the poor, the\nleprous, the blind, and those who have no children,\" and the wives of\nthe patriarchs of old cheerfully adopted as their own the children born\nto their husband by slave or concubine. To be the father of a large\nfamily, the king of a numerous people, was the ideal of the true\nIsraelite. So, also, was it in India and China.\n\nPloss and Haberlandt have a good deal to say of the ridicule lavished\nupon old maids and bachelors among the various peoples and races, and\nRink has recorded not a few tales on this head from the various tribes\nof the Eskimo--in these stories, which are of a more or less trifling\nand _outr\u00e9_ character, bachelors are unmercifully derided (525.\n465).\n\nWith the Chippeways, also, the bachelor is a butt for wit and sarcasm. A\ntale of the Mississagas of Skugog represents a bachelor as \"having gone\noff to a certain spot and built a lot of little 'camps.' He built fires,\netc., and passed his time trying to make people believe he was not\nalone. He used to laugh and talk, and pretend that he had people living\nthere.\" Even the culture-heroes Gluskap and N\u00e4niboju are derided in some\nof the tales for not being married (166. 376).\n\nAccording to Barbosa (67. 161), a writer of the early part of the\nsixteenth century, the Nairs, a Dravidian people of the Malabar coast\n(523. 159), believed that \"a maiden who refused to marry and remained a\nvirgin would be shut out of Paradise.\" The Fijians excluded from\nParadise all bachelors; they were smashed to pieces by the god\nNangganangga (166. 137).\n\nIn the early chronicles and mythic lore of many peoples there are tales\nof childless couples, who, in their quaint fashion, praying to the gods,\nhave been blest with the desired offspring. There is, however, no story\nmore pathetic, or more touching, than the Russian folk-tale cited by\nRalston, in which we read concerning an old childless couple (520. 176):\n\"At last the husband went into the forest, felled wood, and made a\ncradle. Into this his wife laid one of the logs he had cut, and began\nswinging it, crooning the while a tune beginning:--\n\n\n  'Swing, blockie dear, swing.'\n\n\nAfter a little time, behold! the block already had legs. The old woman\nrejoiced greatly, and began swinging anew, and went on swinging until\nthe block became a babe.\"\n\nThe rude prayers and uncouth aspirations of barbarous and savage\npeoples, these crude ideas of the uncivilized races of men, when sounded\nin their deepest depths, are the folk-expression of the sacredness of\nthe complete family, the forerunners of the poet's prayer:--\n\n\n  \"Seigneur! pr\u00e9servez-moi, pr\u00e9servez ceux que j'aime,\n  Fr\u00e8res, parents, amis, et ennemis m\u00eame\n  Dans le mal triomphants,\n  De jamais voir, Seigneur! l'\u00e9t\u00e9 sans fleurs vermeilles,\n  La cage sans oiseaux, la ruche sans abeilles,\n  La maison sans enfants.\"\n\n\nThe affection of the ancient Egyptians for their children is noted by\nErman. The child is called \"mine,\" \"the only one,\" and is \"loved as the\neyes of its parents\"; it is their \"beauty,\" or \"wealth.\" The son is the\n\"fair-come\" or \"welcome\"; at his birth \"wealth comes.\" At the birth of a\ngirl it is said \"beauty comes,\" and she is called \"the lady of her\nfather\" (441. 216-230). Interesting details of Egyptian child-life and\neducation may be read in the recently edited text of Am\u00e9lineau (179),\nwhere many maxims of conduct and behaviour are given. Indeed, in the\nnaming of children we have some evidence of motherly and fatherly\naffection, some indication of the gentle ennobling influence of this\nemotion over language and linguistic expression. True is it all over the\nworld:--\n\n\n  Liebe Kinder haben viele Namen.\n  [Dear children have many names.]\n\n\n_The Dead Child_.\n\nParental affection is nowhere more strongly brought out than in the\nlamentations for the dead among some of the lowest tribes of Californian\nIndians. Of the Yokaia, Mr. Powers tells us (519. 166):--\n\n\"It is their custom to 'feed the spirits of the dead' for the space of\none year, by going daily to places which they were accustomed to\nfrequent while living, where they sprinkle pi\u00f1ole upon the ground. A\nYokaia mother who has lost her babe goes every day for a year to some\nplace where her little one played while alive, or to the spot where its\nbody was burned, and milks her breasts into the air. This is accompanied\nby plaintive mourning and weeping and piteous calling upon her little\none to return, and sometimes she sings a hoarse and melancholy chant,\nand dances with a wild, ecstatic swaying of the body.\"\n\nOf the Miwok the same authority says:--\n\n\"The squaws wander off into the forest, wringing their arms piteously,\nbeating the air, with eyes upturned, and adjuring the departed one, whom\nthey tenderly call 'dear child,' or 'dear cousin' (whether a relative or\nnot), to return.\"\n\nOf the Niskwaili Indians, of the State of Washington, Dr. Gibbs observes\n(457. 205):--\n\n\"They go out alone to some place a little distant from the lodge or\ncamp, and in a loud, sobbing voice, repeat a sort of stereotyped\nformula, as, for instance, a mother on the loss of her child:--\n\n\n  'Ah seahb! shed-da bud-dah ah-ta-bud! ad-de-dah!\n   Ah chief  my  child  dead!  alas!'\n\n\nWhen in dreams they see any of their deceased friends this lamentation\nis renewed.\"\n\nVery beautiful and touching in the extreme is the conduct of the\nKabinapek of California:--\n\n\"A peculiarity of this tribe is the intense sorrow with which they mourn\nfor their children when dead. Their grief is immeasurable. They not only\nburn up everything that the baby ever touched, but everything that they\npossess, so that they absolutely begin life over again--naked as they\nwere born, without an article of property left\" (519. 206).\n\nBesides the custom of \"feeding the spirits of the dead,\" just noticed,\nthere exists also among certain of the Californian Indians the practice\nof \"whispering a message into the ear of the dead.\" Mr. Powers has\npreserved for us the following most beautiful speech, which, he tells\nus, was whispered into the ear of a child by a woman of the Karok ere\nthe first shovelful of earth was cast upon it (519. 34): \"O, darling, my\ndear one, good-bye! Never more shall your little hands softly clasp\nthese old withered cheeks, and your pretty feet shall print the moist\nearth around my cabin never more. You are going on a long journey in the\nspirit-land, and you must go alone, for none of us can go with you.\nListen then to the words which I speak to you and heed them well, for I\nspeak the truth. In the spirit-land there are two roads. One of them is\na path of roses, and it leads to the Happy Western Land beyond the great\nwater, where you shall see your dear mother. The other is a path strewn\nwith thorns and briars, and leads, I know not whither, to an evil and\ndark land, full of deadly serpents, where you wander forever. O, dear\nchild, choose you the path of roses, which leads to the Happy Western\nLand, a fair and sunny land, beautiful as the morning. And may the great\nKareya [the Christ of these aborigines] help you to walk in it to the\nend, for your little tender feet must walk alone. O, darling, my dear\none, good-bye!\"\n\nThis whispering to the dead is found in other parts of the world. Mr.\nHose, describing the funeral of a boy, which he witnessed in Borneo,\nsays (475. 198):--\n\n\"As the lid of the coffin was being closed, an old man came out on the\nverandah of the house with a large gong (Tetawak) and solemnly beat it\nfor several seconds. The chief, who was sitting near, informed me that\nthis was done always before closing the lid, that the relations of the\ndeceased might know that the spirit was coming to join them; and upon\nhis arrival in Apo Leggan [Hades] they would probably greet him in such\nterms as these: 'O grandchild, it was for you the gong was beating,\nwhich we heard just now; what have you brought? How are they all up\nabove? Have they sent any messages?'\" The new arrival then delivers the\nmessages entrusted to him, and gives the cigarettes--which, rolled up in\na banana-leaf, have been placed in his hand--as proof of the truth of\nwhat he says. These cigarettes retain the smell of the hand that made\nthem, which the dead relations are thought to be able to recognize.\n\n\n_Motherhood and Infanticide_.\n\nThe intimate relationship recognized as existing between the infant and\nits mother has been among many primitive peoples a frequent cause of\ninfanticide, or has been held at least to excuse and justify that crime.\nOf the natives of Ashanti, Ellis says:--\n\n\"Should the mother die in childbirth, and the child itself be born\nalive, it is customary to bury it with the mother.... The idea seems to\nbe that the child belongs to the mother, and is sent to accompany her to\n_Srahmanadzi_ [ghost-land], so that her _srahman_ [ghost] may\nnot grieve for it\" (438. 234). Post states that in Uny\u00f3ro, when the\nmother dies in childbirth, the infant is killed; among the Hottentots it\nwas exposed (if the mother died during the time of suckling, the child\nwas buried alive with her); among the Damara, \"when poor women die and\nleave children behind them, they are often buried with the mother\" (127.\nI. 287).\n\nAccording to Collins and Barrington, among certain native tribes of\nAustralia, \"when the mother of a suckling dies, if no adoptive parents\ncan be found, the child is placed alive in the arms of the corpse and\nburied together with it\" (125. II. 589). Of the Banians of Bombay,\nNiebuhr tells us that children under eighteen months old are buried when\nthe mother dies, the corpse of the latter being burned at ebb tide on\nthe shore of the sea, so that the next tide may wash away the ashes\n(125. II. 581). In certain parts of Borneo: \"If a mother died in\nchildbirth, it was the former practice to strap the living babe to its\ndead mother, and bury them both, together. 'Why should it live?' say\nthey. 'It has been the death of its mother; now she is gone, who will\nsuckle it?'\" (481 (1893). 133).\n\nIn certain parts of Australia, \"children who have caused their mother\ngreat pain in birth are put to death\" (127. I. 288), and among the\nSakalavas of Madagascar, the child of a woman dying in childbed is\nburied alive with her, the reason given being \"that the child may thus\nbe punished for causing the death of its mother\" (125. II. 590).\n\nAs has been noted elsewhere, not a few primitive peoples have considered\nthat death, in consequence of giving birth to a child, gained for the\nmother entrance into Paradise. But with some more or less barbarous\ntribes quite a different idea prevails. Among the Ewe negroes of the\nslave coast of West Africa, women dying in childbirth become\nblood-seeking demons; so also in certain parts of Borneo, and on the\nSumatran island of Nias, where they torment the living, plague women who\nare with child, and kill the embryo in the womb, thus causing abortion;\nin Java, they make women in labour crazy; in Amboina, the Uliase and Kei\nIslands, and Gilolo, they become evil spirits, torturing women in\nlabour, and seeking to prevent their successful delivery; in Gilolo, the\nKei group, and Celebes, they even torment men, seeking to emasculate\nthem, in revenge for the misfortune which has overtaken them (397.19).\n\nOf the Doracho Indians of Central America, the following statement is\nmade: \"When a mother, who is still suckling her child, dies, the latter\nis placed alive upon her breast and burned with her, so that in the\nfuture life she may continue to suckle it with her own milk\" (125. II.\n589). Powers remarks concerning the Korusi (Patwin) Indians of\nCalifornia (519. 222): \"When a woman died, leaving her infant very\nyoung, the friends shook it to death in a skin or blanket. This was done\neven with a half-breed child.\" Of the Nishinam Indians, the same\nauthority informs us: \"When a mother dies, leaving a very young infant,\ncustom allows the relatives to destroy it. This is generally done by the\ngrandmother, aunt, or other near relative, who holds the poor innocent\nin her arms, and, while it is seeking the maternal fountain, presses it\nto her breast until it is smothered. We must not judge them too harshly\nfor this. They knew nothing of bottle nurture, patent nipples, or any\nkind of milk whatever, other than the human\" (519. 328).\n\nAmong the Wintun, also, young infants are known to have been buried when\nthe mother had died shortly after confinement (519. 232).\n\nThe Eskimo, Letourneau informs us, were wont to bury the little child\nwith its dead mother, for they believed that unless this were done, the\nmother herself would call from _Killo_, the other world, for the\nchild she had borne (100. 147, 148).\n\n\n_The Dead Mother._\n\nTo none of the saintly dead, to none of our race who have entered upon\nthe life beyond the grave, is it more meet to pray than to the mother;\nfolk-faith is strong in her power to aid and bless those left behind on\nearth. That sympathetic relation existing between mother and child when\nboth are living, is often believed to exist when one has departed into\nthe other world. By the name _wa-hd\u00e9 ca-pi_, the Dakota Indians\ncall the feeling the (living) mother has for her absent (living) child,\nand they assert that \"mothers feel peculiar pain in their breasts when\nanything of importance happens to their absent children, or when about\nto hear from them. This feeling is regarded as an omen.\" That the\nmother, after death, should feel the same longing, and should return to\nhelp or to nourish her child, is an idea common to the folk-belief of\nmany lands, as Ploss (125. II. 589) and Zmigrodzki have noted.\n\n\"Amid the song of the angels,\" says Zmigrodzki (174. 142), \"the plaint\nof her child on earth reaches the mother's ear, and pierces her heart\nlike a knife. Descend to earth she must and does.\" In Brittany she is\nsaid to go to God Himself and obtain permission to visit earth. Her\nflight will be all the easier, if, before burial, her relatives have\nloosed her hair. In various parts of Germany and Switzerland, the belief\nis that for six weeks the dead mother will come at night to suckle her\nchild, and a pair of slippers or shoes are always put into the coffin\nwith the corpse, for the mother has to travel over thistles, thorns, and\nsharp stones to reach her child. Widespread over Europe is this belief\nin the return of the mother, who has died in giving life to her little\none. Till cock-crow in the morning she may suckle it, wash it, fondle\nit; the doors open of themselves for her. If the child is being well\ntreated by its relatives, the mother rejoices, and soon departs; but if\nit has been neglected, she attends to it, and waits till the last\nmoment, making audible her unwillingness to depart. If the neglect\ncontinues, the mother descends to earth once more, and, taking the child\nwith her, returns to heaven for good. And when the mother with her\noffspring approaches the celestial gates, they fly wide open to receive\nthem. Never, in the folk-faith, was entrance readier granted, never was\nMilton's concept more completely realized, when\n\n\n  \"Heaven open'd wide\n  Her ever-during gates, harmonious sound,\n  On golden hinges moving.\"\n\n\nIn a modern Greek folk-song three youths plot to escape from Hades, and\na young mother, eager to return to earth to suckle her infant child,\npersuades them to allow her to accompany them. Charon, however, suddenly\nappears upon the scene and seizes them just as they are about to flee.\nThe beautiful young woman then appeals to him: \"Let go of my hair,\nCharon, and take me by the hand. If thou wilt but give my child to\ndrink, I will never try to escape from thee again\" (125. II. 589).\n\nThe watchful solicitude of the mother in heaven over her children on\nearth appears also in the Basque country (505. 73), and Ralston, noting\nits occurrence in Russia, observes (520. 265):--\n\n\"Appeals for aid to a dead parent are of frequent occurrence in the\nsongs still sung by the Russian peasantry at funerals or over graves;\nespecially in those in which orphans express their grief, calling upon\nthe grave to open, and the dead to appear and listen and help. So in the\nIndian story of Punchkin, the seven hungry, stepmother-persecuted\nprincesses go out every day and sit by their dead mother's tomb, and\ncry, and say, 'Oh, mother, mother, cannot you see your poor children,\nhow unhappy we are,' etc., until a tree grows up out of the grave laden\nwith fruits for their relief. So, in the German tale, Cinderella is\naided by the white bird, which dwells in the hazel-tree growing out of\nher mother's grave.\"\n\nCrude and savage, but born of a like faith in the power of the dead\nmother, is the inhuman practice of the people of the Congo, where, it is\nsaid, \"the son often kills his mother, in order to secure the assistance\nof her soul, now a formidable spirit\" (388. 81).\n\nHeavy upon her offspring weighs the curse of a mother. Ralston, speaking\nof the Russian folk-tales, says (520. 363):--\n\n\"Great stress is laid in the skazkas and legends upon the terrible power\nof a parent's curse. The 'hasty word' of a father or a mother will\ncondemn even an innocent child to slavery among devils, and, when it has\nonce been uttered, it is irrevocable,\" The same authority states,\nhowever, that \"infants which have been cursed by their mothers before\ntheir birth, or which are suffocated during their sleep, or which die\nfrom any causes unchristened or christened by a drunken priest, become\nthe prey of demons,\" and in order to rescue the soul of such a babe from\nthe powers of evil \"its mother must spend three nights in a church,\nstanding within a circle traced by the hand of a priest; when the cocks\ncrow on the third morning the demons will give her back her dead child.\"\n\n\n_Fatherly Affection._\n\nThat the father, as well as the mother, feels for his child after death,\nand appears to him, is an idea found in fairy-story and legend, but\nnowhere so sweetly expressed as in the beautiful Italian belief that\n\"the kind, dear spirits of the dead relatives and parents come out of\nthe tombs to bring presents to the children of the family,--whatever\ntheir little hearts most desire.\" The proverb,--common at Aci,--_Veni\nm\u00e8 patri?--Appressu_, \"Is my father coming?--By and by,\" used \"when\nan expected friend makes himself long waited for,\" is said to have the\nfollowing origin:--\n\n\"There was once a little orphan boy, who, in his anxiety to see his dead\nfather once again, went out into the night when the kind spirits walk,\nand, in spite of all the fearful beating of his little heart, asked of\nevery one whom he met: _Veni m\u00e8 patri?_ and each one answered:\n_Appressu_. As he had the courage to hold out to the end, he\nfinally had the consolation of seeing his father and having from him\ncaresses and sweetmeats\" (449. 327).\n\nRev. Mr. Grill speaks highly of the affection for children of the\nPolynesians. Following is the translation of a song composed and sung by\nRakoia, a warrior and chief of Mangaia, in the Hervey Archipelago, on\nthe death of his eldest daughter Enuataurere, by drowning, at the age of\nfifteen (459. 32):--\n\n\n  \"My first-born; where art thou?\n  Oh that my wild grief for thee,\n  Pet daughter, could be assuaged!\n  Snatched away in time of peace.\n\n  Thy delight was to swim,\n  Thy head encircled with flowers,\n  Interwoven with fragrant laurel\n  And the spotted-leaved jessamine.\n\n  Whither is my pet gone--\n  She who absorbed all my love--\n  She whom I had hoped\n  To fill with ancestral wisdom?\n\n  Red and yellow pandanus drupes\n  Were sought out in thy morning rambles,\n  Nor was the sweet-scented myrtle forgotten.\n\n  Sometimes thou didst seek out\n  Fugitives perishing in rocks and caves.\n\n  Perchance one said to thee,\n  'Be mine, be mine, forever;\n  For my love to thee is great.'\n\n  Happy the parent of such a child!\n  Alas for Enuataurere! Alas for Enuataurere!\n\n  Thou wert lovely as a fairy!\n  A husband for Enuataurere!\n\n  Each envious youth exclaims:\n  'Would that she were mine!'\n\n  Enuataurere now trips o'er the ruddy ocean.\n  Thy path is the foaming crest of the billow.\n\n  Weep for Enuataurere--\n  For Enuataurere.\"\n\n\nThis song, though, published in 1892, seems to have been composed about\nthe year 1815, at a _f\u00eate_ in honour of the deceased. Mr. Gill\njustly calls attention to the beauty of the last stanza but one, where\n\"the spirit of the girl is believed to follow the sun, tripping lightly\nover the crest of the billows, and sinking with the sun into the\nunderworld (Avaiki), the home of disembodied spirits.\"\n\nAmong others of the lower races of men, we find the father, expressing\nhis grief at the loss of a child, as tenderly and as sincerely as, if\nless poetically than, the Polynesian chief, though often the daughter is\nnot so well honoured in death as is the son. Our American Indian tribes\nfurnish not a few instances of such affectionate lamentation.\n\nMuch too little has been made of the bright side of child-life among the\nlower races. But from even the most primitive of tribes all traces of\nthe golden age of childhood are not absent. Powers, speaking of the\nYurok Indians of California, notes \"the happy cackle of brown babies\ntumbling on their heads with the puppies\" (519. 51), and of the Wintun,\nin the wild-clover season, \"their little ones frolicked and tumbled on\ntheir heads in the soft sunshine, or cropped the clover on all-fours\nlike a tender calf\" (519. 231). Of the Pawnee Indians, Irving says (478.\n214): \"In the farther part of the building about a dozen naked children,\nwith faces almost hid by their tangled hair, were rolling and wrestling\nupon the floor, occasionally causing the lodge to re-echo with their\nchildish glee.\" Mr. im Thurn, while among the Indians of Guiana, had his\nattention \"especially attracted by one merry little fellow of about five\nyears old, whom I first saw squatting, as on the top of a hill, on top\nof a turtle-shell twice as big as himself, with his knees drawn up to\nhis chin, and solemnly smoking a long bark cigarette\" (477. 39). Of the\nwild Indians of the West, Colonel Dodge tells us: \"The little children\nare much petted and spoiled; tumbling and climbing, unreproved, over the\nfather and his visitors in the lodge, and never seem to be an annoyance\nor in the way\" (432. 189). Mr. MacCauley, who visited the Seminole\nIndians of Florida, says: \"I remember seeing, one day, one jolly little\nfellow, lolling and rollicking on his mother's back, kicking her and\ntugging away at the strings of beads which hung temptingly between her\nshoulders, while the mother, hand-free, bore on one shoulder a log,\nwhich, a moment afterwards, still keeping her baby on her back as she\ndid so, she chopped into small wood for the camp-fire.\" (496. 498).\n\nThere is a Zu\u00f1i story of a young maiden, \"who, strolling along, saw a\nbeautiful little baby boy bathing in the waters of a spring; she was so\npleased with his beauty that she took him home, and told her mother that\nshe had found a lovely little boy\" (358. 544). Unfortunately, it turned\nout to be a serpent in the end.\n\n\n_Kissing_.\n\nAs Darwin and other authorities have remarked, there are races of men\nupon the face of the earth, in America, in Africa, in Asia, and in the\nIsland world, who, when first seen of white discoverers, knew not what\nit meant to kiss (499. 139). The following statement will serve for\nothers than the people to whom it refers: \"The only kiss of which the\nAnnamite woman is cognizant is to place her nose against the man's\ncheek, and to rub it gently up and down, with a kind of canine sniff.\"\n\nMantegazza tells us that Raden-Saleh, a \"noble and intelligent\" Javanese\npainter, told him that, \"like all Malays, he considered there was more\ntenderness in the contact of the noses than of the lips,\" and even the\nJapanese, the English of the extreme Orient, were once ignorant of the\nart of kissing (499. 139).\n\nGreat indeed is the gulf between the Javanese artist and the American,\nBenjamin West, who said: \"A kiss from my mother made me a painter.\" To a\nkiss from the Virgin Mother of Christ, legend says, St. Chrysostom owed\nhis \"golden mouth.\" The story runs thus: \"St. Chrysostom was a dull boy\nat school, and so disturbed was he by the ridicule of his fellows, that\nhe went into a church to pray for help to the Virgin. A voice came from\nthe image: 'Kiss me on the mouth, and thou shalt be endowed with all\nlearning.' He did this, and when he returned to his schoolfellows they\nsaw a golden circle about his mouth, and his eloquence and brilliancy\nastounded them\" (347. 621).\n\nAmong the natives of the Andaman Islands, Mr. Man informs us, \"Kisses\nare considered indicative of affection, but are only bestowed upon\ninfants\" (498. 79).\n\n\n_Tears_.\n\n\n \"Tears, idle tears, I know not what they mean,\n  Tears from the depths of some divine despair,\n  Rise in the heart and gather to the eyes,\n  In looking at the happy autumn fields,\n  And thinking of the days that are no more.\"\n\n\nThus sang the great English laureate, and to the simple folk--the\ntreasure-keepers of the lore of the ages--his words mean much.\n\nPliny, the Elder, in his _Natural History_, makes this statement:\n\"Man alone at the very moment of his birth, cast naked upon the naked\nearth, does she [Nature] abandon to cries and lamentations;\" the writer\nof the _Wisdom of Solomon_, in the Apocrypha, expresses himself in\nlike manner: \"When I was born, I drew in the common air, and fell upon\nthe earth, which is of like nature, and the first voice I uttered was\ncrying, as all others do.\" Burton, in his _Anatomy of Melancholy_,\nbluntly resumes both: \"He is born naked, and falls a-whining at the\nfirst.\"\n\nThe Spaniards have a proverb, brusque and cynical:--\n\n\n  \"Des que nae\u00ed llor\u00e9, y cada dia nace porqu\u00e9.\n  [I wept as soon as I was born, and every day explains why.]\"\n\n\nA quaint legend of the Jewish Rabbis, however, accounts for children's\ntears in this fashion:--\n\n\"Beside the child unborn stand two angels, who not only teach it the\nwhole Tora [the traditional interpretation of the Mosaic law], but also\nlet it see all the joys of Paradise and all the torments of Hell. But,\nsince it may not be that a child should come into the world endowed with\nsuch knowledge, ere it is born into the life of men an angel strikes it\non the upper lip, and all wisdom vanishes. The dimple on the upper lip\nis the mark of the stroke, and this is why new-born babes cry and weep\"\n(385. 6).\n\nCuriously enough, as if to emphasize the relativity of\nfolk-explanations, a Mussulman legend states that it is \"the touch of\nSatan\" that renders the child \"susceptible of sin from its birth,\" and\nthat is the reason why \"all children cry aloud when they are born\" (547.\n249).\n\nHenderson tells us that in the north and south of England \"nurses think\nit lucky for the child to cry at its baptism; they say that otherwise\nthe baby shows that it is too good to live.\" But there are those also\nwho believe that \"this cry betokens the pangs of the new birth,\" while\nothers hold that it is \"the voice of the Evil Spirit as he is driven out\nby the baptismal water\" (469. 16).\n\nAmong the untaught peasantry of Sicily, the sweet story goes that \"Mary\nsends an angel from Heaven one day every week to play with the souls of\nthe unbaptized children [in hell]; and when he goes away, he takes with\nhim, in a golden chalice, all the tears which the little innocents have\nshed all through the week, and pours them into the sea, where they\nbecome pearls\" (449. 326).\n\nHere again we have a borrowing from an older myth. An Eastern legend has\nit that when Eden was lost, Eve, the mother of all men, wept bitterly,\nand \"her tears, which flowed into the ocean, were changed into costly\npearls, while those which fell on the earth brought forth all beautiful\nflowers\" (547. 34). In the classic myth, the pearl is said to have been\nborn of the tears of Venus, just as a Greek legend makes _\u00e6lektron_\ncome from the tears of the sisters of Pha\u00ebthon, the daughters of the\nsun, and Teutonic story turns the tears of the goddess Freyja into drops\nof gold (462. III. 1218).\n\nIn the _Kalevala_ we read how, after the wonderful harping of\nW\u00e4in\u00e4m\u00f6inen, the great Finnish hero, which enchanted beasts, birds, and\neven fishes, was over, the musician shed tears of gratitude, and these,\ntrickling down his body and through his many garments, were transmuted\ninto pearls of the sea.\n\nShakespeare, in _King Henry V_., makes Exeter say to the King,--\n\n\n  \"But all my mother came into mine eyes,\n  And gave me up to tears,\"--\n\n\nand the tears of the mother-god figures in the folk-lore of many lands.\nThe vervain, or verbena, was known as the \"Tears of Isis,\" as well as\nthe \"Tears of Juno,\"--a name given also to an East Indian grass (_Coix\nlacryma_). The lily of the valley, in various parts of Europe, is\ncalled \"The Virgin's Tears,\" \"Tears of Our Lady,\" \"Tears of St. Mary.\"\nZmigrodzki notes the following belief as current in Germany: \"If the\nmother weeps too much, her dead child comes to her at night, naked and\ntrembling, with its little shirt in its hand, and says: 'Ah, dearest\nmother, do not weep! See! I have no rest in the grave; I cannot put on\nmy little shirt, it is all wet with your tears.'\" In Cracow, the common\nsaying is, \"God forbid that the tears of the mother should fall upon the\ncorpse of her child.\" In Brittany the folk-belief is that \"the dead\nchild has to carry water up a hill in a little bucket, and the tears of\nthe mother increase its weight\" (174. 141).\n\nThe Greeks fabled Eos, the dawn-goddess, to have been so disconsolate at\nthe death of Memnon, her son, that she wept for him every morning, and\nher tears are the dewdrops found upon the earth. In the mythology of the\nSamoans of the Pacific, the Heaven-god, father of all things, and the\nEarth-goddess, mother of all things, once held each other in firm\nembrace, but were separated in the long ago. Heaven, however, retains\nhis love for earth, and, mourning for her through the long nights, he\ndrops many tears upon her bosom,--these, men call dewdrops. The natives\nof Tahiti have a like explanation for the thick-falling rain-drops that\ndimple the surface of the ocean, heralding an approaching storm,--they\nare tears of the heaven-god. The saying is:--\n\n\n \"Thickly falls the small rain on the face of the sea,\n  They are not drops of rain, but they are tears of Oro.\"\n  (Tylor, Early Hist. of Mankind, p. 334.)\n\n\nAn Indian tribe of California believe that \"the rain is the falling\ntears of Indians sick in heaven,\" and they say that it was \"the tears of\nall mankind, weeping for the loss of a good young Indian,\" that caused\nthe deluge, in which all were drowned save a single couple (440. 488).\n\nOriental legend relates, that, in his utter loneliness after the\nexpulsion from Paradise, \"Adam shed such an abundance of tears that all\nbeasts and birds satisfied their thirst therewith; but some of them sunk\ninto the earth, and, as they still contained some of the juices of his\nfood in Paradise, produced the most fragrant trees and spices.\" We are\nfurther told that \"the tears flowed at last in such torrents from Adam's\neyes, that those of his right started the Euphrates, while those of his\nleft set the Tigris in motion\" (547. 34).\n\nThese are some of the answers of the folk to the question of\nShakespeare:--\n\n\n \"What's the matter,\n  That this distempered messenger of wet,\n  The many-coloured Iris, rounds thine eye?\"\n\n\nAnd many more are there that run along the lines of Scott's epigrammatic\nsummation:--\n\n\n \"A child will weep a bramble's smart,\n  A maid to see her sparrow part,\n  A stripling for a woman's heart:\n  But woe betide a country, when\n  She sees the tears of bearded men.\"\n\n\n_Cradles._\n\nAccording to Mr. Powers: \"The conspicuous painstaking which the Modok\nsquaw expends upon her baby-basket is an index of her maternal love. And\nindeed the Modok are strongly attached to their offspring,--a fact\nabundantly attested by many sad and mournful spectacles witnessed in the\nclosing scenes of the war of 1873. On the other hand, a California squaw\noften carelessly sets her baby in a deep, conical basket, the same in\nwhich she carries her household effects, leaving him loose and liable to\nfall out. If she makes a baby-basket, it is totally devoid of ornament;\nand one tribe, the Miwok, contemptuously call it 'the dog's nest.' It is\namong Indians like these that we hear of infanticide\" (519. 257).\n\nThe subject of children's cradles, baby-baskets, baby-boards, and the\nmethods of manipulating and carrying the infant in connection therewith,\nhave been treated of in great detail by Ploss (325), Pokrovski, and\nMason (306), the second of whom has written especially of the cradles in\nuse among the various peoples of European and Asiatic Eussia, with a\ngeneral view of those employed by other races, the last with particular\nreference to the American aborigines. The work is illustrated, as is\nalso that of Ploss, with many engravings. Professor Mason thus briefly\nsums up the various purposes which the different species of cradle\nsubserve (306. 161-162):--\n\n\"(1) It is a mere nest for the helpless infant.\n\n\"(2) It is a bed so constructed and manipulated as to enable the child\nto sleep either in a vertical or a horizontal position.\n\n\"(3) It is a vehicle in which the child is to be transported, chiefly on\nthe mother's back by means of a strap over the forehead, but frequently\ndangling like a bundle at the saddle-bow. This function, of course,\nalways modifies the structure of the cradle, and, indeed, may have\ndetermined its very existence among nomadic tribes.\n\n\"(4) It is indeed a cradle, to be hung upon the limbs to rock, answering\nliterally to the nursery-rhyme:--\n\n\n  'Rock-a-bye baby upon the tree-top,\n  When the wind blows the cradle will rock,\n  When the bough bends, the cradle will fall,\n  Down will come baby, and cradle, and all.'\n\n\n\"(5) It is also a playhouse and baby-jumper. On many--nearly\nall--specimens may be seen dangling objects to evoke the senses,\nfoot-rests by means of which the little one may exercise its legs,\nbesides other conveniences anticipatory of the child's needs.\n\n\"(6) The last set of functions to which the frame is devoted are those\nrelating to what we may call the graduation of infancy, when the papoose\ncrawls out of its chrysalis little by little, and then abandons it\naltogether. The child is next seen standing partly on the mother's\ncincture and partly hanging to her neck, or resting like a pig in a poke\nwithin the folds of her blanket.\"\n\nProfessor Mason sees in the cradle-board or frame \"the child of\ngeography and of meteorology,\" and in its use \"a beautiful illustration\nof Bastian's theory of 'great areas.'\" In the frozen North, for example,\n\"the Eskimo mother carries her infant in the hood of her parka whenever\nit is necessary to take it abroad. If she used a board or a frame, the\nchild would perish with the cold.\"\n\nThe varieties of cradles are almost endless. We have the \"hood\"\n(sometimes the \"boot\") of the Eskimo; the birch-bark cradle (or hammock)\nof several of the northern tribes (as in Alaska, or Cape Breton); the\n\"moss-bag\" of the eastern Tinn\u00e9, the use of which has now extended to\nthe employ\u00e9s of the Hudson's Bay Company; the \"trough-cradle\" of the\nBilqula; the Chinook cradle, with its apparatus for head-flattening; the\ntrowel-shaped cradle of the Oregon coast; the wicker-cradle of the\nHupas; the Klamath cradle of wicker and rushes; the Pomo cradle of\nwillow rods and wicker-work, with rounded portion for the child to sit\nin; the Mohave cradle, with ladder-frame, having a bed of shredded bark\nfor the child to lie upon; the Yaqui cradle of canes, with soft bosses\nfor pillows; the Nez Perc\u00e9 cradle-board with buckskin sides, and the\nSahaptian, Ute, and Kootenay cradles which resemble it; the Moki\ncradle-frame of coarse wicker, with an awning; the Navajo cradle, with\nwooden hood and awning of dressed buckskin; the rude Comanche cradle,\nmade of a single stiff piece of black-bear skin; the Blackfoot cradle of\nlattice-work and leather; the shoe-shaped Sioux cradle, richly adorned\nwith coloured bead-work; the Iroquois cradle (now somewhat modernized),\nwith \"the back carved in flowers and birds, and painted blue, red,\ngreen, and yellow.\" Among the Araucanians of Chili we meet with a cradle\nwhich \"seems to be nothing more than a short ladder, with cross-bars,\"\nto which the child is lashed. In the tropical regions and in South\nAmerica we find the habit of \"carrying the children in the shawl or\nsash, and bedding them in the hammock.\" Often, as in various parts of\nAfrica, the woman herself forms the cradle, the child clinging astride\nher neck or hips, with no bands or attachments whatever. Of woman as\ncarrier much may be read in the entertaining and instructive volume of\nProfessor Mason (113). The primitive cradle, bed, and carrier, was the\nmother.\n\n\n_Father and Child._\n\nWith many of the more primitive races, the idea so tritely expressed in\nour familiar saying, \"He is a chip of the old block,\"--_patris est\nfilius_, \"he is the son of his father,\"--and so beautifully wrought\nout by Shakespeare,--\n\n\n \"Behold, my lords,\n  Although the print be little, the whole matter\n  And copy of the father: eye, nose, lip,\n  The trick of his frown, his forehead; nay, the valley,\n  The pretty dimples of his chin and cheek; his smiles,\n  The very mould and frame of hand, nail, finger,\"\n\n\nhas a strong hold, making itself felt in a thousand ways and fashions.\nThe many rites and ceremonies, ablutions, fastings, abstentions from\ncertain foods and drinks, which the husband has to undergo and submit to\namong certain more or less uncivilized peoples, shortly before, or\nafter, or upon, the occasion of the birth of a child, or while his wife\nis pregnant, arise, in part at least, from a firm belief in the\ninfluence of parent upon child and the intimate sympathy between them\neven while the latter is yet unborn. Of the Indians of British Guiana,\nMr. im Thurn says, they believe that if the father should eat the flesh\nof the capybara, the child would have large protruding teeth like that\nanimal, while if he should eat that of the labba, the child's skin would\nbe spotted. \"Apparently there is also some idea that for the father to\neat strong food, to wash, to smoke, to handle weapons, would have the\nsame result as if the new-born baby ate such food, washed, smoked, or\nplayed with edged tools.\" The connection between the father and the\nchild, the author thinks, is thought by these Indians to be much closer\nthan that existing between the mother and her offspring (477. 218). Much\nhas been written about, and many explanations suggested for, this\nancient and widespread custom. The investigations of recent travellers\nseem to have cast some light upon this difficult problem in ethnology.\n\nDr. Karl von den Steinen (536. 331-337) tells us that the native tribes\nof Central Brazil not only believe that the child is \"the son of the\nfather,\" but that it _is_ the father. To quote his own significant\nwords: \"The father is the patient in so far as he feels himself one with\nthe new-born child. It is not very difficult to see how he arrives at\nthis conclusion. Of the human egg-cell and the Graafian follicle the\naborigine is not likely to know anything, nor can he know that the\nmother lodges the thing corresponding to the eggs of birds. For him the\nman is the bearer of the eggs, which, to speak plainly and clearly, lays\nin the mother, and which she hatches during the period of pregnancy. In\nthe linguistic material at hand we see how this very natural attempt to\nexplain generation finds expression in the words for 'father',\n'testicle,' and 'egg.' In Guarani _tub_ means 'father, spawn,\neggs,' _tupia_ 'eggs,' and even _tup-i_, the name of the\npeople (the _-i_ is diminutive) really signifies 'little father,'\nor 'eggs,' or 'children,' as you please; the 'father' is 'egg,' and the\n'child' is 'the little father.' Even the language declares that the\n'child' is nothing else than the 'father.' Among the Tupi the father was\nalso accustomed to take a new name after the birth of each new son; to\nexplain this, it is in no way necessary to assume that the 'soul' of the\nfather proceeds each time into the son. In Kara\u00efbi we find exactly the\nsame idea; _imu_ is 'egg,' or 'testicles,'\nor 'child.'\"\n\nAmong other cognate tribes we find the same thoughts:--\n\nIn the Ipurucoto language _imu_ signifies \"egg.\"\n\nIn the Baka\u00efr\u00ed language _imu_ signifies \"testicles.\"\n\nIn the Tamanako language _imu_ signifies \"father.\"\n\nIn the Makusi language _imu_ signifies \"semen.\"\n\nIn several dialects _imu-ru_ signifies \"child.\"\n\nDr. von den Steinen further observes: \"Among the Baka\u00efr\u00ed 'child' and\n'small' are both _im\u00e9ri_, 'the child of the chief,' _p\u00edma\nim\u00e9ri_; we can translate as we please, either 'the child of the\nchief,' or 'the little chief,' and in the case of the latter form, which\nwe can use more in jest of the son, we are not aware that to the Indian\nthe child is really nothing more than the little chief, the miniature of\nthe big one. Strange and hardly intelligible to us is this idea when it\nis a girl that is in question. For the girl, too, is 'the little\n_father_,' and not 'the little _mother_'; it is only the\nfather who has made her. In Baka\u00efr\u00ed there are no special words for 'son'\nand 'daughter,' but a sex-suffix is added to the word for child when a\ndistinction is necessary; _p\u00edma im\u00e9ri_ may signify either the son\nor the daughter of the chief. The only daughter of the chief is the\ninheritrix of possession and rank, both of which pass over with her own\npossession to the husband.\" The whole question of the \"Couvade\" and like\npractices finds its solution in these words of the author: \"The\nbehaviour of the mother, according as she is regarded as more or less\nsuffering, may differ much with the various tribes, while the conduct of\nthe father is practically the same with all She goes about her business,\nif she feels strong enough, suckles her child, etc. Between the father\nand the child there is no mysterious correlation; the child is a\nmultiplication of him; the father is duplicated, and in order that no\nharm may come to the helpless, irrational creature, a miniature of\nhimself, he must demean himself as a child\" (536. 338).\n\nThe close relationship between father and child appears also in\nfolk-medicine, where children (or often adults) are preserved from, or\ncured of, certain ailments and diseases by the application of blood\ndrawn from the father.\n\nIn Bavaria a popular remedy against cramps consisted in \"the father\npricking himself in the finger and giving the child in its mouth three\ndrops of blood out of the wound,\" and at Rackow, in Neu Stettin, to cure\nepilepsy in little children, \"the father gives the child three drops of\nblood out of the first joint of his ring-finger\" (361. 19). In Annam,\nwhen a physician cures a small-pox patient, it is thought that the pocks\npass over to his children, and among the Dieyerie of South Australia,\nwhen a child has met with an accident, \"all the relatives are beaten\nwith sticks or boomerangs on the head till the blood flows over their\nfaces. This is believed to lessen the pain of the child\" (397. 60, 205).\n\nAmong some savage and uncivilized peoples, the father is associated\nclosely with the child from the earliest days of its existence. With the\nMincopies of the Andaman Islands, it is the father who, \"from the day of\nits birth onwards presses the skull and body of the child to give them\nthe proper form,\" and among the Macusi Indians of Guiana, the father \"in\nearly youth, pierces the ear-lobe, the lower lip, and the septum of the\nnose,\" while with the Pampas Indians of the Argentine, in the third year\nof the child's life, the child's ears are pierced by the father in the\nfollowing fashion: \"A horse has its feet tied together, is thrown to the\nground, and held fast. The child is then brought out and placed on the\nhorse, while the father bores its ears with a needle\" (326.1.296,301).\n\nWith some primitive peoples the father evinces great affection for his\nchild. Concerning the natives of Australia whom he visited, Lumholtz\nobserves: \"The father may also be good to the child, and he frequently\ncarries it, takes it in his lap, pats it, searches its hair, plays with\nit, and makes little boomerangs which he teaches it to throw. He,\nhowever, prefers boys to girls, and does not pay much attention to the\nlatter\" (495.193). Speaking of another region of the world where\ninfanticide prevailed,--the Solomon Islands,--Mr. Guppy cites not a few\ninstances of parental regard and affection. On one occasion \"the chief's\nson, a little shapeless mass of flesh, a few months old, was handed\nabout from man to man with as much care as if he had been composed of\nsomething brittle.\" Of chief Gorai and his wife, whose child was blind,\nthe author says: \"I was much struck with the tenderness displayed in the\nmanner of both the parents towards their little son, who, seated in his\nmother's lap, placed his hand in that of his father, when he was\ndirected to raise his eyes towards the light for my inspection\" (466.\n47).\n\nOf the Patwin Indians of California, who are said to rank among the\nlowest of the race, Mr. Powers tells us: \"Parents are very easygoing\nwith their children, and never systematically punish them, though they\nsometimes strike them in momentary anger. On the Sacramento they teach\nthem how to swim when a few weeks old by holding them on their hands in\nthe water. I have seen a father coddle and teeter his baby in an attack\nof crossness for an hour with the greatest patience, then carry him down\nto the river, laughing good-naturedly, gently dip the little brown\nsmooth-skinned nugget in the waves clear under, and then lay him on the\nmoist, warm sand. The treatment was no less effectual than harmless, for\nit stopped the perverse, persistent squalling at once\" (519. 222). Such\ndemonstrations of tenderness have been supposed to be rare among the\nIndians, but the same authority says again: \"Many is the Indian I have\nseen tending the baby with far more patience and good-nature than a\ncivilized father would display\" (519. 23). Concerning the Eskimo, Eeclus\nobserves: \"All over Esquimaux Land fathers and mothers vie with one\nanother in spoiling their offspring, never strike, and rarely rebuke\nthem\" (523. 37).\n\nAmong the Indians of British Guiana, according to Mr. im Thurn, both\nmother and father are \"very affectionate towards the young child.\" The\nmother \"almost always, even when working, carries it against her hip,\nslung in a small hammock from her neck or shoulder,\" while the father,\n\"when he returns from hunting, brings it strange seeds to play with, and\nmakes it necklaces and other ornaments.\" The young children themselves\n\"seem fully to reciprocate the affection of their parents; but as they\ngrow older, the affection on both sides seems to cool, though, in\nreality, it perhaps only becomes less demonstrative\" (477. 219).\n\nEverywhere we find evidence of parental affection and love for children,\nshining sometimes from the depths of savagery and filling with sunshine\nat least a few hours of days that seem so sombre and full of gloom when\nviewed afar off.\n\nMr. Scudder has treated at considerable length the subject of \"Childhood\nin Literature and Art\" (350), dealing with it as found in Greek, Roman,\nHebrew, Early Christian, English, French, German, American, literature,\nin medi\u00e6val art, and in Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tales. Of Greek\nthe author observes: \"There is scarcely a child's voice to be heard in\nthe whole range of Greek poetic art. The conception is universally of\nthe child, not as acting, far less as speaking, but as a passive member\nof the social order. It is not its individual so much as its related\nlife which is contemplated.\" The silent presence of children in the\nr\u00f4les of the Greek drama is very impressive (350. 21). At Rome, though\nchildhood is more of a \"vital force\" than in Greece, yet \"it is not\ncontemplated as a fine revelation of nature.\" Sometimes, in its brutal\naspects, \"children are reckoned as scarcely more than cubs,\" yet with\nrefinement they \"come to represent the more spiritual side of the family\nlife.\" The folktale of Romulus and Remus and Catullus' picture of the\nyoung Torquatus represent these two poles (350. 32). The scant\nappearances of children in the Old Testament, the constant prominence\ngiven to the male succession, are followed later on by the promise which\nbuds and flowers in the world-child Jesus, and the childhood which is\nthe new-birth, the golden age of which Jewish seers and prophets had\ndreamt. In early Christianity, it would appear that, with the exception\nof the representation in art of the child, the infant Christ, \"childhood\nas an image had largely faded out of art and literature\" (350. 80). The\nRenaissance \"turned its face toward childhood, and looked into that\nimage for the profoundest realization of its hopes and dreams\" (350.\n102), and since then Christianity has followed that path. And the folk\nwere walking in these various ages and among these different peoples\nhumbly along the same road, which their geniuses travelled. Of the great\nmodern writers and poets, the author notes especially Wordsworth,\nthrough whom the child was really born in our literature, the linker\ntogether of the child and the race; Rousseau, who told of childhood as\n\"refuge from present evil, a mournful reminiscence of a lost Paradise,\nwho (like St. Pierre) preached a return to nature, and left his own\noffspring to the tender mercy of a foundling asylum\"; Luther, the great\nreligious reformer, who was ever \"a father among his children\"; Goethe,\nwho represents German intellectualism, yet a great child-artist;\nFroebel, the patron saint of the kindergarten; Hans Andersen, the\n\"inventor\" of fairy-tales, and the transformer of folk-stories, that\nrival the genuine, untouched, inedited article; Hawthorne, the\nchild-artist of America.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VIII.\n\n\nCHILDHOOD THE GOLDEN AGE.\n\n  Heaven lies about us in our infancy.--_Wordsworth_.\n\n  Die Kindheit ist ein Augenblick Gottes.--_Achim v. Arnim_.\n\n  Wahre dir den Kindersinn,\n  Kindheit bl\u00fcht in Liebe bin,\n  Kinderzeit ist heil'ge Zeit,\n  Heidenkindheit--Christenheit.\n  --_B. Goltz_.\n\n  Happy those early days, when I Shined in my angel infancy.\n  --_Henry Vaughan_.\n\n  Childhood shall be all divine.--_B. W. Proctor_.\n\n  But Heaven is kind, and therefore all possess,\n  Once in their life, fair Eden's simpleness.--_H. Coleridge_.\n\n  But to the couch where childhood lies,\n    A more delicious trance is given,\n  Lit up by rays from seraph eyes,\n    And glimpses of remembered heaven.--_W. M. Praed_.\n\n    O for boyhood's time of June,\n  Crowding years in one brief moon!--_Whittier_.\n\n\n_Golden Age_.\n\nThe English word _world_, as the Anglo-Saxon _weorold_,\nIcelandic _ver\u00f6ld_, and Old High German _weralt_ indicate,\nsignified originally \"age of man,\" or \"course of man's life,\" and in the\nmind of the folk the life of the world and the life of man have run\nabout the same course. By common consent the golden age of both was at\nthe beginning, _ab ovo_. With Wordsworth, unlettered thousands have\nthought:--\n\n\n  \"Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive,\n  But to be young was very heaven!\"\n\n\n_Die Kindheit ist ein Augenblick Gottes_, \"childhood is a moment of\nGod,\" said Achim Ton Arnim, and Hartley Coleridge expresses the same\nidea in other words:--\n\n\n  \"But Heaven is kind, and therefore all possess,\n  Once in their life, fair Eden's simpleness.\"\n\n\nThis belief in the golden age of childhood,--_die heilige\nKinderzeit_, the heaven of infancy,--is ancient and modern,\nworld-wide, shared in alike by primitive savage and nineteenth-century\nphilosopher. The peasant of Brittany thinks that children preserve their\nprimal purity up to the seventh year of their age, and, if they die\nbefore then, go straight to heaven (174. 141), and the great Chinese\nphilosopher, linking together, as others have done since his time, the\ngenius and the child, declared that a man is great only as he preserves\nthe pure ideas of his childhood, while Coleridge, in like fashion tells\nus: \"Genius is the power of carrying the feelings of childhood into the\npower of manhood.\"\n\nEverywhere we hear the same refrain:--\n\n\n  \"Aus der Jugendzeit, aus der Jugendzeit,\n  Klingt ein Lied immerdar;\n  O wie liegt so weit, o wie liegt so weit,\n  Was mein einst war!\"\n\n\nThe Paradise that man lost, the Eden from which he has been driven, is\nnot the God-planted Garden by the banks of Euphrates, but the \"happy\ndays of angel infancy,\" and \"boyhood's time of June,\" the childhood out\nof which in the fierce struggle--for existence the race has rudely\ngrown, and back to which, for its true salvation, it must learn to make\nits way again. As he, who was at once genius and child, said, nearly\ntwenty centuries ago: \"Except ye turn and become as little children, ye\nshall in no wise enter the kingdom of heaven.\"\n\nWhen we speak of \"the halcyon days of childhood,\" we recall an ancient\nmyth, telling how, in an age when even more than now \"all Nature loved a\nlover,\" even the gods watched over the loves of Ceyx and Halcyone. Ever\nsince the kingfisher has been regarded as the emblem, of lasting\nfidelity in love. As Ebers aptly puts it: \"Is there anywhere a sweeter\nlegend than that of the Halcyons, the ice-birds who love each other so\ntenderly that, when the male becomes enfeebled by age, his mate carries\nhim on her outspread wings whithersoever he wills; and the gods desiring\nto reward such faithful love cause the sun to shine more kindly, and\nstill the winds and waves on the 'Halcyon Days' during which these birds\nare building their nests and brooding over their young\" (390. II. 269).\n\nOf a special paradise for infants, something has been said elsewhere. Of\nSrahmanadzi, the other world, the natives of Ashanti say: \"There an old\nman becomes young, a young man a boy, and a boy an infant. They grow and\nbecome old. But age does not carry with it any diminution of strength or\nwasting of body. When they reach the prime of life, they remain so, and\nnever change more\" (438. 157).\n\nThe Kalmucks believe that some time in the future \"each child will speak\nimmediately after its birth, and the next day be capable of undertaking\nits own management\" (518. I. 427). But that blissful day is far off, and\nthe infant human still needs the overshadowing of the gods to usher him\ninto the real world of life.\n\n\n_Guardian Angels and Deities._\n\nChrist, speaking his memorable words about little children to those who\nhad inquired who was greatest in the kingdom of heaven, uttered the\nwarning: \"See that ye despise not one of these little ones; for I say\nunto you, that in heaven their angels do always behold the face of my\nFather which is in heaven.\" In the hagiology of the Christian churches,\nand in the folk-lore of modern Europe, the idea contained in our\nfamiliar expression \"guardian angel\" has a firm hold; by celestial\nwatchers and protectors the steps of the infant are upheld, and his mind\nguided, until he reaches maturity, and even then the guardian spirit\noften lingers to guide the favoured being through all the years of his\nlife (191. 8). The natives of Ashanti believe that special spirits watch\nover girls until they are married, and in China there is a special\nmother-goddess who guards and protects childhood.\n\nWalter Savage Landor has said:--\n\n\n  \"Around the child bend all the three\n  Sweet Graces,--Faith, Hope, Charity,\"\n\n\nand the \"three Fates\" of classic antiquity, the three Norns of\nScandinavian mythology, the three Sudi\u00eaicky or fate-goddesses of the\nCzechs of Bohemia, the three fate- and birth-goddesses of the other\nSlavonic peoples, the three [Greek: _Moirai_] of Modern Greece, the\nthree Phatite of Albania, the three white ladies, three virgins, three\nMary's, etc., of German legend of to-day, have woven about them a wealth\nof quaint and curious lore (326. I. 42-47).\n\nThe survival of the old heathen belief alongside the Christian is often\nseen, as, e.g., at Palermo, in Sicily, where \"the mother, when she lifts\nthe child out of the cradle, says aloud: _'Nuome di Dio_, In God's\nname,' but quickly adds sotto voce: _'Cu licenzi, signuri mui_, By\nyour leave, Ladies.'\" The reference is to the \"three strange ladies,\"\nrepresenting the three Fates, who preside over the destiny of human\nbeings.\n\nPloss has discussed at length the goddesses of child-birth and infancy,\nand exhibited their relations to the growing, fertilizing, regenerative\npowers of nature, especially the earth, sun, moon, etc.; the Hindu\n_Bhavani_ (moon-goddess); the Persian _Anahita_; the Assyrian\n_Belit_, the spouse of _Bel_; the Phoenician _Astarte_;\nthe Egyptian _Isis_; the Etruscan _Mater matuta_; the Greek\n_Hera Eileithyia, Artemis_,; the Roman _Diana, Lucina, Juno_;\nthe Phrygian _Cybele_; the Germanic _Freia, Holla, Gude,\nHarke_; the Slavonic _Siwa, Libussa, Zlata Baba_ (\"the golden\nwoman\"); the ancient Mexican _Itzcuinam, Yohmaltcitl, Tezistecatl_;\nthe Chibchan rainbow-goddess _Cuchavira_; the Japanese _Kojasi\nKwanon_, and hundreds more.\n\nThe number of gods and goddesses presiding over motherhood and childhood\nis legion; in every land divine beings hover about the infant human to\nprotect it and assure the perpetuity of the race. In ancient Rome,\nbesides the divinities who were connected with generation, the embryo,\netc., we find, among others, the following tutelary deities of\nchildhood:--\n\n_Parca_ or _Partula_, the goddess of child-birth;\n_Diespiter_, the god who brings the infant to the light of day;\n_Opis_, the divinity who takes the infant from within the bosom of\nmother-earth; _Vaticanus_, the god who opens the child's mouth in\ncrying; _Cunina_, the protectress of the cradle and its contents;\n_Rumina_, the goddess of the teat or breast; _Ossipaga_, the\ngoddess who hardens and solidifies the bones of little children;\n_Carna_, the goddess who strengthens the flesh of little children;\n_Diva potina_, the goddess of the drink of children; _Diva\nedusa_, the goddess of the food of children; _Cuba_, the goddess\nof the sleep of the child; _Levana_, the goddess who lifts the\nchild from the earth; _Statanus_, the god, and _Dea Statina_,\nthe goddess, of the child's standing; _Fabulinus_, the god of the\nchild's speech; _Abeona_ and _Adiona_, the protectresses of\nthe child in its goings out and its comings in; _Deus catus pater_,\nthe father-god who \"sharpens\" the wits of children; _Dea mens_, the\ngoddess of the child's mind; _Minerva_, the goddess who is the\ngiver of memory to the child; _Numeria_, the goddess who teaches\nthe child to count; _Voleta_, the goddess, and _Volumnus_ the\ngod, of will or wishing; _Venilia_, the goddess of hope, of \"things\nto come\"; _Deus conus_, the god of counsel, the counsel-giver;\n_Peragenor_ or _Agenona_, the deity of the child's action;\n_Cam\u009cna_, the goddess who teaches the child to sing, etc.\n(398.188).\n\nHere the child is overshadowed, watched over, taught and instructed by\nthe heavenly powers:--\n\n\n  \"But to the couch where childhood lies\n    A more delicious trance is given,\n  Lit up by rays from seraph eyes,\n    And glimpses of remembered heaven.\"\n\n\nIn line with the poet's thought, though of a ruder mould, is the belief\nof the Iroquois Indians recorded by Mrs. Smith: \"When a living nursing\nchild is taken out at night, the mother takes a pinch of white ashes and\nrubs it on the face of the child so that the spirits will not trouble,\nbecause they say that a child still continues to hold intercourse with\nthe spirit-world whence it so recently came\" (534. 69).\n\n\n_Birth-Myths_.\n\nPresident Hall has treated of \"The Contents of Children's Minds on\nEntering School\" (252), but we yet lack a like elaborate and suggestive\nstudy of \"The Contents of Parents' Minds on Entering the Nursery.\" We\nowe to the excellent investigation carried on by Principal Russell and\nhis colleagues at the State Normal School in Worcester, Mass., \"Some\nRecords of the Thoughts and Reasonings of Children\" (194), and President\nHall has written about \"Children's Lies\" (252a), but we are still\nwithout a correspondingly accurate and extensive compilation of \"The\nThoughts and Reasonings of Parents,\" and a plain, unbiassed register of\nthe \"white lies\" and equivoques, the fictions and epigrammatic myths,\nwith which parents are wont to answer, or attempt to answer, the\nmanifold questions of their tender offspring. From time immemorial the\ncommunication between parent (and nurse) and child, between the old of\nboth sexes and little children, far from being yea and nay, has been\ncast in the mould of the advice given in the German quatrain:--\n\n\n \"Ja haltet die Aequivocabula nur fest,\n  Sind sie doch das einzige Mittel,\n  Dem Kind die Wahrheit zu bergen und doch\n  Zu brauchen den richtigen Titel.\"\n\n  [\"Hold fast to the words that we equivoques call;\n  For they are indeed the only safe way\n  To keep from the children the truth away,\n  Yet use the right name after all.\"]\n\n\nAround the birth of man centres a great cycle of fiction and myth. The\nfolk-lore respecting the provenience of children may be divided into two\ncategories. The first is represented by our \"the doctor brought it,\"\n\"God sent it,\" and the \"van Moor\" of the peasantry of North Friesland,\nwhich may signify either \"from the moor,\" or \"from mother.\" The second\nconsists of renascent myths of bygone ages, distorted, sometimes, it is\ntrue, and recast. As men, in the dim, prehistoric past, ascribed to\ntheir first progenitors a celestial, a terrestrial, a subterranean, a\nsubaqueous origin, a coming into being from animals, birds, insects,\ntrees, plants, rocks, stones, etc.,--for all were then akin,--so, after\nlong centuries have rolled by, father, mother, nurse, older brother or\nsister, speaking of the little one in whom they see their stock renewed,\nor their kinship widened, resurrect and regild the old fables and\nrejuvenate and reanimate the lore that lay sunk beneath the threshold of\nracial consciousness. Once more \"the child is father of the man\"; his\ncourse begins from that same spring whence the first races of men had\ntheir remotest origins. George Macdonald, in the first lines of his poem\non \"Baby\" (337. 182):--\n\n\n  \"Where did you come from, baby dear?\n  Out of the _everywhere_ into here,\"\n\n\nhas expressed a truth of folk-lore, for there is scarcely a place in the\n\"everywhere\" whence the children have not been fabled to come. Children\nare said to come from heaven (Germany, England, America, etc.); from the\nsea (Denmark); from lakes, ponds, rivers (Germany, Austria, Japan); from\nmoors and sand-hills (northeastern Germany); from gardens (China); from\nunder the cabbage-leaves (Brittany, Alsace), or the parsley-bed\n(England); from sacred or hollow trees, such as the ash, linden, beech,\noak, etc. (Germany, Austria); from inside or from underneath rocks and\nstones (northeastern Germany, Switzerland, Bohemia, etc.). It is worthy\nof note how the topography of the country, its physiographic character,\naffects these beliefs, which change with hill and plain, with moor and\nmeadow, seashore and inland district. The details of these birth-myths\nmay be read in Ploss (326. I. 2), Schell (343), Sundermann (366).\nSpecially interesting are the _Kindersee_ (\"child-lake\"),\n_Kinderbaum_ (\"child-tree\"), and _Kinderbrunnen_\n(\"child-fountain\") of the Teutonic lands,--offering analogies with the\n\"Tree of Life\" and the \"Fountain of Eternal Youth\" of other ages and\npeoples; the _Titistein_, or \"little children's stone,\" and the\n_Kindertruog_ (\"child's trough\") of Switzerland, and the\n\"stork-stones\" of North Germany.\n\nDr. Haas, in his interesting little volume of folk-lore from the island\nof R\u00fcgen, in the Baltic, records some curious tales about the birth of\nchildren. The following practice of the children in that portion of\nGermany is significant: \"Little white and black smooth stones, found on\nthe shore, are called 'stork-stones.' These the children are wont to\nthrow backwards over their heads, asking, at the same time, the stork to\nbring them a little brother or sister\" (466 a. 144). This recalls\nvividly the old Greek deluge-myth, in which we are told, that, after the\nFlood, Deucalion was ordered to cast behind him the \"bones of his\nmother.\" This he interpreted to mean the \"stones,\" which seemed, as it\nwere, the \"bones\" of \"mother-earth.\" So he and his wife Pyrrha picked up\nsome stones from the ground and cast them over their shoulders,\nwhereupon those thrown by Deucalion became men, those thrown by Pyrrha,\nwomen. Here belongs, also, perhaps, the Wallachian custom, mentioned by\nMr. Sessions (who thinks it was \"probably to keep evil spirits away\"),\nin accordance with which \"when a child is born every one present throws\na stone behind him.\"\n\nOn the island of R\u00fcgen erratic blocks on the seashore are called\n_Adeborsteine_, \"stork-stones,\" and on such a rock or boulder near\nWrek in Wittow, Dr. Haas says \"the stork is said to dry the little\nchildren, after he has fetched them out of the sea, before he brings\nthem to the mothers. The latter point out these blocks to their little\nsons and daughters, telling them how once they were laid upon them by\nthe stork to get dry.\" The great blocks of granite that lie scattered on\nthe coast of Jasmund are termed _Schwansteine_, \"swan-stones,\" and,\naccording to nursery-legend, the children to be born are shut up in\nthem. When a sister or brother asks: \"Where did the little\n_swan-child_\"--for so babies are called--\"come from?\" the mother\nreplies: \"From the swan-stone. It was opened with a key, and a little\nswan-child taken out.\" The term \"swan-child\" is general in this region,\nand Dr. Haas is inclined to think that the swan-myth is older than the\nstork-myth (466 a. 143, 144).\n\nCurious indeed is the belief of the Hidatsa Indians, as reported by Dr.\nMatthews, in the \"Makadistati, or house of infants.\" This is described\nas \"a cavern near Knife River, which, they supposed, extended far into\nthe earth, but whose entrance was only a span wide. It was resorted to\nby the childless husband or the barren wife. There are those among them\nwho imagine that in some way or other their children come from the\nMakadistati; and marks of contusion on an infant, arising from tight\nswaddling or other causes, are gravely attributed to kicks received from\nhis former comrades when he was ejected from his subterranean home\"\n(433. 516).\n\nIn Hesse, Germany, there is a children's song (326. I. 9):--\n\n\n  Bimbam, Gl\u00f6ckchen,\n  Da unten steht ein St\u00f6ckchen,\n  Da oben steht ein golden Haus,\n  Da gucken viele sch\u00f6ne Kinder raus.\n\n\nThe current belief in that part of Europe is that \"unborn children live\nin a very beautiful dwelling, for so long as children are no year old\nand have not yet looked into a mirror, everything that comes before\ntheir eyes appears to be gold.\" Here folk-thought makes the beginnings\nof human life a real golden age. They are Midases of the eye, not of the\ntouch.\n\n\n_Children's Questions and Parents' Answers._\n\nAnother interesting class of \"parents' lies\" consists in the replies to,\nor comments upon, the questionings and remarks of children about the\nordinary affairs of life. The following examples, selected from\nDirksen's studies of East-Frisian Proverbs, will serve to indicate the\ngeneral nature and extent of these.\n\n1. When a little child says, \"I am hungry,\" the mother sometimes\nanswers, \"Eat some salt, and then you will be thirsty, too.\"\n\n2. When a child, seeing its mother drink tea or coffee, says, \"I'm\nthirsty,\" the answer may be, \"If you're thirsty, go to Jack ter Host;\nthere's a cow in the stall, go sit under it and drink.\" Some of the\nvariants of this locution are expressed in very coarse language (431. I.\n22).\n\n3. If a child asks, when it sees that its parent is going out, \"Am I not\ngoing, too?\" the answer is, \"You are going along, where nobody has gone,\nto Poodle's wedding,\" or \"You are going along on Stay-here's cart.\" A\nthird locution is, \"You are going along to the K\u00fckendell fair\"\n(K\u00fckendell being a part of Meiderich, where a fair has never been held).\nIn Oldenburg the answer is: \"You shall go along on Jack-stay-at-home's\n(Janblievtoh\u00fbs) cart.\" Sometimes the child is quieted by being told,\n\"I'll bring you back a little silver nothing (enn silwer Nickske)\" (431.\nI. 33).\n\n4. If, when he is given a slice of bread, he asks for a thinner one, the\nmother may remark, \"Thick pieces make fat bodies\" (431. I. 35).\n\n5. When some one says in the hearing of the father or mother of a child\nthat it ought not to have a certain apple, a certain article of\nclothing, or the like, the answer is, \"That is no illegitimate child.\"\nThe locution is based upon the fact that illegitimate children do not\nenjoy the same rights and privileges as those born in wedlock (431. I.\n42).\n\n6. Of children's toys and playthings it is sometimes said, when they are\nvery fragile, \"They will last from twelve o'clock till midday\"\n(431.1.43).\n\n7. When any one praises her child in the presence of the mother, the\nlatter says, \"It's a good child when asleep\" (431. I. 51).\n\n8. In the winter-time, when the child asks its mother for an apple, the\nlatter may reply, \"the apples are piping in the tree,\" meaning that\nthere are no longer any apples on the tree, but the sparrows are sitting\nthere, crying and lamenting. In Meiderich the locution is \"Apples have\ngolden stems,\" _i.e._ they are rare and dear in winter-time (431.\nI. 75).\n\n9. When the child says, \"I can't sit down,\" the mother may remark, \"Come\nand sit on my thumb; nobody has ever fallen off it\" (_i.e._ because\nno one has ever tried to sit on it) (431. I. 92).\n\n10. When a lazy child, about to be sent out upon an errand, protests\nthat it does not know where the person to whom the message is to be sent\nlives, and consequently cannot do the errand, the mother remarks\nthreateningly, \"I'll show where Abraham ground the mustard,\" _i.e._\n\"I give you a good thrashing, till the tears come into your eyes (as\nwhen grinding mustard)\" (431. I. 105).\n\n11. When a child complains that a sister or brother has done something\nto hurt him, the mother's answer is, \"Look out! He shall have water in\nthe cabbage, and go barefoot to bed\" (431. I. 106).\n\n12. Sometimes their parents or elders turn to children and ask them \"if\nthey would like to be shown the Bremen geese.\" If the child says yes, he\nis seized by the ears and head with both hands and lifted off the\nground. In some parts of Germany this is called \"showing Rome,\" and\nthere are variants of the practice in other lands (431. II. 14).\n\n13. When a child complains of a sore in its eye, or on its neck, the\nanswer is: \"That will get well before you are a great-grandmother\" (431.\nII. 50).\n\n14. When one child asks for one thing and another for something else,\nthe mother exclaims petulantly, \"One calls out 'lime,' the other\n'stones.'\" The reference is to the confusion of tongues at Babel, which\nis assumed to have been of such a nature that one man would call out\n\"lime,\" and another \"stones\" (431. II. 53).\n\n15. When a child asks for half a slice of bread instead of a whole one,\nthe mother may say, \"Who doesn't like a whole, doesn't like a half\neither\" (431. II. 43).\n\n16. When a child says, \"That is my place, I sat there,\" the reply is,\n\"You have no place; your place is in the churchyard\" (_i.e._ a\ngrave) (431. II. 76).\n\nWhen the child says \"I will,\" the mother says threateningly, \"Your\n'will' is in your mother's pocket.\" It is in her pocket that she carries\nthe rope for whipping the child. Another locution is, \"Your will is in\nthe corner\" (_i.e._ the corner of the room in which stands the\nbroomstick) (431. II. 81).\n\nThese specimens of the interchange of courtesies between the child and\nits parent or nurse might be paralleled from our own language; indeed,\nmany of the correspondences will suggest themselves at once. The deceits\npractised in the Golden Age of childhood resemble those practised by the\ngods in the Golden Age of the world, when divine beings walked the earth\nand had intercourse with the sons and daughters of men.\n\n\n\"_Painted Devils_.\"\n\nEven as the serpent marred the Eden of which the sacred legends of the\nSemites tell, so in the folk-thought does some evil sprite or phantom\never and anon intrude itself in the Paradise of childhood and seek its\nruin.\n\nShakespeare has well said:--\n\n\n \"Tis the eye of childhood\n  That fears a painted devil,\"\n\n\nand the chronicle of the \"painted devils,\" bogies, scarecrows, _et id\ngenus omne_, is a long one, whose many chapters may be read in Ploss,\nHartland, Henderson, Gregor, etc. Some of the \"devils\" are mild and\nalmost gentlemen, like their lord and master at times; others are\nfierce, cruel, and bloodthirsty; their number is almost infinite, and\nthey have the forms of women as well as of men.\n\nOver a large portion of western Europe is found the nursery story of the\n\"Sand-Man,\" who causes children to become drowsy and sleepy; \"the\nsand-man is coming, the sand-man has put dust in your eyes,\" are some of\nthe sayings in use. By and by the child gets \"so fast asleep that one\neye does not see the other,\" as the Frisian proverb puts it. When, on a\ncold winter day, her little boy would go out without his warm mittens\non, the East Frisian mother says, warningly: _De Fingerbiter is\nbuten_, \"the Finger-biter is outside.\"\n\nAmong the formidable evil spirits who war against or torment the child\nand its mother are the Hebrew Lilith, the long-haired night-flier; the\nGreek _Strigalai_, old and ugly owl-women; the Roman\n_Caprimulgus_, the nightly goat-milker and child-killer, and the\nwood-god Silvanus; the Coptic _Berselia_; the Hungarian\n\"water-man,\" or \"water-woman,\" who changes children for criples or\ndemons; the Moravian _Vestice_, or \"wild woman,\" able to take the\nform of any animal, who steals away children at the breast, and\nsubstitutes changelings for them; the Bohemian _Polednice_, or\n\"noon-lady,\" who roams around only at noon, and substitutes changelings\nfor real children; the Lithuanian and Old Prussian _Laume_, a\nchild-stealer, whose breast is the thunderbolt, and whose girdle is the\nrainbow; the Servian _Wjeschtitza_, or witches, who take on the\nform of an insect, and eat up children at night; the Russian \"midnight\nspirit,\" who robs children of rest and sleep; the Wendish \"Old\nmountain-woman\"; the German (Brunswick) \"corn-woman,\" who makes off with\nlittle children looking for flowers in the fields; the R\u00f6ggenmuhme (\n\"rye-aunt\"), the _Tremsemutter_, who walks about in the cornfields;\nthe _Katzenveit_, a wood spirit, and a score of bogies called\n_Popel, Popelmann, Popanz, Butz_, etc.; the Scotch \"Boo Man,\"\n\"Bogie Man,\" \"Jenny wi' the Airn Teeth,\" \"Jenny wi' the lang Pock \"; the\nEnglish and American bogies, goblins, ogres, ogresses, witches, and the\nlike; besides, common to all peoples, a host of werwolves and vampires,\ngiants and dwarfs, witches, ogres, ogresses, fairies, evil spirits of\nair, water, land, inimical to childhood and destructive of its peace and\nenjoyment. The names, lineage, and exploits of these may be read in\nPloss, Grimm, Hartland, etc.\n\nIn the time of the Crusades, Richard C\u009cur de Lion, the hero-king of\nEngland, became so renowned among the Saracens that (Gibbon informs us)\nhis name was used by mothers and nurses to quiet their infants, and\nother historical characters before and after him served to like purpose.\nTo the children of Rome in her later days, Attila, the great Hun, was\nsuch a bogy, as was Narses, the Byzantian general (d. 568 A.D.), to the\nAssyrian children. Bogies also were Matthias Corvinus (d. 1490 A.D.),\nthe Hungarian king and general, to the Turks; Tamerlane (Timur), the\ngreat Mongolian conqueror (d. 1405 A.D.), to the Persians; and\nBonaparte, at the close of the eighteenth and the beginning of the\nnineteenth century, in various parts of the continent of Europe. These,\nand other historical characters have, in part, taken the place of the\ngiants and bogies of old, some of whom, however, linger, even yet, in\nthe highest civilizations, together with fabulous animals (reminiscent\nof stern reality in primitive times), with which, less seriously than in\nthe lands of the eastern world, childhood is threatened and cowed into\nsubmission.\n\nThe Ponka Indian mothers tell their children that if they do not behave\nthemselves the Indaci\u00f1ga (a hairy monster shaped like a human being,\nthat hoots like an owl) will get them; the Omaha bogy is Icibaji; a\nDakota child-stealer and bogy is A\u00f1ungite or \"Two Faces\" (433. 386,\n473). With the Kootenay Indians, of south-eastern British Columbia, the\nowl is the bogy with which children are frightened into good behaviour,\nthe common saying of mothers, when their children are troublesome,\nbeing, \"If you are not quiet, I'll give you to the owl\" (203).\nLongfellow, in his _Hiawatha_, speaks of one of the bogies of the\neastern Indians:--\n\n\n \"Thus the wrinkled old Nokomis\n  Nursed the little Hiawatha,\n  Rooked him in his linden cradle,\n  Stilled his fretful wail by saying,\n  'Hush! the naked bear will get thee!'\"\n\n\nAmong the Nipissing Algonkian Indians, _koko_ is a child-word for\nany terrible being; the mothers say to their children, \"beware of the\n_koko_.\" Champlain and Lescarbot, the early chroniclers of Canada,\nmention a terrible creature (concerning which tales were told to\nfrighten children) called _gougou_, supposed to dwell on an island\nin the Baie des Chaleurs (200. 239). Among the bogies of the Mayas of\nYucatan, Dr. Brinton mentions: the _balams_ (giant beings of the\nnight), who carry off children; the _culcalkin_, or \"neckless\npriest\"; besides giants and witches galore (411. 174, 177).\n\nAmong the Gualala Indians of California, we find the \"devil-dance,\"\nwhich Powers compares to the _haberfeldtreiben_ of the Bavarian\npeasants,--an institution got up for the purpose of frightening the\nwomen and children, and keeping them in order. While the ordinary dances\nare going on, there suddenly stalks forth \"an ugly apparition in the\nshape of a man, wearing a feather mantle on his back, reaching from the\narm-pits down to the mid-thighs, zebra-painted on his breast and legs\nwith black stripes, bear-skin shako on his head, and his arms stretched\nout at full length along a staff passing behind his neck. Accoutred in\nthis harlequin rig, he dashes at the squaws, capering, dancing,\nwhooping; and they and the children flee for life, keeping several\nhundred yards between him and themselves.\" It is believed that, if they\nwere even to touch his stick, their children would die (519. 194).\n\nAmong the Patwin, Nishinam, and Pomo Indians, somewhat similar practices\nare in vogue (519. 157, 160, 225). From the golden age of childhood,\nwith its divinities and its demons, we may now pass to the consideration\nof more special topics concerning the young of the races of men.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IX.\n\n\nCHILDREN'S FOOD.\n\n\n  Der Mensch ist, was er isst.--_Feuerbach_.\n\n  For he on honey-dew hath fed,\n  And drunk the milk of Paradise.--_Coleridge_.\n\n  Man did eat angels' food.--_Psalm_ ixxviii. 25.\n\n\n_Honey_.\n\n_Der Mensch ist, was er isst_,--\"man is what he eats,\"--says\nFeuerbach, and there were food-philosophies long before his time. Among\nprimitive peoples, the food of the child often smacks of the Golden Age.\nTennyson, in _Eleanore_, sings:--\n\n\n \"Or, the yellow-banded bees,\n  Through half-open lattices\n  Coming in the scented breeze,\n  Fed thee, a child lying alone,\n  With white honey, in fairy gardens cull'd--\n  A glorious child dreaming alone,\n  In silk-soft folds, upon yielding down,\n  With the hum of swarming bees\n  Into dreamful slumber lull'd.\"\n\n\nThis recalls the story of Cretan Zeus, fed, when an infant, by the\nnymphs in a cave on Mount Ida with the milk of the goat Amalth\u00e6a and\nhoney brought by the bees of the mountain.\n\nIn the sacred books of the ancient Hindus we read: \"The father puts his\nmouth to the right ear of the new-born babe, and murmurs three times,\n'Speech! Speech!' Then he gives it a name. Then he mixes clotted milk,\nhoney, and butter, and feeds the babe with it out of pure gold\"\n(460.129). Among the ancient Frisians and some other Germanic tribes,\nthe father had the right to put to death or expose his child so long as\nit had not taken food; but \"so soon as the infant had drunk milk and\neaten honey he could not be put to death by his parents\" (286. 69). The\ncustom of giving the new-born child honey to taste is referred to in\nGerman counting-out rhymes, and the ancient Germans used to rub honey in\nthe mouth of the new-born child. The heathen Czechs used to drop honey\nupon the child's lips, and in the Eastern Church it was formerly the\ncustom to give the baptized child milk and honey to taste (392. II. 35).\nWhen the Jewish child, in the Middle Ages, first went to school, one of\nthe ceremonial observances was to have him lick a slate which had been\nsmeared with honey, and upon which the alphabet, two Bible verses, and\nthe words \"The Tora shall be my calling\" were written; this custom is\ninterestingly explanative of the passage in Ezekiel (iii. 3) where we\nread \"Then I did eat it [the roll of a book given the prophet by God];\nand it was in my mouth as honey for sweetness.\" There were also given to\nthe child sweet cakes upon which Bible verses were written. Among the\nJews of Galicia, before a babe is placed in the cradle for the first\ntime, it is customary to strew into the latter little pieces of\nhoney-comb. Among the Wotjaks we find the curious belief that those who,\nin eating honey, do not smear their mouth and hands with it, will die.\nWith children of an older growth,--the second Golden Age,--honey and\ncakes again appear. Magyar maidens at the new moon steal honey and\ncakes, cook them, and mix a part in the food of the youth of their\ndesires; among the White Russians, the bridal couple are fed honey with\na spoon. Even with us \"the first sweet month of matrimony,\" after the\n\"bless you, my children\" has been spoken by parents, church, and state,\nis called the \"honey-moon,\" for our Teutonic ancestors were in the habit\nof drinking honey-wine or mead for the space of thirty days after\nmarriage (392. IV. 118,211). In wedding-feasts the honey appears again,\nand, as Westermarck observes, the meal partaken of by the bride and\nbridegroom practically constitutes the marriage-ceremony among the\nNavajos, Santal, Malays, Hovas, and other primitive peoples (166. 419).\n\nIn Iceland, in ancient times, \"the food of sucklings was sweetened by\nhoney,\" and \"in the mouths of weakly children a slice of meat was placed\nat which they sucked.\" Among other interesting items from Scandinavia,\nPloss (326. II. 182) gives the following: \"In Iceland, if the child has\nbeen suckled eight (at most, fourteen) days, it is henceforth placed\nupon the ground; near it is put a vessel with luke-warm whey, in which a\nreed or a quill is stuck, and a little bread placed before it. If the\nchild should wake and show signs of hunger, he is turned towards the\nvessel, and the reed is placed in his mouth. When the child is nine\nmonths old, it must eat of the same food as its parents do.\"\n\nIn Shropshire, England, the first food given a child is a spoonful of\nsugar and butter, and, in the Highlands of Scotland, \"at the birth of an\ninfant the nurse takes a green stick of ash, one end of which she puts\ninto the fire, and, while it is burning, receives in a spoon the sap\nthat oozes from the other, which she administers to the child as its\nfirst food.\" This recalls the sap of the sacred ash of Scandinavian\nmythology. Solinus states that the ancient Irish mother \"put the first\nfood of her newborn son on the sword of her husband, and, lightly\nintroducing it into his mouth, expressed a wish that he might never meet\ndeath otherwise than in war and amid arms,\" and a like custom is said\n\"to have been kept up, prior to the union, in Annandale and other places\nalong the Scottish border\" (460. 129, 131).\n\n\n_Salt._\n\nAmong the Negritos of the Philippine Islands, when a child is born, one\nof the other children immediately gives it to eat some salt on the point\nof a knife (326. I. 258). The virtues of salt are recognized among many\npeoples. In the Middle Ages, when mothers abandoned their infants, they\nused to place beside them a little salt in token that they were\nunbaptized (326. I. 284); in Scotland, where the new-born babe is\n\"bathed in salted water, and made to taste it three times, because the\nwater was strengthening and also obnoxious to a person with the evil\neye,\" the lady of the house first visited by the mother and child must,\nwith the recital of a charm, put some salt in the little one's mouth. In\nBrabant, during the baptismal ceremony, the priest consecrates salt,\ngiven him by the father, and then puts a grain into the child's mouth,\nthe rest being carefully kept by the father. The great importance of\nsalt in the ceremonies of the Zu\u00f1i and related Indians of the Pueblos\nhas been pointed out by Mr. Gushing.\n\nSalt appears also at modern European wedding-feasts and prenuptial\nrites, as do also rice and meal, which are also among the first foods of\nsome primitive races. Among the Badagas of the Nilgiri Hills, when the\nchild is named (from twenty to thirty days after birth), the maternal\nuncle places three small bits of rice in its mouth (326. I. 284).\n\n\n_Folk-Medicine_.\n\nAmong the Tlingit Indians, of Alaska, the new-born infant \"is not given\nthe breast until all the contents of its stomach (which are considered\nthe cause of disease) are removed by vomiting, which is promoted by\npressing the stomach\" (403. 40), and among the Hare Indians, \"the infant\nis not allowed food until four days after birth, in order to accustom it\nto fasting in the next world\" (396. I. 121). The Songish Indians do not\ngive the child anything to eat on the first day (404. 20); the Kolosh\nIndians, of Alaska, after ten to thirty months \"accustom their children\nto the taste of a sea-animal,\" and, among the Arctic Eskimo, Kane found\n\"children, who could not yet speak, devouring with horrible greediness,\ngreat lumps of walrus fat and flesh.\" Klutschak tells us how, during a\nfamine, the Eskimo of Hudson's Bay melted and boiled for the children\nthe blood-soaked snow from the spot where a walrus had been killed and\ncut up (326. II. 181).\n\nIn Culdaff, in the county of Donegal, Ireland, \"an infant at its birth\nis forced to swallow spirits, and is immediately afterwards [strange\nanticipation of Dr. Robinson] suspended by the upper jaw on the nurse's\nforefinger. Whiskey is here the representative of the Hindu s\u00f4ma, the\nsacred juice of the ash, etc., and the administration of alcoholic\nliquors to children of a tender age in sickness and disease so common\neverywhere but a few years ago, founded itself perhaps more upon this\nancient belief than upon anything else\" (401. 180).\n\nThe study of the food of sick children is an interesting one, and much\nof value may be read of it in Zanetti (173), Black (401), and other\nwriters who have treated of folk-medicine. The decoctions of plants and\nherbs, the preparations of insects, reptiles, the flesh, blood, and\nordure of all sorts of beasts (and of man), which the doctrines of\nsignatures and sympathies, the craze of _similia similibus_, forced\ndown the throat of the child, in the way of food and medicine, are\nlegion in number, and must be read in Folkard and the herbalists, in\nBourke (407), Strack, etc.\n\nIn some parts of the United States even snail-water and snail-soup are\nnot unknown; in New England, as Mrs. Earle informs us (221. 6), much was\nonce thought of \"the admirable and most famous snail-water.\"\n\n\n_Milk and Honey_.\n\nAs we have abundantly seen, the first food of the child is the \"food of\nthe gods,\" for so were honey and milk esteemed among the ancient\nGermans, Greeks, Slavs, Hindus, etc., and of the Paradise where dwelt\nthe Gods, and into which it was fabled children were born, we have some\nrecollection, as Ploss suggests, in the familiar \"land flowing with milk\nand honey,\" into the possession of which the children of Israel entered\nafter their long wandering in the wilderness (462. II. 696). Of the\nancient Hindu god Agni, Letourneau (100. 315) observes: \"After being for\na long time fed upon melted butter and the alcoholic liquor from the\nacid asclepias, the sacred S\u00f4ma, he first became a glorious child, then\na metaphysical divinity, a mediator living in the fathers and living\nagain in the sons.\" It was the divine _S\u00f4ma_ that, like the nectar\nof the Greeks, the elixirs of the Scandinavians, conferred youth and\nimmortality upon those who drank it.\n\nAccording to Moslem legend, after his birth, Abraham \"remained concealed\nin a cave during fifteen months, and his mother visited him sometimes to\nnurse him. But he had no need of her food, for Allah commanded water to\nflow from one of Abraham's fingers, milk from another, honey from the\nthird, the juice of dates from the fourth, and butter from the fifth\"\n(547. 69).\n\n\n_Poison_.\n\nIn the _Gesta Romanorum_ (Cap. XI.) we read of the \"Queen of the\nNorth,\" who \"nourished her daughter from the cradle upon a certain kind\nof deadly poison; and when she grew up, she was considered so beautiful,\nthat the sight of her alone affected one with madness.\" Moreover, her\nwhole nature had become so imbued with poisons that \"she herself had\nbecome the deadliest poison in existence. Poison was her element of\nlife. With that rich perfume of her breath she blasted the very air. Her\nlove would have been poison, her embrace death.\" Hawthorne's story of\n\"Rappaccini's Daughter,\"--\"who ever since infancy had grown and\nblossomed with the plants whose fatal properties she had imbibed with\nthe air she breathed,\"--comes from the same original source (390. II.\n172). Here we are taken back again to the Golden Age, when even poisons\ncould be eaten without harm.\n\n\n_Priest and Food_.\n\nWith the giving of the child's food the priest is often associated. In\nthe Fiji Islands, at Vitilevu, on the day when the navel-string falls\noff, a festival is held, and the food of the child is blest by the\npriest with prayers for his life and prosperity. In Upper Egypt, a feast\nis held at the house of the father and the child consecrated by the cadi\nor a priest, to whom is brought a plate with sugar-candy. The priest\nchews the candy and lets the sweet juice fall out of his mouth into that\nof the child, and thus \"gives him his name out of his mouth\" (326. I.\n284).\n\nThe over-indulgence of children in food finds parallels at a later\nperiod of life, when, as with the people of southern Nubia and the\nSahara between Talifet and Timbuktu, men fatten girls before marriage,\nmaking them consume huge quantities of milk, butter, etc.\n\nFor children, among many primitive peoples, there are numerous\n_taboos_ of certain classes and kinds of food, from religious or\nsuperstitious motives. This _taboo_-system has not lost all its\nforce even to-day, as no other excuse can reasonably be offered for the\nrefusal of certain harmless food to the young.\n\n\n_Tobacco_.\n\nConcerning certain Australian tribes, Lumholtz remarks: \"Before the\nchildren are big enough to hold a pipe in their mouth they are permitted\nto smoke, and the mother will share her pipe with the nursing babe\"\n(495. 193). In like manner, among the natives of the Solomon Islands,\nMr. Guppy witnessed displays of precocity in this regard:\n\"Bright-looking lads, eight or nine years of age, stood smoking their\npipes as gravely as Haununo [a chief] himself; and even the smallest\nbabe in its father's arms caught hold of his pipe and began to suck\ninstinctively\" (466.42). With the Jivaro Indians of Ecuador, according\nto Simson, the child, when three or four years old, is initiated into\nthe mysteries of tobacco-smoking, amid great festivities and ceremonies\n(533. 388).\n\n\n_Drink of Immortality_.\n\nFeeding the dead has been in practice among many primitive peoples. The\nmother, with some of the Indian tribes of New Mexico, used to drop milk\nfrom her breast on the lips of her dead babe; and in many parts of the\nworld we meet with the custom of placing food near the grave, so that\nthe spirits may not hunger, or of placing it in the grave or coffin, so\nthat on its way to the spirit-land the soul of the deceased may partake\nof some refreshment. Among the ancient natives of Venezuela, \"infants\nwho died a few days after their birth, were seated around the Tree of\nMilk, or Celestial Tree, that distilled milk from the extremity of its\nbranches\"; and kindred beliefs are found elsewhere (448. 297).\n\nWe have also the tree associated beautifully with the newborn child, as\nReclus records concerning the Todas of the Nilgiri Hills, in India:\n\"Immediately the deliverance has taken place--it always happens in the\nopen air--three leaves of the aforementioned tree [under which the\nmother and father have passed the night] are presented to the father,\nwho, making cups of them, pours a few drops of water into the first,\nwherewith he moistens his lips; the remainder he decants into the two\nother leaves; the mother drinks her share, and causes the baby to\nswallow his. Thus, father, mother, and child, earliest of Trinities,\ncelebrate their first communion, and drink the living water, more sacred\nthan wine, from the leaves of the Tree of Life\" (523. 201).\n\nThe sacred books of the Hebrews tell us that the race of man in its\ninfancy became like the gods by eating of the fruit of the tree of\nknowledge, and in the legends of other peoples immortality came to the\ngreat heroes by drinking of the divine sap of the sacred tree, or\npartaking of some of its fruit. The ancient Egyptians believed that milk\nfrom the breast of the divine mother Isis conferred divinity and\nimmortality upon him who drank of it or imbibed it from the sacred\nsource. Wiedemann aptly compares with this the Greek story of the\ninfancy of Hercules. The great child-hero was the son of the god Jupiter\nand Alcmena, daughter of Electryon, King of Argos. He was exposed by his\nmother, but the goddess Athene persuaded Hera to give him her breast\n(another version says Hermes placed Hercules on the breast of Hera,\nwhile she slept) and the infant Hercules drew so lustily of the milk\nthat he caused pain to the goddess, who snatched him away. But Hercules\nhad drunk of the milk of a goddess and had become immortal, and as one\nof the gods (167. 266).\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER X.\n\n\nCHILDREN'S SOULS.\n\n  The soul that rises with us, our life's star,\n  Hath elsewhere its setting,\n  And cometh from afar.--_Wordsworth_.\n\n  And rest at last where souls unbodied dwell\n  In ever-flowing meads of Asphodel.\n  --_Homer (Pope's Transl_.).\n\n\n_Baptism_.\n\nWith certain Hindu castes, the new-born child is sprinkled with cold\nwater, \"in order that the soul, which, since its last existence, has\nremained in a condition of dreamy contemplation, may be brought to the\nconsciousness that it has to go through a new period of trial in this\ncorporeal world\" (326. II. 13). Perhaps, among the myriad rites and\nceremonies of immersion and sprinkling to which the infant is submitted\nwith other primitive peoples, some traces of similar beliefs may be\nfound.\n\nWhen the new world-religion was winning its way among the gentiles,\nbaptism was the great barrier erected between the babe and the power of\nill, spirits of air, earth, and water, survivals of old heathenism\nantagonistic to Christianity. Before that holy rite was performed, the\nchild lay exposed to all their machinations. Baptism was the armour of\nthe infant against the assaults of Satan and his angels, against the\ncunning of the wanderers from elfin-land, the fairy-sprites, with their\nchangelings and their impish tricks.\n\nHence, the souls of still-born and unbaptized children came into the\npower of these evil ones and were metamorphosed into insects, birds,\nbeasts, and the like, whose peculiar notes and voices betray them as\nhaving once been little children, or were compelled to join, the train\nof the wild huntsman, or mingle in the retinue of some other outcast,\nwandering sprite or devil; or, again, as some deceitful star, or\nwill-o'-the-wisp, mislead and torment the traveller on moor and in bog\nand swamp, and guide him to an untimely death amid desert solitudes.\nPloss, Henderson, and Swainson have a good deal to say on the subject of\nFrau Berctha and her train, the Wild Huntsman, the \"Gabble Retchet,\"\n\"Yeth Hounds,\" etc. Mr. Henderson tells us that, \"in North Devon the\nlocal name is 'yeth hounds,' _heath_ and _heathen_ being both\n'yeth' in the North Devon dialect. Unbaptized infants are there buried\nin a part of the churchyard set apart for the purpose called\n'Chrycimers,' i.e. Christianless, hill, and the belief seems to be that\ntheir spirits, having no admittance into Paradise, unite in a pack of\n'Heathen' or 'yeth' hounds, and hunt the Evil One, to whom they ascribe\ntheir unhappy condition\" (469. 131, 132). The prejudice against\nunbaptized children lingers yet elsewhere, as the following extract from\na newspaper published in the year 1882 seems to indicate (230. 272):--\n\n\"There is in the island of Mull a little burial-ground entirely devoted\nto unbaptized children, who were thus severed in the grave from those\nwho had been interred in the hope of resurrection to life. Only one\nadult lies with the little babes--an old Christian woman--whose last\ndying request it was that she should be buried with the unbaptized\nchildren.\" The Rev. Mr. Thorn has given the facts poetic form and made\nimmortal that mother-heart whose love made holy--if hallowed it needed\nto be--the lonely burial-ground where rest the infant outcasts:--\n\n\n  \"A spot that seems to bear a ban,\n  As if by curse defiled:\n  No mother lies there with her babe,\n  No father by his child.\"\n\n\nAmong primitive peoples we find a like prejudice against still-born\nchildren and children who die very young. The natives of the Highlands\nof Borneo think that still-born infants go to a special spirit-land\ncalled _Tenyn lallu_, and \"the spirits of these children are\nbelieved to be very brave and to require no weapon other than a stick to\ndefend themselves against their enemies. The reason given for this idea\nis, that the child has never felt pain in this world and is therefore\nvery daring in the other\" (475. 199). In Annam the spirits of children\nstill-born and of those dying in infancy are held in great fear. These\nspirits, called _Con Ranh_, or _Con L\u00f4n_ (from _l\u00f4n_, \"to\nenter into life\"), are ever seeking \"to incorporate themselves in the\nbodies of others, though, after so doing, they are incapable of life.\"\nMoreover, \"their names are not mentioned in the presence of women, for\nit is feared they might take to these, and a newly-married woman is in\nlike manner afraid to take anything from a woman, or to wear any of the\nclothing of one, who has had such a child. Special measures are\nnecessary to get rid of the _Con Ranh_\" (397. 18-19). The Alfurus,\nof the Moluccas, \"bury children up to their waists and expose them to\nall the tortures of thirst until they wrench from them the promise to\nhurl themselves upon the enemies of the village. Then they take them\nout, but only to kill them on the spot, imagining that the spirits of\nthe victims will respect their last promise\" (388. 81). On the other\nhand, Callaway informs us that the Zulu diviner may divine by the\n_Amatongo_ (spirit) of infants, \"supposed to be mild and\nbeneficent\" (417. 176).\n\n\n_Transmigration_.\n\nWordsworth, in that immortal poem, which belongs to the jewels of the\ntreasure-house of childhood, has sung of the birth of man:--\n\n\n  \"Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting;\n  The soul that rises with us, our life's star,\n  Hath had elsewhere its setting,\n  And cometh from afar.\n  Not in entire forgetfulness,\n  And not in utter nakedness,\n  But, trailing clouds of glory, do we come\n  From God, who is our home:\n  Heaven lies about us in our infancy,\"--\n\n\nand the humbler bards of many an age, whose names have perished with\nthe races that produced them, have thought and sung of soul-incarnation,\nmetempsychosis, transmigration, and kindred concepts, in a thousand\ndifferent ways. In their strangely poetical language, the Tupi Indians,\nof Brazil, term a child _pitanga_, \"suck soul,\" from _piter_,\n\"to suck,\" _anga_, \"soul.\" The Seminole Indians, of Florida, \"held\nthe baby over the face of the woman dying in child-birth, so that it\nmight receive her parting spirit\" (409. 271). A similar practice (with\nthe father) is reported from Polynesia. In a recently published work on\n\"Souls,\" by Mrs. Mary Ailing Aber, we read:--\n\n\"Two-thirds of all the babies that are born in civilized lands to-day\nhave no souls attached to them. These babies are emanations from their\nparents,--not true entities; and, unless a soul attaches itself, no\nordinary efforts can carry one of them to the twentieth year. Souls do\nattach themselves to babies after birth sometimes so late as the third\nyear. On the other hand, babies who have souls at birth sometimes lose\nthem because the soul finds a better place, or is drawn away by a\nstronger influence; but this rarely occurs after the third year.\"\n\nThis somewhat _outr\u00e9_ declaration of modern spiritualism finds\nkindred in some of the beliefs of primitive peoples, concerning which\nthere is much in Ploss, Frazer, Bastian, etc.\n\nIn one of the Mussulman stories of King Solomon, the Angel of Death\ndescends in human form to take the soul of an aged man, whose wish was\nto die when he had met the mightiest prophet. He dies talking to the\nwise Hebrew king. Afterwards the Angel says to Solomon:--\n\n\"He [the angel, whose head reaches ten thousand years beyond the seventh\nheaven, whose feet are five hundred years below the earth, and upon\nwhose shoulders stands the Angel of Death] it is who points out to me\nwhen and how I must take a soul. His gaze is fixed on the tree Sidrat\nAlmuntaha, which bears as many leaves inscribed with names as there are\nmen living on the earth.\n\n\"At each new birth a new leaf, bearing the name of the newly-born,\nbursts forth; and when any one has reached the end of his life, his leaf\nwithers and falls off, and at the same instant I am with him to receive\nhis soul....\n\n\"As often as a believer dies, Gabriel attends me, and wraps his soul in\na green silken sheet, and then breathes it into a green bird, which\nfeeds in Paradise until the day of the resurrection. But the soul of the\nsinner I take alone, and, having wrapped it in a coarse, pitch-covered,\nwoollen cloth, carry it to the gates of Hell, where it wanders among\nabominable vapours until the last day\" (547. 213, 214).\n\nAccording to the belief of the Miao-tse, an aboriginal tribe of the\nprovince of Canton, in China, the souls of unborn children are kept in\nthe garden of two deities called \"Flower-Grandfather\" and\n\"Flower-Grandmother,\" and when to these have been made by a priest\nsacrifices of hens or swine, the children are let out and thus appear\namong men. As a charm against barrenness, these people put white paper\ninto a basket and have the priest make an invocation. The white paper\nrepresents the deities, and the ceremony is called _kau fa; i.e._\n\"Flower Invocation.\"\n\nIn Japan, a certain Lake Fakone, owing its origin to an earthquake,\nand now surrounded by many temples, is looked upon as the abode of the\nsouls of children about to be born (326. I. 3).\n\nCertain Californian Indians, near Monterey, thought that \"the dead\nretreated to verdant islands in the West, while awaiting the birth of\nthe infants whose souls they were to form\" (396. III. 525).\n\nIn Calabria, Italy, when a butterfly flits around a baby's cradle, it is\nbelieved to be either an angel or a baby's soul, and a like belief\nprevails in other parts of the world; and we have the classic\npersonification of Psyche, the soul, as a butterfly.\n\nAmong the uneducated peasantry of Ireland, the pure white butterfly is\nthought to be the soul of the sinless and forgiven dead on the way to\nParadise, whilst the spotted ones are the embodiments of spirits\ncondemned to spend their time of purgatory upon earth, the number of the\nsins corresponding with the number of spots on the wings of the insect\n(418. 192).\n\nIn early Christian art and folk-lore, the soul is often figured as a\ndove, and in some heathen mythologies of Europe as a mouse, weasel,\nlizard, etc.\n\nIn various parts of the world we find that children, at death, go to\nspecial limbos, purgatories, or heavens, and the folk-lore of the\nsubject must be read at length in the mythological treatises.\n\nThe Andaman Islanders \"believe that every child which is conceived has\nhad a prior existence, but only as an infant. If a woman who has lost a\nbaby is again about to become a mother, the name borne by the deceased\nis bestowed on the fetus, in the expectation that it will prove to be\nthe same child born again. Should it be found at birth that the babe is\nof the same sex as the one who died, the identity is considered to be\nsufficiently established; but, if otherwise, the deceased one is said to\nbe under the r\u00e0u- (_Ficus laccifera_), in _ch\u00e2-it\u00e2n-_\n(Hades).\" Under this tree, upon the fruit of which they live, also dwell\n\"the spirits and souls of all children who die before they cease to be\nentirely dependent on their parents (_i.e._ under six years of\nage)\" (498. 86, 93). There was a somewhat similar myth in Venezuela\n(448. 297).\n\nMr. Codrington gives some interesting illustrations of this belief from\nMelanesia (25. 311):--\n\n\"In the island of Aurora, Maewo, in the New Hebrides, women sometimes\nhave a notion that the origin, beginning, of one of their children is a\ncocoanut or a bread-fruit, or something of that kind; and they believe,\ntherefore, that it would be injurious to the child to eat that food. It\nis a fancy of the woman, before the birth of the child, that the infant\nwill be the _nunu_, which may be translated the echo, of such an\nobject. Women also fancy that a child is the _nunu_ of some dead\nperson. It is not a notion of metempsychosis, as if the soul of the dead\nperson returned in the new-born child; but it is thought that there is\nso close a connection that the infant takes the place of the deceased.\nAt Mota, also, in the Banks Islands, there was the belief that each\nperson had a source of his being, his origin, in some animate or\ninanimate thing, which might, under some circumstances, become known to\nhim.\" As Mr. Codrington suggests, such beliefs throw light upon the\nprobable origin of totemism and its development.\n\n\n_Spirit-World_.\n\nMrs. Stevenson informs us that \"although the Sia do not believe in a\nreturn of the spirits of their dead when they have once entered Shipapo\n[the lower world], there was once an exception to this.\" The priestly\ntale, as told to Mrs. Stevenson, is as follows (538. 143):--\n\n\"When the years were new, and this village had been built perhaps three\nyears, all the spirits of our dead came here for a great feast. They had\nbodies such as they had before death; wives recognized husbands,\nhusbands wives, children parents, and parents children. Just after\nsundown the spirits began arriving, only a few passing over the road by\ndaylight, but after dark they came in great crowds and remained until\nnear dawn. They tarried but one night; husbands and wives did not sleep\ntogether; had they done so, the living would have surely died. When the\nhour of separation came, there was much weeping, not only among the\nliving, but the dead. The living insisted upon going with the dead, but\nthe dead declared they must wait,--that they could not pass through the\nentrance to the other world; they must first die or grow old and again\nbecome little children to be able to pass through the door of the world\nfor the departed. It was then that the Sia first learned all about their\nfuture home. They learned that the fields were vast, the pastures\nbeautiful, the mountains high, the lakes and rivers clear like crystal,\nand the wheat and cornfields flourishing. During the day the spirits\nsleep, and at night they work industriously in the fields. The moon is\nfather to the dead as the sun is father to the living, the dead resting\nwhen the sun travels, for at this time they see nothing; it is when the\nsun returns to his home at night that the departed spirits work and pass\nabout in their world below. The home of the departed spirits is in the\nworld first inhabited by the Sia.\"\n\nWe learn further: \"It is the aim of the Sia to first reach the\nintermediate state at the time the body ceases to develop, and then\nreturn gradually back to the first condition of infancy; at such periods\none does not die, but sleeps to awake in the spirit-world as a little\nchild. Many stories have come to the Sia by those who have died only for\na time; the heart becomes still and the lips cold, and the spirit passes\nto the entrance of the other world and looks in, but does not enter, and\nyet it sees all, and in a short time returns to inhabit its earthly\nbody. Great alarm is felt when one returns in this way to life, but much\nfaith is put in the stories afterwards told by the one who has passed\nover the road of death.\"\n\nIn the belief of these Indians of North America we see some\nforeshadowing of the declaration of Jesus, a rude expression of the\nfundamental thought underlying his words:--\n\n\"Suffer little children to come unto me, and forbid them not; for of\nsuch is the kingdom of God. Verily I say unto you, whosoever shall not\nreceive the kingdom of God as a little child, he shall in nowise enter\ntherein.\"\n\nCertain Siouan Indians think: \"The stars are all deceased men. When a\nchild is born, a star descends and appears on earth in human form; after\ndeath it reascends and appears as a star in heaven\" (433. 508). How like\nthis is the poet's thought:--\n\n\n  \"Our birth, is but a sleep and a forgetting:\n  The soul that rises with us, our life's star,\n  Hath had elsewhere its setting,\n  And cometh from afar.\"\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XI\n\n\nCHILDREN'S FLOWERS, PLANTS, AND TREES.\n\n  As for man, his days are as grass; as a flower of the field so he\n  flourishes.\n  --_Psalm_ ciii. 15.\n\n  A child at play in meadows green,\n  Plucking the fragrant flowers,\n  Chasing the white-winged butterflies,--\n  So sweet are childhood's hours.\n\n  We meet wi' blythesome and kythesome cheerie weans,\n  Daffin' and laughin' far adoon the leafy lanes,\n  Wi' gowans and buttercups buskin' the thorny wands--\n  Sweetly singin' wi' the flower-branch wavin' in their hands.\n\n  Many savage nations worship trees, and I really think my first\n  feeling would be one of delight and interest rather than of surprise,\n  if some day when I am alone in a wood, one of the trees were to\n  speak to me.--_Sir John Lubbock_.\n\n  O who can tell\n  The hidden power of herbs, and might of magic spell?--_Spenser_.\n\n\n_Plant Life and Human Life_.\n\nFlowers, plants, and trees have ever been interwoven with the fate of\nman in the minds of poets and folk-thinkers. The great Hebrew psalmist\ndeclared: \"As for man, his days are as grass; as a flower of the field\nso he flourisheth,\" and the old Greeks said beautifully, [greek:\n_oi\u00e6per phyll\u00f4n gene\u00e6, toi\u00e6de kai andr\u00f4n_], \"as is the generation\nof leaves, so is also that of men\"; or, to quote the words of Homer\n(_Iliad_, vi. 146):--\n\n\n  \"Like as the generation of leaves, so also is that of men;\n  For the wind strews the leaves on the ground; but the forest,\n  Putting forth fresh buds, grows on, and spring will presently return.\n  Thus with the generation of men; the one blooms, the other fades away.\"\n\n\nOne derivation (a folk-etymology, perhaps) suggested for the Greek\n[Greek: _anthropos_] connects it with [Greek: _anthos_],\nmaking _man_ to be \"that which springs up like a flower.\" We\nourselves speak of the \"flower of chivalry,\" the \"bloom of youth,\"\n\"budding youth\"; the poets call a little child a \"flower,\" a \"bud,\" a\n\"blossom,\"--Herrick even terms an infant \"a virgin flosculet.\" Plants,\nbeasts, men, cities, civilizations, grow and _flourish_; the\nselfsame words are applied to them all.\n\nThe same idea comes out strongly in the words relating to birth and\nchildhood in the languages of many primitive peoples. With the\nCakchiquel Indians of Guatemala the term _boz_ has the following\nmeanings: \"to issue forth; (of flowers) to open, to blow; (of a\nbutterfly) to come forth from the cocoon; (of chicks) to come forth from\nthe egg; (of grains of maize) to burst; (of men) to be born\"; in Nahuatl\n(Aztec), _itzmolini_ signifies \"to sprout, to grow, to be born\"; in\nDelaware, an Algonkian Indian dialect, _mehittuk_, \"tree,\"\n_mehittgus_, \"twig,\" _mehittachpin_, \"to be born,\" seem\nrelated, while _gischigin_ means \"to ripen, to mature, to be born.\"\n\nIn many tongues the words for \"young\" reveal the same flow of thought.\nIn Maya, an Indian language of Yucatan, _yax_ signifies \"green,\nfresh, young\"; in Nahuatl, _yancuic_, \"green, fresh, new,\" and\n_yancuic pilla_, \"a new-born babe\"; in Chippeway, _oshki,_\n\"new, fresh, young,\" whence _oshkigin_, \"young shoot,\"\n_oshkinawe_, \"lad, youth,\" _oshkinig_, \"newly born,\"\n_oshkinaiaa_, \"a new or young object,\" _oshkiaiaans_, \"a young\nanimal or bird,\" oshkiabinodji_, \"babe, infant, new-born child\"; in\nKarankawa, an Indian language of Texas, _kwa'-an_, \"child, young,\"\nsignifies literally \"growing,\" from _ka'-awan_, \"to grow\" (said of\nanimals and plants).\n\nOur English words _lad_ and _lass_, which came to the language\nfrom Celtic sources, find their cognate in the Gothic\n_jugga-lauths_, \"young lad, young man,\" where _jugga_ means\n\"young,\" and _lauths_ is related to the verb _liudan_, \"to\ngrow, to spring up,\" from which root we have also the German\n_Leute_ and the obsolete English _leet_, for \"people\" were\noriginally \"the grown, the sprung up.\"\n\n_Maid (maiden)_, Anglo-Saxon _moegd_, Modern High German\n_Magd_, Gothic _magaths_ (and here belongs also old English\n_may_) is an old Teutonic word for \"virgin, young girl.\" The Gothic\n_magaths_ is a derivative from _magus_, \"son, boy, servant,\"\ncognate with Old Irish _mac_, \"boy, son, youth,\" _mog_ (mug),\n\"slave,\" Old Norse _mqgr_, \"son,\" Anglo-Saxon _mago_, \"son,\nyouth, servant, man,\" the radical of all these terms being _mag_,\n\"to have power, to increase, to grow,\"--the Gothic _magus_ was\nproperly \"a growing (boy),\" a \"maid\" is \"a growing (girl).\" The same\nidea underlies the month-name _May_, for, to the Romans, this was\n\"the month of growth,\"--flowery, bounteous May,--and dedicated to\n_Maia_, \"the increaser,\" but curiously, as Ovid tells us, the\ncommon people considered it unlucky to marry in May, for then the rites\nof Bona Dea, the goddess of chastity, and the feasts of the dead, were\ncelebrated.\n\n\n_Plant-Lore._\n\nThe study of dendanthropology and human florigeny would lead us wide\nafield. The ancient Semitic peoples of Asia Minor had their \"Tree of\nLife,\" which later religions have spiritualized, and more than one race\nhas ascribed its origin to trees. The Carib Indians believed that\nmankind--woman especially--were first created from two trees (509. 109).\nAccording to a myth of the Siouan Indians, the first two human beings\nstood rooted as trees in the ground for many ages, until a great snake\ngnawed at the roots, so that they got loose and became the first\nIndians. In the old Norse cosmogony, two human beings--man and\nwoman--were created from two trees--ash and elm--that stood on the\nsea-shore; while Tacitus states that the holy grove of the Semnones was\nheld to be the cradle of the nation, and in Saxony, men are said to have\ngrown from trees. The Maya Indians called themselves \"sons of the trees\"\n(509. 180, 264).\n\nDoctor Beauchamp reports a legend of the Iroquois Indians, according to\nwhich a god came to earth and sowed five handfuls of seed, and these,\nchanging to worms, were taken possession of by spirits, changed to\nchildren, and became the ancestors of the Five Nations (480. IV. 297).\n\nClassical mythology, along with dryads and tree-nymphs of all sorts,\nfurnishes us with a multitude of myths of the metamorphosis of human\nbeings into trees, plants, and flowers. Among the most familiar stories\nare those of Adonis, Crocus, Phyllis, Narcissus, Leucothea, Hyacinthus,\nSyrinx, Clytie, Daphne, Orchis, Lotis, Philemon and Baucis, Atys, etc.\nAll over the world we find myths of like import.\n\nA typical example is the Algonkian Indian legend of the transformation\nof Mishosha, the magician, into the sugar-maple,--the name\n_aninatik_ or _ininatik_ is interpreted by folk-etymology as\n\"man-tree,\" the sap being the life-blood of Mishosha. Gluskap, the\nculture-hero of the Micmacs, once changed \"a mighty man\" into the\ncedar-tree.\n\nMany of the peculiarities of trees and plants are explained by the folk\nas resulting from their having once been human creatures.\n\nGrimm and Ploss have called attention to the widespread custom of\nplanting trees on the occasion of the birth of a child, the idea being\nthat some sort of connection between the plant and the human existed and\nwould show itself sympathetically. In Switzerland, where the belief is\nthat the child thrives with the tree, or _vice versa_, apple-trees\nare planted for boys and pear- or nut-trees for girls. Among the Jews, a\ncedar was planted for a boy and a pine for a girl, while for the wedding\ncanopy, branches were cut from both these trees (385. 6). From this\nthought the orators and psalmists of old Israel drew many a noble and\ninspiring figure, such as that used by David: \"The righteous shall\nflourish like the palm-tree: he shall grow like a cedar in Lebanon.\"\nHere belong also \"flourishing like a green bay-tree,\" and the remark of\nthe Captain in Shakespeare's _King Richard Second:_--\n\n\n  \"'Tis thought the king is dead. We will not stay;\n  The bay-trees in our country are all withered.\"\n\n\n_Child-Flowers and -Plants._\n\nThe planting of trees for the hero or the heroine and the belief that\nthese wither when a death is near, blossom when a happy event\napproaches, and in many ways react to the fate and fortune of their\nhuman fellows, occur very frequently in fairy-tales and legends.\n\nThere is a sweet Tyrolian legend of \"a poor idiot boy, who lived alone\nin the forest and was never heard to say any words but 'Ave Maria.'\nAfter his death a lily sprang up on his grave, on whose petals 'Ave\nMaria' might be distinctly read.\" (416. 216).\n\nAn old Greek myth relates that the Crocus \"sprang from the blood of the\ninfant Crocus, who was accidentally struck by a metal disc thrown by\nMercury, whilst playing a game\" (448.299). In Ossianic story, \"Malvina,\nweeping beside the tomb of Fingal, for Oscar and his infant son, is\ncomforted by the maids of Morven, who narrate how they have seen the\ninnocent infant borne on a light mist, pouring upon the fields a fresh\nharvest of flowers, amongst which rises one with golden disc, encircled\nwith rays of silver, tipped with a delicate tint of crimson.\" Such,\naccording to this Celtic legend, was the origin of the daisy (448. 308).\n\nThe peasants of Brittany believe that little children, when they die, go\nstraight to Paradise and are changed into beautiful flowers in the\ngarden of heaven (174. 141). Similar beliefs are found in other parts of\nthe world, and a like imagery is met with among our poets. Well known is\nLongfellow's little poem \"The Reaper and the Flowers,\" in which death,\nas a reaper, reaps not alone the \"bearded grain,\" but also \"the flowers\n[children] that grow between,\" for:--\n\n\n \"'My Lord has need of these flowerets gay,'\n  The reaper said, and smiled;\n  'Dear tokens of the earth are they,\n  Where he was once a child.'\"\n\n\nAnd so:--\n\n\n \"The mother gave, in tears and pain,\n  The flowers she most did love;\n  She knew she should find them all again\n  In the field of light above.\"\n\n\nAccording to a myth of the Chippeway Indians, a star once came down from\nheaven to dwell among men. Upon consulting with a young man in a dream\nas to where it should live, it was told to choose a place for itself,\nand, \"at first, it dwelt in the white rose of the mountains; but there\nit was so buried that it could not be seen. It went to the prairie; but\nit feared the hoof of the buffalo. It next sought the rocky cliff; but\nthere it was so high that the children whom it loved most could not see\nit.\" It decided at last to dwell where it could always be seen, and so\none morning the Indians awoke to find the surface of river, lake, and\npond covered with thousands of white flowers. Thus came into existence\nthe beautiful water-lilies (440. 68-70).\n\nPerhaps the most beautiful belief regarding children's flowers is that\nembodied in Hans Christian Andersen's tale _The Angel_, where the\nDanish prose-poet tells us: \"Whenever a child dies, an angel from heaven\ncomes down to earth and takes the dead child in his arms, spreads out\nhis great white wings, and flies away over all the places the child has\nloved and picks quite a handful of flowers, which he carries up to the\nAlmighty, that they may bloom in heaven more brightly than on earth. And\nthe Father presses all the flowers to His heart; but He kisses the\nflower that pleases Him best, and the flower is then endowed with a\nvoice and can join in the great chorus of praise\" (393.341).\n\n\n_Star-Flowers_.\n\nBeside this, however, we may perhaps place the following quaint story of\n\"The Devils on the Meadows of Heaven,\" of which a translation from the\nGerman of Rudolph Baumbach, by \"C. F. P.,\" appears in the _Association\nRecord_ (October, 1892), published by the Young Women's Christian\nAssociation of Worcester, Mass.:--\n\n\"As you know, good children, when they die, come to Heaven and become\nangels. But if you perhaps think they do nothing the sweet, long day but\nfly about and play hide-and-seek behind the clouds, you are mistaken.\nThe angel-children are obliged to go to school like the boys and girls\non the earth, and on week days must be in the angel-school three hours\nin the forenoon and two in the afternoon. There they write with golden\npens on silver slates, and instead of ABC-books they have story-books\nwith gay-coloured pictures. They do not learn geography, for of what use\nin Heaven is earth-knowledge; and in eternity one doesn't know the\nmultiplication table at all. Dr. Faust is the angel-school teacher. On\nearth he was an A.M., and on account of a certain event which does not\nbelong here, he is obliged to keep school in Heaven three thousand years\nmore before the long vacation begins for him. Wednesday and Saturday\nafternoons the little angels have holiday; then they are taken to walk\non the Milky Way by Dr. Faust. But Sunday they are allowed to play on\nthe great meadow in front of the gate of Heaven, and that they joyfully\nanticipate during the whole week.\n\n\"The meadow is not green, but blue, and on it grow thousands and\nthousands of silver and golden flowers. They shine in the night and we\nmen call them stars.\n\n\"When the angels are sporting about before the gate of Heaven, Dr. Faust\nis not present, for on Sunday he must recover from the toil of the past\nweek. St. Peter, who keeps watch at the Heavenly gate, then takes\ncharge. He usually sees to it that the play goes on properly, and that\nno one goes astray or flies away; but if one ever gets too far away from\nthe gate, then he whistles on his golden key, which means 'Back!'\n\n\"Once--it was really very hot in Heaven--St. Peter fell asleep. When the\nangels noticed this, they ceased swarming hither and thither and\nscattered over the whole meadow. But the most enterprising of them went\nout on a trip of discovery, and came at last to the place where the\nworld is surrounded by a board fence. First they tried to find a crack\nsomewhere through which they might peep, but as they found no gap, they\nclimbed up the board fence and hung dangling and looking over. Yonder,\non the other side, was hell, and before its gate a crowd of little\ndevils were just running about. They were coal-black, and had horns on\ntheir heads and long tails behind. One of them chanced to look up and\nnoticed the angels, and immediately begged imploringly that they would\nlet them into Heaven for a little while; they would behave quite nice\nand properly. This moved the angels to pity, and because they liked the\nlittle black fellows, they thought they might perhaps allow the poor\nimps this innocent pleasure.\n\n\"One of them knew the whereabouts of Jacob's ladder. This they dragged\nto the place from the lumber-room (St. Peter had, luckily, not waked\nup), lifted it over the fence of boards, and let it down into hell.\nImmediately the tailed fellows clambered up its rounds like monkeys, the\nangels gave them their hands, and thus came the devils upon Heaven's\nmeadows.\n\n\"At first they behaved themselves in a quite orderly manner. Modestly\nthey stepped along and carried their tails on their arms like trains, as\nthe devil grandmother, who sets great value on propriety, had taught\nthem. But it did not last long; they became frolicsome, turned wheels\nand somersaults, and shrieked at the same time like real imps. The\nbeautiful moon, who was looking kindly out of a window in Heaven, they\nderided, thrust out their tongues and made faces (German: long noses) at\nher, and finally began to pluck up the flowers which grew on the meadow\nand throw them down on the earth. Now the angels grew frightened and\nbitterly repented letting their evil guests into Heaven. They begged and\nthreatened, but the devils cared for nothing, and kept on in their\nfrolic more madly. Then, in terror, the angels waked up St. Peter and\npenitently confessed to him what they had done. He smote his hands\ntogether over his head when he saw the mischief which the imps had\nwrought. 'March in!' thundered he, and the little ones, with drooping\nwings, crept through the gate into Heaven. Then St. Peter called a few\nsturdy angels. They collected the imps and took them where they\nbelonged.\n\n\"The little angels did not escape punishment. Three Sundays in\nsuccession they were not allowed in front of Heaven's gate, and, if they\nwere taken to walk, they were obliged to first unbuckle their wings and\nlay aside their halos; and it is a great disgrace for an angel to go\nabout without wings and halo.\n\n\"But the affair resulted in some good, after all. The flowers which the\ndevils had torn up and thrown upon the earth took root and increased\nfrom year to year. To be sure, the star-flower lost much of its heavenly\nbeauty, but it is still always lovely to look at, with its golden-yellow\ndisk, and its silvery white crown of rays.\n\n\"And because of its Heavenly origin, a quite remarkable power resides in\nit. If a maiden, whose mind harbours a doubt, pulls off, one by one, the\nwhite petals of the flower-star, whispering meanwhile a certain sentence\nat the fall of the last little petal, she is quite sure of what she\ndesires to know.\"\n\nThe very name _Aster_ is suggestive of star-origin and recalls the\nlines of Longfellow:--\n\n\n  \"Spake full well, in language quaint and olden,\n    One who dwelleth by the castled Rhine,\n  When he called the flowers, so blue and golden,\n    Stars, that in earth's firmament do shine.\"\n\n\nThe reference seems to be to Friedrich Wilhelm Carov\u00e9, of Coblentz, in\nwhose _M\u00e4rchen ohne Ende_, a forget-me-not is spoken of as\n\"twinkling as brightly as a blue star on the green firmament of earth\"\n(390. II. 149).\n\nAnother contribution to floral astrology is the brief poem of H. M.\nSweeny in the _Catholic World_ for November, 1892:--\n\n\n  \"The Milky Way is the foot-path\n    Of the martyrs gone to God;\n  Its stars are the flaming jewels\n    To show us the way they trod.\n\n  \"The flowers are stars dropped lower,\n    Our daily path to light,\n  In daylight to lead us upward\n    As those jewels do at night.\"\n\n\nFlower-oracles are discussed in another section, and the \"language of\nflowers\" of which the poet tells,--\n\n\n  \"In Eastern lands they talk in flowers,\n    And they tell in a garland their loves and cares;\n  Each blossom that blooms in their garden bower\n    On its leaves a mystic language bears,\"\n\n\nmust be studied in Dyer, Friend, and Folkard, or in the various booklets\nwhich treat of this entertaining subject.\n\nThough in Bohemia it is believed that \"seven-year-old children will\nbecome beautiful by dancing in the flax,\" and in some parts of Germany\n\"when an infant seems weakly and thrives slowly, it is placed naked upon\nthe turf on Midsummer Day, and flax-seed is sprinkled over it; the idea\nbeing, that, as the flax-seed grows, so the child will gradually grow\nstronger\" (435. 278, 279); flowers and plants are sometimes associated\nwith ill-luck and death. In Westphalia and Thuringia the superstition\nprevails that \"any child less than a year old, who is permitted to\nwreathe himself with flowers, will soon die.\" In the region about\nCockermouth, in the county of Cumberland, England, the red campion\n(_Lychnis diurna_) is known as \"mother-die,\" the belief being that,\nif children gather it, some misfortune is sure to happen to the parents.\nDyer records also the following: \"In West Cumberland, the herb-robert\n(_Geranium robertianum_) is called 'death come quickly,' from a\nlike reason, while in parts of Yorkshire, the belief is that the mother\nof a child who has gathered the germander speedwell (_Veronica\nchamoedrys_) will die ere the year is out\" (435. 276).\n\n\n_Children's Plant-Names._\n\nMr. H. C. Mercer, discussing the question of the presence of Indian corn\nin Italy and Europe in early times, remarks (_Amer. Naturalist_,\nVol. XXVIII., 1894, p. 974):--\n\n\"An etymology has been suggested for the name _Grano Turco_\n[Turkish grain], in the antics of boys when bearded and moustached with\nmaize silk, they mimic the fierce looks of Turks in the high 'corn.' We\ncannot think that the Italian lad does not smoke the mock tobacco that\nmust tempt him upon each ear. If he does, he apes a habit no less\nAmerican in its origin than the maize itself. So the American lad\nplaying with a 'shoe-string bow' or a 'corn-stalk fiddle' would turn to\nItaly for his inspiration.\"\n\nIn the interesting lists of popular American plant-names, published by\nMrs. Fanny D. Bergen (400), are found the following in which the child\nis remembered:--\n\nBabies' breath, _Galium Mollugo._ In Eastern Massachusetts.\nBabies' breath, _Muscari botryoides._ In Eastern Massachusetts.\nBabies' feet, _Polygala paucifolia._ In New Hampshire.\nBabies' slippers, _Polygala paucifolia._ In Western Massachusetts.\nBabies' toes, _Polygala paucifolia._ In Hubbardston, Mass.\nBaby blue-eyes, _Nemophila insignis._ In Sta. Barbara, Cal.\nBlue-eyed babies, _Houstonia coerulea._ In Springfield, Mass.\nBoys and girls, _Dicentra cucullaria._ In New York.\nBoys' love, _Artemisia absinthium._ In Wellfleet, Mass.\nDeath-baby, _Phallus sp. (?)._ In Salem, Mass.\nGirls and boys, _Dicentra cucullaria._ In Vermont.\nLittle boy's breeches, _Dicentra cucullaria._ In Central Iowa.\n\n\"Blue-eyed babies\" is certainly an improvement upon \"Quaker ladies,\" the\nname by which the _Houstonia_ is known in some parts of New\nEngland; \"death-baby\" is a term that is given, Mrs. Bergen tells us,\n\"from the fancy that they foretell death in the family near whose house\nthey spring up. I have known of intelligent people rushing out in terror\nand beating down a colony of these as soon as they appeared in the\nyard.\"\n\nThe parents have not been entirely forgotten, as the following names\nshow:--\n\n\n  Mother's beauties, _Calandrina Menziesii_. In Sta. Barbara, Cal.\n  Mother of thousands, _Tradescantia crassifolia_ (?). In Boston, Mass.\n  Daddy-nuts, _Tilia sp._ (?). In Madison, Wis.\n\n\nAt La Crosse, Wis., the _Lonicera talarica_, is called \"twin\nsisters,\" a name which finds many analogues.\n\nAs we have seen, the consideration of children as flowers, plants,\ntrees, traverses many walks of life. Floral imagery has appealed to many\nprimitive peoples, perhaps to none more than to the ancient Mexicans,\nwith whom children were often called flowers, and the Nagualists termed\nMother-Earth \"the flower that contains everything,\" and \"the flower that\neats everything\"--being at once the source and end of life (413. 54).\n\nA sweet old German legend has it that the laughter of little children\nproduced roses, and the sweetest and briefest of the \"good-night songs\"\nof the German mothers is this:--\n\n\n  \"Guten Abend, gute Nacht!\n   Mit Rosen bedacht,\n   Mit N\u00e4glein besteckt;\n   Morgen fr\u00fch, wenn's Gott will,\n   Wirst du wieder geweckt.\"\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XII.\n\n\nCHILDREN'S ANIMALS, BIRDS, ETC.\n\n  My brother, the hare, ... my sisters, the doves.\n  --_St. Francis of Assisi._\n\n  Love of animals is inborn. The child that has had no pets is to\n  be pitied.--_G. Stanley Hall._\n\n  For what are the voices of birds--\n  Aye, and of beasts,--but words, our words,\n  Only so much more sweet?--_Browning._\n\n  I know not, little Ella, what the flowers\n    Said to you then, to make your cheek so pale;\n  And why the blackbird in our laurel bowers\n    Spoke to you, only: and the poor pink snail\n  Fear'd less your steps than those of the May-shower\n    It was not strange those creatures loved you so,\n    And told you all. 'Twas not so long ago\n  You were yourself a bird, or else a flower.\n    --_Lord Lytton (Owen Meredith)._\n\n\n_Children and Young Animals._\n\nThe comparisons sometimes made of children with various of the lower\nanimals, such as monkeys, bears, pigs, etc., come more naturally to some\nprimitive peoples, who, as Ploss has pointed out, suckle at the breast\nthe young of certain animals simultaneously with their own offspring. In\nthis way, the infant in the Society Islands comes early into association\nwith puppies, as he does also among several of the native tribes of\nAustralia and America; so was it likewise in ancient Rome, and the\ncustom may yet be found among the tent-gypsies of Transylvania, in\nPersia, and even within the present century has been met with in Naples\nand G\u00f6ttingen. The Maori mother, in like manner, suckles young pigs, the\nArawak Indian of Guiana young monkeys (as also do the Siamese), the\nnatives of Kamtschatka young bears. An old legend of the city of Breslau\nhas it that the fashion certain ladies have of carrying dogs around with\nthem originated in the fact that Duke Boleslau, in the last quarter of\nthe eleventh century, punished the women of Breslau, for some connubial\nunfaithfulness, by taking away their suckling children and making them,\ncarry instead puppies at the breast (392. I. 61).\n\nOf the Arekuna of Guiana, Schomburgk tells us:--\"They bring up children\nand monkeys together. The monkeys are members of the family, eat with\nthe other members, are suckled by the women, and have great affection\nfor their human nurses. Oftentimes a woman is to be seen with a child\nand a monkey at the breast, the two nurselings quarrelling\" (529. 13).\n\nThe young children of the less nomadic tribes grow up in close\nassociation with the few domestic animals possessed by their parents,\ntumbling about with the puppies on the wigwam-floor or racing with them\naround the camp-stead.\n\nThe history of totemism and fetichism, primitive medicine, and the arts\nconnected therewith, their panaceas, talismans, and amulets, show early\nassociation of the child with animals. In the village of Issapoo, on the\nisland of Fernando Po, in Western Africa, there is fastened to a pole in\nthe market-place a snake-skin, to touch which all infants born the\npreceding year are brought by their mothers during an annual festival\n(529. 32). In various parts of the world, novices and neophytes are put\nto dream or fast in seclusion until they see some animal which becomes\ntheir tutelary genius, and whose form is often tattooed upon their body.\n\nSir John Maundeville, the veracious mediaeval chronicler, reported that\nin Sicily serpents were used to test the legitimacy of children; \"if the\nchildren be illegitimate, the serpents bite and kill them.\" Hartland\ncites, on the authority of Thiele, \"a story in which a wild stallion\ncolt is brought in to smell two babes, one of which is a changeling.\nEvery time he smells one he is quiet and licks it; but, on smelling the\nother, he is invariably restive and strives to kick it. The latter,\ntherefore, is the changeling\" (258. 111).\n\n\n_Animal Nurses._\n\nAkin to these practices are many of the forms of exposure and\nabandonment all over the world. Shakespeare, in _The Winter's\nTale_, makes Antigonus say:--\n\n\n  \"Come on (poor Babe).\n  Some powerful Spirit instruct the Kites and Ravens\n  To be thy Nurses. Wolves and Bears, they say\n  (Casting their savageness aside), have done\n  Like offices of pity.\"\n\n\nAn old Egyptian painting represents a child and a calf being suckled by\nthe same cow, and in Palestine and the Canary Islands, goats are used to\nsuckle children, especially if the mother of the little one has died\n(125. II. 393). The story of Psammetichus and the legend of Romulus and\nRemus find parallels in many lands. Gods, heroes, saints, are suckled\nand cared for in their infancy by grateful beasts.\n\n\n_Wild Children._\n\nDoctor Tylor has discussed at some length the subject of \"wild men and\nbeast children\" (376), citing examples from many different parts of the\nglobe. Procopius, the chronicler of the Gothic invasion of Italy, states\n(with the additional information that he saw the child in question\nhimself), that, after the barbarians had ravaged the country, \"an\ninfant, left by its mother, was found by a she-goat, which suckled and\ntook care of it. When the survivors came back to their deserted homes,\nthey found the child living with its adopted mother, and called it\nAegisthus.\" Doctor Tylor calls attention to the prevalence of similar\nstories in Germany after the destruction and devastation of the\nNapoleonic wars; there appears to be record of several children wild or\nanimal-reared having, during this period, been received into Count von\nRecke's asylum at Overdyke. Many of these tales we need not hesitate to\ndismiss as purely fabulous, though there may be truth in some of the\nrest. Among the best-known cases (some of which are evidently nothing\nmore than idiots, or poor wandering children) are: Peter, the \"Wild Boy\"\nof Hameln (in 1724); the child reported in the Hessian Chronicle as\nhaving been found by some hunters living with wolves in 1341; the child\nreported by Bernard Connor as living with she-bears, and the child found\nwith bears at Grodno in Poland; the wolf-child of the Ardennes,\nmentioned by Koenig, in his treatise on the subject; the Irish boy said\nto feed on grass and hay, found living among the wild sheep; the girl\nfound living wild in Holland in 1717; the two goat-like boys of the\nPyrenees (in 1719); the amphibious wild girl of Ch\u00e2lons sur Marne (in\n1731); the wild boy of Bamberg, who lowed like an ox; and, the most\nrenowned of all, Kaspar Hauser. This celebrated \"wild boy\" has recently\nbeen made the subject of a monograph by the Duchess of Cleveland (208),\nof which the first words are these: \"The story of Kaspar Hauser is both\ncurious and instructive. It shows on how commonplace and unpromising a\nfoundation a myth of European celebrity may rest.\" Sir William Sleeman\nhas something to say of \"beast-children\" in the Kingdom of Oude (183),\nand Mr. Ball, who writes of wolf-reared children in India, calls\nattention to the fact that in that country there seems to have been no\ninstance of a wolf-reared girl (183. 474).\n\nIn the _Kath\u00e2 sarit s\u00e2gara_ (\"Ocean of the River of Story\"), a work\nbelonging to the twelfth century, there is the story of the immoral\nunion of a _yaksha_, or _jin_, and the daughter of a holy man,\nwho was bathing in the Granges. The relatives of the girl by magic\nchanged the two guilty persons into a lion and a lioness. The latter\nsoon died, but gave birth to a human child, which the lion-father made\nthe other lionesses suckle. The baby grew up and became \"the\nworld-ruling king, Satavahana\" (376. 29). Another Hindu story tells how\nthe daughter of a Brahman, giving birth to a child while on a journey,\nwas forced to leave it in a wood, where it was suckled and nursed by\nfemale jackals until rescued by merchants who happened to pass by.\n\nHerodotus repeats the tales that Cyrus was nursed and suckled by a\nbitch; Zeus figures as suckled by a goat; Romulus and Remus, the\nfounders of Rome according to the ancient legend, were nursed by a\nshe-wolf; and others of the heroes and gods of old were suckled by\nanimals whose primitive kinship with the race of man the folk had not\nforgotten.\n\nProfessor Rauber of Dorpat, in his essay on \"Homo Sapiens Ferus\" (335),\ndiscusses in detail sixteen cases of wild children (including most of\nthose treated by Tylor) as follows: the two Hessian wolf-children, boys\n(1341-1344); the Bamberg boy, who grew up among the cattle (at the close\nof the sixteenth century); Hans of Li\u00e8ge; the Irish boy brought up by\nsheep; the three Lithuanian bear-boys (1657, 1669, 1694); the girl of\nOranienburg (1717); the two Pyren\u00e6an boys (1719); Peter, the wild boy of\nHameln (1724); the girl of Songi in Champagne (1731); the Hungarian\nbear-girl (1767); the wild man of Cronstadt (end of eighteenth century);\nthe boy of Aveyron (1795). It will be noticed that in this list of\nsixteen cases but two girls figure.\n\nAs a result of his studies Professor Rauber concludes: \"What we are wont\nto call reason does not belong to man as such; in himself he is without\nit. The appellation _Homo sapiens_ does not then refer to man as\nsuch, but to the ability under certain conditions of becoming possessed\nof reason. It is the same with language and culture of every sort. The\ntitle _Homo sapiens ferus_ (Linn\u00e6us) is in a strict sense\nunjustifiable and a contradiction in itself.\" To prehistoric man these\nwild children are like, but they are not the same as he; they resemble\nhim, but cannot be looked upon as one and the same with him. From the\nstand-point of pedagogy, Professor Rauber, from the consideration of\nthese children, feels compelled to declare that \"the ABC-school must be\nreplaced by the culture-school.\" In other words: \"The ABC is not, as so\nmany believe, the beginning of all wisdom. In order to be able to\nadmeasure this sufficiently, prehistoric studies are advisable, nay,\nnecessary. Writing is a very late acquisition of man. In the arrangement\nof a curriculum for the first years of the culture-school, reading and\nwriting are to be placed at the end of the second school year, but never\nare they to begin the course ... Manual training ought also to be taken\nup in the schools; it is demanded by considerations of culture-history\"\n(335.133).\n\n\n_Animal Stories._\n\nProfessor W. H. Brewer of New Haven, discussing the \"instinctive\ninterest of children in bear and wolf stories,\" observes (192): \"The\nchildren of European races take more interest in bear and wolf stories\nthan in stories relating to any other wild animals. Their interest in\nbears is greater than that in wolves, and in the plays of children bears\nhave a much more conspicuous part. There is a sort of fascination in\neverything relating to these animals that attracts the child's attention\nfrom a very early age, and 'Tell me a bear story' is a common request\nlong before it learns to read.\" After rejecting, as unsatisfactory, the\ntheory that would make it a matter of education with each child,--\"the\nconservative traditions of children have preserved more stories about\nbears and wolves, parents and nurses talk more about them, these animals\nhave a larger place in the literature for children; hence the special\ninterest,\"--Professor Brewer expresses his own belief that \"the special\ninterest our children show towards these two animals is instinctive, and\nit is of the nature of an inherited memory, vague, to be sure, yet\nstrong enough to give a bend to the natural inclinations.\" He points out\nthat the bear and the wolf are the two animals \"which have been and\nstill are the most destructive to human life (and particularly to\nchildren) in our latitude and climate,\" and that \"several of the large\nbreeds of dogs,--the wolf-hound proper, the mastiff (particularly the\nSpanish mastiff), and even the St. Bernard,--were originally evolved as\nwolf-dogs for the protection of sheep and children.\" His general\nconclusion is: \"The fear inspired by these animals during the long ages\nof the childhood of our civilization, and the education of the many\nsuccessive generations of our ancestors in this fear, descends to us as\nan inherited memory, or, in other words, an instinct. While not strong,\nit is of sufficient force to create that kind of fascination which\nstories of bears and wolves have in children before the instincts are\ncovered up and obscured by intellectual education. The great shaggy bear\nappeals more strongly to the imagination of children, hence its superior\nvalue to play 'boo' with.\"\n\n\n_Rabbit and Hare._\n\nThe rabbit and the hare figure in many mythologies, and around them,\nboth in the Old World and the New, has grown up a vast amount of\nfolk-lore. The rabbit and the child are associated in the old\nnursery-rhyme:--\n\n\n  \"Bye, bye, Baby Bunting,\n  Papa's gone a-hunting,\n  To get a rabbit-skin,\n  To wrap Baby Bunting in,\"\n\n\nwhich reminds us at once of the Chinook Indians and the Flat Heads of\nthe Columbia, with whom \"the child is wrapped in rabbit-skins and placed\nin this little coffin-like cradle, from which it is not in some\ninstances taken out for several weeks\" (306.174).\n\nAn Irish belief explains hare-lip as having been caused, before the\nbirth of the child, by the mother seeing a hare. The Chinese think that\n\"a hare or a rabbit sits at the foot of the cassia-tree in the moon,\npounding the drugs out of which the elixir of immortality is compounded\"\n(401. 155).\n\nThe Ungava Eskimo, according to Turner, have a legend that the hare was\nonce a little child, abused by its elders; \"it ran away to dwell by\nitself. The hare has no tail, because as a child he had none; and he\nlays back his ears, when he hears a shout, because he thinks people are\ntalking about him\" (544. 263).\n\nIn a myth of the Menomoni Indians, reported by Dr. W. J. Hoffman, we\nread that Manabush [the great culture-hero] and a twin brother were born\nthe sons of the virgin daughter of an old woman named Nok\u00f3mis. His\nbrother and mother died. Nok\u00f3mis wrapped Manabush in dry, soft grass,\nand placed a wooden bowl over him. After four days a noise proceeded\nfrom the bowl, and, upon removing it, she saw \"a little white rabbit\nwith quivering ears.\" Afterwards, when grown up, and mourning for the\ndeath of his brother, Manabush is said to have hid himself in a large\nrock near Mackinaw, where he was visited by the people for many years.\nWhen he did not wish to see them in his human form, he appeared to them\nas \"a little white rabbit with trembling ears\" (389. (1890) 246). Of the\nwhite rabbit, the Great Hare, Manabush, Naniboju, etc., more must be\nread in the mythological essays of Dr. Brinton.\n\nAmong the tales of the Ainu of Yezo, Japan, recorded by Professor B. H.\nChamberlain, is the following concerning the Hare-god:--\n\n\"Suddenly there was a large house on top of a hill, wherein were six\npersons beautifully arrayed, but constantly quarrelling. Whence they\ncame was not known. Thereupon [the god] Okikurumi came, and said: 'Oh,\nyou bad hares! you wicked hares! Who should not know your origin? The\nchildren in the sky were pelting each other with snowballs, and the\nsnowballs fell into this world of men. As it would have been a pity to\nwaste heaven's snow, the snowballs were turned into hares, and those\nhares are you. You who live in this world of mine, this world of human\nbeings, must be quiet. What is it that you are brawling about?' With\nthese words, Okikurumi seized a fire-brand, and beat each of the six\nwith it in turn. Thereupon all the hares ran away. This is the origin of\nthe hare-god, and for this reason the body of the hare is white, because\nmade of snow, while its ears, which are the part which was charred by\nthe fire, are black\" (471. 486).\n\nThe Mayas of Yucatan have a legend of a town of hares under the earth\n(411. 179).\n\nIn Germany we meet with the \"Easter-Hare\" (Oster-Hase). In many parts of\nthat country the custom prevails at or about Easter-tide of hiding in\nthe garden, or in the house, eggs, which, the children are told, have\nbeen laid by the \"Easter-hare.\" Another curious term met with in\nnortheastern Germany is \"hare-bread\" (Hasenbrod). In Quedlinburg this\nname is given to bread (previously placed there intentionally by the\nparents) picked up by children when out walking with their parents or\nelders. In L\u00fcneburg it is applied to dry bread given a hungry child with\nan exhortation to patience. In the first case, the little one is told\nthat the hare has lost it, and in the second, that it has been taken\naway from him. The name \"hare-bread\" is also given to bread brought home\nby the parents or elders, when returning from a journey, the children\nbeing told that it has been taken away from the hare.\n\nIn the shadow-pictures made on the wall for the amusement of children\nthe rabbit again appears, and the hare figures also in children's games.\n\n\n_Squirrel._\n\nAccording to the belief of certain Indians of Vancouver Island, there\nonce lived \"a monstrous old woman with wolfish teeth, and finger-nails\nlike claws.\" She used to entice away little children whom she afterwards\nate up. One day a mother, who was about to lose her child thus, cried\nout to the spirits to save her child in any way or form. Her prayer was\nanswered, and \"The Great Good Father, looking down upon the Red Mother,\npities her; lo! the child's soft brown skin turns to fur, and there\nslides from the ogress's grip, no child, but the happiest, liveliest,\nmerriest little squirrel of all the West,--but bearing, as its\ndescendants still bear, those four dark lines along the back that show\nwhere the cruel claws ploughed into it escaping\" (396. III. 52-54).\n\nElsewhere, also, the squirrel is associated with childhood. Familiar is\nthe passage in Longfellow's _Hiawatha,_ where the hero speaks to\nthe squirrel, who has helped him out of a great difficulty:--\n\n\n  \"Take the thanks of Hiawatha,\n  And the name which now he gives you;\n  For hereafter, and forever,\n  Boys shall call you _adjidaumo,\n  Tail in air_ the boys shall call you.\"\n\n\n_Seals._\n\nThose noble and indefatigable missionaries, the Moravians, have more\nthan once been harshly criticised in certain quarters, because, in their\nversions of the Bible, in the Eskimo language, they saw fit to\nsubstitute for some of the figurative expressions employed in our\nrendering, others more intelligible to the aborigines. In the New\nTestament Christ is termed the \"Lamb of God,\" but since, in the Arctic\nhome of the Innuit, shepherds and sheep are alike unknown, the\ntranslators, by a most felicitous turn of language, rendered the phrase\nby \"little seal of God,\" a figure that appealed at once to every Eskimo,\nyoung and old, men and women; for what sheep were to the dwellers on the\nPalestinian hillsides, seals are to this northernmost of human races.\nRink tells us that the Eskimo mother \"reserves the finest furs for her\nnew-born infant,\" while the father keeps for it \"the daintiest morsels\nfrom the chase,\" and, \"to make its eyes beautiful, limpid, and bright, he\ngives it seal's eyes to eat\" (523. 37).\n\n\n_Fish._\n\nMrs. Bramhall tells us how in Japan the little children, playing about\nthe temples, feed the pet fishes of the priests in the temple-lake. At\nthe temple of the Mikado, at Kioto, she saw \"six or eight little boys\nand girls ... lying at full length on the bank of the pretty lake.\" The\nfishes were called up by whistling, and the children fed them by holding\nover the water their open hands full of crumbs (189. 65). Other\ninhabitants of the sea and the waters of the earth are brought into\nearly relation with children.\n\n\n_Crabs and Crawfishes._\n\nAmong the Yeddavanad, of the Congo, a mother tells her children\nconcerning three kinds of crabs: \"Eat _kallali,_ and you will\nbecome a clever man; eat _hullali,_ and you will become as brave as\na tiger; eat _mandalli,_ and you will become master of the house\"\n(449. 297).\n\nIn the Chippeway tale of the \"Raccoon and the Crawfish,\" after the\nformer, by pretending to be dead, has first attracted to him and then\neaten all the crawfish, we are told:--\n\n\"While he was engaged with the broken limbs, a little female crawfish,\ncarrying her infant sister on her back, came up seeking her relations.\nFinding they had all been devoured by the raccoon, she resolved not to\nsurvive the destruction of her kindred, but went boldly up to the enemy,\nand said: 'Here, Aissibun (Raccoon), you behold me and my little sister.\nWe are all alone. You have eaten up our parents and all our friends. Eat\nus, too!' And she continued to say: 'Eat us, too! _Aissibun amoon,\nAissibun amoon!'_ The raccoon was ashamed. 'No!' said he,' I have\nbanqueted on the largest and fattest; I will not dishonour myself with\nsuch little prey.' At this moment, Manabozbo [the culture-hero or\ndemi-god of these Indians] happened to pass by. _'Tyau,'_ said he\nto the raccoon, 'thou art a thief and an unmerciful dog. Get thee up\ninto trees, lest I change thee into one of these same worm-fish; for\nthou wast thyself a shell-fish originally, and I transformed thee.'\nManabozho then took up the little supplicant crawfish and her infant\nsister, and cast them into the stream. 'There,' said he, 'you may dwell.\nHide yourselves under the stones; and hereafter you shall be playthings\nfor little children'\" (440. 411, 412).\n\n\n_Games._\n\nThe imitation of animals, their movements, habits, and peculiarities in\ngames and dances, also makes the child acquainted at an early age with\nthese creatures.\n\nIn the section on \"Bird and Beast,\" appropriately headed by the words of\nthe good St. Francis of Assisi--\"My brother, the hare, ... my sisters,\nthe doves,\"--Mr. Newell notices some of the children's games in which\nthe actions, cries, etc., of animals are imitated. Such are \"My\nHousehold,\" \"Frog-Pond,\" \"Bloody Tom,\" \"Blue-birds and Yellow-birds,\"\n\"Ducks fly\" (313. 115).\n\n\n_Doves._\n\nNot at Dodona and in Arcadia alone has the dove been associated with\nreligion, its oracles, its mysteries, and its symbolism. In the\nchildhood of the world, according to the great Hebrew cosmologist, \"the\nSpirit of God moved upon the face of the waters,\" and a later bard and\nseer of our own race reanimated the ancient figure of his predecessor in\nall its pristine strength, when in, the story of Paradise lost and found\nagain, he told how, at the beginning, the creative spirit\n\n\n  \"Dove-like sat brooding o'er the vast abyss.\"\n\n\nIn the childhood of the race, it was a dove that bore to the few\nsurvivors of the great flood the branch of olive, token that the anger\nof Jahveh was abated, and that the waters no longer covered the whole\nearth. In the childhood of Christianity, when its founder was baptized\nof John in the river Jordan, \"Lo, the heavens were opened unto Him, and\nthe Spirit of God descended like a dove, and lighted on Him,\"--and the\n\"Heavenly Dove\" Still beautifies the imagery of oratory and song, the\nart and symbolism of the great churches, its inheritors. In the\nchildhood of man the individual, the dove has also found warm welcome.\nAt the moment of the birth of St. Austrebertha (630-704 A.D.), as the\nquaint legend tells, \"the chamber was filled with a heavenly odour, and\na white dove, which hovered awhile above the house, flew into the\nchamber and settled on the head of the infant,\" and when Catherine of\nRacconigi (1486-1547 A.D.) was only five years old \"a dove, white as\nsnow, flew into her chamber and lighted on her shoulder\"; strange to\nrelate, however, the infant first took the bird for a tool of Satan, not\na messenger of God. When St. Briocus of Cardigan, a Welsh saint of the\nsixth century, \"was receiving the communion for the first time, a dove,\nwhite as snow, settled on his head, and the abbot knew that the young\nboy was a chosen vessel of honour\" (191. 107, 108).\n\nIn a Swedish mother's hymn occurs the following beautiful thought:--\n\n\n  \"There sitteth a dove so white and fair,\n    All on the lily spray,\n  And she listeneth how to Jesus Christ\n    The little children pray.\n\n  \"Lightly she spreads her friendly wings,\n    And to Heaven's gate hath sped,\n  And unto the Father in Heaven she bears\n    The prayers which the children have said.\n\n  \"And back she comes from Heaven's gate,\n    And brings, that dove so mild,\n  From the Father in Heaven, who hears her speak,\n    A blessing on every child.\n\n  \"Then, children, lift up a pious prayer!\n    It hears whatever you say;\n  That heavenly dove so white and fair,\n    All on the lily spray\" (379. 255).\n\n\nThe bird-messenger of childhood finds its analogue in the beliefs of\nsome primitive tribes that certain birds have access to the spirit-land,\nand are the bearers of tidings from the departed. Into the same category\nfall the ancient practice of releasing a dove (or some other winged\ncreature) at the moment of death of a human being, as a means of\ntransport of his soul to the Elysian fields, and the belief that the\nsoul itself took its flight in the form and semblance of a dove (509.\n257).\n\nThe Haida Indians, of British Columbia, think that, \"in the land of\nlight, children often transform themselves into bears, seals, and\nbirds,\" and wonderful tales are told of their adventures.\n\nHartley Coleridge found for the guardian angel of infancy, no apter\nfigure than that of the dove:--\n\n\n  \"Sweet infant, whom thy brooding parents love\n  For what thou art, and what they hope to see thee,\n  Unhallow'd sprites, and earth-born phantoms flee thee;\n  Thy soft simplicity, a hovering dove,\n  That still keeps watch from blight and bane to free thee,\n  With its weak wings, in peaceful care outspread,\n  Fanning invisibly thy pillow'd head,\n  Strikes evil powers with reverential dread,\n  Beyond the sulphurous bolts of fabled Jove,\n  Or whatsoe'er of amulet or charm\n  Fond ignorance devised to save poor souls from harm.\"\n\n\nPerhaps the sweetest touch of childhood in all Latin literature is that\ncharming passage in Horace (_Carm._ Lib. III. 4):--\n\n\n  \"Me fabulos\u00e6 Vulture in Apulo,\n  Nutrices extra limen Apuli\u00e6,\n  Ludo fatigatoque somno\n  Fronde nova puerum palumbes\n  Texere,\"\n\n\nwhich Milman thus translates:--\n\n\n  \"The vagrant infant on Mount Vultur's side,\n   Beyond my childhood's nurse, Apulia's bounds,\n   By play fatigued and sleep,\n   Did the poetic doves\n   With young leaves cover.\"\n\n\nThe amativeness of the dove has lent much to the figurative language of\nthat second golden age, that other Eden where love is over all.\nShenstone, in his beautiful pastoral, says:--\n\n\n \"I have found out a gift for my fair;\n  I have found where the wood-pigeons breed,\"\n\n\nand the \"love of the turtle,\" \"billing and cooing,\" are now transferred\nto human affection. Venus, the goddess of love, and the boy-god Cupid\nride in a chariot drawn by doves, which birds were sacred to the\nsea-born child of Uranus. In the springtime, when \"the voice of the\nturtle is heard in the land,\" then \"a young man's fancy lightly turns to\nthoughts of love.\" If, from the sacred oaks of Dodona, to the first\nGreeks, the doves disclosed the oracles of Jove, so has \"the moan of\ndoves in immemorial elms\" divulged to generation after generation of\nlovers the mission of his son of the bow and quiver.\n\n\n_Robin._\n\nWhat the wood-pigeon was to Horace, the robin-redbreast has been to the\nchildren of old England. In the celebrated ballad of the \"Children in\nthe Wood\", we are told that, after their murder by the cruel uncle,--\n\n\n  \"No burial these pretty babes\n  Of any man receives,\n  Till Robin Redbreast piously\n  Did cover them with leaves.\"\n\n\nThe poet Thomson speaks of \"the redbreast sacred to the household gods,\"\nand Gray, in a stanza which, since the edition of 1753, has been omitted\nfrom the _Elegy_, wrote:--\n\n\n  \"There scattered oft, the earliest of the year,\n  By hands unseen are frequent violets found;\n  The robin loves to build and warble there,\n  And little footsteps lightly print the ground.\"\n\n\nDr. Robert Fletcher (447) has shown to what extent the redbreast figures\nin early English poetry, and the belief in his pious care for the dead\nand for children is found in Germany, Brittany, and other parts of the\ncontinent of Europe. In England the robin is the children's favourite\nbird, and rhymes and stories in his honour abound,--most famous is the\nnursery song, \"Who killed Cock Robin?\"\n\nA sweet legend of the Greek Church tells us that \"Our Lord used to feed\nthe robins round his mother's door, when a boy; moreover, that the robin\nnever left the sepulchre till the Resurrection, and, at the Ascension,\njoined in the angels' song.\" The popular imagination, before which the\nrobin appears as \"the pious bird with the scarlet breast,\" found no\ndifficulty in assigning a cause for the colour of its plumage. One\nlegend, current amongst Catholic peoples, has it that \"the robin was\ncommissioned by the Deity to carry a drop of water to the souls of\nunbaptized infants in hell, and its breast was singed in piercing the\nflames.\" In his poem _The Robin_, Whittier has versified the story\nfrom a Welsh source. An old Welsh lady thus reproves her grandson, who\nhad tossed a stone at the robin hopping about in the apple-tree:--\n\n\n  \"'Nay!' said the grandmother; 'have you not heard,\n    My poor, bad boy! of the fiery pit,\n  And how, drop by drop, this merciful bird\n    Carries the water that quenches it?\n\n  \"'He brings cool dew in his little bill,\n    And lets it fall on the souls of sin;\n  You can see the mark on his red breast still\n    Of fires that scorch as he drops it in.'\"\n\n\nAnother popular story, however, relates that when Christ was on His way\nto Calvary, toiling beneath the burden of the cross, the robin, in its\nkindness, plucked a thorn from the crown that oppressed His brow, and\nthe blood of the divine martyr dyed the breast of the bird, which ever\nsince has borne the insignia of its charity. A variant of the same\nlegend makes the thorn wound the bird itself and its own blood dye its\nbreast.\n\nAccording to a curious legend of the Chippeway Indians, a stern father\nonce made his young son undergo the fasting necessary to obtain a\npowerful guardian spirit. After bravely holding out for nine days, he\nappealed to his father to allow him to give up, but the latter would not\nhear of it, and by the eleventh day the boy lay as one dead. At dawn the\nnext morning, the father came with the promised food. Looking through a\nhole in the lodge, he saw that his son had painted his breast and\nshoulders as far as he could reach with his hands. When he went into the\nlodge, he saw him change into a beautiful bird and fly away. Such was\nthe origin of the first robin-redbreast (440. 210). Whittier, in his\npoem, _How the Robin Came_, has turned the tale of the Red Men into\nsong. As the father gazed about him, he saw that on the lodge-top--\n\n\n  \"Sat a bird, unknown before,\n  And, as if with human tongue,\n  'Mourn me not,' it said, or sung;\n  'I, a bird, am still your son,\n  Happier than if hunter fleet,\n  Or a brave before your feet\n  Laying scalps in battle won.\n  Friend of man, my song shall cheer\n  Lodge and corn-land; hovering near,\n  To each wigwam I shall bring\n  Tidings of the coming spring;\n  Every child my voice shall know\n  In the moon of melting snow\n  When the maple's red bud swells,\n  And the wind-flower lifts its bells.\n  As their fond companion\n  Men shall henceforth own your son,\n  And my song shall testify\n  That of human kin am I.'\"\n\n\n_Stork._\n\nThe _Lieblingsvogel_ of German children is the stork, who, as\nparents say, brings them their little brothers and sisters, and who is\nremembered in countless folk and children's rhymes. The mass of\nchild-literature in which the stork figures is enormous. Ploss has a\ngood deal to say of this famous bird, and Carstens has made it the\nsubject of a brief special study,--\"The Stork as a Sacred Bird in\nFolk-Speech and Child-Song\" (198). The latter says: \"It is with a sort\nof awe (_Ehrfurcht_) that the child looks upon this sacred bird,\nwhen, returning with the spring he settles down on the roof, throwing\nback his beak and greeting the new home with a flap of his wings; or\nwhen, standing now on one foot, now on the other, he looks so solemnly\nat things, that one would think he was devoutly meditating over\nsomething or other; or, again, when, on his long stilt-like legs, he\ngravely strides over the meadows. With great attention we listened as\nchildren to the strange tales and songs which related to this sacred\nbird, as our mother told them to us and then added with solemn mien,\n'where he keeps himself during the winter is not really known,' or, 'he\nflies away over the _Lebermeer_, whither no human being can\nfollow.' 'Storks are enchanted (_verw\u00fcnscht_) men,' my mother used\nto say, and in corroboration told the following story: 'Once upon a time\na stork broke a leg. The owner of the house upon which the stork had its\nnest, interested himself in the unfortunate creature, took care of it\nand attended to it, and soon the broken leg was well again. Some years\nlater, it happened that the kind-hearted man, who was a mariner, was\nriding at anchor near the North Sea Coast, and the anchor stuck fast to\nthe bottom, so that nothing remained but for the sailor to dive into the\ndepths of the sea. This he did, and lo! he found the anchor clinging to\na sunken church-steeple. He set it free, but, out of curiosity, went\ndown still deeper, and far down below came to a magnificent place, the\ninhabitants of which made him heartily welcome. An old man addressed him\nand informed him that he had been the stork whose leg the sailor had\nonce made well, and that the latter was now in the real home of the\nstorks.'\" Carstens compares this story with that of Frau Holle, whose\nservant the stork, who brings the little children out of the\nchild-fountain of the G\u00f6tterburg, would seem to be. In North Germany\ngenerally the storks are believed to be human beings in magical\nmetamorphosis, and hence no harm must be done them. Between the\nhousehold, upon whose roof the stork takes up his abode, and the family\nof the bird, a close relation is thought to subsist. If his young ones\ndie, so will the children of the house; if no eggs are laid, no children\nwill be born that year; if a stork is seen to light upon a house, it is\nregarded by the Wends of Lusatia as an indication that a child will be\nborn there the same year; in Switzerland the peasant woman about to give\nbirth to a child chants a brief appeal to the stork for aid. A great\nvariety of domestic, meteorological, and other superstitions are\nconnected with the bird, its actions, and mode of life. The common Low\nGerman name of the stork, _Adebar_, is said to mean \"luck-bringer\";\nin Dutch, he is called _ole vaer,_ \"old father.\" After him the\nwood-anemone is called in Low German _Hannoterblume,_\n\"stork's-flower.\" An interesting tale is \"The Storks,\" in Hans Christian\nAndersen.\n\n\n_Bird-Language._\n\nIn the Golden Age, as the story runs, men were able to hold converse\nwith the birds of the air and the beasts of the field, nor had a\ndiversity of dialects yet sprung up among them. In Eden of old the whole\nworld was of one tongue and one speech; nay more, men talked with the\ngods and with God. Many legends of primitive peoples there are telling\nhow confusion first arose,--every continent has its Babel-myth,--and how\nmen came at last to be unable to comprehend each other's speech. The\nIndians of Nova Scotia say that this occurred when Gluskap, the\nculture-hero of the Micmacs, after giving a parting banquet to all\ncreatures of earth, sea, and air, \"entered his canoe in the Basin of\nMinas, and, sailing westward in the moonlight, disappeared. Then the\nwolves, bears, and beavers, who had before been brothers, lost the gift\nof common language, and birds and beasts, hating one another, fled into\nthe distant forests, where, to this day, the wolf howls and the loon\nutters its sad notes of woe\" (418. 185).\n\nThe Mexican legend of the deluge states that the vessel in which were\nCoxcox,--the Mexican Noah,--and his wife, Xochiquetzal, stranded on a\npeak of Colhuacan. To them were born fifteen sons, who, however, all\ncame into the world dumb, but a dove gave them fifteen tongues, and\nthence are descended the fifteen languages and tribes of Anahuac (509.\n517).\n\nIn later ages, among other peoples, the knowledge of the forgotten\nspeech of the lower creation was possessed by priests and seers alone,\nor ascribed to innocent little children,--some of the power and wisdom\nof the bygone Golden Age of the race is held yet to linger with the\ngolden age of childhood. In the beautiful lines,--\n\n\n  \"O du Kindermund, o du Kindermund,\n  Unbewuszter Weisheit froh,\n  Vogelsprachekund, vogelsprachekund,\n  Wie Salamo!\"\n\n\nthe poet R\u00fcckert attributes to the child that knowledge of the language\nof birds, which the popular belief of the East made part of the lore of\nthe wise King Solomon. Weil (547. 191) gives the Mussulman version of\nthe original legend:--\n\n\"In him [Solomon] David placed implicit confidence, and was guided by\nhim in the most difficult questions, for he had heard, in the night of\nhis [Solomon's] birth, the angel Gabriel exclaim, 'Satan's dominion is\ndrawing to its close, for this night a child is born, to whom Iblis and\nall his hosts, together with all his descendants, shall be subject. The\nearth, air, and water with all the creatures that live therein, shall be\nhis servants. He shall be gifted with nine-tenths of all the wisdom and\nknowledge which Allah has granted to mankind, and understand not only\nthe languages of men, but those also of beasts and birds.'\" Some\nrecollection of this appears in Ecclesiastes (x. 20), where we read,\n\"For a bird of the air shall carry the voice, and that which hath wings\nshall tell the matter,\" and in our own familiar saying \"a little bird\ntold me,\" as well as in the Bulbul-hezar or talking bird of the\n_Arabian Nights_, and its imitation \"the little green bird who\ntells everything,\" in the _Fairy Tales_ of the Comtesse d'Aunoy.\nThe interpretation of the cries of birds and animals into human speech\nhas also some light thrown upon it from this source. Various aspects of\nthis subject have been considered by Hopf (474), Swainson (539),\nTreichel (372), Brunk, Grimm (462). The use of certain birds as oracles\nby children is well known. A classical example is the question of the\nLow German child:--\n\n\n  \"Kukuk van Hewen,\n    \"Wi lank sail ik lewen?'\n  [\"Cuckoo of Heaven,\n    How long am I to live?\"]\n\n\nOf King Solomon we are told: \"He conversed longest with the birds, both\non account of their delicious language, which he knew as well as his\nown, as also for the beautiful proverbs that are current among them.\"\nThe interpretation of the songs of the various birds is given as\nfollows:--\n\nThe cook: \"Ye thoughtless men, remember your Creator.\"\nThe dove: \"All things pass away; Allah alone is eternal.\"\nThe eagle: \"Let our life be ever so long, yet it must end in death.\"\nThe hoopoo: \"He that shows no mercy, shall not obtain mercy.\"\nThe kata: \"Whosoever can keep silence goes through life most securely.\"\nThe nightingale: \"Contentment is the greatest happiness.\"\nThe peacock: \"As thou judgest, so shalt thou be judged.\"\nThe pelican: \"Blessed be Allah in Heaven and Earth.\"\nThe raven: \"The farther from mankind, the pleasanter.\"\nThe swallow: \"Do good, for you shall be rewarded hereafter.\"\nThe syrdak: \"Turn to Allah, O ye sinners.\"\nThe turtle-dove: \"It were better for many a creature had it never been\nborn.\"\n\nThe King, it appears, chose the hoopoo and the cock for his companions,\nand appointed the doves to dwell in the temple which he was to erect\n(547. 200, 201). In fairy-tale and folk-lore bird-speech constantly\nappears. A good example is the story \"Wat man warm kann, wenn man blot\nde Vageln richti verstan deit,\" included by Klaus Groth in his\n_Quickborn_.\n\nIn the Micmac legend of the _Animal Tamers_, by collecting the\n\"horns\" of the various animals a youthful hero comes to understand their\nlanguage (521. 347).\n\nLongfellow, in his account of \"Hiawatha's Childhood,\" has not forgotten\nto make use of the Indian tradition of the lore of language of bird and\nof beast possessed by the child:--\n\n\n  \"Then the little Hiawatha\n  Learned of every bird its language,\n  Learned their names and all their secrets,\n  How they built their nests in summer,\n  Where they hid themselves in winter,\n  Talked with them whene'er he met them,\n  Called them 'Hiawatha's Chickens.'\n\n  \"Of all the beasts he learned the language,\n  Learned their names and all their secrets,\n  How the beavers built their lodges,\n  Where the squirrels hid their acorns,\n  How the reindeer ran so swiftly,\n  Why the rabbit was so timid,\n  Talked with them whene'er he met them,\n  Called them 'Hiawatha's Brothers.'\"\n\n\nIn the Middle Ages the understanding of the language of birds, their\n_Latin_, as it was called, ranked as the highest achievement of\nhuman learning, the goal of wisdom and knowledge, and the thousand\nrhyming questions asked of birds by children to-day are evidence of a\ntime when communication with them was deemed possible. Some remembrance\nof this also lingers in not a few of the lullabies and nursery-songs of\na type corresponding to the following from Schleswig-Holstein:--\n\n\n  \"H\u00f6r mal, l\u00fctje Kind\n  Wo d\u00fct l\u00fctje Vagel singt\n  Baben in de Hai!\n  Loop, l\u00fct Kind, un hal mi dat l\u00fct Ei.\"\n\n\nAmong the child-loving Eskimo we find many tales in which children and\nanimals are associated; very common are stories of children\nmetamorphosed into birds and beasts. Turner has obtained several legends\nof this sort from the Eskimo of the Ungava district in Labrador. In one\nof these, wolves are the gaunt and hungry children of a woman who had\nnot wherewithal to feed her numerous progeny, and so they were turned\ninto ravening beasts of prey; in another the raven and the loon were\nchildren, whom their father sought to paint, and the loon's spots are\nevidence of the attempt to this day; in a third the sea-pigeons or\nguillemots are children who were changed into these birds for having\nscared away some seals. The prettiest story, however, is that of the\norigin of the swallows: Once there were some children who were\nwonderfully wise, so wise indeed that they came to be called\n_zulugagnak_, \"like the raven,\" a bird that knows the past and the\nfuture. One day they were playing on the edge of a cliff near the\nvillage, and building toy-houses, when they were changed into birds.\nThey did not forget their childish occupation, however, and, even to\nthis day, the swallows come to the cliff to build their nests or houses\nof mud,--\"even the raven does not molest them, and Eskimo children love\nto watch them\" (544. 262, 263). From time immemorial have the life and\nactions of the brute creation been associated with the first steps of\neducation and learning in the child.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XIII.\n\n\nCHILD-LIFE AND EDUCATION IN GENERAL.\n\n  The mother's heart is the child's school-room.--_Henry Ward\n  Beecher_.\n\n  The father is known from the child.--_German Proverb_.\n\n  Learn young, learn fair,\n  Learn auld, learn mair.\n  --_Scotch Proverb._\n\n  We bend the tree when it is young.--_Bulgarian Proverb_.\n\n  Fools and bairns should na see things half done.\n  --_Scotch Proverb_.\n\n  No one is born master.--_Italian Proverb_.\n\n\n_Mother as Teacher_.\n\n_Nihil est in intellectu quod non prius in sensu_ is a favourite\ndictum of philosophy; primitive peoples might, perhaps, be credited with\na somewhat different crystallization of thought: _nihil est in puero\nquod non prius in parenti_, \"nothing is in the child which was not\nbefore in the parent,\" for belief in prenatal influence of parent upon\nchild is widely prevalent. The following remarks, which were written of\nthe semi-civilized peoples of Annam and Tonquin, may stand, with\nsuitable change of terms, for very many barbarous and savage races:--\n\n\"The education of the children begins even before they come into the\nworld. The prospective mother is at once submitted to a kind of material\nand moral _regime_ sanctioned by custom. Gross viands are removed\nfrom her table, and her slightest movements are regarded that they may\nbe regular and majestic. She is expected to listen to the reading of\ngood authors, to music and moral chants, and to attend learned\nsocieties, in order that she may fortify her mind by amusements of an\nelevated character. And she endeavours, by such discipline, to assure to\nthe child whom she is about to bring into the world, intelligence,\ndocility, and fitness for the duties imposed by social life\" (518. XXXI.\n629).\n\nAmong primitive peoples these ceremonies, dietings, doctorings,\ntabooings, number legion, as may be read in Ploss and Zmigrodzki.\n\nThe influence of the mother upon her child, beginning long before birth,\ncontinued in some parts of the world until long after puberty. The\nSpartan mothers even preserved \"a power over their sons when arrived at\nmanhood,\" and at the puberty-dance, by which the Australian leaves\nchildhood behind to enter upon man's estate, his significant cry is: \"My\nmother sees me no more!\" (398. 153). Among the Chinese, \"at the ceremony\nof going out of childhood, the passage from boyhood into manhood, the\ngoddess of children 'Mother,' ceases to have the superintendence of the\nboy or girl, and the individual comes under the government of the gods\nin general.\"\n\nThat women are teachers born, even the most uncultured of human races\nhave not failed to recognize, and the folk-faith in their ministrations\nis world-wide and world-old; for, as Mrs. Browning tells us:--\n\n\n  \"Women know\n  The way to rear up children (to be just);\n  They know a simple, merry, tender knack\n  Of tying sashes, fitting baby-shoes,\n  And stringing pretty words that make no sense,\n  And kissing full sense into empty words;\n  Which things are corals to cut life upon,\n  Although such trifles.\"\n\n\nIntellectually, as well as physically,--as the etymology of the name\nseems to indicate,--the mother is the \"former\" of her child. As Henry\nWard Beecher has well said, \"the mother's heart is the child's\nschool-room.\" Well might the Egyptian mother-goddess say (167. 261): \"I\nam the mother who shaped thy beauties, who suckled thee with milk; I\ngive thee with my milk festal things, that penetrate thy limbs with\nlife, strength, and youth; I make thee to become the--great ruler of\nEgypt, lord of the space which the sun circles round.\" In the land of\nthe Pharaohs they knew in some dim fashion that \"the hand that rocks the\ncradle is the hand that rules the world.\"\n\nThe extensive r\u00f4le of the mother, as a teacher of the practical arts of\nlife, may be seen from the book of Professor Mason (113). Language,\nreligion, the social arts, house-building, skin-dressing, weaving,\nspinning, animal-domestication, agriculture, are, with divers primitive\npeoples, since they have in great part originated with her, or been\npromoted chiefly by her efforts, left to woman as teacher and\ninstructor, and well has the mother done her work all over the globe.\n\nThe function of the mother as priestess--for woman has been the\npreserver, as, to so large an extent, she has been the creator, of\nreligion--has been exercised age after age, and among people after\npeople. Henry Ward Beecher has said: \"Every mother is a priestess\nordained by God Himself,\" and Professor Mason enlarges the same thought:\n\"Scarcely has the infant mind begun to think, ere this perpetual\npriestess lights the fires of reverence and keeps them ever burning,\nlike a faithful vestal\" (112. 12).\n\nThough women and mothers have often been excluded from the public or the\nsecret ceremonials and observations of religion, the household in\nprimitive and in modern times has been the temple, of whose\n_penetralia_ they alone have been the ministers.\n\n\n_Imitation._\n\nTarde, in his monograph on the \"Laws of Imitation,\" has shown the great\ninfluence exerted among peoples of all races, of all grades and forms of\nculture, by imitation, conscious or unconscious,--a factor of the\nhighest importance even at the present day and among those communities\nof men most advanced and progressive. Speaking a little too broadly,\nperhaps, he says (541. 15):--\n\n\"All the resemblances, of social origin, noticed in the social world are\nthe direct or indirect result of imitation in all its forms,--custom,\nfashion, sympathy, obedience, instruction, education, naive or\ndeliberate imitation. Hence the excellence of that modern method which\nexplains doctrines or institutions by their history. This tendency can\nonly be generalized. Great inventors and great geniuses do sometimes\nstumble upon the same thing together, but these coincidences are very\nrare. And when they do really occur, they always have their origin in a\nfund of common instruction upon which, independent of one another, the\ntwo authors of the same invention have drawn; and this fund consists of\na mass of traditions of the past, of experiments, rude or more or less\narranged, and transmitted imitatively by language, the great vehicle of\nall imitations.\"\n\nIn her interesting article on \"Imitation in Children,\" Miss Haskell\nobserves: \"That the imitative faculty is what makes the human being\neducable, that it is what has made progressive civilization possible,\nhas always been known by philosophical educators. The energy of the\nchild must pass from potentiality to actuality, and it does so by the\npath of _imitation_ because this path offers the least resistance\nor the greatest attraction, or perhaps because there is no other road.\nWhatever new and striking things he sees in the movements or condition\nof objects about him, provided he already has the experience necessary\nto apperceive this particular thing, he imitates\" (260. 31).\n\nIn the pedagogy of primitive peoples imitation has an extensive\n_r\u00f4le_ to play. Of the Twana Indians, of the State of Washington,\nRev. Mr. Eells observes: \"Children are taught continually, from youth\nuntil grown, to mimic the occupations of their elders.\" They have games\nof ball, jumping and running races, and formerly \"the boys played at\nshooting with bows and arrows at a mark, and with spears, throwing at a\nmark, with an equal number of children on each side, and sometimes the\nolder ones joined in.\" Now, however, \"the'boys mimic their seniors in\nthe noise and singing and gambling, but without the gambling.\" The girls\nplay with dolls, and sometimes \"the girls and boys both play in canoes,\nand stand on half of a small log, six feet long and a foot wide, and\npaddle around in the water with a small stick an inch in thickness; and,\nin fact, play at most things which they see their seniors do, both\nwhites and Indians\" (437. 90, 91). Concerning the Seminoles of Florida,\nwe are told: \"The baby, well into the world, learns very quickly that he\nis to make his own way through it as best he may. His mother is prompt\nto nourish him, and solicitous in her care for him if he falls ill; but,\nas far as possible, she goes her own way and leaves the little fellow to\ngo his.\" Very early in life the child learns to help and to imitate its\nelders. \"No small amount,\" Mr. MacCauley tells us, \"of the labour in a\nSeminole household is done by children, even as young as four years of\nage. They can stir the soup while it is boiling; they can aid in\nkneading the dough for bread; they can wash the 'koonti' root, and even\npound it; they can watch and replenish the fire; they contribute in this\nand many other small ways to the necessary work of the home\" (496. 497,\n498).\n\nOf the Indians of British Guiana, Mr. im Thurn reports: \"As soon as the\nchildren can run about, they are left almost to themselves; or, rather,\nthey begin to mimic their parents. As with the adults, so with the\nchildren. Just as the grown-up woman works incessantly, while the men\nalternately idle and hunt, so the boys run wild, playing not such\nconcerted games as in other parts of the world more usually form child's\nplay, but only with mimic bows and arrows; but the girls, as soon as\nthey can walk, begin to help the older women. Even the youngest girl can\npeel a few cassava roots, watch a pot on the fire, or collect and carry\nhome a few sticks of firewood. The games of the boy are all such as\ntrain him to fish and hunt when he grows up; the girl's occupations\nteach her woman's work\" (477. 219). The children imitate their elders in\nother ways also, for in nearly every Indian house are to be seen toy\nvessels of clay; for \"while the Indian women of Guiana are shaping the\nclay, their children, imitating them, make small pots and goglets\" (477.\n298). And in like manner have been born, no doubt, among other peoples,\nsome of the strange freaks of art which puzzle the _connoisseurs_\nin the museums of Europe and America.\n\nMr. Powers, speaking of the domestic economy of the Achom\u00e5wi Indians of\nCalifornia, says: \"An Achom\u00e5wi mother seldom teaches her daughters any\nof the arts of barbaric housekeeping before their marriage. They learn\nthem by imitation and experiment after they grow old enough to perceive\nthe necessity thereof\" (519. 271). This peculiar neglect, however, is\nnot entirely absent from our modern civilization, for until very\nrecently no subject has been so utterly overlooked as the proper\ntraining of young girls for their future duties as mothers and\nhousekeepers. The Achom\u00e5wi, curiously enough, have the following custom,\nwhich helps, no doubt, the wife whose education has been so imperfect:\n\"The parents are expected to establish a young couple in their lodge,\nprovide them with the needful basketry, and furnish them with cooked\nfood for some months, which indulgent parents sometimes continue for a\nyear or even longer; so that the young people have a more real honeymoon\nthan is vouchsafed to most civilized people.\"\n\nAmong the Battas of Sumatra, \"It is one of the morning duties of women\nand girls, even down to children of four and five years old, to bring\ndrinking-water in the _gargitis_, a water-vessel made of a thick\nstalk of bamboo. The size and strength of growing girls are generally\nmeasured by the number of _gargitis_ they can carry\" (518. XXII.\n110).\n\nOf the Kaffir children Theal informs us: \"At a very early age they\ncommence trials of skill against each other in throwing knobbed sticks\nand imitation assegais. They may often be seen enjoying this exercise in\nlittle groups, those of the same age keeping together, for there is no\ngreater tyrant in the world than a big Kaffir boy over his younger\nfellows; when above nine or ten years old they practise sham-fighting\nwith sticks; an imitation hunt is another of their boyish diversions\"\n(543. 220).\n\nAmong the Apaches, as we learn from Reclus: \"The child remains with its\nmother until it can pluck certain fruits for itself, and has caught a\nrat by its own unaided efforts. After this exploit, it goes and comes as\nit lists, is free and independent, master of its civil and political\nrights, and soon lost in the main body of the horde\" (523. 131).\n\nOn the Andaman Islands, \"little boys hunt out swarms of bees in the\nwoods and drive them away by fire. They are also expected regularly to\ncollect wood.\" From their tenth year they are \"accustomed to use little\nbows and arrows, and often attain great skill in shooting.\" The girls\n\"seek among the coral-reefs and in the swamps to catch little fish in\nhand-nets.\" The Solomon Islands boy, as soon as he can walk a little,\ngoes along with his elders to hunt and fish (326. I. 6). Among the\nSomali, of northeastern Africa, the boys are given small spears when ten\nor twelve years old and are out guarding the milk-camels (481 (1891).\n163).\n\nOf the Eskimo of Baffin Land, Dr. Boas tells us that the children, \"when\nabout twelve years old, begin to help their parents; the girls sewing\nand preparing skins, the boys accompanying their fathers in hunting\nexpeditions\" (402. 566). Mr. Powers records that he has seen a Wailakki\nIndian boy of fourteen \"run a rabbit to cover in ten minutes, split a\nstick fine at one end, thrust it down the hole, twist it into its scut,\nand pull it out alive\" (519. 118).\n\nAmong the games and amusements of the Andamanese children, of whom he\nsays \"though not borrowed from aliens, their pastimes, in many\ninstances, bear close resemblance to those in vogue among children in\nthis and other lands; notably is this the case with regard to those\nknown to us as blind-man's buff, leap-frog, and hide-and-seek,\"--Mr.\nMan enumerates the following: _mock pig-hunting_ (played after\ndark); _mock turtle-catching_ (played in the sea); going after the\nEvil Spirit of the Woods; swinging by means of long stout creepers;\nswimming-races (sometimes canoe-races); pushing their way with rapidity\nthrough the jungle; throwing objects upwards, or skimming through the\nair; playing at \"duck-and-drakes\"; shooting at moving objects; wrestling\non the sand; hunting small crabs and fish and indulging in sham\nbanquets, comparable to the \"doll's feast\" with us; making miniature\ncanoes and floating them about in the water (498. 165).\n\n\n_Education of Boys and Girls._\n\nWith the Dakota Indians, according to Mr. Riggs, the grandfather and\ngrandmother are often the principal teachers of the child. Under the\ncare of the father and grandfather the boy learns to shoot, hunt, and\nfish, is told tales of war and daring exploits, and \"when he is fifteen\nor sixteen joins the first war-party and comes back with an eagle\nfeather in his head, if he is not killed and scalped by the enemy.\"\nAmong the amusements he indulges in are foot-races, horse-racing,\nball-playing, etc. Another branch of his education is thus described:\n\"In the long winter evenings, while the fire burns brightly in the\ncentre of the lodge, and the men are gathered in to smoke, he hears the\nfolk-lore and legends of his people from the lips of the older men. He\nlearns to sing the love-songs and the war-songs of the generations gone\nby. There is no new path for him to tread, but he follows in the old\nways. He becomes a Dakota of the Dakota. His armour is consecrated by\nsacrifices and offerings and vows. He sacrifices and prays to the stone\ngod, and learns to hold up the pipe to the so-called Great Spirit. He is\nkilled and made alive again, and thus is initiated into the mysteries\nand promises of the Mystery Dance. He becomes a successful hunter and\nwarrior, and what he does not know is not worth knowing for a Dakota.\nHis education is finished. If he has not already done it, he can now\ndemand the hand of one of the beautiful maidens of the village\" (524.\n209, 210).\n\nUnder the care and oversight of the mother and grandmother the girl is\ntaught the elements of household economy, industrial art, and\nagriculture. Mr. Biggs thus outlines the early education of woman among\nthese Indians: \"She plays with her 'made child,' or doll, just as\nchildren in other lands do. Very soon she learns to take care of the\nbaby; to watch over it in the lodge, or carry it on her back while the\nmother is away for wood or dressing buffalo-robes. Little girl as she\nis, she is sent to the brook or lake for water. She has her little\nwork-bag with awl and sinew, and learns to make small moccasins as her\nmother makes large ones. Sometimes she goes with her mother to the wood\nand brings home her little bundle of sticks. When the camp moves, she\nhas her small pack as her mother carries the large one, and this pack is\nsure to grow larger as her years increase. When the corn is planting,\nthe little girl has her part to perform. If she cannot use the hoe yet,\nshe can at least gather off the old corn-stalks. Then the garden is to\nbe watched while the god-given maize is growing. And when the\nharvesting comes, the little girl is glad for the corn-roasting.\" And so\nher young life runs on. She learns bead-work and ornamenting with\nporcupine quills, embroidering with ribbons, painting, and all the arts\nof personal adornment, which serve as attractions to the other sex. When\nshe marries, her lot and her life (Mr. Riggs says) are hard, for woman\nis much less than man with these Dakotas (524. 210).\n\nMore details of girl-life among savage and primitive peoples are to be\nfound in the pages of Professor Mason (113. 207-211). In America, the\neducation varied from what the little girl could pick up at her mother's\nside between her third and thirteenth years, to the more elaborate\nsystem of instruction in ancient Mexico, where, \"annexed to the temples\nwere large buildings used as seminaries for girls, a sort of aboriginal\nWellesley or Vassar\" (113 208).\n\n\n_Games and Plays._\n\nIn the multifarious games of children, echoes, imitations, re-renderings\nof the sober life of their elders and of their ancestors of the long ago,\nrecur again and again. The numerous love games, which Mr. Newell\n(313. 39-62) and Miss Gomme (243) enumerate, such as \"Knights of\nSpain,\" \"Three kings,\" \"Here comes a Duke a-roving,\" \"Tread, tread the\nGreen Grass,\" \"I'll give to you a Paper of Pins,\" \"There she stands a\nlovely Creature,\" \"Green Grow the Rushes, O!\" \"The Widow with Daughters\nto marry,\" \"Philander's March,\" \"Marriage,\" etc., corresponding to many\nothers all over the globe, evidence the social instincts of child-hood\nas well as the imitative tendencies of youth.\n\nUnder \"Playing at Work\" (313. 80-92), Mr. Newell has classed a large\nnumber of children's games and songs, some of which now find their\nrepresentatives in the kindergarten, this education of the child by\nitself having been so modified as to form part of the infantile\ncurriculum of study. Among such games are: \"Threading the Needle,\" \"Draw\na Bucket of Water,\" \"Here I Brew and here I Bake,\" \"Here we come\ngathering Nuts of May,\" \"When I was a Shoemaker,\" \"Do, do, pity my\nCase,\" \"As we go round the Mulberry Bush,\" \"Who'll be the Binder?\"\n\"Oats, Pease, Beans, and Barley grows.\" Mr. Newell includes in this\ncategory, also, that well-known dance, the \"Virginia Reel,\" which he\ninterprets as an imitation of weaving, something akin to the\n\"Hemp-dressers' Dance,\" of the time of George III., in England.\n\nIn a recent interesting and valuable essay, \"Education by Plays and\nGames,\" by Mr. G. E. Johnson, of Clark University,--an effort \"to\npresent somewhat more correctly than has been done before, the\neducational value of play, and to suggest some practical applications to\nthe work of education in the grades above the kindergarten,\"--we have\npresented to us a list of some five hundred games, classified according\nto their value for advancing mental or physical education, for\ncultivating and strengthening the various faculties of mind and body.\nThese games have also been arranged by Mr. Johnson, into such classes\nand divisions as might be held to correspond to the needs and\nnecessities of the pupils in each of the eight grades above the\nkindergarten. Of the educational value of play and of \"playing at work,\"\nthere can be no doubt in the mind of any one at all acquainted with the\nhistory of the individual and the history of the race. As Mr. Johnson\njustly observes (269.100): \"The field of the study of play is very wide;\nthe plays are well-nigh infinite, and as varied as life itself. No one\ncan estimate the value of them. Given right toys and surroundings, the\nyoung child has an almost perfect school. It is marvellous how well he\nlearns, Preyer does not overestimate the facts when he says the child in\nthe first three or four years of his life learns as much as the student\nin his entire university course. In the making of mud pies and doll\ndresses, sand-pile farms and miniature roads, tiny dams and\nwater-wheels, whittled-out boats, sleds, dog-harnesses, and a thousand\nand one other things, the child receives an accumulation of facts, a\nskill of hand, a trueness of eye, a power of attention and quickness of\nperception; and in flying kites, catching trout, in pressing leaves and\ngathering stones, in collecting stamps, and eggs, and butterflies, a\nculture also, seldom appreciated by the parent or teacher.\"\n\nUpon the banner of the youthful hosts might well be inscribed _in hoc\nludo vincemus_. Yet there is danger that the play-theory may be\ncarried to excess. Mr. James L. Hughes, discussing \"The Educational\nValue of Play and the Recent Play-Movement in Germany,\" remarks: \"The\nGermans had the philosophy of play, the English had an intuitive love of\nplay, and love is a greater impelling force than philosophy. English\nyoung men never played in order to expand their lungs, to increase their\ncirculation, to develop their muscles in power and agility, to improve\ntheir figures, to add grace to their bearing, to awaken and refine their\nintellectual powers, or to make them manly, courageous, and chivalrous.\nThey played enthusiastically for the mere love of play, and all these,\nand other advantages resulted from their play\" (265. 328).\n\nSwimming is an art soon learned by the children of some primitive races.\nMr. Man says of the Andaman Islanders: \"With the exception of some of\nthe \u00ea\u00b7rem-t\u00e2g\u00b7a-(inlanders), a knowledge of the art of swimming is\ncommon to members of both sexes; the _children_ even, learning\nalmost as soon as they can run, speedily acquire great proficiency\"\n(498. 47).\n\n\n_Language._\n\nWith some primitive peoples the ideas as to language-study are pretty\nmuch on a par with those prevalent in Europe at a date not so very\nremote from the present. Of the K\u00e1to Pomo Indians of California, Mr.\nPowers remarks: \"Like the Kai Pomo, their northern neighbours, they\nforbid their squaws from studying languages--which is about the only\naccomplishment possible to them save dancing--principally, it is\nbelieved, in order to prevent them from gadding about and forming\nacquaintances in neighbouring valleys, for there is small virtue among\nthe unmarried of either sex. But the men pay considerable attention to\nlinguistic studies, and there is seldom one who cannot speak most of the\nPomo dialects within a day's journey of his ancestral valley. The\nchiefs, especially, devote no little care to the training of their sons\nas polyglot diplomatists; and Robert White affirms that they frequently\nsend them to reside several months with the chiefs of contiguous valleys\nto acquire the dialects there in vogue\" (519. 150).\n\nNevertheless, as Professor Mason observes, among primitive races,\nwoman's share in the \"invention, dissemination, conservation, and\nmetamorphosis of language\" has been very great, and she has been _par\nexcellence_ the teacher of language, as indeed she is to-day in our\nschools when expression and _savoir faire_ in speech, rather than\ndeep philological learning and dry grammatical analysis, have been the\nobject of instruction.\n\n\n_Geography._\n\nMuch has been said and written about the wonderful knowledge of\ngeography and topography possessed by the Indian of America, and by\nother primitive peoples as well. The following passage from Mr. Powers'\naccount of the natives of California serves to explain some of this\n(519. 109):--\n\n\"Besides the coyote-stories with which gifted squaws amuse their\nchildren, and which are common throughout this region, there prevails\namong the Mattoal a custom which might almost be dignified with the name\nof geographical study. In the first place, it is necessary to premise\nthat the boundaries of all the tribes on Humboldt Bay, Eel River, Van\nDusen's Fork, and in fact everywhere, are marked with the greatest\nprecision, being defined by certain creeks, ca\u00f1ons, bowlders,\nconspicuous trees, springs, etc., each one of which objects has its own\nindividual name. It is perilous for an Indian to be found outside of his\ntribal boundaries, wherefore it stands him well in hand to make himself\nacquainted with the same early in life. Accordingly, the squaws teach\nthese things to their children in a kind of sing-song not greatly unlike\nthat which was the national _furore_ some time ago in rural\nsinging-schools, wherein they melodiously chanted such pleasing items of\ninformation as this: 'California. Sacramento, on the Sacramento River.'\nOver and over, time and again, they rehearse all these bowlders, etc.,\ndescribing each minutely and by name, with its surroundings. Then when\nthe children are old enough, they take them around to beat the bounds\nlike Bumble the Beadle; and so wonderful is the Indian memory naturally,\nand so faithful has been their instruction, that the little shavers\ngenerally recognize the objects from the descriptions of them previously\ngiven by their mothers. If an Indian knows but little of this great\nworld more than pertains to boundary bush and bowlder, he knows his own\nsmall fighting-ground infinitely better than any topographical engineer\ncan learn it.\"\n\nMr. Powers' reference to \"beating the bounds like Bumble the Beadle\" is\nan apt one. Mr. Frederick Sessions has selected as one of his\n_Folk-Lore Topics_ the subject of \"Beating the Bounds\" (352), and\nin his little pamphlet gives us much interesting information concerning\nthe part played by children in these performances. The author tells us:\n\"One of the earliest of my childish pleasures was seeing the Mayor and\nCorporation, preceded by Sword-bearer, Beadles, and Blue Coat School\nboys, going in procession from one city boundary-stone to another,\nacross the meadows and the river, or over hedges and gardens, or\nanything else to which the perambulated border-line took them. They were\nfollowed along the route by throngs of holiday makers. Many of the\ncrowd, and all the Blue boys, were provided with willow-wands,\n_peeled_, if I remember rightly, with which each boundary mark was\nwell flogged. The youngest boys were bumped against the 'city stones.'\"\nIn the little town of Charlbury in Oxfordshire, \"the perambulations seem\nto have been performed mostly by boys, accompanied by one or more of\ntheir seniors.\" At Houghton, a village near St. Ives in Huntingdonshire:\n\"The bounds are still beaten triennially. They are here marked by holes\nin some places, and by stones or trees in others. The procession starts\nat one of the holes. Each new villager present is instructed in the\nposition of this corner of the boundary by having his head forcibly\nthrust into the hole, while he has to repeat a sort of mumbo-jumbo\nprayer, and receives three whacks with a shovel. He pays a shilling for\nhis 'footing' (boys only pay sixpence), and then the forty or fifty\nvillagers march off to the opposite corner and repeat the process,\nexcept the monetary part, and regale themselves with bread and cheese\nand beer, paid for by the farmers who now occupy any portion of the old\ncommon lands.\"\n\nIn Russia, before the modern system of land-registration came into\nvogue, \"all the boys of adjoining Cossack village communes were\n'collected and driven like flocks of sheep to the frontier, whipped at\neach boundary-stone, and if, in after years two whipped lads, grown into\nmen, disputed as to the precise spot at which they had been castigated,\nthen the oldest inhabitant carrying a sacred picture from the church,\nled the perambulations, and acted as arbitrator.\"\n\nHere also ought to be mentioned perhaps, as somewhat akin and\nreminiscent of like practices among primitive peoples, \"the _blason\npopulaire_ (as it is neatly called in French), in which the\ninhabitants of each district or city are nicely ticketed off and\ndistinguished by means of certain abnormalities of feature or form, or\ncertain mental peculiarities attributed to them\" (204.19). In parts of\nHungary and Transylvania a somewhat similar practice is in vogue (392\n(1892). 128).\n\n\n_Story-Telling._\n\nSome Indian children have almost the advantages of the modern home in\nthe way of story-telling. Clark informs us (420.109):--\n\n\"Some tribes have regular story-tellers, men who have devoted a great\ndeal of time to learning the myths and stories of their people, and who\npossess, in addition to a good memory, a vivid imagination. The mother\nsends for one of these, and, having prepared a feast for him, she and\nher little 'brood,' who are curled up near her, await the fairy stories\nof the dreamer, who, after his feast and smoke, entertains them for\nhours. Many of these fanciful sketches or visions are interesting and\nbeautiful in their rich imagery, and have been at times given erroneous\npositions in ethnological data.\"\n\nKnortz refers in glowing terms to the _adisoke-winini_, or\n\"storyteller\" of the Chippeway Indians, those gifted men, who entertain\ntheir fellows with the tales and legends of the race, and who are not\nmere reciters, but often poets and transformers as well (_Skizzen_,\n294).\n\nSo, too, among the Andaman Islanders, \"certain mythic legends are\nrelated to the young by _okopai-ads_ [shamans], parents, and\nothers, which refer to the supposed adventures or history of remote\nancestors, and though the recital not unfrequently evokes much mirth,\nthey are none the less accepted as veracious\" (498. 95).\n\n\n_Morals._\n\nAmong some of the native tribes of California we meet with\n_i-wa-musp_, or \"men-women\" (519. 132). Among the Yuki, for\nexample, there were men who dressed and acted like women, and \"devoted\nthemselves to the instruction of the young by the narration of legends\nand moral tales.\" Some of these, Mr. Powers informs us, \"have been known\nto shut themselves up in the assembly-hall for the space of a month,\nwith brief intermissions, living the life of a hermit, and spending the\nwhole time in rehearsing the tribal-history in a sing-song monotone to\nall who chose to listen.\"\n\nSomewhat similar, without the hermit-life, appear to be the functions of\nthe orators and \"prophets\" of the Miwok and the peace-chiefs, or\n\"shell-men,\" of the Pomo (519. 157, 352). Of the Indians of the Pueblo\nof Tehua, Mr. Lummis, in his entertaining volume of fairy-tales, says:\n\"There is no duty to which a Pueblo child is trained in which he has to\nbe content with the bare command, 'Do thus'; for each he learns a fairy-\ntale designed to explain how people first came to know that it was right\nto do thus, and detailing the sad results which befell those who did\notherwise.\" The old men appear to be the storytellers, and their tales\nare told in a sort of blank verse (302. 5).\n\nMr. Grinnell, in his excellent book about the Blackfeet,--one of the\nbest books ever written about the Indians,--gives some interesting\ndetails of child-life. Children are never whipped, and \"are instructed\nin manners as well as in other more general and more important matters.\"\nAmong other methods of instruction we find that \"men would make long\nspeeches to groups of boys playing in the camps, telling them what they\nought to do to be successful in life,\" etc. (464. 188-191).\n\nOf the Delaware Indians we are told that \"when a mere boy the Indian lad\nwould be permitted to sit in the village councilhouse, and hear the\nassembled wisdom of the village or his tribe discuss the affairs of\nstate and expound the meaning of the _keekg_' (beads composing the\nwampum belts).... In this way he early acquired maturity of thought, and\nwas taught the traditions of his people, and the course of conduct\ncalculated to win him the praise of his fellows\" (516. 43). This reminds\nus of the Roman senator who had his child set upon his knee during the\nsession of that great legislative and deliberative body.\n\n\n_Playthings and Dolls._\n\nAs Professor Mason has pointed out, the cradle is often the \"play-house\"\nof the child, and is decked out to that end in a hundred ways (306.\n162). Of the Sioux cradle, Catlin says:--\"A broad hoop of elastic wood\npasses around in front of the child's face to protect it in case of a\nfall, from the front of which is suspended a little toy of exquisite\nembroidery for the child to handle and amuse itself with. To this and\nother little trinkets hanging in front of it, there are attached many\nlittle tinselled and tinkling things of the brightest colours to amuse\nboth the eyes and the ears of the child. While travelling on horseback,\nthe arms of the child are fastened under the bandages, so as not to be\nendangered if the cradle falls, and when at rest they are generally\ntaken out, allowing the infant to reach and amuse itself with the little\ntoys and trinkets that are placed before it and within its reach\" (306.\n202). In like manner are \"playthings of various kinds\" hung to the\nawning of the birch-bark cradles found in the Yukon region of Alaska. Of\nthe Nez Perc\u00e9, we read: \"To the hood are attached medicine-bags, bits of\nshell, haliotis perhaps, and the whole artistic genius of the mother is\nin play to adorn her offspring.\" The old chronicler Lafiteau observed of\nthe Indians of New France: \"They put over that half-circle [at the top\nof the cradle] little bracelets of porcelain and other little trifles\nthat the Latins call _crepundia_, which serve as an ornament and as\nplaythings to divert the child\" (306. 167, 187, 207).\n\nAnd so is it elsewhere in the world. Some of the beginnings of art in\nthe race are due to the mother's instinctive attempts to please the eyes\nand busy the hands of her tender offspring. The children of primitive\npeoples have their dolls and playthings as do those of higher races. In\nan article descriptive of the games and amusements of the Ute Indians,\nwe read: \"The boy remains under maternal care until he is old enough to\nlearn to shoot and engage in manly sports and enjoyments. Indian\nchildren play, laugh, cry, and act like white children, and make their\nown play-things from which they derive as much enjoyment as white\nchildren\" (480. IV. 238).\n\nOf the Seminole Indians of Florida, Mr. MacCauley says that among the\nchildren's games are skipping and dancing, leap-frog, teetotums,\nbuilding a merry-go-round, carrying a small make-believe rifle of stick,\netc. They also \"sit around a small piece of land, and, sticking blades\nof grass into the ground, name it a 'corn-field,'\" and \"the boys kill\nsmall birds in the bush with their bows and arrows, and call it\n'turkey-hunting.'\" Moreover, they \"have also dolls (bundles of rags,\nsticks with bits of cloth wrapped around them, etc.), and build houses\nfor them which they call 'camps'\" (496. 506).\n\nOf the Indians of the western plains, Colonel Dodge says: \"The little\ngirls are very fond of dolls, which their mothers make and dress with\nconsiderable skill and taste. Their baby houses are miniature teepees,\nand they spend as much time and take as much pleasure in such play as\nwhite girls\" (432. 190). Dr. Boas tells us concerning the Eskimo of\nBaffin Land: \"Young children are always carried in their mothers' hoods,\nbut when about a year and a half old they are allowed to play on the\nbed, and are only carried by their mothers when they get too\nmischievous.\" The same authority also says: \"Young children play with,\ntoys, sledges, kayaks, boats, bow and arrows, and dolls. The last are\nmade in the same way by all the tribes, a wooden body being clothed with\nscraps of deerskin cut in the same way as the clothing of the men\" (402.\n568, 571). Mr. Murdoch has described at some length the dolls and toys\nof the Point Barrow Eskimo. He remarks that \"though several dolls and\nvarious suits of miniature clothing were made and brought over for sale,\nthey do not appear to be popular with the little girls.\" He did not see\na single girl playing with a doll, and thinks the articles collected may\nhave been made rather for sale than otherwise. Of the boys, Mr. Murdoch\nsays: \"As soon as a boy is able to walk, his father makes him a little\nbow suited to his strength, with blunt arrows, with which he plays with\nthe other boys, shooting at marks--for instance the fetal reindeer\nbrought home from the spring hunt--till he is old enough to shoot small\nbirds and lemmings\" (514. 380, 383).\n\nIn a recent extensive and elaborately illustrated article, Dr. J. W.\nFewkes has described the dolls of the Tusayan Indians (one of the Pueblo\ntribes). Of the _tihus_, or carved wooden dolls, the author says\n(226. 45): \"These images are commonly mentioned by American visitors to\nthe Tusayan Pueblos as idols, but there is abundant evidence to show\nthat they are at present used simply as children's playthings, which are\nmade for that purpose and given to the girls with that thought in mind.\"\nAttention is called to the difficulty of drawing the line between a doll\nand an idol among primitive peoples, the connection of dolls with\nreligion, psychological evidence of which lingers with us to-day in the\npersistent folk-etymology which connects _doll_ with _idol_.\nThe following remarks of Dr. Fewkes are significant: \"These figurines\n[generally images of deities or mythological personages carved in true\narchaic fashion] are generally made by participants in the\n_Ni-m\u00e1n-Ka-tci-na_, and are presented to the children in July or\nAugust at the time of the celebration of the farewell of the\n_Ka-tci'-nas_ [supernatural intercessors between men and gods]. It\nis not rare to see the little girls after the presentation carrying the\ndolls about on their backs wrapped in their blankets in the same manner\nin which babies are carried by their mothers or sisters. Those dolls\nwhich are more elaborately made are generally hung up as ornaments in\nthe rooms, but never, so far as I have investigated the subject, are\nthey worshipped. The readiness with which they are sold for a proper\nremuneration shows that they are not regarded as objects of reverence.\"\nBut, as Dr. Fewkes himself adds, \"It by no means follows that they may\nnot be copies of images which have been worshipped, although they now\nhave come to have a strictly secular use.\" Among some peoples, perhaps,\nthe dolls, images of deities of the past, or even of the present, may\nhave been used to impart the fundamentals of theology and miracle-story,\nand the play-house of the children may have been at times a sort of\nreligious kindergarten of a primitive type. Worthy of note in this\nconnection is the statement of Castren that \"the Finns manufacture a\nkind of dolls, or _paras_, out of a child's cap filled with tow and\nstuck at the end of a rod. The fetich thus made is carried nine times\nround the church, with the cry 'synny para' (Para be born) repeated\nevery time to induce a _hal'tia_--that is to say, a spirit--to\nenter into it\" (388. 108).\n\nA glance into St. Nicholas, or at the returns to the syllabus on dolls\nsent out by President Hall, is sufficient to indicate the farreaching\nassociations of the subject, while the doll-congress of St. Petersburg\nhas had its imitators both in Europe and America. A bibliography of\ndoll-poems, doll-descriptions, doll-parties, doll-funerals, and the like\nwould be a welcome addition to the literature of dolls, while a\ndoll-museum of extended scope would be at once entertaining and of great\nscientific value.\n\nThe familiar phrase \"to cry for the moon\" corresponds to the French\n\"prendre la lune avec ses dents.\" In illustration of this proverbial\nexpression, which Rabelais used in the form _Je ne suis point clerc\npour prendre la lune avec les dents_, Loubens tells the amusing story\nof a servant who, when upbraided by the parents for not giving to a\nchild what it wanted and for which it had been long crying, answered:\n\"You must give it him yourself. A quarter-of-an-hour ago, he saw the\nmoon at the bottom of a bucket of water, and wants me to give it him.\nThat's all.\" (_Prov. et locut. fran\u00e7_., p. 225.)\n\nTo-day children cry for the moon in vain, but 'twas not ever thus. In\npayment for the church, which King Olaf wanted to have built,--a task\nimpossible, the saint thought,--the giant demanded \"the sun and moon, or\nSt. Olaf himself.\" Soon the building was almost completed, and St. Olaf\nwas in great perplexity at the unexpected progress of the work. As he\nwas wandering about \"he heard a child cry inside a mountain, and a\ngiant-woman hush it with these words: 'Hush! hush! to-morrow comes thy\nfather Wind-and-Weather home, bringing both sun and moon, or saintly\nOlaf's self.'\" Had not the king overheard this, and, by learning the\ngiant's name, been enabled to crush him, the child could have had his\nplaythings the next day.\n\nIn the course of an incarnation-myth of the raven among the Haida\nIndians of the Queen Charlotte Islands, Mr. Mackenzie tells us (497.\n53):--\n\n\"In time the woman bore a son, a remarkably small child. This child\nincessantly cried for the moon to play with, thus--_Koong-ah-ah,\nKoong-ah-ah_ ('the moon, the moon'). The spirit-chief, in order to\nquiet the child, after carefully closing all apertures of the house,\nproduced the moon, and gave it to the child to play with.\" The result\nwas that the raven (the child) ran off with the moon, and the people in\nconsequence were put to no little inconvenience. But by and by the raven\nbroke the original moon in two, threw half up into the sky, which became\nthe sun, while of the other half he made the moon, and of the little\nbits, which were left in the breaking, all the stars.\n\nIn the golden age of the gods, the far-off _juventus mundi_, the\nparts of the universe were the playthings, the _Spielzeug_ of the\ndivine infants, just as peasants and human infants figure in the\nfolk-tales as the toys of giants and Brobdingnagians. Indeed, some of\nthe phenomena of nature and their peculiarities are explained by\nbarbarous or semi-barbarous peoples as the result of the games and\nsports of celestial and spiritual children.\n\nWith barbarous or semi-civilized peoples possessing flocks and herds of\ndomesticated animals the child is early made acquainted with their\nhabits and uses. Regarding the Kaffirs of South Africa Theal says that\nit is the duty of the young boys to attend to the calves in the kraal,\nand \"a good deal of time is passed in training them to run and to obey\nsignals made by whistling. The boys mount them when they are eighteen\nmonths or two years old, and race about upon their backs\" (543. 220). In\nmany parts of the world the child has played an important role as\nshepherd and watcher of flocks and herds, and the shepherd-boy has often\nbeen called to high places in the state, and has even ascended the\nthrones of great cities and empires, ecclesiastical as well as\npolitical.\n\n\n_Dress._\n\nIn his little book on the philosophy of clothing Dr. Schurtz has given\nus an interesting account of the development and variation of external\nornamentation and dress among the various races, especially the negro\npeoples of Africa. The author points out that with not a few primitive\ntribes only married persons wear clothes, girls and boys, young women\nand men even, going about _in puris naturalibus_ (530. 13).\nEverywhere the woman is better clothed than the girl, and in some parts\nof Africa, as the ring is with us, so are clothes a symbol of marriage.\nAmong the Balanta, for example, in Portuguese Senegambia, when a man\nmarries he gives his wife a dress, and so long as this remains whole,\nthe marriage-union continues in force. On the coast of Sierra Leone, the\nexpression \"he gave her a dress,\" intimates that the groom has married a\nyoung girl (530. 14, 43-49).\n\nOften, with many races the access of puberty leads to the adoption of\nclothing and to a refinement of dress and personal adornment. A relic of\nthis remains, as Dr. Schurtz points out, in the leaving off of\nknickerbockers and the adoption of \"long dresses,\" by the young people\nin our civilized communities of to-day (530. 13).\n\nWith others the clothing of the young is of the most primitive type, and\nchildren in very many cases go about absolutely naked.\n\nThat the development of the sex-feeling, and entrance upon marriage,\nhave with very many peoples been the chief incitements to dress and\npersonal ornamentation, has been pointed out by Schurtz and others (530.\n14).\n\nNot alone this, but, sometimes, as among the Bura Negroes of the upper\nBlue Nile region, the advent of her child brings with it a modification\nin the dress of the mother. With these people, young girls wear an apron\nin front, married women one in front and one behind, but women who have\nalready had a child wear two in front, one over the other. A similar\nremark applies to tattooing and kindred ornamentations of the body and\nits members. Among the women of the Bajansi on the middle Congo, for\nexample, a certain form of tattoo indicated that the woman had borne a\nchild (530. 78).\n\nSchurtz points out that the kangaroo-skin breast-covering of the\nTasmanian women, the shoulder and arm strips worn by the women of the\nMonbuttu in Africa, the skin mantles of the Marutse, the thick\nhip-girdle of the Tupende, and other articles of clothing of a like\nnature, seem to be really survivals of devices for carrying children,\nand not to have been originally intended as dress _per se_ (530.\n110, 111). Thus early does childhood become a social factor.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XIV.\n\n\nTHE CHILD AS MEMBER AND BUILDER OF SOCIETY.\n\nIn great states, children are always trying to remain children, and the\nparents wanting to make men and women of them. In vile states, the\nchildren are always wanting to be men and women, and the parents to keep\nthem children.--_Ruskin_.\n\nChildren generally hate to be idle; all the care is then that their busy\nhumour should be constantly employed in something of use to\nthem.--_Locke_.\n\n  Look into our childish faces;\n  See you not our willing hearts?\n  Only love us--only lead us;\n  Only let us know you need us,\n  And we all will do our parts.--_Mary Howitt_.\n\n[Greek: Anthropos Phusei zoon politikon] [Man is by nature a political\n(social) animal].--_Aristotle_.\n\nNever till now did young men, and almost children, take such a command\nin human affairs.--_Carlyle_.\n\nPredestination and Caste.\n\n  \"Who can tell for what high cause\n  This darling of the Gods was born?\"\n\n\nasks the poet Marvell. But with some peoples the task of answering the\nquestion is an easy one; for fate, or its human side, caste, has settled\nthe matter long before the infant comes into the world. The Chinese\nphilosopher, Han Wan-Kung, is cited by Legge as saying: \"When Shuh-yu\nwas born, his mother knew, as soon as she looked at him, that he would\nfall a victim to his love of bribes. When Yang sze-go was born, the\nmother of Shuh-he-ang knew, as soon as she heard him cry, that he would\ncause the destruction of all his kindred. When Yueh-tseaou was born,\nTzewan considered it was a great calamity, knowing that through him all\nthe ghosts of the Johgaou family would be famished\" (487. 89).\n\nIn India, we meet with the Bidhata-Purusha, a \"deity that predestines\nall the events of the life of man or woman, and writes on the forehead\nof the child, on the sixth day of its birth, a brief precis of them\"\n(426. 9). India is _par excellence_ the land of caste, but other\nlands know the system that makes the man follow in his father's\nfootsteps, and often ignores the woman altogether, not even counting her\nin the census of the people, as was formerly the case even in Japan and\nChina, where a girl was not worthy to be counted beside the son. Of\nancient Peru, Letourneau says: \"Every male inherited his father's\nprofession; he was not allowed to choose another employment. By right of\nbirth a man was either labourer, miner, artisan, or soldier\" (100. 486).\nPredestination of state and condition in another world is a common\ntheological tenet, predestination of state and condition in this world\nis a common social theory.\n\nVast indeed is the lore of birth-days, months and years, seasons and\nskies--the fictions, myths, and beliefs of the astrologist, the\nspiritualist, the fortune-teller, and the almanac-maker--which we have\ninherited from those ancestors of ours, who believed in the kinship of\nall things, who thought that in some way \"beasts and birds, trees and\nplants, the sea, the mountains, the wind, the sun, the moon, the clouds,\nand the stars, day and night, the heaven and the earth, were alive and\npossessed of the passions and the will they felt within themselves\"\n(258. 25). Here belongs a large amount of folk-lore and folk-speech\nrelating to the defective, delinquent, and dependent members of human\nsociety, whose misfortunes or misdeeds are assigned to atavistic causes,\nto demoniacal influences.\n\n\n_Parenthood._\n\nAmong primitive peoples, the advent of a child, besides entailing upon\none or both of the parents ceremonies and superstitious performances\nwhose name and fashion are legion, often makes a great change in the\nconstitution of society. Motherhood and fatherhood are, in more than one\npart of the globe, primitive titles of nobility and badges of\naristocracy. With the birth of a child, the Chinese woman becomes\nsomething more than a mere slave and plaything, and in the councils of\nuncivilized peoples (as with us to-day) the voice of the father of a\nfamily carries more weight than that of the childless. With the\ncivilized races to-day, more marriages mean fewer prison-houses, and\nmore empty jails, than in the earlier days, and with the primitive\npeoples of the present, this social bond was the salvation of the tribe\nto the same extent and in the same way.\n\nAs Westermarck points out, there are \"several instances of husband and\nwife not living together before the birth of a child.\" Here belong the\ntemporary marriages of the Creek Indians, the East Greenlanders, the\nFuegians, the Essenes, and some other Old World sects and peoples--the\nbirth of a child completes the marriage--\"marriage is therefore rooted\nin family, rather than family in marriage,\" in such cases. With the\nAinos of the island of Tezo, the Khyens of Farther India, and with one\nof the aboriginal tribes of China, so Westermarck informs us, \"the\nhusband goes to live with his wife at her father's house, and never\ntakes her away till after the birth of a child,\" and with more than one\nother people the wife remains with her own parents until she becomes a\nmother (166. 22, 23).\n\nIn some parts of the United States we find similar practices among the\npopulation of European ancestry. The \"boarding-out\" of young couples\nuntil a child is born to them is by no means uncommon.\n\n\n_Adoption._\n\nAdoption is, among some primitive peoples, remarkably extensive. Among\nthe natives of the Andaman Islands \"it is said to be of rare occurrence\nto find any child above six or seven years of age residing with its\nparents, and this, because it is considered a compliment and also a mark\nof friendship for a married man, after paying a visit, to ask his hosts\nto allow him to adopt one of their children\" (498. 57).\n\nOf the Hawaiian Islanders, Letourneau remarks (100. 389, 390): \"Adoption\nwas rendered extremely easy; a man would give himself a father or sons\nalmost _ad infinitum_.\" In the Marquesas Islands \"it was not\nuncommon to see elderly persons being adopted by children.\" Moreover,\n\"animals even were adopted. A chief adopted a dog, to whom, he offered\nten pigs and some precious ornaments. The dog was carried about by a\n_kikino_, and at every meal he had his stated place beside his\nadopted father.\" Connected with adoption are many curious rites and\nceremonies which may be found described in Ploss and other authorities.\nDr. Friedrich S. Krauss (280) has recently treated at some length of a\nspecial form of adoption symbolized by the cutting of the hair, and\nparticularly known among the southern Slavonians. The cutting off the\nhair here represents, the author thinks, the unconditional surrendering\nof one's body or life to another. The origin of the sacrifice of the\nhair is to be sought in the fact that primitive peoples have believed\nthat the seat of the soul was in the hair and the blood, which were\noffered to the spirits or demons in lieu of the whole body. The relation\nbetween nurse and child has been treated of by Ploss and Wiedniann\n(167), the latter with special reference to ancient Egypt and the\nMohammedan countries. In ancient Egypt the nurse was reckoned as one of\nthe family, and in the death-steles and reliefs of the Middle Kingdom\nher name and figure are often found following those of the children and\nparents of the deceased. The wet-nurse was held in especial honour. The\nmilk-relationship sometimes completely takes the place of\nblood-relationship. The Koran forbids the marriage of a nurse and a man\nwhom, as a child, she has suckled; the laws of the Hanafi forbid a man\nto marry a woman from whose breast he has imbibed even a single drop of\nmilk. Among the southern Slavonians: \"If of two children who have fed at\nthe breast of the same woman, one is a boy and the woman's own child,\nand the other (adopted) a girl, these two must never marry.\" If they are\nboth girls, they are like real sisters in love and affection; if both\nboys, like real brothers. In Dardistan and Armenia also,\nmilk-relationship prevents marriage (167. 263).\n\nIn Mingrelia as soon as a child is given to a woman to nurse, she, her\nhusband, children, and grandchildren are bound to it by ties more dear\neven than those of blood-relationship; she would yield up her life for\nthe child, and the latter, when grown up, is reciprocally dutiful. It is\na curious fact that even grown-up people can contract this sort of\nrelationship. \"Thus peasant-women are very anxious to have grown-up\nprincesses become then foster-children--the latter simply bite gently\nthe breasts of their foster-mothers, and forthwith a close relationship\nsubsists between them.\" It is said also that girls obtain protectors in\nlike manner by having youths bite at their breasts, which (lately) they\ncover with a veil (167. 263). Adoption by the letting or transfusion of\nblood is also found in various parts of the world and has far-reaching\nramifications; as Trumbull, Robertson Smith, and Daniels have pointed\nout. The last calls attention to the Biblical declaration (Proverbs,\nxxviii. 24): \"There is a friend which sticketh closer than a brother,\"\nunderlying which seems to be this mystic tie of blood (214. 16).\n\nThe mourning for the death of children is discussed in another part of\nthis work. It may be mentioned here, however, that the death of a child\noften entails other, sometimes more serious, consequences. Among the\nDyaks of Borneo, \"when a father has lost his child, he kills the first\nman he meets as he goes out of his house; this is to him an act of duty\"\n(100. 238).\n\n\n_Hereditary Bights._\n\nThe hereditary rights of children to share in the property of their\nparents have been made the subject of an interesting study by Clement\nDeneus (215), a lawyer of Ghent, who has treated in detail of the\nlimitation of the patria potestas in respect to disposition of the\npatrimony, and the reservation to the children of a portion of the\nproperty of their parents--an almost inviolable right, of which they can\nbe deprived only in consequence of the gravest offences. This\nreservation the author considers \"a principle universally recognized\namong civilized nations,\" and an institution which marks a progress in\nthe history of law and of civilization (215. 49), while testamentary\nfreedom is unjust and inexpedient. The author discusses the subject from\nthe points of view of history, statute and natural law, social economy,\netc., devoting special attention to pointing out the defects of the\nsystem of the school of Le Play,--primogeniture, which still obtains in\nEngland, in several parts of Germany, in certain localities of the\nPyrenees, and in the Basque provinces.\n\nIn the countries of modern Europe, the testamentary power of the father\nis limited as follows: _Austria_ (Code of 1812): One-half of\nparents' property reserved for children. The law of 1889 makes exception\nin the case of rural patrimonies of moderate size with dwelling\nattached, where the father has the right to designate his heir.\n_Denmark_ (Code of 1845): Father can dispose of but one-fourth of\nthe property; nobles, however, are allowed to bestow upon one of their\nchildren the half of their fortune. _Germany_: No uniform civil\nlegislation exists as yet for the whole empire. In the majority of the\nsmaller states, in a part of Bavaria, R\u00fcgen, eastern Pomerania,\nSchleswig-Holstein, the _Corpus Juris Civilis_ of Justinian is in\nforce, while the Napoleonic code obtains in Rhenish Prussia, Hesse, and\nBavaria, in Baden, Berg, Alsace-Lorraine. In Prussia, the reserve is\none-third, if there are less than three children; one-half, if there are\nthree or four. In Saxony, if there are five or more children, the\nreserve is one-half; if there are four or less, one-third.\n_Greece:_ The Justinian novels are followed. _Holland:_ The\nNapoleonic code is in force. _Italy_ (Code of 1866): The reserve is\none-half. _Norway_ (Code of 1637, modified in 1800, 1811, 1825):\nThe father is allowed free disposal of one-half of the patrimony, but\nfor religious charities (_fondationspieuses_) only.\n_Portugal_: The legitimate is two-thirds. _Roumania_ (Code of\n1865): The same provision as in the Napoleonic code. _Russia_ (Code\nof 1835): The father can dispose at pleasure of the personal property\nand property acquired, but the property itself must be divided equally.\nIn Esthonia, this provision also applies to personal property acquired\nby inheritance. _Spain_ (Code of 1889): The father can dispose of\none-third of the patrimony to a stranger; to a child he can will\ntwo-thirds. He can also, in the case of farming, industry, or commerce,\nleave his entire property to one of his children, except that the\nlegatee has to pecuniarily indemnify his brothers and sisters.\n_Sweden_ (Code of 1734): In the towns, the father can dispose of\nbut one-sixth of the patrimony; in the country, the patrimonial property\nmust go to the children. The rest is at the will of the father, except\nthat he must provide for the sustenance of his children.\n_Switzerland:_ At Geneva, the Napoleonic code is in force; in the\nCanton of Uri, the younger son is sometimes specially favoured; in\nZ\u00fcrich, the father can dispose of one-sixth in favour of strangers, or\none-fifth in favour of a child; in B\u00e2le, he is allowed no disposal; in\nthe cantons of Neuch\u00e2tel and Vaud, the reserve is one-half, in Bern and\nSchaffhausen, two-thirds, and in Eriburg and Soleure, three-fourths.\n_Turkey:_ The father can dispose of two-thirds by will, or of the\nwhole by gift (215. 39-41).\n\nIn Prance, article 913 of the civil code forbids the father to dispose,\nby gift while living, or by will, of more than one-half of the property,\nif he leaves at his death but one legitimate child; more than one-third,\nif he leaves two children; more than one-fourth, if he leave three or\nmore children. In the United States great testamentary freedom prevails,\nand the laws of inheritance belong to the province of the various\nStates.\n\nAmong the nations of antiquity,--Egyptians, Persians, Assyrians,\nChinese,--according to Deneus (215. 2), the _patria potestas_\nprobably prevented any considerable diffusion of the family estates. By\nthe time of Moses, the Hebrews had come to favour the first-born, and to\nhim was given a double share of the inheritance. With the ancient Hindus\nbut a slight favouring--of the eldest son seems to have been in vogue,\nthe principle of co-proprietorship of parent and children being\nrecognized in the laws of Manu. In Sparta, the constitution was inimical\nto a reserve for all the children; in Athens, the code of Solon forbade\na man to benefit a stranger at the expense of his legitimate male\nchildren; he had, however, the right to make particular legacies,\nprobably up to one-half of the property. Deneus considers that the\n_penchant_ of the Athenians for equality was not favourable to a\ncast-iron system of primogeniture, although the father may have been\nable to favour his oldest child to the extent of one-half of his\npossessions. In ancient Rome (215. 4-16), at first, a will was an\nexception, made valid only by the vote of a lex curiata; but afterwards\nthe absolute freedom of testamentary disposition, which was approved in\n450 B.C. by the Law of the Twelve Tables,--_Uti legassit super\npecunia tutelage suce rei, ita jus esto,_--appears, and the father\ncould even pass by his children in silence and call upon an utter\nstranger to enjoy his estate and possessions. By 153 B.C., however, the\nfather was called upon to nominally disinherit his children, and not\nmerely pass them over in silence, if he wished to leave his property to\na stranger. For some time this provision had little effect, but a breach\nin the _patria potestas_ has really been made, and by the time of\nPliny the Younger (61-115 A.D.), who describes the procedure in detail,\nthe disinherited children were given the right of the _querula\ninoffidosi testamenti,_ by which the father was presumed to have died\nintestate, and his property fell in equal shares to all his children.\nThus it was that the right of children in the property of the father was\nfirst really recognized at Rome, and the _pars legitima,_ the\nreserve of which made it impossible for the children to attack the will\nof the father, came into practice. In the last years of the Republic,\nthis share was at least one-fourth of what the legitimate heir would\nhave received in the absence of a will; under Justinian, it was\none-third of the part _ab intestate,_ if this was at least\none-fourth of the estate; otherwise, one-half. The father always\nretained the right to disinherit, for certain reasons, in law. With this\ndiminution of his rights over property went also a lessening of his\npowers over the bodies of his children. Diocletian forbade the selling\nof children, Constantine decreed that the father who exposed his\nnew-born child should lose the _patria potestas,_ and Valentinian\npunished such action with death. Among the ancient Gauls, in spite of\nthe father's power of life and death over his offspring, he could not\ndisinherit them, for the theory of co-proprietorship obtained with these\nwestern tribes (215. 16). With the ancient Germans, the father appears\nto have been rather the protector of his children than their owner or\nkeeper; the child is recognized, somewhat rudely, as a being with some\nrights of his own. Michelet has aptly observed, as Deneus remarks, that\n\"the Hindus saw in the son the reproduction of the father's soul; the\nRomans, a servant of the father; the Germans, a child\" (215. 17). At\nfirst wills were unknown among them, for the system of\nco-proprietorship,--_hoeredes successoresgue sui cuique liberi et\nnullum testamentum,_--and the solidarity of the family and all its\nmembers, did not feel the need of any. The inroad of Roman ideas, and\nespecially, Deneus thinks, the fervour of converts to Christianity,\nintroduced testamentary legacies.\n\nThe Goths and Burgundians, in their Roman laws, allowed the parent to\ndispose of three-fourths, the Visigoths one-third or one-fifth,\naccording as the testator disposed of his property in favour of a child\nor a stranger. The national law of the Burgundians allowed to the father\nthe absolute disposal of his acquisitions, but prescribed the equal\nsharing of the property among all the children. The ripuarian law of the\nFranks left the children a reserve of twelve sons, practically admitting\nabsolute freedom of disposition by will (215. 18). The course of law in\nrespect to the inheritance of children during the Middle Ages can be\nread in the pages of Deneus and the wider comparative aspect of the\nsubject studied in the volumes of Post, Dargun, Engels, etc., where the\nvarious effects of mother-right and father-right are discussed and\ninterpreted.\n\n\n_Subdivisions of Land._\n\nIn some cases, as in Wurtemburg, Switzerland, Hanover, Thuringia, Hesse,\ncertain parts of Sweden, France, and Russia, the subdivision of property\nhas been carried out to an extent which has produced truly Lilliputian\nholdings. In Switzerland there is a certain commune where the custom\nobtains of transmitting by will to each child its proportional share of\neach parcel; so that a single walnut-tree has no fewer than sixty\nproprietors. This reminds us of the Maoris of New Zealand, with whom \"a\nportion of the ground is allotted to the use of each family, and this\nportion is again subdivided into individual parts on the birth of each\nchild.\" It is of these same people that the story is told that, after\nselling certain of their lands to the English authorities, they came\nback in less than a year and demanded payment also for the shares of the\nchildren born since the sale, whose rights they declared had not been\ndisposed of. On the islands of the Loire there are holdings \"so small\nthat it is impossible to reduce them any less, so their owners have them\neach in turn a year\"; in the commune of Murs, in Anjou, there is \"a\nstrip of nine hectares, subdivided into no fewer than thirty-one\nseparate parcels.\" The limit, however, seems to be reached in Laon,\nwhere \"it is not rare to find fields scarce a metre (3 ft. 3.37 in.)\nwide; here an apple-tree or a walnut-tree covers with its branches four\nor five lots, and the proprietor can only take in his crop in the\npresence of his neighbours, to whom he has also to leave one-half of the\nfruit fallen on their lots.\" No wonder many disputes and lawsuits arise\nfrom such a state of affairs. It puts us in mind at once of the story of\nthe sand-pile and the McDonogh farm. The exchange or purchase of\ncontiguous parcels sometimes brings temporary or permanent relief (215.\n112, 113).\n\nThe following figures show the extent to which this Lilliputian system\nobtained in France in 1884, according to the returns of the Minister of\nFinance:--\n\n\nNATURE OF PROPERTY.                    ABSOLUTE    PER   TOTAL    PER\n                                       NUMBER OF  CENT. HECTARES. CENT.\n                                       HOLDINGS.\nLess than 20 ares\n(100 ares = one hectare)             4,115,463  29.00\nLess than 50 ares                    6,597,843  47.00  1,147,804  2.31\nLess than 1 hectare ( =2-1/2 acres)  8,585,523  61.00  2,574,589  5.19\nLess than 2 hectares                10,426,368  74.09  5,211,456 10.53\nFrom 2 to 6 hectares                 2,174,188  15.47  7,543,347 15.26\nFrom 6 to 50 hectares                1,351,499   9.58 19,217,902 38.94\nFrom 50 to 200 hectares                105,070   0.74  9,398,057 19.04\nMore than 200 hectares                  17,676   0.12  8,017,542 16.23\n\nTotals.....................         14,074,801 100.00 49,388,304 100.00\n\n\nDeneus gives other interesting figures from Belgium and elsewhere,\nshowing the extent of the system. Other statistics given indicate that\nthis parcelling-out has reached its lowest point, and that the reaction\nhas set in. It is a curious fact, noted by M. Deneus, that of the\n1,173,724 tenant-farmers in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and\nIreland in the year 1884, no fewer than 852,438 cultivated an acre or\nless.\n\n\n_Younger Son._\n\nMr. Sessions, in his interesting little pamphlet (351) calls attention\nto the important _role_ assigned in legend and story to the\n\"younger son,\" \"younger brother,\" as well as the social customs and laws\nwhich have come into vogue on his account. Sir Henry Maine argued that\n\"primogeniture cannot be the natural outgrowth of the family, but is a\npolitical institution, coming not from clansmen but from a chief.\" Hence\nthe youngest son, \"who continues longest with the father, is naturally\nthe heir of his house, the rest being already provided for.\" Mr.\nSessions observes (351. 2): \"Among some primitive tribes, as those of\nCape York [Australia] and the adjacent islands, the youngest son\ninherited a double portion of his deceased father's goods. Among the\nMaoris of New Zealand he takes the whole. Among some hill tribes of\nIndia, such as the Todas of the Neilgherries, he takes the house and\nmaintains the women of the family, whilst the cattle, which represent\nthe chief personalities, are equally divided. The Mrus and Kolhs and\nCotas have similar customs.\" Somewhat similar to the code of the Todas\nwas that of the Hindu Aryans, as embodied in the laws of Manu, for \"the\nyoungest son has, from time immemorial, as well as the eldest, a place\nin Hindu legislation.\" The succession of the youngest prevails among the\nMongolian Tartars, and \"when in Russia the joint family may be broken\nup, the youngest takes the house.\" The right of the youngest was known\namong the Welsh, Irish, and some other Celtic tribes; the old Welsh law\ngave the youngest son the house and eight acres, the rest of the land\nbeing divided equally between all the sons. Mr. Sessions calls attention\nto the fact that, while in Old Testament Palestine primogeniture was the\nrule, the line of ancestry of Christ exhibits some remarkable\nexceptions. And among primitive peoples the hero or demi-god is very\noften the younger son.\n\nUnder the name of \"Borough English,\" the law by which the father's real\nproperty descends to the youngest son alone, survives in Gloucester and\nsome few other places in England,--Lambeth, Hackney, part of Islington,\nHeston, Edmonton, etc.\n\nAnother interesting tenure is that of gavelkind, by which the land and\nproperty of the father was inherited in equal portions by all his sons,\nthe youngest taking the house, the eldest the horse and arms, and so on.\nThis mode of tenure, before the Conquest, was quite common in parts of\nEngland, especially Wales and Northumberland, still surviving especially\nin the county of Kent. Many things, indeed, testify of the care which\nwas taken even in primitive times to secure that the youngest born, the\nchild of old age, so frequently the best-loved, should not fare ill in\nthe struggle for life.\n\n\n_Child-Nurses._\n\nOne important function of the child (still to be seen commonly among the\nlower classes of the civilized races of to-day) with primitive peoples\nis that of nurse and baby-carrier. Even of Japan, Mrs. Bramhall gives\nthis picture (189. 33):--\n\n\"We shall see hundreds of small children, not more than five or six\nyears of age, carrying, fast asleep on their shoulders, the baby of the\nhousehold, its tiny smooth brown head swinging hither and thither with\nevery movement of its small nurse, who walks, runs, sits, or jumps,\nflies kites, plays hop-scotch, and fishes for frogs in the gutter,\ntotally oblivious of that infantile charge, whether sleeping or waking.\nIf no young sister or brother be available, the husband, the uncle, the\nfather, or grandfather hitches on his back the baby, preternaturally\ngood and contented.\"\n\nThe extent to which, in America, as well as in Europe, to-day, young\nchildren are entrusted with the care of infants of their family, has\nattracted not a little attention, and the \"beyond their years\" look of\nsome of these little nurses and care-takers is often quite noticeable.\nThe advent of the baby-carriage has rather facilitated than hindered\nthis old-time employment of the child in the last century or so. In a\nrecent number (vol. xvii. p. 792) of _Public Opinion_ we find the\nstatement that from June 17, 1890, to September 15, 1894, the \"Little\nMothers' Aid Association,\" of New York, has been the means of giving a\nholiday, one day at least of pleasure in the year, to more than eight\nthousand little girls, who are \"little mothers, in the sense of having\nthe care of younger children while the parents are at work.\" In thrifty\nNew England, children perform not a little of the housework, even the\ncooking; and \"little mothers\" and \"little housekeepers\" were sometimes\nleft to themselves for days, while their elders in days gone by visited\nor went to the nearest town or village for supplies.\n\n\n_Child-Marriages._\n\n\"Marriages are made in heaven,\" says the old proverb, and among some\nprimitive peoples we meet with numerous instances of their having been\nagreed upon and arranged by prospective parents long before the birth of\ntheir offspring. Indeed, the betrothal of unborn children by their\nparents occurs sporadically to-day in civilized lands. Ploss has called\nattention to child-marriages in their sociological and physiological\nbearings (125.1. 386-402), and Post has considered the subject in his\nhistorical study of family law. In these authorities the details of the\nsubject may be read. In Old Calabar, men who already possess several\nwives take to their bosom and kiss, as their new wife, babes two or\nthree weeks old. In China, Gujurat, Ceylon, and parts of Brazil, wives\nof from four to six years of age are occasionally met with. In many\nparts of the world wives of seven to nine years of age are common, and\nwives of from ten to twelve very common. In China it is sometimes the\ncase that parents buy for their infant son an infant wife, nursed at the\nsame breast with him (234. xlii.). Wiedemann, in an article on\nchild-marriages in Egypt (381), mentions the fact that a certain king of\nthe twenty-first dynasty (about 1100 B.C.) seems to have had as one of\nhis wives a child only a few days old. From Dio Cassius we learn that in\nRome, at the beginning of the Empire, marriages of children under ten\nyears occasionally took place.\n\nIn some parts of the world the child-wife does not belong to her\nchild-husband. \"Among the Reddies, of India,\" Letourneau informs us, \"a\ngirl from sixteen to twenty years of age is married to a boy of five or\nsix. The wife then becomes the real wife of the boy's uncle, or cousin,\nor of the father of the reputed husband. But the latter is considered to\nbe the legal father of the children of his pretended wife.\" So it is\nonly when the boy has grown up that he receives his wife, and he, in\nturn, acts as his relative before him (100. 354). Temple cites the\nfollowing curious custom in his tales of the Panj\u00e2b (542. I. xviii.):--\n\"When Raja Vasali has won a bride from Raja Sirkap, he is given a\nnew-born infant and a mango-tree, which is to flower in twelve years,\nand when it flowers, the girl is to be his wife.\" The age prescribed by\nancient Hindu custom (for the Brahman, Tshetria, and Vysia classes) is\nsix to eight years for the girl, and the belief prevailed that if a girl\nwere to attain her puberty before being married, her parents and\nbrothers go to hell, as it was their duty to have got her married before\nthat period (317. 56). Father Sangermano, writing of Burma a hundred\nyears ago, notices the \"habit of the Burmese to engage their daughters\nwhile young, in real or fictitious marriages, in order to save them from\nthe hands of the king's ministers, custom having established a rule,\nwhich is rarely if ever violated, that no married woman can be seized,\neven for the king himself\" (234. xlii.). The child-marriages of India\nhave been a fruitful theme for discussion, as well as the enforced\nwidowhood consequent upon the death of the husband. Among the most\ninteresting literature on the subject are the \"Papers relating to Infant\nMarriage and Enforced Widowhood in India\" (317), Schlagintweit (142),\netc. The evils connected with the child-marriages of India are forcibly\nbrought out by Mrs. Steel in several of the short stories in her _From\nthe Five Rivers_ (1893), and by Richard Garbe in his beautiful little\nnovel _The Redemption of the Brahman_(1894).\n\nBut India and other Eastern lands are not the only countries where\n\"child-marriages\" have flourished. Dr. F. J. Furnivall (234), the\ndistinguished English antiquary and philologist, poring over at Chester\nthe \"Depositions in Trials in the Bishop's Court from November, 1561 to\nMarch, 1565-6,\" was astonished to find on the ninth page the record:\n\"that Elizabeth Hulse said she was married to George Hulse in the Chapel\nof Knutsford, when she was but _three or four_ years old, while the\nboy himself deposed that he was about seven,\" and still more surprised\nwhen he discovered that the volume contained \"no fewer than twenty-seven\ncases of the actual marriage in church of the little boys and girls of\nmiddle-class folk.\" The result of Dr. Furnivall's researches is\ncontained in the one-hundred-and-eighth volume (original series) of the\nEarly English Text Society's Publications, dealing with child-marriages,\ndivorces, ratifications, etc., and containing a wealth of quaint and\ncurious sociological lore. Perhaps the youngest couple described are\nJohn Somerford, aged about three years, and Jane Brerton, aged about two\nyears, who were married in the parish church of Brerton about 1553. Both\nwere carried in arms to the church, and had the words of the marriage\nservice said for them by those who carried them. It appears that they\nlived together at Brerton for ten years, but without sustaining any\nfurther marital relations, and when the husband was about fifteen years,\nwe find him suing for a divorce on account of his wife's \"unkindness,\nand other weighty causes.\" Neither party seemed affectionately disposed\ntowards the other (234.26). Other very interesting marriages are those\nof Bridget Dutton (aged under five years) and George Spurstowe (aged\nsix) (234. 38); Margaret Stanley (aged five) and Roland Dutton (aged\nnine), brother of Bridget Dutton (234. 41); Janet Parker (aged five) and\nLawrence Parker (aged nine to ten). The rest of the twenty-seven couples\nwere considerably older, the most of the girls ranging between eight and\ntwelve, the boys between ten and fourteen (234. 28). It would Seem that\nfor the most part these young married couples were not allowed to live\ntogether, but at times some of the nuptial rites were travestied or\nattempted to be complied with. In two only of the twenty-seven cases is\nthere mention of \"bedding\" the newly-married children. John Budge, who\nat the age of eleven to twelve years, was married to Elizabeth\nRamsbotham, aged thirteen to fourteen years, is said to have wept to go\nhome with his father and only by \"compulsion of the priest of the\nChapel\" was he persuaded to lie with his wife, but never had any marital\nrelations with her whatever, and subsequently a petition for divorce was\nfiled by the husband (234. 6). In the case of Ellen Dampart, who at the\nage of about eight years, was married to John Andrew aged ten, it\nappears that they slept in the same bed with two of the child-wife's\nsisters between them. No marital relations were entered upon, and the\nwife afterwards sues for a divorce (234. 15, 16).\n\nThe practice seems to have been for each of the children married to go\nto live with some relative, and if the marriage were not ratified by\nthem after reaching years of consent, to petition for a divorce. In some\nnine cases the boy is younger than the girl, and Humfrey Winstanley was\nunder twelve when he was married to Alice Worsley aged over seventeen;\nin this case no marital relations were entered upon, though the wife was\nquite willing; and the husband afterwards petitions for a divorce\n(234.2-4). Thomas Dampart, who at the age of ten years, was married to\nElizabeth Page, appears to have lived with his wife about eight years\nand to have kept up marital relations with her until she left him of her\nown motion. Dr. Furnivall (234. 49-52) cites four cases of ratification\nof child-marriages by the parties after they have attained years of\ndiscretion, in one of which the boy and the girl were each but ten years\nold when married. The most naive account in the whole book is that of\nthe divorce-petition of James Ballard, who, when about eleven years of\nage, was married in the parish church of Colne at ten o'clock at night\nby Sir Roger Blakey, the curate, to a girl named Anne; the morning after\nthe ceremony he is said \"to have declared unto his uncle that the said\nAnne had enticed him with two Apples, to go with her to Colne, and marry\nher.\" No marital relations were entered upon, and the curate was\npunished for his hasty and injudicious action (234. 45).\n\nDr. Furnivall (234. xxxv.) quotes at some length the legal opinion--the\nlaw on infant marriages--of Judge Swinburne (died, 1624), from which we\nlearn that \"infants\" (i.e. children under seven years of age) could not\ncontract spousals or matrimony, and such contracts made by the infants\nor by their parents were void, unless subsequently ratified by the\ncontracting parties by word or deed,--at twelve the girls ceased to be\nchildren, and at fourteen the boys, and were then fully marriageable, as\nthey are to-day in many parts of the world. Of childhood, Judge\nSwinburne says, \"During this age, children cannot contract Matrimony\n_de praesenti_., but only _de futuro_\"; but their spousals\ncould readily be turned into actual marriages after the girls were\ntwelve and the boys fourteen, as Dr. Furnivall points out.\n\nThe fifth limitation to his general statement, which the learned judge\nmade, is thus strangely and quaintly expressed: \"The fifth Limitation\nis, when the Infants which do contract Spousals are of that _Wit and\nDiscretion_, that albeit they have not as yet accomplished the full\nAge of Seven Years, yet doth their supra-ordinary understanding fully\nsupply that small defect of Age which thing is not rare in these days,\nwherein Children become sooner ripe, and do conceive more quickly than\nin former Ages\" (234. xxxvi.).\n\nFirst among the causes of these child-marriages Dr. Furnivall is\ninclined to rank \"the desire to evade the feudal law of the Sovereign's\nguardianship of all infants,\" for \"when a father died, the Crown had the\nright to hold the person and estate of the propertied orphan until it\ncame of age, and it could be sold in marriage for the benefit of the\nCrown or its grantee.\" Moreover, \"if the orphan refused such a marriage\nwith a person of its own rank, it had to pay its guardian a heavy fine\nfor refusing his choice, and selecting a spouse of its own\" (234.\nxxxix.). Property-arrangement also figures as a cause of these\nalliances, especially where the bride is older than the groom: Elizabeth\nHulse (aged four) was married to George Hulse (aged seven) \"because her\nfriends thought she should have a living by him\" (234. 4). When\nElizabeth Ramsbotham (aged 13-14) married John Bridge (aged 11-12),\n\"money was paid by the father of the said Elizaboth, to buy a piece of\nland\" (234. 6); according to the father of Joan Leyland (aged 11-12),\nwho married Ralph Whittall (aged 11-12), \"they were married because she\nshould have had by him a pretty bargain, if they could have loved, one\nthe other\" (234.12); Thomas Bentham (aged twelve) and Ellen Boltoii\n(aged ten) were married because Richard Bentham, grandfather of Ellen,\n\"was a very wealthy man, and it was supposed that he would have been\ngood unto them, and bestowed some good farm upon them\" (234. 32); the\nmarriage of Thomas Fletcher (aged 10-11) and Anne Whitfield (aged about\nnine) took place because \"John Fletcher, father of the said Thomas, was\nin debt; and, to get some money of William Whitfield, to the discharge\nof his debts, married and bargained his sonne to the said Whitfield's\ndaughter.\" The \"compulsion of their friends\" seems also to have been a\ncause of the marriages of children; Peter Hope (about thirteen) married\nAlice Ellis (aged nine), \"because it was his mother's mind, he durst not\ndisplease her\" (234. 20, 23).\n\nSo far the evidence has related to unsatisfactory and unfortunate\nmarriages, but, as Dr. Furnivall remarks, \"no doubt scores of others\nended happily; the child-husband and--wife just lived on together,\nand--when they had reached their years of discretion (girls twelve, boys\nfourteen) or attained puberty--ratified their marriage by sleeping in\none bed and having children\" (234. xix., 203).\n\nSome additional cases of child-marriages in the diocese of Chester are\nnoticed by Mr. J. P. Earwaker (234. xiv.), a pioneer in this branch of\nantiquarian research, whose studies date back to 1885. The case of John\nMarden, who, at the age of three years, was married to a girl of five is\nthus described: \"He was carried in the arms of a clergyman, who coaxed\nhim to repeat the words of matrimony. Before he had got through his\nlesson, the child declared he would learn no more that day. The priest\nanswered: 'You must speak a little more, and then go play you.'\" Robert\nParr, who, in 1538-9, at the age of three, was married to Elizabeth\nRogerson, \"was hired for an apple by his uncle to go to church, and was\nborne thither in the arms of Edward Bunburie his uncle ... which held\nhim in arms the time that he was married to the said Elizabeth, at which\ntime the said Robert could scarce speak.\" Mr. Earwaker says that in the\n_Inquisitiones post mortem_, \"it is by no means unfrequent to read\nthat so and so was heir to his father, and then aged, say, ten years,\nand was already married\" (234. xxi.-xxxiii.).\n\nA celebrated child-marriage was that at Eynsham, Oxfordshire, in 1541,\nthe contracting parties being William, Lord Eure, aged 10-11 years, and\nMary Darcye, daughter of Lord Darcye, aged four. The parties were\ndivorced November 3, 1544, and in 1548, the boy took to himself another\nwife. Dr. Furnivall cites from John Smith's _Lives of the\nBerkeleys_, the statements that Maurice, third Lord Berkeley, was\nmarried in 1289, when eight years old, to Eve, daughter of Lord Zouch,\nand, before he or his wife was fourteen years of age, had a son by her;\nthat Maurice, the fourth Lord Berkeley, when eight years of age, was\nmarried in 1338-9, to Elizabeth, daughter of Hugh Lord Spenser, about\neight years old; that Thomas, the fourth Lord Berkeley, when about\nfourteen and one-half years of age, was married, in 1366, to Margaret,\ndaughter of Lord de Lisle, aged about seven. Smith, in quaint fashion,\nrefers to King Josiah (2 Kings, xxiii., xxvi.), King Ahaz (2 Kings, xvi.\n2, xviii. 2), and King Solomon (1 Kings, xi. 42, xiv. 21) as having been\nfathers at a very early age, and remarks: \"And the Fathers of the Church\ndo tell us that the blessed Virgin Mary brought forth our Saviour at\nfifteen years old, or under\" (234. xxvii).\n\nEven during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries child-marriages\nare numerously attested. Following are noteworthy cases (234. xxiii.):\nIn 1626 Anne Clopton, aged nearly fourteen, was married to Sir Simonds\nD'Ewes, aged nearly twenty-four; in 1673, John Power, grandson of Lord\nAnglesey, was married at Lambeth, by the Archbishop of Canterbury to\nMrs. Catherine Fitzgerald, his cousin-german, she being about thirteen,\nand he eight years old; at Dunton Basset, Leicestershire, in 1669, Mary\nHewitt (who is stated to have lived to the good old age of seventy-\nseven) was married when but three years old; in 1672, the only daughter\n(aged five) of Lord Arlington was married to the Duke of Grafton, and\nthe ceremony was witnessed by John Evelyn, who, in 1679, \"was present at\nthe re-marriage of the child couple\"; in 1719, Lady Sarah Cadogan, aged\nthirteen, was married to Charles, Duke of Eichmond, aged eighteen; in\n1721, Charles Powel, of Carmarthen, aged about eleven, was married to a\ndaughter of Sir Thomas Powel, of Broadway, aged about fourteen; in 1729,\n\"a girl of nine years and three months was taken from a boarding school\nby one of her guardians, and married to his son\"; Bridget Clarke, in\n1883, is reputed to have been twenty-five years old, to have had seven\nchildren, and to have been married when only thirteen; at Deeping,\nLincolnshire, a young man of twenty-one married a girl of fourteen, and\n\"it was somewhat of a novelty to observe the interesting bride the\nfollowing day exhibiting her skill on the skipping-rope on the pavement\nin the street.\" Mr. Longstaff, who has studied the annual reports of the\nregistrar-general for 1851-81, finds that during these thirtyone years,\n\"out of 11,058,376 persons married, 154 boys married before 17, and 862\ngirls before 16. Of these, 11 boys of 15 married girls of 15 (four\ncases), 16, 18 (two cases), 20, and 21. Three girls of 14 married men of\n18, 21, and 25. Five girls of 15 married boys of 16; in 29 marriages\nboth girl and boy were sixteen\" (234. xxxiii).\n\nFurther comments upon infant marriages may be found in an article in the\n_Gentleman's Magazine_, for September, 1894, the writer of which\nremarks: \"Within recent years, however, the discovery has been made,\nthat, so far from being confined, as had been supposed, to royal or\naristocratic houses, infant marriages were, in the sixteenth century,\ncommon in some parts of England among all classes\" (367. 322).\n\nIt was said \"marriages are made in heaven,\" and that some times\nchildren are married before they are born; it might also be said\n\"marriages are made for heaven,\" since some children are married after\nthey are dead. In some parts of China (and Marco Polo reported the same\npractice as prevalent in his time among the Tartars) \"the spirits of all\nmales who die in infancy or in boyhood are, in due time, married to the\nspirits of females who have been cut off at a like early age\" (166.\n140).\n\nAs Westermarck observes, \"Dr. Ploss has justly pointed out that the\nruder a people is, and the more exclusively a woman is valued as an\nobject of desire, or as a slave, the earlier in life is she chosen;\nwhereas, if marriage becomes a union of souls as well as of bodies, the\nman claims a higher degree of mental maturity from the woman he wishes\nto be his wife.\"\n\nIn so civilized a nation even as the United States, the \"age of consent\"\nlaws evidence the tenacity of barbarism. The black list of states,\ncompiled by Mr. Powell (180. 201), in a recent article in the\n_Arena_, reveals the astonishing fact that in three\nstates--Alabama, North Carolina, South Carolina-the \"age of consent\" is\n_ten_ years; in four states, twelve years; in three states,\nthirteen years; in no fewer than twenty states, fourteen years; in two\nstates, fifteen years; in twelve states, sixteen years; and in one state\n(Florida), seventeen years. In Kansas and Wyoming alone is the \"age of\nconsent\" eighteen years, and it is worthy of note that Wyoming is the\nonly state in the Union in which women have for any considerable length\nof time enjoyed the right to vote on exactly the same terms as men. In\nEngland, the agitation set going by Mr. Stead, in 1885, resulted in, the\npassage of a law raising the \"age of consent\" from thirteen to sixteen\nyears. It is almost beyond belief, that, in the State of Delaware, only\na few years ago, the \"age of consent\" was actually as low as seven years\n(180.194)! Even in Puritan New England, we find the \"age of consent\"\nfixed at thirteen in New Hampshire, and at fourteen in Connecticut,\nVermont, and Maine (180. 195). It is a sad comment upon our boasted\nculture and progress that, as of old, the law protects, and even\nreligion fears to disturb too rudely, this awful sacrifice to lust which\nwe have inherited from our savage ancestors. There is no darker chapter\nin the history of our country than that which tells of the weak\npandering to the modern representatives of the priests of Bacchus,\nAstarte, and the shameless Venus. The religious aspect of the horrible\nimmolation may have passed away, but wealth and social attractions have\ntaken its place, and the evil works out its destroying way as ever. To\nsave the children from this worse than death, women must fight, and they\nwill win; for once the barbarity, the enormity, the inhumanity of this\nchild-sacrifice is brought home to men they cannot for their own\nchildren's sake permit the thing to go on. Here, above all places else,\napply the words of Jesus: \"Whoso shall cause one of these little ones\nwhich believe on me to stumble, it is profitable that a great millstone\nshould be hanged about his neck, and he should be sunk in the depths of\nthe sea.\" The marriage-laws of some of the states savour almost as much\nof prehistoric times and primitive peoples. With the consent of her\nparents, a girl of twelve years may lawfully contract marriage in no\nfewer than twenty-two states and territories; and in no fewer than\ntwenty, a boy of fourteen may do likewise. Among the twenty-two states\nand territories are included: Connecticut, Delaware, Maine,\nMassachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island,\nVermont; and among the twenty, Connecticut, Delaware, Maine,\nMassachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island,\nVermont. In some of the Southern States the age seems to be somewhat\nhigher than in a number of the Northern. The existence of slavery may\nhave tended to bring about this result; while the same fact in the West\nis to be accounted for by the vigour and newness of the civilization in\nthat part of the country.\n\n\n_Children's Rights._\n\nWhere, as in ancient Rome, for example, the _patria potestas_\nflourished in primitive vigour,--Mommsen says, \"all in the household\nwere destitute of legal rights,--the wife and the child no less than the\nbullock or the slave\" (166. 229), children could in nowise act as\nmembers of society. Westermarck (166. 213-239) shows to what extent and\nto what age the _mundiwm_, or guardianship of the father over his\nchildren, was exercised in Rome, Greece, among the Teutonic tribes, in\nFrance. In the latter country even now \"a child cannot quit the paternal\nresidence without the permission of the father before the age of\ntwenty-one, except for enrolment in the army. For grave misconduct by\nhis children the father has strong means of correction. A son under\ntwenty-five and a daughter under-twenty-one cannot marry without the\nconsent of their parents; and even when a man has attained his\ntwenty-fifth year, and the woman her twenty-first, both are still bound\nto ask for it, by a formal notification.\" Westermarck's observations on\nthe general subject are as follows:--\"There is thus a certain\nresemblance between the family institution of savage tribes and that of\nthe most advanced races. Among both, the grown-up son, and frequently\nthe grown-up daughter, enjoys a liberty unknown among peoples at an\nintermediate stage of civilization. There are, however, these vital\ndifferences: that children in civilized countries are in no respect the\nproperty of their parents; that they are born with certain rights\nguaranteed to them by society; that the birth of children gives parents\nno rights over them other than those which conduce to the children's\nhappiness. These ideas, essential as they are to true civilization, are\nnot many centuries old. It is a purely modern conception the French\nEncyclopaedist expresses when he says, 'Le pouvoir paternel est plutot\nun devoir qu'un pouvoir'\" (166. 239).\n\n\n_The Child at School._\n\nIt was in this spirit also that Count Czaky (when Minister of Education\nin Hungary), replying to the sarcastic suggestion of one of the\nDeputies, during the debate on the revision of the curriculum of\nclassical studies, that \"the lazy children should be asked whether they\nliked to study Greek or not,\" said that \"when it became necessary, he\nwould willingly listen to the children themselves.\" That children have\nsome rights in the matter is a view that is slowly but surely fixing\nitself in the minds of the people,--that the school should be something\nmore than an intellectual prison-house, a mental and moral tread-mill, a\nplace to put children in out of the way of the family, a dark cave into\nwhich happy, freedom-loving, joyous childhood must perforce retire from\nthat communion with nature which makes the health of its body and the\nsalvation of its soul. This false theory of education is vanishing,\nhowever tardily, before the teachings of the new psychology and the new\nanthropology, which demand a knowledge of what the child is, feels,\nthinks, before they will be party to any attempt to make him be, feel,\nthink, something different. The school is but a modified form of\nsociety, of its fundamental institution, the family. Dr. Eiccardi, in\nthe introduction to his _Antropologia e Pedagogia_,-in which he\ndiscusses a mass of psychological, sociological, and anthropological\nobservations and statistics,--well says (336. 12):--\n\n\"The school is a little society, whose citizens are the scholars. The\nteacher has not merely to instruct the pupil, but ought also to teach\nhim to live in the little school-society and thus fitly prepare him to\nlive in the great society of humanity. And just as men are classified in\nhuman society, so ought to be classified the scholars in the little\nschool-society; and just as the teacher looks upon the great human world\nin movement upon the earth, so ought he also to look upon that little\nworld called the school, observing its elements with a positive eye,\nwithout preconceptions and without prejudices. The teacher, therefore,\nin regard to the school-organism, is as a legislator in regard to\nsociety. And the true and wise legislator does not give laws to the\ngoverned, does not offer security and liberty to the citizens, until\nafter he has made a profound study of his country and of society. Let\nthe teacher try for some time to take these criteria into his school;\nlet him try to apply in the school many of those facts and usages which\nare commonly employed in human society, and he will see how, little by\nlittle, almost unnoticeably, the primitive idea of the school will be\nmodified in his mind, and he will see how the school itself will assume\nthe true character which it ought to have, that is, the character of a\nmicroscopic social organism. This legislator for our children, by making\nthe children and youths clearly see of themselves that the school is\nnothing else but a little society, where they are taught to live, and by\nmaking them see the points of resemblance and of contact with the great\nhuman society, will engender in the minds of the pupils the conscience\nof duty and of right; will create in them the primitive feeling of\njustice and of equity. And the pupils, feeling that there is a real\nassociation, feeling that they do form part of a little world, and are\nnot something merely gathered together by chance for a few hours, will\nform a compact homogeneous scholastic association, in which all will try\nto be something, and of which all will be proud. In this way will the\nassemblage of disparate, diverse, heterogeneous elements, with which the\nschool begins the year, be able to become homogeneous and create a true\nschool organism. And if the teacher will persevere, whether in the\ndirection of the school, in the classification of the pupils, or in the\ndifferent contingencies that arise, in applying those criteria, those\nideas, those forms, which are commonly employed in society, he will be\nfavouring the homogeneity of the little organism which he has to\ninstruct and to educate. He will thus have always before his mind all\nthe organic, psychic, and moral characteristics of human society and\nwill see the differences from, and the resemblances to, those of the\nschool-organism. In so far will he have an example, a law, a criterion,\na form to follow in the direction of the little human society entrusted\nto him, with its beautiful and its ugly side, its good and its bad, its\nvices and its virtues. This idea of the school as an organism, however\nmuch it seems destined to overturn ideas of the past, will be the\ncrucible from which will be turned out in the near future all the\nreforms and many new ideas.\"\n\nThis view of the school as an organism, a social microcosm, a little\nsociety within the great human society, having its resemblances to, and\nits differences from, the family and the nation, is one that the new\ndevelopment of \"child-study\" seems bound to promote and advance. Rank\npaternalism has made its exit from the great human society, but it has\nyet a strong hold upon the school. It is only in comparatively recent\ntimes that motherhood, which, as Zmigrodzki says, has been the basis of\nour civilization, has been allowed to exercise its best influence upon\nthe scholastic microcosm. Paternalism and celibacy must be made to yield\nup the strong grasp which they have upon the educational institutions of\nthe land, and the early years of the life of man must be confided to the\ncare of the mother-spirit, which the individual man and the race alike\nhave deified in their golden age. The mother who laid so well the\nfoundations of the great human society, the originator of its earliest\narts, the warder of its faiths and its beliefs, the mother, who built up\nthe family, must be trusted with some large share in the building of the\nschool.\n\n\n_Child-Sociology._\n\nIn _The Story of a Sand-Pile_ (255), President G. Stanley Hall has\nchronicled for us the life-course of a primitive social community-nine\nsummers of work and play by a number of boys with a sand-pile in the\nyard of one of their parents. Here we are introduced to the originality\nand imitation of children in agriculture, architecture, industrial arts,\ntrade and commerce, money and exchange, government, law and justice,\ncharity, etc. The results of this spontaneous and varied exercise,\nwhich, the parents say, \"has been of about as much yearly educational\nvalue to the boys as the eight months of school,\" and in contrast with\nwhich \"the concentrative methodic unities of Ziller seem artificial,\nand, as Bacon said of scholastic methods, very inadequate to subtlety of\nnature,\" Dr. Hall sums up as follows (255. 696):--\n\n\"Very many problems that puzzle older brains have been met in simpler\nterms and solved wisely and well. The spirit and habit of active and\neven prying observation has been greatly quickened. Industrial\nprocesses, institutions, and methods of administration and organization\nhave been appropriated and put into practice. The boys have grown more\ncompanionable and rational, learning many a lesson of self-control, and\ndeveloped a spirit of self-help. The parents have been enabled to\ncontrol indirectly the associations of their boys, and, in a very mixed\nboy-community, to have them in a measure under observation without in\nthe least restricting their freedom. The habit of loafing, and the evils\nthat attend it, have been avoided, a strong practical and even\nindustrial bent has been given to their development, and much social\nmorality has been taught in the often complicated _modus vivendi_\nwith others that has been evolved. Finally, this may perhaps be called\none illustration of the education according to nature we so often hear\nand speak of.\"\n\nThis study of child-sociology is a _rara avis in terra_; it is to\nbe hoped, however, that if any other parents have \"refrained from\nsuggestions, and left the hand and fancy of the boys to educate each\nother under the tuition of the mysterious play-instinct,\" they may be as\nfortunate in securing for the deeds of their young off-spring, as\nobservant and as sympathetic a historian as he who has told the story of\nthe sand-pile in that little New England town.\n\nBagehot, in the course of his chapter on \"Nation-Making,\" observes (395.\n91):--\n\n\"After such great matters as religion and politics, it may seem trifling\nto illustrate the subject from little boys. But it is not trifling. The\nbane of philosophy is pomposity: people will not see that small things\nare the miniatures of greater, and it seems a loss of abstract dignity\nto freshen their minds by object lessons from what they know. But every\nboarding-school changes as a nation changes. Most of us may remember\nthinking,' How odd it is that this _half_ should be so unlike last\n_half_; now we never go out of bounds, last half we were always\ngoing; now we play rounders, then we played prisoner's base,' and so\nthrough all the easy life of that time. In fact, some ruling spirits,\nsome one or two ascendant boys, had left, one or two others had come,\nand so all was changed. The models were changed, and the copies changed;\na different thing was praised, and a different thing bullied.\" It was in\nthe spirit of this extract (part of which he quotes), that the editor of\nthe \"Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political\nScience\" happily admitted into that series of monographs, Mr. J. H.\nJohnson's _Rudimentary Society among Boys_(272), a sociological\nstudy of peculiar interest and importance--\"a microcosm, not only of\nthe agrarian, but of the political and economic history of society.\" Mr.\nJohnson has graphically described the development of society among some\nfifty boys on the farm belonging to the McDonogh School, not far from\nthe city of Baltimore, Maryland; land-tenure, boy-legislation, judicial\nprocedure, boy-economy, are all treated of in detail and many analogies\nwith the life and habits of primitive peoples brought out, and the\nauthor has gone a long way towards realizing the thesis that \"To show a\ndecided resemblance between barbarian political institutions and those\nof communities of civilized children, would be a long step towards\nfounding a science of Social Embryology\" (272. 61).\n\n\n_\"Gangs.\"_\n\nMr. Stewart Culin (212) in his interesting account of the \"Street Games\nof Boys in Brooklyn, N.Y.\" notices _en passant_ the existence of\n\"gangs\" of boys--boys' societies of the ruder and rougher kind. As\nevidence of the extent to which these organizations have flourished, the\nfollowing somewhat complete list of those known to have existed in the\ncity of Philadelphia is given:--\n\nBadgers, Bed Bugs, Bleeders, Blossoms, Bouncers, Buena Vistas,\nBuffaloes, Bull Dogs, Bullets, Bunker Hills, Canaries, Clippers,\nCorkies, Cow Towners, Cruisers, Darts, Didos, Dirty Dozen, Dumplingtown\nHivers, Dung Hills, Muters, Forest Eose, Forties, Garroters, Gas House\nTarriers, Glassgous, Golden Hours, Gut Gang, Haymakers, Hawk-Towners,\nHivers, Killers, Lancers, Lions, Mountaineers, Murderers, Niggers, Pigs,\nPluckers, Pots, Prairie Hens, Railroad Roughs, Rats, Ramblers, Ravens,\nRiverside, Eovers, Schuylkill Eangers, Skinners, Snappers, Spigots,\nTigers, Tormentors, War Dogs, Wayne Towners.\n\nOf these Mr. Culin remarks: \"They had their laws and customs, their\nfeuds and compacts. The former were more numerous than the latter, and\nthey fought on every possible occasion. A kind of half-secret\norganization existed among them, and new members passed through a\nceremony called 'initiation,' which was not confined to the lower\nclasses, from which most of them were recruited. Almost every\nPhiladelphia boy, as late as twenty years ago, went through some sort of\nordeal when he first entered into active boyhood. Being triced up by\nlegs and arms, and swung violently against a gate, was usually part of\nthis ceremony, and it no doubt still exists, although I have no\nparticular information, which indeed is rather difficult to obtain, as\nboys, while they remain boys, are reticent concerning all such matters\"\n(212. 236).\n\nThese street-organizations exist in other cities also, and have their\nramifications in the school-life of children, who either belong to, or\nare in some way subject to, these curious associations. Every ward, nay,\nevery street of any importance, seems to have its \"gang,\" and it is no\nsmall experience in a boy's life to pass the ordeal of initiation,\nbattle with alien organizations, and retire, as childhood recedes,\nunharmed by the primitive _entourage_.\n\nNo doubt, from these street-gangs many pass into the junior criminal\nsocieties which are known to exist in many great cities, the\ntraining-schools for theft, prostitution, murder, the feeding-grounds\nfor the \"White Caps,\" \"Molly Maguires,\" \"Ku-Klux,\" \"Mafia,\" \"Camorra,\"\nand other secret political or criminal associations, who know but too\nwell how to recruit their numbers from the young. The gentler side of\nthe social instinct is seen in the formation of friendships among\nchildren, associations born of the nursery or the school-room which last\noften through life. The study of these early friendships offers a\ntempting field for sociological research and investigation.\n\n\n_Secret Societies of the Young._\n\nThere are among primitive peoples many secret societies to which\nchildren and youth are allowed to belong, or which are wholly composed\nof such.\n\nAmong the secret societies of the Kwakiutl Indians, of British Columbia,\nDr. Boas mentions the \"Keki'qalak--( = the crows),\" formed from the\nchildren (403. 53). The same author speaks of the Tsimshians, another\nBritish Columbia tribe, in these terms (403. 57):--\n\n\"A man who is not a member of a secret society is a 'common man.' He\nbecomes a middle-class man after the first initiation, and attains\nhigher rank by repeated initiations. The novice disappears in the same\nway as among the Kwakiutl. It is supposed that he goes to heaven. During\nthe dancing season a feast is given, and while the women are dancing the\nnovice is suddenly said to have disappeared. If he is a child, he stays\naway four days; youths remain absent six days, and grown-up persons\nseveral months. Chiefs are supposed to stay in heaven during the fall\nand entire winter. When this period has elapsed, they suddenly reappear\non the beach, carried by an artificially-made monster belonging to their\ncrest. Then all the members of the secret society to which the novice is\nto belong gather and walk down in grand procession to the beach to fetch\nthe child. At this time the child's parents bring presents, particularly\nelk skins, strung on a rope as long as the procession, to be given at a\nsubsequent feast. The people surround the novice and lead him into every\nhouse in order to show that he has returned. Then he is taken to the\nhouse of his parents and a bunch of cedar-bark is fastened over the\ndoor, to show that the place is tabooed, and nobody is allowed to\nenter.\" The dance and other ceremonies which follow may be read of in\nDr. Boas' report.\n\nDr. Daniels, in his study of _Regeneration_, has called attention\nto \"seclusion\" and \"disappearance,\" followed by reappearance and\nadoption as members of society, as characteristic practices in vogue\namong many savage and semi-civilized tribes with respect to children and\nthose approaching the age of puberty--a change of name sometimes\naccompanies the \"entering upon the new life,\" as it is often called. Of\nthe Australians we read: \"The boy at eight or ten years of age must\nleave the hut of his father and live in common with the other young men\nof the tribe. He is called by another name than that which he has borne\nfrom birth and his diet is regulated to some extent.\" In New Guinea, in\nAfrica, and among some of the tribes of American aborigines like habits\nprevail. The custom of certain Indians formerly inhabiting Virginia is\nthus described: \"After a very severe beating the boys are sent into a\nsecluded spot. There they must stay nine months and can associate with\nno human being. They are fed during this time with a kind of\nintoxicating preparation of roots to make them forget all about their\npast life. After their return home everything must seem strange to them.\nIn this way it is thought that they 'begin to live anew.' They are\nthought of as having been dead for a short time and are 'numbered among\nthe older citizens after forgetting that they once were boys'\" (214.\n11-13).\n\nIn the African district of Quoja existed a secret society called\nBelly-Paaro, \"the members of which had to spend a long time in a holy\nthicket. Whoever broke the rules of this society was seized upon by the\nJannanes, or spirits of the dead, who dwelt in the thicket and brought\nthither, whence he was unable to return\" (127. I. 240). Of this practice\nKulischer remarks: \"'It is a death and a new birth, since they are\nwholly changed in the consecrated thicket, dying to the old life and\nexistence, and receiving a new understanding.' When the youths return\nfrom the thicket, they act as if they had come into the world for the\nfirst time, and had never known where their parents lived or their\nnames, what sort of people they were, how to wash themselves\" (214. 12).\n\nOf another part of Africa we read: \"In the country of Ambamba each\nperson must die once, and come to life again. Accordingly, when a\nfetich-priest shakes his calabash at a village, those men and youths\nwhose hour is come fall into a state of death-like torpor, from which\nthey recover usually in the course of three days. But if there is any\none that the fetich loves, him he takes into the bush and buries in the\nfetich-house. Oftentimes he remains buried for a long series of years.\nWhen he comes to life again, he begins to eat and drink as before, but\nhis reason is gone, and the fetich-man is obliged to train him and\ninstruct him in the simplest bodily movements, like a little child. At\nfirst the stick is only the instrument of education, but gradually his\nsenses come back to him, and he begins to speak. As soon as his\neducation is finished, the priest restores him to his parents. They\nseldom recognize their son, but accept the express assurance of the\nfeticero, who also reminds them of events in the past. In Ambamba a man\nwho has not passed through the process of dying and coming to life again\nis held in contempt, nor is he permitted to join in the dance\" (529.\n56).\n\nSome recollection, perhaps, of similar customs and ideas appears in the\ngame of \"Ruripsken,\" which, according to Schambach, is played by\nchildren in Gottingen: One of the children lies on the ground,\npretending to be dead, the others running up and singing out \"Ruripsken,\nare you alive yet?\" Suddenly he springs up and seizes one of the other\nplayers, who has to take his place, and so the game goes on.\n\nAmong the Mandingos of the coast of Sierra Leone, the girls approaching\npuberty are taken by the women of the village to an out-of-the-way spot\nin the forest, where they remain for a month and a day in strictest\nseclusion, no one being permitted to see them except the old woman who\nhas charge of their circumcision. Here they are instructed in religion\nand ceremonial, and at the expiration of the time set, are brought back\nto town at night, and indulge in a sort of Lady Godiva procession until\ndaybreak. At the beginning of the dry-cool season among the Mundombe\n\"boys of from eight to ten years of age are brought by the\n'kilombola-masters' into a lonely uninhabited spot, where they remain\nfor ninety days after their circumcision, during which time not even\ntheir own parents may visit them. After the wound heals, they are\nbrought back to the village in triumph\" (127. 1. 292).\n\nWith the Kaffirs the circumcision-rites last five months, \"and during\nthis whole time the youths go around with their bodies smeared with\nwhite clay. They form a secret society, and dwell apart from the village\nin a house built specially for them\" (127. I. 292). Among the Susu there\nis a secret organization known as the _Semo_, the members of which\nuse a peculiar secret language, and \"the young people have to pass a\nwhole year in the forest, and it is believed right for them to kill any\none who comes near the wood, and who is not acquainted with this secret\ntongue\" (127. I. 240). A very similar society exists among the tribes on\nthe Rio Nunez. Here \"the young people live for seven or eight years a\nlife of seclusion in the forest.\" In Angoy there is the secret society\nof the _Sindungo_, membership in which passes from father to son;\nin Bomma, the secret orders of the fetich Und\u00e9mbo; among the Shekiani\nand the Bakulai, that of the great spirit Mwetyi, the chief object of\nwhich is to keep in subjection women and children, and into which boys\nare initiated when between fourteen and eighteen years old; the Mumbo\nJumbo society of the Mandingos, into which no one under sixteen years of\nage is allowed to enter (127. I. 241-247).\n\nAmong the Mpongwe the women have a secret society called _Njembe_,\nthe object of which is to protect them against harsh treatment by the\nmen. The initiation lasts several weeks, and girls from ten to twelve\nyears of age are admissible (127. I. 245).\n\nOf the Indians of the western plains of the United States of America we\nare told: \"At twelve or thirteen these yearnings can no longer be\nsuppressed; and, banded together, the youths of from twelve to sixteen\nyears roam over the country; and some of the most cold-blooded\natrocities, daring attacks, and desperate combats have been made by\nthese children in pursuit of fame\" (432. 191).\n\nAmong the Mandingos of West Africa, during the two months immediately\nfollowing their circumcision, the youths \"form a society called\n_Solimana_. They make visits to the neighbouring villages, where\nthey sing and dance and are _f\u00e8ted_ by the inhabitants.\"\n\nIn Angola the boys \"live for a month under the care of a fetich-priest,\npassing their time in drum-beating, a wild sort of singing, and\nrat-hunting.\" Among the Beit Bidel \"all the youths who are to be\nconsecrated as men unite together. They deck themselves out with beads,\nhire a guitar-player, and retire to the woods, where they steal and kill\ngoats from the herds of their tribe, and for a whole week amuse\nthemselves with sport and song. The Wanika youths of like age betake\nthemselves, wholly naked, to the woods, where they remain until they\nhave slain a man.\" On the coast of Guinea, after their circumcision,\n\"boys are allowed to exact presents from every one and to commit all\nsorts of excesses\" (127. 1.291-4).\n\n\"Among the Fulas, boys who have been circumcised are a law unto\nthemselves until the incision has healed. They can steal or take\nwhatever suits them without its being counted an offence. In Bambuk, for\nfourteen days after the circumcision-_f\u00eate_, the young people are\nallowed to escape from the supervision of their parents. From sunrise to\nsunset they can leave the paternal roof and run about the fields near\nthe village. They can demand meat and drink of whomsoever they please,\nbut may not enter a house unless they have been invited to do so.\" In\nDarfur, \"after their circumcision, the boys roamed around the adjacent\nvillages and stole all the poultry\" (127. I. 291).\n\n\n_Modern Aspects_.\n\nThese secret societies and outbursts of primitive lawlessness recall at\nonce to our attention the condition of affairs at some of our\nuniversities, colleges, and larger schools. The secret societies and\nstudent-organizations, with their initiations, feasts, and extravagant\ndemonstrations, their harassing of the uninitiated, their despisal of\nmunicipal, collegiate, even parental authority, and their oftentime\ncontempt and disregard of all social order, their not infrequent\nexcesses and debauches, carry us back to their analogues in the\ninstitutions of barbarism and savagery, the accompaniments of the\npassage from childhood to manhood. Of late years, the same spirit has\ncrept into our high schools, and is even making itself felt in the\ngrammar grades, so imitative are the school-children of their brothers\nand sisters in the universities and colleges. Pennalism and fagging, so\nprevalent of old time in Germany and England, are not without their\nrepresentatives in this country. The \"freshman\" in the high schools and\ncolleges is often made to feel much as the savage does who is serving\nhis time of preparation for admission into the mysteries of Mumbo-\nJumbo.\n\nIn the revels of \"May Day,\" \"Midsummer,\" \"Eogation Week,\" \"Whitsuntide,\"\n\"All Fools' Day,\" \"New Year's Day,\" \"Hallow E'en,\" \"Christmas,\"\n\"Easter,\" etc., children throughout England and in many parts of Europe\nduring the Middle Ages took a prominent part and _r\u00f4le_ in the\ncustoms and practices which survive even to-day, as may be seen in\nBrand, Grimm, and other books dealing with popular customs and\nfestivals, social _f\u00eates_ and merry-makings.\n\nIn _Tennyson's May_ Queen we read:--\n\n\n \"You must wake and call me early, call me early, mother dear;\n  To-morrow'll be the happiest time of all the glad New Year;\n  Of all the glad New Year, mother, the maddest, merriest day;\n  For I'm to be Queen o' the May, mother, I'm to be Queen o' the May.\"\n\n\nAnd a \"mad, merry day\" it certainly was in \"merry England,\" when the\nfairest lass in the village was chosen \"Queen of the May,\" and sang\nmerry songs of Robin Hood and Maid Marian.\n\nPolydore Virgil tells us that in ancient Home the \"youths used to go\ninto the fields and spend the Calends of May in dancing and singing in\nhonour of Flora, goddess of fruits and flowers.\" Westermarck seems to\nthink some of these popular customs have something to do with the\nincrease of the sexual function in spring and early summer (166. 30).\n\nIn seizing upon this instinct for society-making among children and\nyouth lies one of the greatest opportunities for the prevention of crime\nand immorality the world has ever known. To turn to good ends this\nspontaneity of action, to divert into channels of usefulness these\ncurrents of child-activity, will be to add immensely to the equipment of\nmankind in the struggle with vice. A certain bishop of the early\nChristian Church is credited with having declared that, if the\nauthorities only took charge of the children soon enough, there would be\nno burning of heretics, no scandalous schisms in the body ecclesiastic;\nand there is a good deal of truth in this observation.\n\nThe Catholic Church, and many of the other Christian churches have seen\nthe wisdom of appealing to, and availing themselves of, the child-power\nin social and socio-religious questions. Not a little of the great\nspread of the temperance movement in America and Europe of recent years\nis due to the formation of children's societies,--Bands of Hope, Blue\nRibbon Clubs, Junior Temperance Societies and Prohibition Clubs, Young\nTemplars' Associations, Junior Father Matthew Leagues, and the like,--\nwhere a legitimate sphere is open to the ardour and enthusiasm of the\nyoung of both sexes. The great Methodist Church has been especially\nquick to recognize the value of this kind of work, and the junior\nchapters of the \"Epworth League\"--whose object is \"to promote\nintelligence and loyal piety in its young members and friends and to\ntrain them in experimental religion, practical benevolence, and church\nwork\"--now numbers some three thousand, with a membership of about one\nhundred and twenty thousand. This society was organized at Cleveland,\nOhio, May 15, 1889. The \"Young People's Society of Christian Endeavour,\"\nthe first society of which was established at Portland, Maine, February\n2,1881, with the object of \"promoting an earnest Christian life among\nits members, increasing their mutual acquaintance, and making them more\nuseful in the service of God,\" has now enrolled nearly thirty-four\nthousand \"Companies,\" with a total membership (active and associate) all\nover the world of over two million; of these societies 28,696 are in the\nUnited States and 2243 in Canada. Another society of great influence,\nhaving a membership in America and the Old World of some thirty-five\nthousand, is the \"Ministering Children's League,\" founded by the\nCountess of Meath in 1885, and having as objects \"to promote kindness,\nunselfishness, and the habit of usefulness amongst children, and to\ncreate in their minds an earnest desire to help the needy and suffering;\nto give them some definite work to do for others, that this desire may\nbe brought to good effect\"; there are also the \"Lend-a-Hand Clubs\" of\nthe Unitarian Church. The Episcopal Church has its \"Girls' Friendly\nSocieties,\" its \"Junior Auxiliaries to the Board of Missions\"; its\n\"Brotherhood of St. Andrew,\" and \"Brotherhood of Andrew and Philip,\" for\nyoung men. For those of not too youthful years, the \"Young Men's\nChristian Association,\" the associations of the \"White,\" \"Red,\" and\n\"Iron Cross\" exist in the various churches, besides many other \"Guilds,\"\n\"Alliances,\" \"Leagues,\" etc. For those outside the churches there are\n\"Boys' Clubs,\" and \"Girls' Societies\" in the cities and larger towns.\nThe \"Bands of Mercy\" and the branches of the \"Society for the Prevention\nof Cruelty to Animals\" exert a widespread influence for good; while\nseveral of the secret benevolent associations, such as the \"Foresters,\"\nfor example, have instituted junior lodges, from which the youth are\nlater on drafted into the society of their elders. There exist also many\nsocial clubs and societies, more or less under the supervision of the\nolder members of the community, in which phases of human life other than\nthe purely religious or benevolent find opportunity to display\nthemselves; and between these and the somewhat sterner church-societies\na connecting link is formed by the \"Friday Night Clubs\" of the Unitarian\nChurch and the \"Young People's Associations\" of other liberal\ndenominations. In the home itself, this society instinct is recognized,\nand the list of children's teas, dinners, parties, \"receptions,\"\n\"doll-parties,\" \"doll-shows,\" etc., would be a long one. Among all\npeoples, barbarous as well as civilized, since man is by nature a social\nanimal, the instinct for society develops early in the young, and the\nsociology of child-hood offers a most inviting field for research and\ninvestigation both in the Old World and in the New.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XV.\n\n\nTHE CHILD AS LINGUIST.\n\n  But what am I?\n  An infant crying in the night:\n  An infant crying for the light,\n  And with no language but a cry.--Tennyson.\n\n  Yet she carried a doll as she toddled alone,\n  And she talked to that doll in a tongue her own.--Joaquin Miller.\n\n  Among savages, children are, to a great extent, the originators\n  of idiomatic diversities.--Charles Rau.\n\nIt was as impossible for the first child endowed with this faculty not\nto speak in the presence of a companion similarly endowed, as it would\nbe for a nightingale or a thrush not to carol to its mate. The same\nfaculty creates the same necessity in our days, and its exercise by\nyoung children, when accidentally isolated from the teachings and\ninfluence of grown companions, will readily account for the existence of\nall the diversities of speech on our globe.--Horatio Hale.\n\nSome scientists have held that mankind began with the _Homo\nAlalus_, speechless, dumb man, an hypothesis now looked npon by the\nbest authorities as untenable; and the folk have imagined that, were not\ncertain procedures gone through with upon the new-born child, it would\nremain dumb through life, and, if it were allowed to do certain things,\na like result would follow. Ploss informs us that the child, and the\nmother, while she is still suckling it, must not, in Bohemia, eat fish,\nelse, since fish are mute, the child would be so also; in Servia, the\nchild is not permitted to eat any fowl that has not already crowed, or\nit would remain dumb for a very long time; in Germany two little\nchildren, not yet able to speak, must not kiss each other, or both will\nbe dumb.\n\n\n_The Frenum._\n\nOur English phrase, \"an unbridled tongue,\" has an interesting history\nand _entourage_ of folk-lore. The subject has been quite recently\ndiscussed by Dr. Chervin, of the Institute for Stammerers at Paris\n(205). Citing the lines of Boileau:--\n\n\n  \"Tout charme en un enfant dont la langue sans fard,\n  A peine du filet encore debarrassee\n  Sait d'un air innocent begayer sa pensee,\"\n\n\nhe notes the wide extension of the belief that the cutting of the\n_filet,_ or _frein,_ the _frenum,_ or \"bridle\" of the\ntongue of the newborn infant facilitates, or makes possible, articulate\nspeech. According to M. Sebillot, the cutting of the _sublet,_ as\nit is called, is quite general in parts of Brittany (Haute Bretagne),\nand M. Moisset states that in the Yonne it is the universal opinion that\nneglect to do so would cause the new-born child to remain dumb for life;\nM. Desaivre cites the belief in Poitou that, unless the _lignoux_\nwere cut in the child at birth, it would prevent its sucking, and, later\non, its speaking. The operation is usually performed by nurses and\nmidwives, with the nail of the little finger, which is allowed to grow\nexcessively long for the purpose (205. 6). Dr. Chervin discusses the\nscientific aspects of the subject, and concludes that the statistics of\nstammering and the custom of cutting the _frenum_ of the tongue do\nnot stand in any sort of correlation with each other, and that this\nancient custom, noted by Celsus, has no real scientific _raison\nd'etre_ (205. 9). We say that a child is \"tongue-tied,\" and that one\n\"makes too free with his tongue\"; in French we find: _Il a le filet\nbien coupe,_ \"he is a great talker,\" and in the eighteenth century\n_Il n'a pas de filet_ was in use; a curious German expression for\n\"tongue-tied\" is _mundfaul,_ \"mouth-lazy.\"\n\nFollowing up the inquiry of Dr. Chervin in France, M. Hofler of Tolz has\nbegun a similar investigation for Germany (263). He approves of the\nsuggestion of Dr. Chervin, that the practice of cutting the\n_frenum_ of the tongue has been induced by the inept name\n_frenulwm, frein, B\u00e4ndchen,_ given by anatomists to the object in\nquestion. According to H. Carstens the _frenulum_ is called in Low\nGerman _keekel-reem_ or _kikkel-reem,_ which seems to be\nderived from _k\u00e4keln,_ \"to cry, shriek,\" and _reem,_ \"band,\ncord,\" so that the word really signifies \"speech-band.\" If it is cut in\nchildren who have difficulty in speaking before the first year of life,\nor soon after, they will be cured of stuttering and made to speak well.\nTo a man or woman who does a good deal of talking, who has \"the gift of\nthe gab,\" the expression _Em (ehr) is de keekelreem gut snaden_ =\n\"His (her) _frenum_ has been well cut,\" is applied. In some parts\nof Low Germany the operation is performed for quite a different reason,\nviz., when the child's tongue cannot take hold of the mother's breast,\nbut always slips off. Hofler mentions the old custom of placing beneath\nthe child's tongue a piece of ash-bark (called _Schwindholz_), so\nthat the organ of speech may not vanish (schwinden); this is done in the\ncase of children who are hard of speech (263.191, 281).\n\nPloss states that in Konigsberg (Prussia) tickling the soles of the feet\nof a little child is thought to occasion stuttering; in Italy the child\nwill learn to stutter, unless, after it has been weaned, it is given to\ndrink for the first time out of a hand-bell (326. II. 286).\n\nAmong the numerous practices in vogue to hasten the child's acquisition\nof speech, or to make him ready and easy of tongue, are the following:\nsome one returned from the communion breathes into the child's mouth\n(Austrian Silesia); the mother, when, after supper on Good Friday, she\nsuckles the child for the last time, breathes into its mouth (Bohemia);\nthe, child is given to drink water out of a cow-bell (Servia); when the\nchild, on the arm of its mother, pays the first visit to neighbours or\nfriends, it is presented with three eggs, which are pressed three times\nto his mouth, with the words, \"as the hens cackle, the child learns to\nprattle\" (Thuringia, the Erzgebirge, Bavaria, Franconia, and the Harz);\nwhen a child is brought to be baptized, one of the relatives must make a\nchristening-letter (_Pathenbrief_), and, with the poem or the money\ncontained in it, draw three crosses through the mouth of the child\n(Konigsberg) (326. II. 205).\n\n\n_Speech-Exercises._\n\nPloss has a few words to say about \"Volksgebrauchliche Sprach-\nExercitien,\" or \"Zungen-Exercitien,\" the folk-efforts to teach the child\nto overcome the difficulties of speech (326. II. 285, 286), and more\nrecently Treichel (373) has treated in detail of the various methods\nemployed in Prussia. In these exercises examples and difficult words are\ngiven in several languages, alliteration, sibilation, and all quips and\nturns of consonantal and vocalic expression, word-position, etc., are in\nuse to test the power of speech alike of child and adult. Treichel\nobserves that in the schools even, use is made of foreign geographical\nnames, names of mountains in Asia, New Zealand, and Aztec names in\nMexico; the plain of _Apapurinkasiquinilschiquasaqua_, from\nImmermann's _Munchhausen_, is also cited as having been put to the\nlike use. The title of doctors' dissertations in chemistry are also\nrecommended (373. 124).\n\nFollowing are examples of these test sentences and phrases from\nGerman:--\n\n(1) Acht und achtzig achteckige Hechtskopfe; (2) Bierbrauer Brauer braut\nbraun Bier; (3) De donue Diewel drog den dicke Diewel dorch den dicke\nDreek; (4) Esel essen Nosseln gern; (5) In Ulm imd um Ulm und urn Ulm\nherum; (6) Wenige wissen, wie viel sie wissen mussen, um zu wissen, wie\nwenig sie wissen; (7) Es sassen zwei zischende Schlangen zwischen zwei\nspitzigen Steinen und zischten dazwischen; (8) Nage mal de Boll Boll\nBoll Boll Boll Boll Boll Boll Boll; (9) Fritz, Fritz, friss frische\nFische, Fritz; (10) Kein klein Kind kann keinen kleinen Kessel Kohl\nkochen.\n\nThere are alliterative sentences for all the letters of the alphabet,\nand many others more or less alliterative, while the humorous papers\ncontain many exaggerated examples of this sort of thing. Of the last,\nthe following on \"Hottentottentaten\" will serve as an instance:--\n\n\n \"In dem wilden Land der Kaftern,\n  Wo die Hottentotten trachten\n  Holie Hottentottentitel\n  Zu erwerben in den Schlachten,\n  Wo die Hottentottentaktik\n  Lasst ertonen fern und nah\n  Auf dem Hottentottentamtam\n  Hottentottentattratah;\n  Wo die Hottentottentrotteln,\n  Eh' sie stampfen stark und kuhn.\n  Hottentottentatowirung\n  An sioh selber erst vollzieh'n,\n  Wo die Hottentotten tuten\n  Auf dem Horn voll Eleganz\n  Und nachher mit Grazie tanzen\n  Hottentottentotentanz,--\n  Dorten bin ich mal gewesen\n  Und iclh habe schwer gelitten,\n  Weil ich Hottentotten trotzte,\n  Unter Hottentottentritten;\n  So 'ne Hottentottentachtel,\n  Die ist n\u00e4mlich f\u00fcrchterlich\n  Und ich leid' noch heute\n  An dem Hottentottentatterich\" (373. 222).\n\n\nIn our older English, and American readers and spelling-books we meet\nwith much of a like nature, and the use of these test-phrases and\nsentences has not yet entirely departed from the schools. Familiar are:\n\"Up the high hill he heaved a huge round stone; around the rugged riven\nrock the ragged rascal rapid ran; Peter Piper picked a peck of prickly\npears from the prickly-pear trees on the pleasant prairies,\" and many\nothers still in use traditionally among the school-children of to-day,\ntogether with linguistic exercises of nonsense-syllables and the like,\npronouncing words backwards, etc.\n\nIn French we have: (1) L'origine ne se d\u00e9soriginalisera jamais de son\noriginalit\u00e9; (2) A la sant\u00e9 de celle, qui tient la sentinelle devant la\ncitadelle de votre coeur! (3) Car Didon dina, dit-on, Du dos d'un dodu\ndindon.\n\nIn Polish: (1) Bydlo bylo, bydlo bedzie (It was cattle, it remains\ncattle); (2) Podawala baba babie przez piec malowane grabie (A woman\nhanded the woman over the stove a painted rake); (3) Chrzaszcz brzmi w\ntrzinie (The beetle buzzes in the pipe). Latin and Greek are also made\nuse of for similar purpose. Treichel cites, among other passages, the\nfollowing: (1) Quamuis sint sub aqua, sub aqua maledicere tentant (Ovid,\n_Metam._ VI. 376); (2) At tuba terribili sonitu taratantara dixit\n(Virgil, _Aen._ IX. 503); (3) Quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit\nungula campum (Virgil, _Aen._ VIII. 596); (4) [Greek: _Aytis\nepeita pedonde kylindeto l\u00e2as anchida\u00eas_] (Homer, Odyss. II. 598);\n(5) [Greek: _Trichth\u00e0 te ka\u00ec t\u00e9trachth\u00e0 di\u00e9schesen \u00ecs \u00e1n\u00e9moio_]\n(Homer, Odyss. IX. 71, II. III. 363); (6) [Greek: _'O m\u00e1kar 'Adre\u00eddae\nmoiraegen\u00e8s \u00f3lbioda\u00edmon_] (Homer, _Il._ III. 182). These customs\nare not confined, however, to the civilized nations of Europe. Dr.\nPechuel-Loesche tells us that, among the negroes of the Loango coast of\nAfrica, the mother teaches the child little verses, just as illogical as\nthe test-sentences often are which are employed in other parts of the\nworld, and containing intentionally difficult arrangements of words. The\nchild whose skilful tongue can repeat these without stumbling, is shown\nto visitors and is the cause of much admiration and merriment. And this\nexhibition of the child's linguistic and mnemonic powers finds vogue\namong other races than those of the dark continent (373. 125).\n\n\n_Alphabet-Rhymes_.\n\nA very curious development of child-linguistics is seen in the so-called\n_ABC Rhymes_. H. A. Carstensen reports from Risummoor in Low\nGermany the following arrangement and interpretation of the letters of\nthe alphabet (199. 55):--\n\n\n  A--Aewel  B--baeget  C(K)--Kaege\n  A--Abel   B--bakes   C(K)--cakes.\n\n  D--Detlef  E--\u00ebt    F--f\u00e5le.\n  D--Detlef  E--eats  F--much.\n\n  G--Grutte  H--Hans  J--jaeget K--Kraege.\n  G--Great   H--Jack  J--hunts  K--crows.\n\n  L--Lotte  M--maeget  N--noerne.\n  L--L\u00fctje  M--makes   N--names.\n\n  O--Okke  P--pl\u00f6kket  Q--Kuerde.\n  O--Okke  P--makes    Q--wool-cards.\n\n  R--Rikkert  S--s\u00e2it  T--tuffle.\n  R--Richard  S--sews  T--slippers\n\n  U--Uethet   V--Volkert  W--waeder?\n  U--Fetches  V--Volkert  W--water?\n\n\nFrom the North Frisian islands of Silt and F\u00f6hr the following ABC rhymes\nhave been recorded, consisting mostly of personal names (199. 192):--\n\n1. From Silt: _A_nna _B_oyken, _C_hristian _D_ojken,\n_E_rkel _F_redden, _G_ondel _H_ansen, _J_ens\n_K_uk, _L_orenz _M_ommen, _N_iels _O_tten,\n_P_eter _Q_uotten, _R_ink _S_wennen, _T_heide\n_U_wen, _V_olkert, _W_ilhelm, exerz\u00e9re.\n\n2. From F\u00f6hr: _A_rest _B_uhn, _C_ike _D_uhn,\n_E_hlen _F_r\u00f6dden, _G_irre _H_ayen, _I_ngke\n_K_ayen, _L_urenz _M_unje, _N_ahmen _O_tt,\n_P_eter _Q_uott, _R_ekkert _s_k\u00e4r, _T_rintje\n_u_m, qui _w_eg, _x, y, z_.\n\n3. From F\u00f6hr: _A_ntje _b_rawt; _C_isele _d_rug;\n_E_hlen _f_ald; _G_\u00f6ntje _h_olp; _I_ngke\n_k_n\u00e4d; _L_ena _m_\u00e4d; _N_ahmen _O_kken;\n_P_eter _Q_uast;\n\n_R_\u00f6rd _R_\u00fctjer; _S_ab _S_\u00fctjer; _S_onk\n_S_tein; _T_hur _O_rdert; _W_\u00f6gen _w_uhlet;\n_Y_ng _Z_uhlet.\n\nFrom Ditmarschen we have the following (199. 290):--\n\n1. From S\u00fcderstapel in Stapelholm: _A-B_eeter, _C-D_eeter,\n_E-_E_f_ter, _G-H_ater, _I-K_ater,\n_L-_E_m_der, _N-O_ter, _P_eter R\u00fcster sien Swester\nharr B\u00fcxsen von Manchester, harr'n Kleed vun Kattun, weer K\u00f6fft bi Jud'n\n(Peter R\u00fcster his sister has breeches from Manchester, has a dress of\ncotton, who buys of Jews).\n\n2. From T\u00f6nningstedt and Feddringen: _A-B_eeter, _C-D_eeter,\n_E-E_fter, _G-H_ater, _J-K_ater, _L-_E_m_der,\n_N-O_ter, _P-_K_u_ter, _L-_E_s_ter,\n_T-U_ter, _V-W_eeter, _X-Z_eeter.\n\nIn Polish we have a rather curious rhyme (199. 260): _A_dam\n_B_abkie _C_ukier _D_al, _E_wa _F_igi\n_G_ryzla; _H_anko, _J_eko, _K_arol _L_erch\n_N_osi _O_rla _P_apa _R_uskigo (Adam to the old\nwoman sugar gave, Eve figs nibbled; Hanko, Jeko, Karol, and Lerch carry\nthe eagle of the Ruthenian priest). Another variant runs: _A_dam\n_B_abi _C_ucker _d_aje _E_wa _f_igi\n_g_rizi _H_ala, _i_dzie _K_upic' _l_ala\n_m_ama _n_ie _p_ozwala (199. 150).\n\nAt Elberfeld, according to O. Schell, the following rhyme was in use\nabout the middle of this century (199. 42): _A_braham\n_B_\u00f6ckmann; _C_epter _D_ickmann; _E_ngel\n_F_uawenkel; _G_retchen _H_ahn; _I_saak\n_K_reier; _L_ottchen _M_eyer; _N_ikolas _O_lk;\n_P_itter _Q_uack; _R_udolf _S_imon; _T_ante\n_U_hler; _V_ater _W_ettschreck; _X_erxes\n_Y_ork.\n\nFrom Leipzig, L. Fr\u00e4nkel reports the following as given off in a singing\ntone with falling rhythm:--\n\nB a ba, b e be, b i bi--babebi; b o bo, b u bu--bobu; ba, be, bi, bo,\nbu--babebibobu. C a ca (pron. _za,_ not _ka_), c e ce, c i ci\n--caceci; c o co, c u cu--cocu; ca, ce, ci, co, cu-cacecicocu, etc.\n\n\nFrom various parts of Ditmarschen come these rhymes:--\n   A-B ab,                 |   A-B ab,\n   Mus sitt in't Schapp,   |   Mouse sits in the cupboard,\n   Kater darf\u00e5r,           |   Cat in frount,\n   Mak apen de D\u00e5r.        |   Open the door.\n\n\nThese child-rhymes and formulae from North Germany find their cognates\nin our own nursery-rhymes and explanatory letter-lists, which take us\nback to the very beginnings of alphabetic writing. An example is the\nfamiliar:--\n\n\n  \"A was an Archer that shot at a frog,\n   B was a Butcher that had a big dog,\" etc., etc.\n\n\n_Letter-Formul\u00e6._\n\nHere belong also the curious formul\u00e6 known all over the United States\nand English-speaking Canada, to which attention has recently been called\nby Professor Frederick Starr. When the word _Preface_ is seen,\nchildren repeat the words, \"_P_eter _R_ice _E_ats\n_F_ish _a_nd _C_atches _E_els,\" or backwards,\n\"_E_els _C_atch _A_lligators; _F_ather _E_ats\n_R_aw _P_otatoes.\" Professor Starr says that the second\nformula is not quite so common as the first; the writer's experience in\nCanada leads him to express just the opposite opinion. Professor Starr\ngives also formul\u00e6 for _Contents_ and _Finis_ as follows:\n\"_F_ive _I_rish _N_iggers _I_n _S_pain,\"\nbackwards \"_S_ix _I_rish _N_iggers _I_n\n_F_rance\"; \"_C_hildren _O_ught _N_ot _T_o\n_E_at _N_uts _T_ill _S_unday\" (355. 55). Formul\u00e6\nlike these appear to be widespread among school-children, who extract a\ngood deal of satisfaction from the magic meaning of these quaint\nexpressions.\n\nAnother series of formul\u00e6, not referred to by Professor Starr, is that\nconcerned with the interpretation of the numerous abbreviations and\ninitials found in the spelling-book and dictionary. In the manufacture\nof these much childish wit and ingenuity are often expended. In the\nwriter's schoolboy days there was quite a series of such expansions of\nthe letters which stood for the various secret and benevolent societies\nof the country. _I. O. G. T._ (Independent Order of Good Templars),\nfor example, was made into \"I Often Get Tight (_i.e._ drunk),\"\nwhich was considered quite a triumph of juvenile interpretative skill.\nAnother effort was in the way of explaining the college degrees:\n_B.A._ = \"Big Ape,\" _M.A._ = \"Matured Ape,\" _B.D._ =\n\"Bull-Dog,\" _LL.D._ = \"Long-Legged Devil,\" etc. Still another class\nis represented by the interpretations of the German _u. A. w. g._\n(our R. S. V. P.), _i.e._ \"um Antwort wird gebeten\" (an answer is\nrequested), for which A. Treichel records the following renderings: um\nAusdauer wird gebeten (perseverance requested); und Abends wird getanzt\n(and in the evening there is dancing); und Abends wird gegeigt (and in\nthe evening there is fiddling); und Abends wird gegessen (and in the\nevening there is eating); und Andere werden gel\u00e4stert (and others are\nabused) (392. V. 114). This side of the linguistic inventiveness of\nchildhood, with its _double-entendre_, its puns, its\nfolk-etymologies, its keen discernment of hidden resemblances and\nanalogies, deserves more study than it has apparently received.\n\nThe formulae and expressions belonging to such games as marbles are\nworthy of consideration, for here the child is given an opportunity to\ninvent new words and phrases or to modify and disfigure old ones.\n\n\n_Formulae of Defiance, etc._\n\nThe formulae of defiance, insult, teasing, etc., rhymed and in prose,\noffer much of interest. Peculiarities of physical constitution, mental\ntraits, social relationships, and the like, give play to childish fancy\nand invention. It would be a long list which should include all the\nmaterial corresponding to such as the following, well known among\nEnglish-speaking school-children:--\n\n\n  1. Georgie Porgie, Puddin' Pie,\n     Kissed a girl and made her cry!\n  2. Blue-eyed beauty,\n     Do your mother's duty!\n  3. Black eye, pick a pie,\n     Turn around and tell a lie!\n  4. Nigger, nigger, never-die,\n     Black face and shiny eye!\n\n\nInteresting is the following scale of challenging, which Professor J. P.\nFruit reports from Kentucky (430. 229):--\n\n\n  \"I dare you; I dog dare you; I double dog dare you.\n   I dare you; I black dog dare you; I double black dog dare you.\"\n\n\nThe language of the school-yard and street, in respect to challenges,\nfights, and contests of all sorts, has an atmosphere of its own, through\nwhich sometimes the most clear-sighted older heads find it difficult to\npenetrate.\n\nThe American Dialect Society is doing good work in hunting out and\ninterpreting many of these contributions of childhood to the great\nmosaic of human speech, and it is to be hoped that in this effort they\nwill have the co-operation of all the teachers of the country, for this\nbranch of childish activity will bear careful and thorough\ninvestigation.\n\n\n_Plant-Names._\n\nIn the names of some of the plants with which they early come into\ncontact we meet with examples of the ingenuity of children. In Mrs.\nBergen's (400) list of popular American plant-names are included some\nwhich come from this source, for example: \"frog-plant (_Sedum\nTelephium_),\" from the children's custom of \"blowing up a leaf so as\nto make the epidermis puff up like a frog\"; \"drunkards (_Gaulteria\nprocumbens_),\" because \"believed by children to intoxicate\";\n\"bread-and-butter (_Smilax rotundifolia_),\" because \"the young\nleaves are eaten by children\"; \"velvets (_Viola pedata_),\" a\ncorruption of the \"velvet violets\" of their elders; \"splinter-weed\n(_Antennaria plantaginifolia_),\" from \"the appearance of the\nheads\"; \"ducks (_Cypripedium_),\" because \"when the flower is partly\nfilled with sand and set afloat on water, it looks like a duck\";\n\"pearl-grass (_Glyceria Canadensis_),\" a name given at Waverley,\nMassachusetts, \"by a few children, some years ago.\" This list might\neasily be extended, but sufficient examples have been given to indicate\nthe extent to which the child's mind has been at work in this field.\nMoreover, many of the names now used by the older members of the\ncommunity, may have been coined originally by children and then adopted\nby the others, and the same origin must probably be sought out for not a\nfew of the folk-etymologies and word-distortions which have so puzzled\nthe philologists.\n\n\n\"_Physonyms_.\"\n\nIn an interesting paper on \"physonyms,\"--_i.e._ \"words to which\ntheir signification is imparted by certain physiological processes,\ncommon to the race everywhere, and leading to the creation of the same\nsigns with the same meaning in totally sundered linguistic\nstocks\"--occurs the following passage (193. cxxxiii.):--\n\n\"One of the best known and simplest examples is that of the widespread\ndesignation of 'mother' by such words as _mama_, _nana_,\n_ana_; and of 'father' by such as _papa_, _baba_,\n_tata_. Its true explanation has been found to be that, in the\ninfant's first attempt to utter articulate sounds, the consonants\n_m_, _p_, and _t_ decidedly preponderate; and the natural\nvowel _a_, associated with these, yields the child's first\nsyllables. It repeats such sounds as _ma-ma-ma_ or _pa-pa-pa_,\nwithout attaching any meaning to them; the parents apply these sounds to\nthemselves, and thus impart to them their signification.\"\n\nOther physonyms are words of direction and indication of which the\nradical is _k_ or _g_; the personal pronouns radical in\n_n_, _m_ (first person), _k, t, d_ (second person); and\ndemonstratives and locatives whose radical is _s_. The frequency of\nthese sounds in the language of children is pointed out also by Tracy in\nhis monograph on the psychology of childhood. In the formation and\nfixation of the onomatopes with which many languages abound some share\nmust be allotted to the child. A recent praiseworthy study of onomatopes\nin the Japanese language has been made by Mr. Aston, who defines an\nonomatope as \"the artistic representation of an inarticulate sound or\nnoise by means of an articulate sound\" (394. 333). The author is of\nopinion that from the analogy of the lower animals the inference is to\nbe drawn that \"mankind occupied themselves for a long time with their\nown natural cries before taking the trouble to imitate for purposes of\nexpression sounds not of their own making\" (394. 334). The latter\nprocess was gradual and extended over centuries. For the child or the\n\"child-man\" to imitate the cry of the cock so successfully was an\ninspiration; Mr. Aston tells us that \"the formation of a word like\n_cock-a-doodle-do_, is as much a work of individual genius as\nHamlet or the Laoco\u00f6n\" (394. 335). Of certain modern aspects of\nonomatop\u009cia the author observes: \"There is a kindred art, viz. that of\nthe _exact_ imitation of animal cries and other sounds,\nsuccessfully practised by some of our undergraduates and other young\npeople, as well as by tame ravens and parrots. It probably played some\npart in the development of language, but I can only mention it here\"\n(394. 333).\n\n\n_College Yells._\n\nThe \"college yells\" of the United States and Canada offer an inviting\nfield for study in linguistic atavism and barbaric vocal expression. The\n_New York World Almanac_ for 1895 contains a list of the \"yells\" of\nsome three hundred colleges and universities in the United States. Out\nof this great number, in which there is a plenitude of \"Rah! rah! rah!\"\nthe following are especially noteworthy:--\n\n_Benzonia:_ Kala, kala, kala! Sst, Boom, Gah! Benzo, Benzon-iah!\nWhooo!\n\n_Buchtel:_ Ye-ho! Ye-hesa! Hisa! Wow wow! Buchtel!\n\n_Dartmouth:_ Wah, who, wah! wah who wah! da-da-da, Dartmouth! wah\nwho wah! T-i-g-e-r!\n\n_Heidelberg:_ Killi-killick! Rah, rah, Zik, zik! Ha! Ha! Yi! Hoo!\nBaru! Zoo! Heidelberg!\n\nThe \"yell\" of _Ohio Wesleyan University_, \"O-wee-wi-wow!\nAla-ka-zu-ki-zow! Ra-zi-zi-zow! Viva! Viva! O. W. U.!\" is enough to make\nthe good man for whom the institution is named turn uneasily in his\ngrave. The palm must, however, be awarded to the _University of North\nDakota_, whose remarkable \"yell\" is this: \"Odz-dzo-dzi! Ri-ri-ri!\nHy-ah! Hy-ah! North Dakota! and Sioux War-Cry.\" Hardly have the\nancestors of Sitting Bull and his people suspected the immortality that\nawaited their ancient slogan. It is curious that the only \"yell\" set to\nproper music is that of the girls of _Wellesley College_, who sing\ntheir cheer, \"Tra la la la, Tra la la la, Tra la la la la la la,\nW-E-L-L-E-S-L-E-Y, Welles-ley.\"\n\nAs is the case with other practices in collegiate life, these \"yells\"\nseem to be making their way down into the high and grammar schools, as\nwell as into the private secondary schools, the popularity and\nexcitement of field-sports and games, baseball, foot-ball, etc., giving\noccasion enough for their frequent employment.\n\nHere fall also the spontaneous shouts and cries of children at work and\nat play, the _Ki-yah!_ and others of a like nature whose number is\nalmost infinite.\n\nMr. Charles Ledyard Norton, in his _Political Americanisms_ (New\nYork, 1890), informs us that \"the peculiar staccato cheer, 'rah, rah,\nrah!'\" was probably invented at Harvard in 1864. In the Blaine campaign\nof 1884 it was introduced into political meetings and processions\ntogether with \"the custom, also borrowed from the colleges, of spelling\nsome temporarily significant catch-word in unison, as, for instance,\n'S-o-a-p!' the separate letters being pronounced in perfect time by\nseveral hundred voices at once.\" The same authority thinks that the idea\nof calling out \"Blaine--Blaine--James G. Blaine!\" in cadenced measure\nafter the manner of the drill-sergeants,\n\"Left--left--left--right--left!\" an idea which had many imitations and\nelaborations among the members of both the great political parties, can\nbe traced back to the Columbia College students (p. 120).\n\n\n_The Child as an Innovator in Language._\n\nBut the role of the child in the development of language is concerned\nwith other things than physonyms and onomatopes. In his work on\nBrazilian ethnography and philology, Dr. von Martius writes (522. 43):\n\"A language is often confined to a few individuals connected by\nrelationship, forming thus, as it were, _a family institute_, which\nisolates those who use it from all neighbouring or distant tribes so\ncompletely that an understanding becomes impossible.\" This intimate\nconnection of language with the family, this preservation and growth of\nlanguage, as a family institution, has, as Dr. von Martius points out,\nan interesting result (522. 44):--\n\n\"The Brazilians frequently live in small detachments, being kept apart\nby the chase; sometimes only a few families wander together; often it is\none family alone. Within the family the language suffers a constant\nremodelling. One of the children will fail to catch precisely the\nradical sound of a word; and the weak parents, instead of accustoming it\nto pronounce the word correctly, will yield, perhaps, themselves, and\nadopt the language of the child. We often were accompanied by persons of\nthe same band; yet we noticed in each of them slight differences in\naccentuation and change of sound. His comrades, however, understood him,\nand they were understood by him. As a consequence, their language never\ncan become stationary, but will constantly break off into new dialects.\"\nUpon these words of von Martius (reported by Dr. Oscar Peschel), Dr.\nCharles Rau comments as follows (522. 44): \"Thus it would seem that,\namong savages, _children_ are to a great extent the originators of\nidiomatic diversities. Dr. Peschel places particular stress on this\ncircumstance, and alludes to the habit of over-indulgent parents among\nrefined nations of conforming to the humours of their children by\nconversing with them in a kind of infantine language, until they are\nseveral years old. Afterward, of course, the rules of civilized life\ncompel these children to adopt the proper language; but no such\nnecessity exists among a hunter family in the primeval forests of South\nAmerica; here the deviating form of speech remains, and the foundation\nof a new dialect is laid.\"\n\n\n_Children's Languages._\n\nBut little attention has been paid to the study of the language of\nchildren among primitive people. In connection with a brief\ninvestigation of child-words in the aboriginal tongues of America, Mr.\nHoratio Hale communicated to the present writer the following\nobservation of M. l'Abb\u00e9 Cuoq, of Montreal, the distinguished missionary\nand linguist: \"As far as the Iroquois in particular are concerned, it is\ncertain that this language [langage enfantin] is current in every\nfamily, and that the child's relatives, especially the mothers, teach it\nto their children, and that the latter consequently merely repeat the\nwords of which it is composed\" (201. 322). That these \"child-words\" were\ninvented by children, the Abb\u00e9 does not seem to hint.\n\nThe prominence of the mother-influence in the child's linguistic\ndevelopment is also accentuated by Professor Mason, who devotes a\nchapter of his recent work on woman's part in the origin and growth of\ncivilization to woman as a linguist. The author points out how \"women\nhave helped to the selection and preservation of language through\nonomatopoeia,\" their vocal apparatus being \"singularly adapted to the\nimitation of many natural sounds,\" and their ears \"quick to catch the\nsounds within the compass of the voice\" (113. 188-204). To the female\nchild, then, we owe a good deal of that which is now embodied in our\nmodern speech, and the debt of primitive races is still greater. Many a\ntraveller has found, indeed, a child the best available source of\nlinguistic information, when the idling warriors in their pride, and the\nhard-working women in their shyness, or taboo-caused fear, failed to\nrespond at all to his requests for talk or song.\n\nCanon Farrar, in his _Chapters on Language_, makes the statement:\n\"It is a well-known fact that the neglected children, in some of the\nCanadian and Indian villages, who are left alone for days, can and do\ninvent for themselves a sort of _lingua franca_, partially or\nwholly unintelligible to all except themselves\" (200. 237). Mr. W. W.\nNewell speaks of the linguistic inventiveness of children in these terms\n(313. 24):--\n\n\"As infancy begins to speak by the free though unconscious combination\nof linguistic elements, so childhood retains in language a measure of\nfreedom. A little attention to the jargons invented by children might\nhave been serviceable to certain philologists. Their love of originality\nfinds the tongue of their elders too commonplace; besides, their\nfondness for mystery requires secret ways of communication. They,\ntherefore, often create (so to speak) new languages, which are formed by\nchanges in the mother-speech, but sometimes have quite complicated laws\nof structure and a considerable arbitrary element.\" The author cites\nexamples of the \"Hog Latin\" of New England schoolchildren, in the\nelaboration of which much youthful ingenuity is expended. Most\ninteresting is the brief account of the \"cat\" language:--\n\n\"A group of children near Boston invented the _cat language_, so\ncalled because its object was to admit of free intercourse with cats, to\nwhom it was mostly talked, and by whom it was presumed to be\ncomprehended. In this tongue the cat was naturally the chief subject of\nnomenclature; all feline positions were observed and named, and the\nlanguage was rich in such epithets, as Arabic contains a vast number of\nexpressions for _lion_. Euphonic changes were very arbitrary and\nvarious, differing for the same termination; but the adverbial ending\n_-ly_ was always _-osh; terribly, terriblosh_. A certain\npercentage of words were absolutely independent, or at least of obscure\norigin. The grammar tended to Chinese or infantine simplicity; _ta_\nrepresented any case of any personal pronoun. A proper name might vary\nin sound according to the euphonic requirements of the different\nChristian names by which it was preceded. There were two dialects, one,\nhowever, stigmatized as _provincial_. This invention of language\nmust be very common, since other cases have fallen under our notice in\nwhich children have composed dictionaries of such\" (313. 25).\n\nThis characterization of child-speech offers not a few points of contact\nwith primitive languages, and might indeed almost have been written of\none of them.\n\nMore recently Colonel Higginson (262) has given some details of \"a\nlanguage formed for their own amusement by two girls of thirteen or\nthereabouts, both the children of eminent scientific men, and both\nunusually active-minded and observant.\" This dialect \"is in the most\nvivid sense a living language,\" and the inventors, who keep pruning and\nimproving it, possess a manuscript dictionary of some two hundred words,\nwhich, it is to be hoped, will some day be published. An example or two\nfrom those given by Colonel Higginson will serve to indicate the general\ncharacter of the vocabulary:--\n\n_bojiwassis_, \"the feeling you have just before you jump, don't you\nknow--when you mean to jump and want to do it, and are just a little bit\nafraid to do it.\"\n\n_spygri_, \"the way you feel when you have just jumped and are\nawfully proud of it.\"\n\n_pippadolify_, \"stiff and starched like the young officers at\nWashington.\"\n\nOther information respecting this \"home-made dialect,\" with its revising\nacademy of children and its standard dictionary, must be sought in the\nentertaining pages of Colonel Higginson, who justly says of this triumph\nof child-invention: \"It coins thought into syllables, and one can see\nthat, if a group of children like these were taken and isolated until\nthey grew up, they would forget in time which words were their own and\nwhich were in Worcester's Dictionary; and _stowish_ and\n_krono_ and _bojiwassis_ would gradually become permanent\nforms of speech\" (262. 108).\n\nIn his valuable essay on _The Origin of Languages_ (249), Mr.\nHoratio Hale discusses a number of cases of invention of languages by\nchildren, giving interesting, though (owing to the neglect of the\nobservers) not very extensive, details of each.\n\nOne of the most curious instances of the linguistic inventiveness of\nchildren is the case of the Boston twins (of German descent on the\nmother's side) born in 1860, regarding whose language a few details were\ngiven by Miss E. H. Watson, who says: \"At the usual age these twins\nbegan to talk, but, strange to say, _not_ their 'mother-tongue.'\nThey had a language of their own, and no pains could induce them to\nspeak anything else. It was in vain that a little sister, five years\nolder than they, tried to make them speak their _native\nlanguage_,--as it would have been. They persistently refused to utter\na syllable of English. Not even the usual first words, 'papa,' 'mamma,'\n'father,' 'mother,' it is said, did they ever speak; and, said the lady\nwho gave this information to the writer,--who was an aunt of the\nchildren, and whose home was with them,--they were never known during\nthis interval to call their mother by that name. They had their own name\nfor her, but never the English. In fact, though they had the usual\naffections, were rejoiced to see their father at his returning home each\nnight, playing with him, etc., they would seem to have been otherwise\ncompletely taken up, absorbed, with each other.... The children had not\nyet been to school; for, not being able to speak their 'own English,' it\nseemed impossible to send them from home. They thus passed the days,\nplaying and talking together in their own speech, with all the\nliveliness and volubility of common children. Their accent was\n_German_,--as it seemed to the family. They had regular words, a\nfew of which the family learned sometimes to distinguish; as that, for\nexample, for carriage [_ni-si-boo-a_], which, on hearing one pass\nin the street, they would exclaim out, and run to the window\" (249. 11).\nWe are further informed that, when the children were six or seven years\nold, they were sent to school, but for a week remained \"perfectly mute\";\nindeed, \"not a sound could be heard from them, but they sat with their\neyes intently fixed upon the children, seeming to be watching their\nevery motion,--and no doubt, listening to every sound. At the end of\nthat time they were induced to utter some words, and gradually and\nnaturally they began, for the first time, to learn their 'native\nEnglish.' With this accomplishment, the other began also naturally to\nfade away, until the memory with the use of it passed from their mind\"\n(249. 12).\n\nMr. Horatio Hale, who resumes the case just noticed in his address\nbefore the Anthropological Section of the American Association for the\nAdvancement of Science (Buffalo, 1886), gives also valuable details of\nthe language of a little four-year-old girl and her younger brother in\nAlbany, as reported by Dr. E. R. Hun (249. 13). The chief facts are as\nfollows: \"The mother observed when she was two years old that she was\nbackward in speaking, and only used the words 'papa' and 'mamma.' After\nthat she began to use words of her own invention, and though she readily\nunderstood what was said, never employed the words used by others.\nGradually she extended her vocabulary until it reached the extent\ndescribed below [at least twenty-one distinct words, many of which were\nused in a great variety of meanings]. She has a brother eighteen months\nyounger than herself, who has learned her language, so that they talk\nfreely together. He, however, seems to have adopted it only because he\nhas more intercourse with her than with others; and in some instances he\nwill use a proper word with his mother, and his sister's word with her.\nShe, however, persists in using only her own words, though her parents,\nwho are uneasy about her peculiarity of speech, make great efforts to\ninduce her to use proper words.\"\n\nMore may be read concerning this language in the account of Dr. Hun\n(published in 1868).\n\nMr. Hale mentions three other cases, information regarding which came to\nhim. The inventors in the first instance were a boy between four and\nfive years old, said to have been \"unusually backward in his speech,\"\nand a girl a little younger, the children of a widower and a widow\nrespectively, who married; and, according to the report of an intimate\nfriend: \"He and the little girl soon became inseparable playmates, and\nformed a language of their own, which was unintelligible to their\nparents and friends. They had names of their own invention for all the\nobjects about them, and must have had a corresponding supply of verbs\nand other parts of speech, as their talk was fluent and incessant.\" This\nwas in Kingston, Ontario, Canada (249. 16).\n\nThe second case is that of two young children, twins, a boy and a girl:\n\"When they were three or four years old they were accustomed, as their\nelder sister informs me, to talk together in a language which no one\nelse understood.... The twins were wont to climb into their father's\ncarriage in the stable, and 'chatter away,' as my informant says, for\nhours in this strange language. Their sister remembers that it sounded\nas though the words were quite short. But the single word which survives\nin the family recollection is a dissyllable, the word for milk, which\nwas _cully_. The little girl accompanied her speech with gestures,\nbut the boy did not. As they grew older, they gradually gave up their\npeculiar speech\" (249. 17).\n\nThe third case cited by Mr. Hale is that of two little boys of Toronto,\nCanada,--five or six years of age, one being about a year older than the\nother, who attended a school in that city: \"These children were left\nmuch to themselves, and had a language of their own, in which they\nalways conversed. The other children in the school used to listen to\nthem as they chattered together, and laugh heartily at the strange\nspeech of which they could not understand a word. The boys spoke English\nwith difficulty, and very imperfectly, like persons struggling to\nexpress their ideas in a foreign tongue. In speaking it, they had to eke\nout their words with many gestures and signs to make themselves\nunderstood; but in talking together in their own language, they used no\ngestures and spoke very fluently. She remembers that the words which\nthey used seemed quite short\" (249. 18).\n\nMr. Hale's studies of these comparatively uninvestigated forms of human\nspeech led him into the wider field of comparative philology and\nlinguistic origins. From the consideration of these data, the\ndistinguished ethnologist came to regard the child as a factor of the\nutmost importance in the development of dialects and families of speech,\nand to put forward in definite terms a theory of the origin and growth\nof linguistic diversity and dialectic profusion, to the idea of which he\nwas led by his studies of the multitude of languages within the\ncomparatively restricted area of Oregon and California (249. 9).\nStarting with the language-faculty instinct in the child, says Mr. Hale:\n\"It was as impossible for the first child endowed with this faculty not\nto speak in the presence of a companion similarly endowed, as it would\nbe for a nightingale or a thrush not to carol to its mate. The same\nfaculty creates the same necessity in our days, and its exercise by\nyoung children, when accidentally isolated from the teachings and\ninfluence of grown companions, will readily account for the existence of\nall the diversities of speech on our globe\" (249. 47). Approaching, in\nanother essay, one of the most difficult problems in comparative\nphilology, he observes: \"There is, therefore, nothing improbable in the\nsupposition that the first Aryan family--the orphan children, perhaps,\nof some Semitic or Accadian fugitives from Arabia or Mesopotamia--grew\nup and framed their new language on the southeastern seaboard of\nPersia.\" Thus, he thinks, is the Aryo-Semitic problem most\nsatisfactorily solved (467. 675). In a second paper (250) on _The\nDevelopment of Language_, Mr. Hale restates and elaborates his theory\nwith a wealth of illustration and argument, and it has since won\nconsiderable support from the scientists of both hemispheres.\n\nProfessor Romanes devotes not a few pages of his volume on _Mental\nEvolution in Man_, to the presentation of Mr. Hale's theory and of\nthe facts upon which it is based (338. 138-144).\n\n\n_Secret Languages._\n\nThat the use of secret languages and the invention of them by children\nis widespread and prevalent at home, at school, in the playground, in\nthe street, is evident from the exhaustive series of articles in which\nDr. F. S. Krauss (281) of Vienna has treated of \"Secret Languages.\" Out\nof some two hundred forms and fashions there cited a very large\nproportion indeed belong to the period of childhood and youth and the\nscenes of boyish and girlish activity. We have languages for games, for\nsecret societies, for best friends, for school-fellows, for country and\ntown, for boys and girls, etc. Dr. Oscar Chrisman (206) has quite\nrecently undertaken to investigate the nature and extent of use of these\nsecret languages in America, with gratifying results. A study of the\nchild at the period in which the language-making instinct is most active\ncannot be without interest to pedagogy, and it would not be without\nvalue to inquire what has been the result of the universal neglect of\nlanguage-teaching in the primary and lower grade grammar\nschools--whether the profusion of secret languages runs parallel with\nthis diversion of the child-mind from one of its most healthful and\nrequisite employments, or whether it has not to some extent atrophied\nthe linguistic sense.\n\nThe far-reaching ramifications of \"secret languages\" are evidenced by\nthe fact that a language called \"Tut\" by school-children of Gonzales,\nTexas, is almost identical in its alphabet with the \"Guitar Language,\"\nof Bonyhad, in Hungary, the \"Bob Language,\" of Czernowitz, in Austria,\nand another language of the same sort from Berg. The travels of the\nTexas secret language are stated by Dr. Chrisman to be as follows: \"This\nyoung lady ... learned it from her mother's servant, a negro girl; this\ngirl learned it from a negro girl who got it at a female negro school at\nAustin, Texas, where it was brought by a negro girl from Galveston,\nTexas, who learned it from a negro girl who had come from Jamaica\" (208.\n305).\n\nEvidence is accumulating to show that these secret languages of children\nexist in all parts of the world, and it would be a useful and\ninstructive labour were some one to collect all available material and\ncompose an exhaustive scientific monograph on the subject.\n\nInteresting, for comparative purposes, are the secret languages and\njargons of adults. As Paul Sartori (528) has recently shown, the use of\nspecial or secret languages by various individuals and classes in the\ncommunities is widespread both in myth and reality. We find peculiar\ndialects spoken by, or used in addressing, deities and evil spirits;\ngiants, monsters; dwarfs, elves, fairies; ghosts, spirits; witches,\nwizards, \"medicine men\"; animals, birds, trees, inanimate objects. We\nmeet also with special dialects of secret societies (both of men and of\nwomen); sacerdotal and priestly tongues; special dialects of princes,\nnobles, courts; women's languages, etc.; besides a multitude of jargons,\ndialects, languages of trades and professions, of peasants, shepherds,\nsoldiers, merchants, hunters, and the divers slangs and jargons of the\nvagabonds, tramps, thieves, and other outcast or criminal classes.\n\nFar-reaching indeed is the field opened by the consideration of but a\nsingle aspect of child-speech, that doll-language which Joaquin Miller\nso aptly notes:--\n\n\n  \"Yet she carried a doll, as she toddled alone,\n   And she talked to that doll in a tongue her own.\"\n\n\n_Diminutives._\n\nBoth the golden age of childhood and the golden age of love exercise a\nremarkable influence upon language. Mantegazza, discussing \"the desire\nto merge oneself into another, to abase oneself, to aggrandize the\nbeloved,\" etc., observes: \"We see it in the use of diminutives which\nlovers and sometimes friends use towards each other, and which mothers\nuse to their children; we lessen ourselves thus in a delicate and\ngenerous manner in order that we may be embraced and absorbed in the\ncircle of the creature we love. Nothing is more easily possessed than a\nsmall object, and before the one we love we would change ourselves into\na bird, a canary--into any minute thing that we might be held utterly in\nthe hands, that we might feel ourselves pressed on all sides by the warm\nand loving fingers. There is also another secret reason for the use of\ndiminutives. Little creatures are loved tenderly, and tenderness is the\nsupreme sign of every great force which is dissolved and consumes\nitself. After the wild, passionate, impetuous embrace there is always\nthe tender note, and then diminutives, whether they belong to expression\nor to language, always play a great part\" (499. 137). The fondness of\nboys for calling each other by the diminutives of their surnames belongs\nhere.\n\nIn some languages, such as the Nipissing dialect of Algonkian in North\nAmerica, the Modern Greek or Romaic, Lowland Scotch, and Plattdeutsch,\nthe very frequent employment of diminutives has come to be a marked\ncharacteristic of the common speech of the people. The love for\ndiminutives has, in some cases, led to a charm of expression in language\nwhich is most attractive; this is seen perhaps at its best in Castilian,\nand some of the Italian dialects (202 and 219). A careful study of the\ninfluence of the child upon the forms of language has yet to be made.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XVI.\n\n\nTHE CHILD AS ACTOR AND INVENTOR.\n\n  The child is a born actor.\n\n  The world's a theatre, the earth a stage,\n  Which God and Nature do with actors fill.--_Heywood_.\n\n  Man is an imitative creature, and the foremost leads the flock.\n  --_Schiller_.\n\n\n_Imitative Games_.\n\nIn her article on _Imitation in Children_, Miss Haskell notes the\npredilection of children for impersonation and dramatic expression,\ngiving many interesting examples. S. D. Warren, in a paper read before\nthe American Association for the Advancement of Science, at the Brooklyn\nMeeting, 1894 (_Proc_., Vol. xliii., p. 335), also notes these\nactivities of children, mentioning, among other instances, \"an annual\ncelebration of the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown,\" \"playing\nrailroad,\" playing at pulling hand fire-engines, as the representatives\nof two rival villages.\n\nThe mention of the celebration of Cornwallis' surrender by children\nbrings up the question of the child as recorder. As historian and\nchronicler, the child appears in the countless games in which he\npreserves more or less of the acts, beliefs, and superstitions of our\nancestors. Concerning some of these, Miss Alice Gomme says: \"It is\nimpossible that they have been invented by children by the mere effort\nof imagination, and there is ample evidence that they have but carried\non interchangeably a record of events, some of which belong to the\nearliest days of the nation\" (242.11).\n\nAs Miss Gomme points out, many of the games of English children are\nsimply primitive dramas,--of the life of a woman (\"When I was a Young\nGirl\"), of courtship and marriage (\"Here comes Three Dukes a-Riding,\"\n\"Poor Mary sits a-Weeping\"), of funerals (\"Jenny Jones,\" \"Green\nGravel\"), of border warfare (\"We are the Rovers\"), etc. Mr. W. W. Newell\nhad previously remarked the importance of the dramatic element in\nchildren's games, citing as historical plays \"Miss Jennia Jones\"\n(funeral), \"Down she comes as White as Milk,\" \"Green Gravel,\" \"Uncle\nJohn,\" \"Barbara Allen,\" and others more or less partaking of this\ncharacter, based upon historical ballads, of some of which traces only\nare now preserved.\n\nBy means of carved or graven images in wood or stone, given to children\nas playthings or as targets to practise skill in shooting or striking\nwith miniature bow-and-arrow or spear, an early acquaintance is formed\nwith many animals. The imitation of animals, their habits and\npeculiarities, often forms no small part of the dances and games of\nchildren of the lower races.\n\n\n_The Child as Actor_.\n\nWallaschek, in his study of the primitive drama and pantomime (546.\n214-229), notes the presence of children as dancers and performers among\nthe Andaman Islanders, the Tagals of the Philippines, the Tahitians,\nFijis, Polynesians and other more or less primitive races. Of Tibet and\nsome portions of China Mr. Rockhill, in his _Diary of a Journey\nthrough Mongolia, and Tibet, in 1891 and 1892_ (Washington, D. C.,\n1894), informs us that the lads in every village give theatrical\nperformances, the companies of young actors being known as _Hsiao\nsheng huei_, \"young men's amateur theatrical company\" (p. 68).\n\nAmong the aborigines of the New World we find also children as actors\nand participants in the ceremonies and ritual performances of various\ntribes. In certain ceremonials of the Sia, as Mrs. Stevenson informs us,\nyoung children take part. A boy of eight was allowed to hear the sacred\nsongs on one occasion, and to witness the making of the\n\"medicine-water,\" but a boy of four was not permitted to be present; the\nboy also took part in the dance (538. 79). In the rain ceremonial of the\n\"Giant Society,\" a little girl, eight years old, painted the fetiches\nquite as dexterously as her elders, and took apparently quite as much\ninterest in the proceedings. In the rain ceremonial of the \"Knife\nSociety,\" boys assist, and in the rain ceremonial of the Querr\u00e4nna, a\nchild (boy) with wand and rattle joins in the celebration of the rites,\n\"requiring no rousing to sing and bend his tiny body to the time of the\nrattle, and joining in the calls upon the cloud-people to gather to\nwater the earth, with as much enthusiasm as his elders.\" When children,\nboys or girls, are about ten or twelve years of age, and have, as the\nIndians say, \"a good head,\" they are initiated, if they so desire, into\nsome of the mysteries of the dances of the Ka'tsuna, in charge of the\nQuerr\u00e4nna Society (538. 106-117).\n\nDr. J. W. Fewkes, in his detailed article on the _Flute Observance_\nof the Tusayan Indians of Walpi, an interesting study of primitive\ndramatization, notes the part played by children in these ceremonies.\nThe principal characters are the \"Snake Boy,\" the \"Snake Girl,\" and some\ngirl carriers of the sacred corn, besides lads as acolytes.\n\nThe story of the child as an actor has yet to be written. When the\nancient Greeks crowded the theatres to hear and see the masterpieces of\ndramatic and histrionic genius, their \"women, slaves, and children\" were\nfor the most part left at home, though we do find that later on in\nhistory, front seats were provided for the chief Athenian priestesses.\nNo voices of children were heard in chorus, and childhood found no true\ninterpreter upon the stage. In France, in the middle of the seventeenth\ncentury, women appear as actors; in England it was not until long after\nthe death of her greatest dramatist that (in 1660) women could fill a\n_r\u00f4le_ upon the stage without serious hindrance or molestation; in\nJapan, even now, play-acting is not looked upon as a respectable\nprofession for women. For a long time in England and elsewhere, female\nparts were taken by children and youths. Here also we meet with\ncompanies of child-actors, such as the \"Boys of the Grammar School at\nWestminster,\" \"The Children of Paul's,\" etc. The influence which\nproduced these survives and flourishes to-day in the fondness of\nhigh-school pupils and university students for dramatic performances and\nrecitations, and the number of schools of gesture, elocution, and the\nlike, testifies to the abiding interest of the young in the mimic art.\nThis is also evidenced by the number of child actors and actresses in\nthe theatrical world, and the remarkable precocity of the members of the\nprofession in all lands. In England, the pantomime offers a special\noutlet for this current of expression, and there the child is a most\nimportant factor in stage-life. The precocity of girls in these respects\nis noteworthy.\n\n\n_The Child as Inventor_.\n\nBorrowing his figure of speech from the environment of child-hood, C.\nJ. Weber has said: \"_Die Gesellschaft ist die Grossmutter der\nMenschkeit durch ihre T\u00f6chter, die Erfindungen_,--Society is the\ngrandmother of humanity through her daughters, the inventions,\" and the\nfamiliar proverb--Necessity is the mother of invention--springs from\nthe same source. Isaac Disraeli aptly says: \"The golden hour of\ninvention must terminate like other hours; and when the man of genius\nreturns to the cares, the duties, the vexations, and the amusements of\nlife, his companions behold him as one of themselves,--the creature of\nhabits and infirmities,\" and not a few of the \"golden hours of\ninvention\" seem to belong to the golden age of childhood. Even in these\n\"degenerate\" days the child appears as an inventor. A contributor to the\nperiodical literature of the day remarks: \"Children have taken out a\nnumber of patents. The youngest inventor on record is Donald Murray\nMurphy, of St. John, Canada, who, at the age of six years, obtained from\nthe United States exclusive rights in a sounding toy. Mabel Howard, of\nWashington, at eleven years, invented an ingenious game for her invalid\nbrother and got a patent for it. Albert Gr. Smith, of Biehwood,\nIllinois, at twelve years invented and patented a rowing apparatus\"\n(_Current Lit_., K T., xiv. 1893, p. 138).\n\nThe works of Newell (313), Bolton (187), Gomme (243), amply reveal the\nriot of childish variation and invention in games and plays. Mr. Newell\nobserves: \"It would be strange if children who exhibit so much inventive\ntalent [in language] did not contrive new games; and we find accordingly\nthat in many families a great part of the amusements of the children are\nof their own devising. The earliest age of which the writer has\nauthentic record of such ingenuity is two and a half years\" (313. 25).\nAnd among the primitive peoples the child is not without like invention;\nsome, indeed, of the games our children play, were invented by the\nsavage young ones, whose fathers have been long forgotten in the mist of\nprehistoric ages--the sports of their children alone surviving as\nmemorials of their existence.\n\nTheal tells us that the Kaffir children, when not engaged in active\nexercise, \"amuse themselves by moulding clay into little images of\ncattle, or by making puzzles with strings. Some of them are skilful in\nforming knots with thongs and pieces of wood, which it taxes the\ningenuity of the others to undo. The cleverest of them sometimes\npractise tricks of deception with grains of maize\" (543. 221). The\ndistinguished naturalist, Mr. A. R. Wallace, while on his visit to the\nMalay Archipelago, thought to show the Dyak boys of Borneo something new\nin the way of the \"cat's cradle,\" but found that he was the one who\nneeded to learn, for the little brown aborigines were able to show him\nseveral new tricks (377. 25).\n\nMiklucho-Maclay notes that among the Papuans of north-eastern New\nGuinea, while the women showed no tendency to ornament pottery, young\nboys \"found pleasure in imprinting with their nails and a pointed stick\na sort of ornamental border on some of the pots\" (42. 317).\n\nPaola Lombroso, daughter of Professor Cesare Lombroso, the celebrated\ncriminologist, in her recent study of child psychology, observes: \"Games\n(and plays) are the most original creation of the child, who has been\nable to create them, adapt them to his needs, making of them a sort of\ngymnastics which enables him to develop himself without becoming\nfatigued, and we, with the aid of memory, can hardly now lay hold of\nthat feeling of infinite, intense pleasure.\" Moreover, these popular\ntraditional plays and games, handed down from one generation to another\nof children, \"show how instinctive are these forms of muscular activity\nand imitative expression, which have their roots in a true physiological\nand psychic necessity, being a species of tirocinium for the experience\nof childhood\" (301. 136).\n\nThe _magnum opus_, perhaps, of the child as inventor, is the lyre,\nthe discovery of which, classical mythology attributes to the infant\nMercury or Hermes. Four hours after his birth the baby god is said to\nhave found the shell of a tortoise, through the opposite edges of which\nhe bored holes, and, inserting into these cords of linen, made the first\nstringed instrument. The English poet, Aubrey de Vere, singing of an\nAthenian girl, thus refers to the quaint myth:--\n\n\n  \"She loves to pace the wild sea-shore--\n  Or drop her wandering fingers o'er\n  The bosom of some chorded shell:\n  Her touch will make it speak as well\n  As infant Hermes made\n  That tortoise in its own despite\n  Thenceforth in Heaven a shape star-bright.\"\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XVII.\n\n\nTHE CHILD AS POET, MUSICIAN, ETC.\n\n  Poeta nascitur, non fit.--_Latin Proverb_.\n\n  As yet a child, nor yet a fool to fame,\n  I lisp'd in numbers, for the numbers came.--_Pope_.\n\n\n_The Child and Music_.\n\n\"Music,\" said quaint old Thomas Puller, \"is nothing else but wild sounds\ncivilized into time and tune,\" and Wallaschek, in his recent volume on\n_Primitive Music_, has shown how every nation under heaven, even\nthe most savage and barbarous of peoples, have had a share in the work\nof civilization. Music has been called \"the language of the gods,\" \"the\nuniversal speech of mankind,\" and, early in the golden age of childhood,\nthe heaven of infancy, is man made captive by \"music's golden tongue.\"\nAs Wallaschek has said of the race, Tracy says of the individual, \"no\nhealthy, normal child is entirely lacking in musical 'ear.'\" The\nchildren of primitive races enjoy music, as well as their fellows in\ncivilized communities. The lullaby, that _quod semper ubique et ab\nomnibus_ of vocal art, early engages and entrances the infantile ear,\nand from the musical demonstrations of his elders, the child is not\nalways or everywhere excluded. Indeed, the infant is often ushered into\nthe world amid the din and clamour of music and song which serve to\ndrown the mother's cries of pain, or to express the joy of the family or\nthe community at the successful arrival of the little stranger.\n\nEducation in music and the dance begins very early with many peoples. At\nthe school of midwifery at Abu-Zabel in Egypt, according to Clot-Bey, in\ncases of difficult childbirth, a child is made to hop and dance about\nbetween the legs of the mother in order to induce the foetus to imitate\nit (125. II. 159).\n\nAs understudies and assistants to shamans, \"medicine-men,\" and\n\"doctors,\" children among many primitive peoples soon become acquainted\nwith dance and song.\n\nIn Ashanti, boy musicians, singers, and dancers figure in the\nprocessions of welcome of the chiefs and kings, and young girls are\nengaged in the service of the fetiches (438. 258). At a funeral dance of\nthe Latuka, an African tribe, \"the women remained outside the row of\ndancers dancing a slow, stupid step, and screaming a wild and most\ninharmonious chant, whilst boys and girls in another row beat time with\ntheir feet.\" Burchell, while _en route_ for the Kaffir country,\nfound among certain tribes that \"in the evening a whole army of boys\nwould come to his hut and listen with manifest pleasure to the tones of\nhis violin, and would repeat the melodies he played with surprising\naccuracy\" (546. 3, 199). The _meke-meke_, a dance of the Fiji\nIslanders, \"is performed by boys and girls for whom an old musician\nplays\"; at Tahiti the children \"are early taught the 'ubus,' songs\nreferring to the legends or achievements of the gods,\" and \"Europeans\nhave at times found pleasure in the pretty, plaintive songs of the\nchildren as they sit in groups on the sea-shore\" (546. 35, 180, 208). In\nsome of the Polynesian Islands, young girls are \"brought up to dance the\ntimorodea, a most lascivious dance, and to accompany it with obscene\nsongs\" (100. 62). At Tongatabu, according to Labillardiere, a young girl\n\"sang a song, the simple theme of which she repeated for half-an-hour\"\n(546. 31). Wallaschek calls attention to the importance of the child in\nsong in the following words (546. 75):--\n\n\"In some places the children, separated from the adults, sing choruses\namong themselves, and under certain circumstances they are the chief\nsupport of the practice of singing. On Hawaii, Ellis found boys and\ngirls singing in chorus, with an accompaniment of seven drums, a song in\nhonour of a quondam celebrated chief. Even during supper with the\nGovernor, table-music was performed by a juvenile bard of some twelve or\nfourteen summers, who sang a monotonous song to the accompaniment of a\nsmall drum.... In Fiji a man of position deems it beneath him to sing,\nand he leaves it to his wife and children, so that women sing with women\nonly, and children with children.\"\n\nSpeaking of the natives of Australia, with whom he came into contact,\nBeckler says \"the octaves of the women and children at the performance\nhe attended were perfectly in tune, as one rarely hears in a modern\nopera chorus, they were in exact accord.\" In the Kuri dance, witnessed\nby Angas, a number of boys take part (546. 37, 223).\n\nIn New Guinea \"the Tongala-up, a stick with a string whirled in the air,\nis played by women and children.\" Among the Tagals of the Philippines,\nVolliner found (with perhaps a little Spanish influence) \"a chorus was\nperformed in a truly charming manner by twelve young girls formed in a\ncircle, one girl standing in the middle to direct.\" In the Andaman\nIslands, where the men only, as a rule, sing, \"the boys were far the\nbest performers\" (546.24, 27, 75).\n\nAmong the Apache Indians of Arizona and Mexico, \"old matrons and small\nchildren dance until no longer able to stand, and stop for very\nexhaustion\" (546. 46).\n\n\n_The Child as Poet_.\n\nVictor Hugo, in one of his rhapsodies, exclaims: \"The most sublime psalm\nthat can be heard on this earth is the lisping of a human soul from the\nlips of childhood,\" and the rhythm within whose circle of influence the\ninfant early finds himself, often leads him precociously into the realm\nof song. Emerson has said, \"Every word was once a poem,\" and Andrew\nLang, in his facetious _Ballade of Primitive Man_, credits our\nAryan ancestors with speaking not in prose, but \"in a strain that would\nscan.\" In the statement of the philosopher there is a good nugget of\ntruth, and just a few grains of it in the words of the wit.\n\nThe analogy between the place and effect of rhythm, music, and poetry in\nthe life of the child and in the life of the savage has been frequently\nnoted. In his recent study of _Rhythm_ (405 a), Dr. Bolton has\ntouched up some aspects of the subject. With children \"the habit of\nrhyming is almost instinctive\" and universal. Almost every one can\nremember some little sing-song or nonsense-verse of his own invention,\nsome rhyming pun, or rhythmic adaptation. The enormous range of\nvariation in the wording of counting-out rhymes, game-songs, and\nplay-verses, is evidence enough of the fertility of invention of\nchild-poets and child-poetesses. Of the familiar counting-out formula\n_Eeny, meeny, miny, mo_, the variants are simply legion.\n\nThe well-known lines of Pope:--\n\n\n  \"As yet a child, nor yet a fool to fame,\n  I lisp'd in numbers, for the numbers came,\"\n\n\nreceive abundant illustration from the lives of the great geniuses of\nsong.\n\nAmong primitive peoples, if anywhere, _poeta nascitur, non fit_. In\nher article on _Indian Songs_, Miss Alice C. Fletcher says:\n\"Children make songs for themselves, which are occasionally handed down\nto other generations. These juvenile efforts sometimes haunt the memory\nin maturer years. An exemplary old man once sang to me a composition of\nhis childhood, wherein he had exalted the pleasures of disobedience; but\nhe took particular care that his children should not hear this\nperformance. Young men sing in guessing-games, as they gambol with their\ncompanions, tossing from hand to hand a minute ball of buffalo hair or a\nsmall pebble, moving their arms to the rhythm of the music.\" This, and\nthe following statement made of the Omaha Indians, will hold for not a\nfew other savage and barbarous tribes: \"Children compose ditties for\ntheir games, and young men add music to give zest to their sports\"\n(445).\n\nDr. F. Boas says of the Eskimo of Baffin Land (402. 572): \"Children tell\none another fables and sing short songs, especially comic and satirical\nones.\" The heroes of the Basque legend of Aquelarre are thus described\nby Miss Monteiro (505. 22):--\n\n\"Izar and Lanoa were two orphan children; the first was seven years of\nage, and the latter nine. These poor children, true wandering bards,\nfrequented the mountains, earning a livelihood by singing ballads and\nnational airs in sweet, infantile voices, in return for a bed of straw\nand a cupful of meal. Throughout the district these children were known\nand loved on account of their sad state, as well as for their graceful\nforms and winning ways.\"\n\nMr. Chatelain, in his recent work on African folk-tales, says of the\nnatives of Angola: \"No Angola child finds difficulty at any time in\nproducing extemporaneous song.\"\n\nDr. Gatschet, in his study of the Klamath Indians, gives examples of\nmany songs composed and sung by young people, especially girls; and many\nother Indian tribes, Algonkian, Iroquois, etc., possess such as well.\nWhen Darwin reached Tahiti, his arrival was \"sung by a young girl in\nfour improvised strophes, which her fellow-maidens accompanied in a\npretty chorus\"; and among the song-loving people of the islands of the\nSouth Sea, the poetic talent develops quite early in both sexes. Among\nthe aborigines of Peake River, in Australia, when a youth--at\npuberty--has undergone the ceremony of tattooing, and, his wounds having\nhealed, is about to return to his fellows, \"a young girl selected for\nthe purpose, sings in her own way a song which she has composed, and,\namid dancing, merriment, and feasting, the youth is welcomed back to his\nfamily and his kin\" (326. 11. 241). Throughout the Orient woman is a\ndancer and a singer. India has her bayaderes and nautch-girls, whose\ndancing and singing talents are world-known.\n\nThe Gypsies, too, that wander-folk of the world, are famed for their\nlove-songs and fortune-telling rhymes, which the youth and girlhood\namong them so often know how to make and use. Crawford, who has\ntranslated the Kalevala, the great epic of the Finns, tells us, \"The\nnatural speech of this people is poetry. The young men and maidens, the\nold men and matrons, in their interchange of ideas unwittingly fall into\nverse\" (423. I. xxvi.). Among the young herdsmen and shepherdesses of\nthe pastoral peoples of Europe and Asia, the same precocity of song\nprevails. With songs of youth and maiden, the hills and valleys of\nGreece and Italy resound as of old. In his essay on the _Popular Songs\nof Tuscany_, Mr. J. A. Symonds observes (540. 600, 602): \"Signor\nTigri records by name a little girl called Cherubina, who made\n_Rispetti_ by the dozen, as she watched her sheep upon the hills.\"\nWhen Signor Tigri asked her to dictate to him some of her songs, she\nreplied: \"Oh Signore! ne dico tanti quando li canto! ... ma ora ...\nbisognerebbe averli tutti in visione; se no, proprio non vengono,--Oh\nSir! I say so many, when I sing ... but now ... one must have them all\nbefore one's mind ... if not, they do not come properly.\"\nWorld-applicable as the boy grows out of childhood--with some little\nchange of season with the varying clime--are the words of Tennyson:--\n\n\n  \"In the spring a young man's fancy lightly turns to thoughts of\n  love,\"\n\n\nand everywhere, if poetry and song be not indeed the very offspring of\nlove, they are at least twin-born with it.\n\nLombroso, in his discussion of the man of genius, gives many examples of\nprecocious poetical and musical talent: Dante (who at nine years of age\nwrote sonnets), Tasso (wrote at ten years of age), Wieland (who wrote an\nepic at 16), Lope de Vega (who wrote verses at 12), Calderoii (at 13),\nMetastasio (who composed at 10), Handel (who wrote a mass at 13, and was\ndirector of opera at 19), Eichhorn, Mozart, and Eibler (all three of\nwhom gave concerts at 6), Beethoven (who wrote sonatas at 13), Weber\n(who wrote his first opera at 14), Cherubini (who wrote a mass at 15),\netc. (300.15).\n\nAmong English poets whose precocity was marked, we find the most\nnoteworthy to be Robert Browning, whose first poetic effusion is\nascribed to his fourth year. It is now known, however, that poetry is\nmuch more common among children than was at first supposed, and early\ncompositions are not to be expected from geniuses alone, but often from\nthe scions of the ruder commonalty.\n\nIn her interesting study of individual psychology, Dr. Caroline Miles\ninforms us that out of ninety-seven answers to the question, \"Did you\nexpress yourself in any art-form before eighteen years of age?\" fourteen\nstated that the person replying used verses alone, fourteen used stories\nand poetry, three used poetry and drawing or painting, two used poetry\nand painting. Dr. Miles notes that \"those who replied 'no' seemed to\ntake pride in the fact that they had been guilty of no such youthful\nfolly.\" This is in line with the belief parents sometimes express that\nthe son or daughter who poetizes early is \"loony.\" Some who were not\nashamed of these child-expressions volunteered information concerning\nthem, and we learn: \"Most interesting was one who wrote a tragedy at\nten, which was acted on a little stage for the benefit of her friends;\nfrom ten to thirteen, an epic; at thirteen, sentimental and religious\npoems\" (310. 552, 553).\n\nDr. H. H. Donaldson, in his essay on the _Education of the Nervous\nSystem_, cites the fact that of the musicians whose biographies were\nexamined by Sully, 95% gave promise before twenty years of age, and 100%\nproduced some work before reaching thirty; of the poets, 75% showed\npromise before twenty, and 92% produced before they were thirty years of\nage (216. 118). Precocity and genius seem to go together.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XVIII.\n\n\nTHE CHILD AS TEACHER AND WISEACRE.\n\n  The child is father of the man,--_Wordsworth_.\n\n  And wiser than the gray recluse\n  This child of thine.--_Whittier_.\n\n  And still to Childhood's sweet appeal\n  The heart of genius turns,\n  And more than all the sages teach\n  From lisping voices learns.--_Whittier_.\n\n_Wisdom of Childhood_.\n\nIn his beautiful verses--forming part of one of the best child-poems in\nour language--\n\n  \"And still to childhood's sweet appeal\n    The heart of genius turns,\n  And more than all the sages teach\n    From lisping voices learns,\"--\n\n\nWhittier has expressed that instinctive faith in the wisdom of childhood\nthat seems perennial and pan-ethnic. Browning, in _Pippa's Song_,\nhas sounded even a deeper note:--\n\n\n  \"Overhead the tree-tops meet,\n  Flowers and grass spring 'neath one's feet;\n  There was nought above me, nought below,\n  My childhood had not learned to know:\n  For, what are the voices of birds\n  --Aye, and of beasts,--but words, our words,\n  Only so much more sweet?\n  The knowledge of that with my life begun.\n  But I had so near made out the sun,\n  And counted your stars, the seven and one,\n  Like the fingers of my hand:\n  Nay, I could all but understand\n  Wherefore through heaven the white moon ranges;\n  And just when out of her soft fifty changes\n  No unfamiliar face might overlook me--\n  Suddenly God took me.\"\n\n\nThe power and wisdom of the child are quaintly and naively brought out\nin the legends and folk-lore of the various races of men, not alone of\nthe present day, but of all eras of the world's history. As an\nillustration of the truth contained in the words of a great child-lover,\n\"A little child shall lead them,\" and their echo in those of the Quaker\npoet,--\n\n\n  \"God hath his small interpreters;\n  The child must teach the man,\"\n\n\nnothing could be more artless and natural than the following legend of\nthe Penobscot Indians of Maine, recorded by Mr. Leland, which tells of\nthe origin of the \"crowing of babies\" (488. 121):--\n\nWhen Glooskap, the culture-hero of these Indians, had conquered all his\nenemies, giants, sorcerers, magicians, evil spirits and ghosts, witches,\ndevils, goblins, cannibals, _et id genus omne_, pride rose within\nhim, and he said to a certain woman, that now his work was done, for he\nhad conquered all. But she told him that he was mistaken; there yet\nremained \"one whom no one has ever yet conquered or got the better of in\nany way, and who will remain unconquered to the end of time.\" This was\n_Wasis_, \"the baby,\" who was sitting contentedly on the floor of\nthe wigwam chewing a piece of maple-sugar. The great Glooskap, so the\nstory runs, \"had never married or had a child; he knew nought of the way\nof managing children\"--yet he thought he knew all about it. So he smiled\ngraciously at baby, and, \"in a voice like that of a summer bird,\" bade\nhim come to him. But baby sat still and went on sucking his sugar. Then\nGlooskap got angry, and in a terrible voice, ordered baby to crawl to\nhim at once. But baby merely cried out and yelled, stirring not. Then\nGlooskap tried his last resort, magic, \"using his most awful spells, and\nsinging the songs which raise the dead and scare the devils.\" Still baby\nonly smiled, and never budged an inch. At last the great Glooskap could\ndo no more; he gave up the attempt in despair, whereupon \"baby, sitting\non the floor in the sunshine, went _'goo! goo!'_ and crowed\nlustily.\" And to this day, the Indians, when they hear \"a babe\nwell-contented going _'goo! goo!'_ and crowing, and no one can tell\nwhy,\" know that it is because he \"remembers the time when he overcame\nthe great Master, who had conquered all things. For of all beings that\nhave been since the beginning, baby is alone the invincible one.\"\n\nManabozho, the culture-hero of the Chippeways and other Algonkian tribes\nof the Great Lakes, and probably identical with his eastern analogue,\nGluskap, was, like the latter, discomfited by a child. This is the\nlegend:--\n\n\"One day Manabozho appeared upon the earth in an ill-humour. Walking\nalong, he espied a little child sitting in the sun, curled up with his\ntoe in his mouth. Somewhat surprised at this, and being of a dauntless\nand boastful nature, he set himself down beside the child; and, picking\nup his own toe, he essayed to place it in his mouth after the manner of\nthe child. He could not do it. In spite of all twisting and turning, his\ntoe could not be brought to reach his mouth. As he was getting up in\ngreat discomfiture to get away, he heard a laugh behind him, and did no\nmore boasting that day, for he had been outwitted by a little child.\"\n\nThis characteristic attitude of the child has also been noted by the\nfolk-historians of India; for when, after the death of Brahma, the\nwaters have covered all the worlds, \"Vishnu [the 'Preserver,' in the\nHindoo Trinity] sits, in the shape of a tiny infant, on a leaf of the\npipala (fig-tree), and floats on the sea of milk, sucking the toe of his\nright foot\" (440. 366), and, as Mrs. Emerson points out, \"the feat that\nManabozho sought in vain to perform is accomplished by the more flexible\nand lithe Hindoo god, Narayana\" (440. 367).\n\nIn another Micmac legend, given by Leland, Gluskap appears somewhat more\nto advantage. Of the Turtle [Mikchich], the \"Uncle\" of Gluskap, for whom\nthe latter had obtained a wife, we read (488. 57):--\n\n\"And Turtle lived happily with his wife, and she had a babe. Now it\nhappened in after-days that Glooskap came to see his uncle, and the\nchild cried. 'Dost thou know what he says?' exclaimed the Master.\n'Truly, not I,' answered Mikchich, 'unless it be the language of the\nMu-se-gisk (spirits of the air), which no man knoweth.' 'Wel,' replied\nGlooskap, 'he is talking of eggs, for he says, '_Hoowah! hoowah!_'\nwhich, methinks, is much the same as '_waw-wun, waw-wun_.' And this\nin Passamaquoddy means 'egg.' 'But where are there any?' asked Mikchich.\nThen Glooskap bade him seek in the sand, and he found many, and admired\nand marvelled over them greatly; and in memory of this, and to glorify\nthe jest of Glooskap, the turtle layeth eggs even to this day.\"\n\nIn Mr. Leland's collection, as in the later volume of Dr. Band, there\nare many other delicate touches of childhood that show that these\naborigines have a large measure of that love for children which is\npresent with all races of mankind.\n\nIn the legends of the saints and heroes of the Christian Church we meet\nwith numberless instances of the wisdom and instruction that came to\nthem from the mouths of little children.\n\nAmong the stories in the life of St. Augustine is the following: \"While\nSt. Augustine was composing his book _On the Trinity_, and was at\nCivit\u00e0 Vecchia, he saw a little child making a hole in the seashore, and\nasked him what he was doing. The child replied: 'I am making a hole to\ncontain the water of the sea.' The doctor smiled, telling the child it\nwould not be possible to do so; but the child made answer: 'Not so,\nAugustine. It would be far easier to drain off the waters of the great\ndeep than for the finite to grasp the Infinite'; and so he vanished.\nAugustine then knew that the child was an angel of God, sent to warn\nhim, and he diligently set to work to revise what he had written\" (191.\n355).\n\nThe best of mankind can still sit at the feet of childhood and learn of\nits wisdom. But of many a one must it be said:--\n\n\n  \"He hath grown so foolish-wise\n  He cannot see with childhood's eyes;\n  He hath forgot that purity\n  And lowliness which are the key\n  Of Nature's mysteries.\"\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XIX.\n\n\nTHE CHILD AS JUDGE.\n\n  So, Holy Writ in Babes hath judgment shown,\n  Where Judges have been babes.--_Shakespeare_.\n\n  O wise young judge I--_Shakespeare_.\n\n\n_The Child as Judge_\n\nShakespeare in _All's Well that Ends Well_, makes Helen say to the\nKing:--\n\n\n  \"He that of greatest works is finisher,\n  Oft does them by the weakest minister:\n  So, Holy Writ in babes hath judgment shown,\n  When judges have been babes.\"\n\n\nAnd in the history of the human race, appeal has often been made to the\ninnocence and imputed discernment of the child.\n\nAs one of the glories of God, David sang in Israel of old: \"Out of the\nmouths of babes and sucklings hast thou ordained strength, because of\nthine enemies, that thou mightest still the enemy and the avenger.\" And\nthe disciple Matthew reiterates the thought: \"Thou hast hid these things\nfrom the wise and prudent, and hast revealed them unto babes\"; and,\nagain: \"Out of the mouths of babes and sucklings hast thou perfected\npraise.\"\n\n\n_Solomon._\n\nThe stories told of Solomon--the judgments of the wise Hebrew monarch,\nwhen a child, were as remarkable as those which he made after attaining\nman's estate--have their counterparts in other lands. One of the most\ncelebrated decisions was rendered by Solomon when he was but thirteen\nyears of age. Well gives the story as follows (547.192):--\n\n\"The accuser had sold some property to the other, who, in clearing out a\ncellar, had found a treasure. He now demanded that the accused should\ngive up the treasure, since he had bought the property without it; while\nthe other maintained that the accuser possessed no right to the\ntreasure, since he had known nothing of it, and had sold the property\nwith all that it contained. After long meditation, David adjudged that\nthe treasure should be divided between them. But Solomon inquired of the\naccuser whether he had a son, and, when he replied that he had a son, he\ninquired of the other if he had a daughter; and he also answering in the\naffirmative, Solomon said: 'If you will adjust your strife so as not to\ndo injustice one to the other, unite your children in marriage, and give\nthem this treasure as their dowry.'\" In many other difficult cases,\nDavid, after the loss of the tube which, according to legend, the angel\nGabriel brought him, was aided in judgment by the wisdom and\nfar-sightedness of his young son. A decision similar to that of Solomon\nis attributed to Buddha, when a child, and to Christ.\n\n\n_Child-Judgments_.\n\nM\u00fcllenhoff records two cases of child-judgments in his collection of the\nfolk-lore of Schleswig-Holstein. The first is as follows: \"A branch of\nthe river Widau, near Tondern, is named Eenzau, from the little village\nEenz in the parish of Burkall. Where the banks are pretty high and\nsteep, a man fell into the water once upon a time, and would have been\ndrowned had not a certain person, hearing his cries, hastened to the\nriver, and, holding out a pole, enabled the drowning man to help himself\nout. In doing so, however, he put out an eye. The rescued man appeared\nat the next thing (court), entered a complaint against the other, and\ndemanded compensation for his lost eye. The judges, not knowing what to\nmake of the case, put it off till the next thing, in order to meditate\nupon it in the meantime. But the third thing came, and the\ndistrict-judge had not made up his mind about it. Out of humour, he\nmounted his horse and rode slowly and thoughtfully in the direction of\nTondern, where the thing was then held. He reached Rohrkarrberg, and,\nopposite the house which is still standing there, lay a stone heap, upon\nwhich sat three herd-boys, apparently busy with something of importance.\n'What are you doing there, children?' asked the judge. 'We are playing\nthing' (court), was the answer. 'What is the matter before the court?'\ncontinued the judge. 'We are trying the case of the man who fell into\nthe Eenzau,' they answered, and the judge held his horse to await the\nverdict. The boys did not know him, for he was well hidden in his cloak,\nand his presence did not disturb them. The judgment rendered was, that\nthe man who had been rescued should be thrown into the stream again at\nthe same spot; if he was able to save himself, then he should receive\ncompensation for the eye he had lost; if he could not, the decision was\nto be in favour of the other. Before the district-judge went away, he\nput his hand into his pocket and gave the boys some money; then, merrily\nriding to Tondern, he rendered the same judgment as the boys had given.\nThe fellow was unable to save himself without assistance, and was like\nto have been drowned; consequently, his rescuer won the case\" (508. 87,\n88). The other case, said to have occurred at Rapstede, was this:--\n\n\"A tailor and a peasant, both possessing nothing more than a wretched\nhut, made a bargain for so and so many bushels of corn at such and such\na price, although the tailor knew that the peasant had no money, and the\npeasant knew that the tailor had a needle, but no corn. Soon the price\nof corn rose, and the peasant appeared before the court to demand that\nthe tailor should fulfil his part of the bargain. The judges were at a\nloss to decide such a matter. In this case, also, boys rendered\njudgment. The decision was, that the agreement was invalid, for both,\nbeing neighbours, had known each other's circumstances, and yet both\nwere culpable for having entered into such a deceitful bargain\" (508.\n88).\n\nThese decisions belong to the same category as that rendered by Solomon\nin the case of the two women, who both claimed the same child,--a\njudgment which has gone upon record in the Bible (1 Kings, iii.\n16-28),--and a multitude of similar interpretations of justice found all\nover the world (191. 290).\n\nMr. Newell, speaking of children's games in which judicial procedures\nare imitated, but from whose decisions no serious results ever come,\nobserves (313. 123):--\n\n\"In the ancient world, however, where the courts were a place of resort,\nand law was not a specialized profession, the case was different.\nMaximus of Tyre tells us that the children had their laws and tribunals;\ncondemnation extended to the forfeiture of toys. Cato the younger,\naccording to Plutarch, had his detestation of tyranny first awakened by\nthe punishment inflicted on a playmate by such a tribunal. One of the\nyounger boys had been sentenced to imprisonment; the doom was duly\ncarried into effect; but Cato, moved by his cries, rescued him.\"\n\n\n_Children's Ideas of Right_.\n\nMr. Brown, of the formal School at Worcester, Massachusetts, has given\nus an excellent collection of _Thoughts and Reasonings of Children_\n(194), and Signora Paola Lombroso, in her interesting and valuable\n_Essays on Child-Psychology_, has also contributed to the same\nsubject (301. 45-72). A very recent study is that of _Children's\nRights_, by Margaret E. Schallenberger (341), of Leland Stanford, Jr.\nUniversity, California. The last author has charted the opinions of a\nlarge number--some three thousand papers were collected--of boys and\ngirls from six to sixteen years of age, upon the following case, the\nstory being employed as specially appealing to children (341. 89):--\n\n\"Jennie had a beautiful new box of paints; and, in the afternoon, while\nher mother was gone, she painted all the chairs in the parlour, so as to\nmake them look nice for her mother. When her mother came home, Jennie\nran to meet her, and said, 'Oh mamma! come and see how pretty I have\nmade the new parlour'; but her mamma took her paints away and sent her\nto bed. If you had been her mother, what would you have done or said to\nJennie?\"\n\nFrom this extensive and most ingenious investigation, the following\nresults are thought to have been obtained: \"Young children are less\nmerciful than older ones. When they appear cruel and resentful, we know\nthat they are exercising what they honestly consider the right of\nrevenge. Boys are less merciful than girls. Young children judge of\nactions by their results, older ones look at the motives which prompt\nthem. If a young child disobeys a command and no bad result follows, he\ndoesn't see that he has done wrong. Punishments which, have in them the\nidea of restitution are common to all ages. Girls consider the why more\nthan boys; they explain to Jennie oftener than boys do. Threats and\nforced promises do not impress children\" (341. 96).\n\n\n_Jurisprudence of Child's Play_.\n\nPitr\u00e9, the great Italian folklorist, has made a special study, though a\nvery brief one, of the judgments rendered by children in games and\nplays,--the jurisprudence of child's play (323). His essay, which is\ndevoted to the island of Sicily, touches upon a field which is likely to\nyield a rich harvest all over the world. The rules of the game; who\nshall play and who shall not; what is \"out,\" \"taw,\" \"in\"; when is one\n\"it,\" \"caught,\" \"out\"; what can one \"bar,\" and what \"choose,\"--all these\nare matters which require the decisions of the youthful judiciary, and\ncall for the frequent exercise of judgment, and the sense of justice and\nequity. Of the \"Boy Code of Honour\" some notice is taken by Gregor (246.\n21-24). Mr. Newell thus describes the game of \"Judge and Jury,\" as\nplayed at Cambridge, Massachusetts (312.123): \"A child is chosen to be\njudge, two others for jurors (or, to speak with our little informant,\n_juries_), who sit at his right and left hand. Each child must ask\nthe permission of the judge before taking any step. A platter is brought\nin, and a child, rising, asks the judge, 'May I go into the middle of\nthe room?' 'May I turn the platter?' 'On which side shall it fall?' If\nthe platter falls on the wrong side, forfeit must be paid.\" In Germany\nand Switzerland there is a game of the trial of a thief. In the former\ncountry: \"There is a king, a judge, an executioner, an accuser, and a\nthief. The parts are assigned by drawing lots, but the accuser does not\nknow the name of the thief, and, if he makes an error, has to undergo\nthe penalty in his stead. The judge finally addresses the king,\ninquiring if his majesty approves of his decision; and the king replies,\n'Yes, your sentence entitles you to my favour'; or, 'No, your sentence\nentitles you to so many blows.' Thus we see how modern child's play\nrespects the dignity of the king as the fountain of law.\" In the Swiss\nversion, as Mr. Newell remarks, \"the memory of the severity of ancient\ncriminal law is preserved,\" for \"the thief flies, and is chased over\nstock and stone until caught, when he is made to kneel down, his cap\npushed over his brows, and his head immediately struck off with the edge\nof a board\" (313.124).\n\n\n_Boy-Moots_.\n\nThe most interesting section, perhaps, of Mr. Johnson's _Rudimentary\nSociety among Boys_, is that devoted to \"Judicial Procedure\" (272.\n35-48). Fighting, arbitration, the ordeal and the wager have all been in\nuse as modes of settling quarrels at the McDonogh School--such matters\nof dispute as arose having been left for the boys to settle among\nthemselves without the control of the faculty. Indeed, the advice which\nPolonius gives to Laertes seems to have been ever present in the earlier\ndays:--\n\n\n  \"Beware\n  Of entrance to a quarrel; but being in,\n  Bear't that th' opposed may beware of thee.\"\n\n\nFollowing the appeal to fists came the appeal to chance and luck--the\n\"odd or even\" marbles, the \"longest straw,\" and like devices came into\nvogue. The arbitration of a bystander, particularly of \"a big boy who\ncould whip the others,\" and the \"expedient of laying a wager to secure\nthe postponement of a quarrel,\" are very common. But the most remarkable\ninstitution at McDonogh is undoubtedly the boy-moot, one of whose\ndecisions is reported in detail by Mr. Johnson,--an institution in\naction \"almost daily,\" and part and parcel of the life of the school.\nNone but the author's own words can justly portray it (272. 47, 48):--\n\n\"The crowd of boys assembled about the contestants, whose verdict\ndecides the controversy, is, in many respects, the counterpart of a\nprimitive assembly of the people in the folk-moot. Every boy has the\nright to express an opinion, and every boy present exercises his\nprivilege, though personal prowess and great experience in matters of\nlaw have their full influence on the minds of the judges. The primitive\nidea that dispensing justice is a public trust, which the community\nitself must fulfil towards its members, is embodied in this usage of the\n'McDonogh boys.' The judges are not arbitrators chosen by the\ndisputants, nor are they public functionaries whose sole business is to\npreside over the courts; but the whole body of the population declares\nby word of mouth the right and wrong of the matter. This tumultuous body\nof school-fellows, giving decisions in quarrels, and determining\nquestions of custom, reproduces with remarkable fidelity the essential\ncharacter of the primitive assembly.\"\n\nMr. Johnson was struck with \"the peace and good order generally\nprevalent in the community,\" which speaks well for the judicial system\nthere in vogue.\n\nThe editor, in his introductory remarks, observes:--\n\n\"Every schoolboy and every college student in his upward way to real\nmanhood represents the evolution of a primitive savage into a civilized\nbeing. Every school and college reproduces the developmental process of\na human society in some of its most interesting aspects, such as\ngovernment and law. There are all stages of social development in the\nstudent class, from actual savagery, which frequently crops out in the\nvery best schools and colleges, to effeminate forms of modern\ncivilization. There are all degrees of institutional government, from\ntotal anarchy and patriarchal despotism to Roman imperialism and\nconstitutional government; although it must be admitted that\nself-government among the student class--said to obtain in some American\nschools and colleges--is not yet a chartered right. The regulation of\nstudent society by itself, or by all the powers that be, presents all\nphases of judicature, from the most savage ordeals to the most humane.\nStudent customs are full of ancient survivals, and some editions of\n'College Laws' are almost as archaic as the Code of Manu. One of these\ndays we shall perhaps find men investigating college jurisprudence,\ncollege government, and college politics from the comparative point of\nview, and writing the natural history of the student class\" (272. 3).\n\nIn the community of the sand-pile studied by Dr. Hall, \"a general habit\nof settling disputes, often brought to issue with fists, by means of\nmeetings and specifications, arose.\" There is room for a volume on the\njurisprudence of childhood and youth, and every page would be of\nintensest interest and of value in the history of the evolution of the\nideas of justice in the human race.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XX.\n\n\nTHE CHILD AS ORACLE-KEEPER AND ORACLE-\nINTERPRETER.\n\n  Enfants et fous sont devins [Children and fools are soothsayers].\n  --_French Proverb._\n\n  Children pick up words as chickens peas,\n  And utter them again as God shall please.--_English Proverb_.\n\n  The fresh face of a child is richer in significance than the\n  forecasting of the most indubitable seer.--_Novalis_.\n\n\n\n_Child-Oracles_.\n\n\"Children and fools speak the truth,\" says an old and wide-spread\nproverb, and another version includes him who is drunken, making a\ntrinity of truth-tellers. In like manner have the frenzy of wine and the\nmadness of the gods been associated in every age with oracle and sign,\nand into this oracular trinity enters also the child. Said De Quincey:\n\"God speaks to children also, in dreams and by the oracles that lurk in\ndarkness,\" and the poet Stoddard has clothed in exquisite language a\nsimilar thought:--\n\n\n  \"Nearer the gate of Paradise than we,\n  Our children breathe its air, its angels see;\n  And when they pray, God hears their simple prayer,\n  Yea, even sheathes his sword in judgment bare.\"\n\n\nThe passage in Joel ii. 28, \"Your old men shall dream dreams, your young\nmen shall see visions,\" might stand for not a few primitive peoples,\nwith whom, once in childhood (or youth) and once again in old age, man\ncommunes with the spirits and the gods, and interprets the events of\nlife to his fellows. The Darien Indians, we are told, \"used the seeds of\nthe _Datura sanguinea_ to bring on in children prophetic delirium\nin which they revealed hidden treasures\" (545. II. 417).\n\nOne of the most curious of the many strange practices which the\nconservatism of the Established Church of England has continued down to\nthe present is one in vogue at the parish church of St. Ives, in\nHuntingdonshire. A certain Dr. Eobert Wilde, who died in 1678,\n\"bequeathed \u00a350, the yearly interest of which was to be expended in the\npurchase of six Bibles, not exceeding the price of 7_s_. 6_d_\neach, which should be 'cast for by dice' on the communion table every\nyear by six boys and six girls of the town.\" The vicar was also to be\npaid 10_s_. a year for preaching an appropriate sermon on the Holy\nScriptures. Public opinion has within recent years caused the erection\nof a table on the chancel steps, where the dice-throwing now takes\nplace, instead of on the communion table as of old. Every May 26th the\nceremony is performed, and in 1888 we are told: \"The highest throw this\nyear (three times with three dice) was 37, by a little girl. The vicar\n(the Rev. E. Tottenham) preached a sermon from the words, 'From a child\nthou hast known the Holy Scriptures'\" (390 (1888). 113).\n\n\n_The Child as Vision-Seer_.\n\nIn the history of the Catholic Church one cannot fail to be struck by\nthe part played by children in the seeing of visions, especially of the\nVirgin. To St. Agnes of Monte Pulciano (A.D. 1274-1317), when fourteen\nyears of age, the Virgin appeared and told her she should build a\nmonastery before she died (191. 24); Jeanne de Maille (1332-1414) was\nbut eleven when the Virgin Mary with the infant Jesus came before her in\na vision; Catherine of Racconigi (1486-1547) was visited by the Virgin\nwhen only five years of age (191. 108); in 1075, Hermann of Cologne,\nwhile still a boy, saw in a vision the Virgin, who kissed him, and made\na secret deposit of food on a certain stone for his benefit. In 1858 a\nvision of the Immaculate Conception appeared to Bernadetta Soubirous, a\nsickly child of fourteen, at Lourdes, in the Hautes Pyrenees. No one\nelse saw this vision, said to have occurred on Shrove Tuesday (Feb. 11),\nfour years after Pius IX. had proclaimed the dogma of the Immaculate\nConception. The vision lasted for fourteen successive days (191. 484).\nOn Jan. 17, 1871, the Virgin is alleged to have appeared at Pontmain to\nseveral children, and a detailed account of the vision has been given by\nMgr. Gu\u00e9rin, chamberlain of Pius IX., in his _Vie des Saints_, and\nthis is digested in Brewer. The children who saw the apparition are\ndescribed as follows: \"Eug\u00e8ne Barbedette was the second son of a small\nfarmer living in the village of Pontmain, in the diocese of Laval. He\nwas twelve years old, and his brother Joseph was ten. The other two\n[Fran\u00e7oise Richer, Jeanne Marie Leboss\u00e9] were children from neighbouring\ncottages, called in to witness the sight. The parents of the children,\nthe pastor of the village, Sister Vitaline, the abbot Gu\u00e9rin, all\npresent, could see nothing, nor could any of the neighbours of outlying\nvillages, who flocked to the place. Only the children mentioned, a sick\nchild, and a babe in the arms of its grandmother, saw the apparition.\"\nThe description of the Virgin, as seen by Eug\u00e8ne Barbedette that\nstarlight winter night, is quaint and na\u00efve in the extreme: \"She was\nvery tall, robed in blue, and her robe studded with stars. Her shoes\nwere also blue, but had red rosettes. Her face was covered with a black\nveil, which floated to her shoulders. A crown of gold was on her head,\nbut a red line was observed to run round the crown, symbolic of the\nblood shed by Christ for the sins of the world. Beneath her feet was a\nscroll, on which were written these words: 'Mais priez, mes enfants,\nDieu vous exaucera, en peu de temps mon fils se laisse toucher' (Pray,\nmy children, God will hear you, before long my son will be moved).\" Mgr.\nGu\u00e9rin thus comments upon the miracle: \"In order to make herself\nmanifest to men, the Holy Virgin has chosen rather the simple eyes of\nchildhood; for, like troubled waters, sinful souls would have but ill\nreflected her celestial image\" (191. 26).\n\n\n_Flower- and Animal-Oracles_.\n\nMr. Newell has a chapter on \"Flower-Oracles\" (313. 105-114), in which he\ngives many illustrations of the practice noted in the lines of that\nnature-loving mediaeval German singer, with which he prefaces his\nremarks:--\n\n\n \"A spire of grass hath made me gay;\n  It saith I shall find mercy mild.\n  I measured in the self-same way\n  I have seen practised by a child.\"\n  \"Come look and listen if she really does:\n   She does, does not, she does, does not, she does.\n   Each time I try, the end so augureth.\n   That comforts me,--'tis right that we have faith.\"\n\n\nThe ox-eye daisy, the common daisy, the marguerite, the corn-flower,\nthe dandelion, the rose, the pansy, the clover, and a score of other\nflowers and plants (to say nothing of bushes and trees) have their\nleaves and petals pulled off, their seeds counted, their fruit examined,\ntheir seed-tufts blown away, their markings and other peculiarities\ndeciphered and interpreted to determine the fortune of little\nquestioners, the character of the home they are to live in, the clothes\nthey are to be married in, what they are to ride in, the profession they\nare to adopt, whether they are to marry, remain single, become monk or\nnun, whether they are to be drowned or hanged, rich or poor, honest or\ncriminal, whether they are to go to hell, purgatory, or paradise.\n\nThe use of drawing straws or blades of grass from the hand to determine\nwho is \"it,\" or who shall begin the game, the blowing of the dandelion\nin seed, the counting of apple-pips, or the leaves on a twig, and a\nhundred other expedients belong to the same category. All these are\noracles, whose priest and interpreter is the child; first, in \"those\nsweet, childish days that were as long as twenty days are now,\" and then\nagain when love rules the heart and the appeal to the arbitrament of\nnature--for not alone all mankind but all nature loves a lover--is made\nin deepest faith and confidence. In the golden age of childhood and in\nthe springtime of love all nature is akin to man. The dandelion is\nespecially favoured as an oracle of children, and of those who are but\n\"children of a larger growth.\" To quote from Folkard (448. 309):--\n\n\"The dandelion is called the rustic oracle; its flowers always open\nabout 5 A.M. and shut at 8 P.M., serving the shepherd for a clock.\n\n\n  'Leontodons unfold\n  On the swart turf their ray-encircled gold,\n  With Sol's expanding beam the flowers unclose,\n  And rising Hesper lights them to repose.'--_Darwin_.\n\n\nAs the flower is the shepherd's clock, so are the feathery seedtufts his\nbarometer, predicting calm or storm. These downy seedballs, which\nchildren blow off to find out the hour of day, serve for other oracular\npurposes. Are you separated from the object of your love? Carefully\npluck one of the feathery heads; charge each of the little feathers\ncomposing it with a tender thought; turn towards the spot where the\nloved one dwells; blow, and the seed-ball will convey your message\nfaithfully. Do you wish to know if that dear one is thinking of you?\nblow again; and if there be left upon the stalk a single aigrette, it is\na proof you are not forgotten. Similarly, the dandelion is consulted as\nto whether the lover lives east, west, north, or south, and whether he\nis coming or not.\n\n\n  'Will he come? I pluck the flower leaves off,\n  And, at each, cry yes, no, yes;\n  I blow the down from the dry hawkweed,\n  Once, twice--hah! I it flies amiss!'--Scott.\"\n\n\nMany interesting details about flower-oracles may be read in the pages\nof Friend (453) and Folkard (448) and in Mr. Dyer's chapters on\n_Plants and the Ceremonial Use_ (435. 145-162), _Children's\nRhymes and Games_ (435. 232-242), etc.\n\nBeasts, birds, and insects are also the child's oracles. Mr. Callaway\ntells us that among the Amazulu, when cattle are lost, and the boys see\nthe bird called _Isi pungumangati_ sitting on a tree, \"they ask it\nwhere the cattle are, and go in the direction in which it points with\nits head.\" The insect known as the _mantis_, or \"praying insect,\"\nis used for a similar purpose (417. 339). In the Sollinger forest\n(Germany), on St. Matthew's day, February 24, the following practice is\nin vogue: A girl takes a girl friend upon her back and carries her to\nthe nearest sheep-pen, at the door of which both knock. If a lamb is the\nfirst to bleat, the future husbands of both girls will be young; if an\nold sheep bleats first, they will both marry old men (391. II. 10).\n\n\n_The Child as Oracle in the Primitive Community._\n\nIn primitive social economy the services of the child, as an\nunprejudiced or oracular decider of fates and fortunes, were often in\ndemand. In the community of Pudu-vayal, in the Carnatic (southeastern\nIndia), \"when the season for cultivation arrives, the arable land in the\nvillage is allotted to the several shareholders in the following manner:\nThe names of each lot and each share-holder are written on pieces of\nthe leaf of the palm-tree, such as is used for village records, and the\nnames of each division of land to be allotted are placed in a row. A\nchild, selected for the purpose, draws by lot a leaf with the name of\nthe principal share-holder, and places under it a number, thus,--\n\n  1--Tannappa.  2--Nina.  3--Narrappa.  4--Malliyan.\n\nIt is thus settled by lottery that Tannappa and his under-share-holders\nare to cultivate the land of the principal share lotted under No. 1.\nTannappa next proceeds to settle in the same way each\nunder-shareholder's portion included in his principal share, and so on,\nuntil the sixty-four shareholders receive each his allotment (461. 32).\"\n\nAt Haddenham, in the county of Buckingham, England, a somewhat similar\npractice survived: \"The method of deciding the ownership, after the\nmeadow was plotted out, was by drawing lots. This was done by cutting up\na common dock-weed into the required number of pieces to represent the\nlots, a well understood sign being carved on each piece, representing\ncrows' feet, hog-troughs, and so on. These were placed in a hat and\nshaken up. Before this could be done, however, notice must be given by\none of the men, calling out, at the top of his voice, 'Harko,' and using\nsome sort of rigmarole, calling people to witness that the lots were\ndrawn fairly and without favour.... The hat being shaken up, and one of\nthe boys standing by, looking on with the greatest interest, is pitched\nupon as a disinterested person to draw the lots, and each owner had to\n'sup up' with the lot that fell to him\" (461.270).\n\nIn the manor of Aston, in the parish of Bampton, Oxfordshire, a like\ncustom prevailed: \"When the grass was fit to cut, the grass stewards and\nSixteens [stewards] summoned the freeholders and tenants to a general\nmeeting, and the following ceremony took place: Four of the tenants came\nforward, each bearing his mark cut on a piece of wood, which, being\nthrown into a hat, were shaken up and drawn by a boy. The first drawing\nentitled its owner to have his portion of the common meadow in set one,\nthe second drawn in set two, etc., and thus four of the tenants have\nobtained their allotments. Four others then came forward, and the same\nprocess is repeated until all the tenants have received their\nallotments\" (461. 166).\n\nIn Kilkenny, \"when the division is made out, lots are prepared. Each man\ntakes a bit of stick or particular stone, well marked; these are\nenveloped in a ball of clay, and a child or stranger is called to place\neach ball upon some one of the lots, by which each man's share is\ndetermined\" (461. 141).\n\nThe Kaffir boy who is to tend the calves in the kraal, while his fellows\nsport and romp about, is selected by lot: \"As many blades of grass as\nthere are boys are taken, and a knot is made on the end of one of them.\nThe biggest boy holds the blades between the fingers and thumb of his\nclosed hand, and whoever draws the blade with the knot has to act as\nherdsman\" (543. 221). Nowadays, children are employed to turn\nroulette-wheels, sort cards, pick out lottery-tickets, select lucky\nnumbers, set machinery going for the first time, and perform other like\nactions; for, though men are all \"children of fortune,\" there is\nsomething about real children that brings luck and prospers all\nenterprises of chance and hazard.\n\nUnconscious action and selection by children have no doubt profoundly\ninfluenced individual men and society at times. De Quincey tells us that\n\"the celebrated Dr. Doddridge is said to have been guided in a primary\nact of choice, influencing his whole after life, by a few chance words\nfrom a child reading aloud to his mother.\" The story of the conversion\nof drunken John Stirling by the na\u00efve remark of his four-year-old boy,\nas the mother was reading Matthew xxv. 31-33, \"Will father be a goat,\nthen, mother?\" finds parallels in other lives and other lands (191.356).\nHere may be considered as belonging some of the \"guessing-games,\"\ncertain of which, in forms remarkably like those in use to-day, were\nknown to the ancients, as Mr. Newell has pointed out, from references in\nXenophon and Petronius Arbiter (313. 147-152).\n\n\n_Oracular Games_.\n\nAs we of to-day see in the sports and games of children some resemblance\nto the realities of life of our ancestors of long ago, and of those\nprimitive peoples who have lingered behind in the march, of culture, so\nhave the folk seen in them some echo, some oracular reverberation, of\nthe deeds of absent elders, some forecast of the things to come.\n\nAmong the Shushwap Indians of British Columbia, the following belief is\ncurrent regarding twins: \"While they are children their mother can see\nby their plays whether her husband, when he is out hunting, will be\nsuccessful or not. When the twins play about and feign to bite each\nother, he will be successful; if they keep quiet, he will return\nempty-handed\" (404. 92).\n\nIn Saxon Transylvania, \"when children play games in which dolls and the\nlike are buried, play church, or sing hymns in the street, it is thought\nto foretell the approaching death of some one in the place\" (392\n(1893).18).\n\nSimilar superstitions attach to others of the games and sports of\nchildhood, in which is reproduced the solemn earnest of an earlier\nmanhood; for, with some peoples, the conviction that what is acted in\npantomime must occur at a later date in all its reality, finds ready\nacceptance, and hence children are sometimes even now debarred from\ncarrying out some of their games, from a vague fear that ill will come\nof them in the manner indicated.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXI.\n\n\nTHE CHILD AS WEATHER-MAKER.\n\n  Rain, rain, go away,\n  Come again, another day.--_Children's Rhyme._\n\nPerhaps the most naive tale in which, the child figures as a\nweather-maker occurs in the life-story of St. Vincent Ferrier (1357-1419\nA.D.), who is credited with performing, in twenty years, no fewer than\n58,400 miracles. While the saint was not yet a year old, a great dearth\nprevailed in Valencia, and one day, while his mother was lamenting over\nit, \"the infant in swaddling-clothes said to her distinctly, 'Mother,\nif you wish for rain, carry me in procession.' The babe was carried in\nprocession, and the rain fell abundantly\" (191.356). Brewer informs us\nthat in 1716 \"Mrs. Hicks and her daughter (a child nine years of age)\nwere hung at Huntingdon [England], for 'selling their souls to the\ndevil; and raising a storm by pulling off their stockings and making a\nlather of soap'\" (191. 344). Saints and witches had power to stop rains\nand lay storms as well as to bring them on.\n\nH. F. Feilberg has given us an interesting account of \"weather-making,\"\na folk-custom still in vogue in several parts of Denmark. It would\nappear that this strange custom exists in Djursland, Samse, Sejere,\nNexele, in the region of Kallundborg. Here \"the women 'make weather' in\nFebruary, the men in March, all in a fixed order, usually according to\nthe numbers of the tax-register. The pastor and his wife, each in his\nand her month, 'make weather' on the first of the month, after them the\nother inhabitants of the village. If the married men are not sufficient\nto fill out the days of the months, the unmarried ones and the servants\nare called upon,--the house-servant perhaps 'making weather' in the\nmorning, the hired boy in the afternoon, and in like manner the\nkitchen-maid and the girl-servant\" (392 (1891). 56, 58). In this case we\nhave a whole family, household, community of \"weather-makers,\" old and\nyoung, and are really taken back to a culture-stage similar to that of\nthe Caribs and Chibchas of America, with whom the chief was\nweather-maker as well as ruler of his people (101. 57).\n\n\n_The \"Bull-Roarer.\"_\n\nIn Mr. Andrew Lang's _Custom and Myth_ there is an entertaining\nchapter on \"The Bull Roarer,\" which the author identifies with the\n[Greek: rombos] mentioned by Clemens of Alexandria as one of the toys of\nthe infant Dionysus. The \"bull-roarer,\" known to the modern English boy,\nthe ancient Greek, the South African, the American Indian, etc., is in\nactual use to-day by children,--Mr. Lang does not seem to be aware of\nthe fact,--as a \"wind-raiser,\" or \"weather-maker.\" Mr. Gregor, speaking\nof northeastern Scotland, says: \"During thunder it was not unusual for\nboys to take a piece of thin wood a few inches wide and about half a\nfoot long, bore a hole in one end of it, and tie a few yards of twine\ninto the hole. The piece of wood was rapidly whirled around the head\nunder the belief that the thunder would cease, or that the thunder-bolt\nwould not strike. It went by the name of the 'thunner-spell'\" (246. 153).\n\nAmong the Kaffirs, according to Mr. Theal:--\n\n\"There is a kind of superstition connected with the _nowidu_ [the\nSouth African 'bull-roarer'], that playing with it invites a gale of\nwind. Men will, on this account, often prevent boys from using it when\nthey desire calm weather for any purpose\" (543. 223).\n\nDr. Boas tells us that the Shushwap Indians of British Columbia\nattribute supernatural powers to twins, and believe: \"They can make good\nand bad weather. In order to produce rain they take a small basket\nfilled with water, which they spill into the air. For making clear\nweather, they use a small stick to the end of which a string is tied. A\nsmall flat piece of wood is attached to the end of the string, and this\nimplement is shaken. Storm is produced by strewing down on the ends of\nspruce branches\" (404. 92).\n\nThe Nootka Indians have a like belief regarding twins: \"They have the\npower to make good and bad weather. They produce rain by painting their\nfaces with black colour and then washing them, or by merely shaking\ntheir heads\" (404. 40).\n\nAmong some of the Kwakiutl Indians, upon the birth of twins \"the father\ndances for four days after the children have been born, with a large\nsquare rattle. The children, by swinging this rattle, can cure disease\nand procure favourable winds and weather\" (404. 62).\n\nIn Prussia, when it snows, the folk-belief is \"the angels are shaking\ntheir little beds,\" and Grimm's story of \"Old Mother Frost\" has another\nrendering of the same myth: \"What are you afraid of, my child! Stop with\nme: if you will put all things in order in my house, then all shall go\nwell with you; only you must take care that you make my bed well, and\nshake tremendously, so that the feathers fly; then it snows upon earth.\nI am Old Mother Frost.\"\n\nAn Eskimo legend states that thunder and lightning are caused by an\nadult person and a child, who went up in the sky long, long ago; they\ncarry a dried seal-skin, which, when rattled, makes the thunder, and\ntorches of tar, which, when waved, cause the lightning.\n\nThe Mississaga Indians explain a fierce storm of thunder and lightning\nby saying that \"the young thunder-birds up in the sky are making merry\nand having a good time.\" In like manner, the Dakotas account for the\nrumbling of thunder, \"because the old thunder-bird begins the peal and\nthe young ones take it up and continue.\"\n\nIn the poetry of the ancient Aryans of Asia the wind is called \"the\nheavenly child,\" some idea of which survives in the old pictures in\nbooks representing the seasons, and in maps, where infants or cherubs\nare figured as blowing at the various points of the compass. But to\nreturn to rain-making. Grimm has called attention to several instances\nin Modern Europe where the child figures as \"rain-maker.\"\n\n\n_Girl Rain-Makers_.\n\nOne of the charms in use in the Rhine country of Germany in the eleventh\ncentury, as recorded by Burchard of Worms, was this: \"A little girl,\ncompletely undressed and led outside the town, had to dig up henbane\nwith the little finger of her right hand, and tie it to the little toe\nof her right foot; she was then solemnly conducted by the other maidens\nto the nearest river, and splashed with water\" (462. II. 593).\n\nIn Servia the rain-maker is well known, and the procedure is as follows:\n\"A girl, called the _dodola_, is stript naked, but so wrapt up in\ngrass, herbs, and flowers, that nothing of her person is to be seen, not\neven the face. Escorted by other maidens, _dodola_ passes from\nhouse to house; before each house they form a ring, she standing in the\nmiddle and dancing alone. The goodwife comes out and empties a bucket of\nwater over the girl, who keeps dancing and whirling all the while; her\ncompanions sing songs, repeating after every line the burden _oy dodo,\noy dodo le_.\" Following is one of the rain-songs:--\n\n  \"To God doth our doda call, oy dodo oy dodo le!\n  That dewy rain may fall, oy dodo oy dodo le!\n  And drench the diggers all, oy dodo oy dodo le!\n  The workers great and small, oy dodo oy dodo le!\n  Even those in house and stall, oy dodo oy dodo le!\"\n\nCorresponding to the Servian _dodola_, and thought to be equally\nefficacious, is the [Greek: _pyrperuna_] of the Modern Greeks. With\nthem the custom is: \"When it has not rained for a fortnight or three\nweeks, the inhabitants of villages and small towns do as follows. The\nchildren choose one of themselves, who is from eight to ten years old,\nusually a poor orphan, whom they strip naked and deck from head to foot\nwith field herbs and flowers: this child is called pyrperuna. The others\nlead her round the village, singing a hymn, and every housewife has to\nthrow a pailful of water over the pyrperuna's head and hand the children\na para (1/4 of a farthing)\" (462. I. 594).\n\nIn a Wallachian song, sung by children when the grain is troubled by\ndrought, occurs the following appeal: \"Papaluga (Father Luga), climb\ninto heaven, open its doors, and send down rain from above, that well\nthe rye may grow!\" (462. II. 593). This brings us naturally to the\nconsideration of the rain-rhymes in English and cognate tongues.\n\n\n_Rain-Rhymes_.\n\nMr. Henderson, treating of the northern counties of England, tells us\nthat when the rain threatens to spoil a boy's holiday, he will sing\nout:--\n\n\n  \"'Rain, rain, go away,\n  Come again another summer's day;\n  Rain, rain, pour down,\n  And come no more to our town.'\n\n\nor:--\n\n\n  'Rain, rain, go away,\n  And come again on washing day,'\n\n\nor, more quaintly, yet:--\n\n\n  'Rain, rain, go to Spain;\n  Fair weather, come again,'\n\n\nand, _sooner_ or _later_, the rain will depart. If there be a\nrainbow, the juvenile devotee must look at it all the time. The\nSunderland version runs thus:--\n\n\n  'Rain, rain, pour down\n  Not a drop in our town,\n  But a pint and a gill\n  All a-back of Building Hill.'\"\n\n\nMr. Henderson remarks that \"such rhymes are in use, I believe, in every\nnursery in England,\" and they are certainly well known, in varying forms\nin America. A common English charm for driving away the rainbow brings\nthe child at once into the domain of the primitive medicine-man.\nSchoolboys were wont, \"on the appearance of a rainbow, to place a couple\nof straws or twigs across on the ground, and, as they said, 'cross out\nthe rainbow.' The West Riding [Yorkshire] receipt for driving away a\nrainbow is: 'Make a cross of two sticks and lay four pebbles on it, one\nat each end'\" (469. 24, 25).\n\nMr. Gregor, for northeastern Scotland, reports the following as being\nsung or shouted at the top of the voice by children, when a rainbow\nappears (246. 153, 154):--\n\n\n(1)\n \"Rainbow, rainbow,\n  Brack an gang hame,\n  The coo's wi' a calf,\n  The yow's wi' a lam,\n  An' the coo 'ill be calvt,\n  Or ye win hame.\"\n\n(2)\n \"Rainbow, rainbow,\n  Brack an gang hame;\n  Yir father an yir mither's aneth the layer-stehm;\n  Yir coo's calvt, yir mare's foalt,\n  Yir wife'll be dead\n  Or ye win hame.\"\n\n(3)\n \"Rainbow, rainbow,\n  Brack an gang hame,\n  Yir father and mither's aneth the grave stehn.\"\n\n\nEven more touching is the appeal made by the children in Berwickshire,\naccording to Mr. Henderson (469. 24, 25):--\n\n\n  \"Rainbow, rainbow, hand awa' hame,\n  A' yer bairns are dead but ane,\n  And it lies sick at yon gray stane,\n  And will be dead ere you win hame.\n  Gang owre the Drumaw [a hill] and yont the lea\n  And down by the side o' yonder sea;\n  Your bairn lies greeting [crying] like to dee,\n  And the big tear-drop is in his e'e.\"\n\n\nSometimes the child-priest or weather-maker has to employ an\nintermediary. On the island of Rugen and in some other parts of Germany\nthe formula is (466 a. 132):--\n\n\n \"Leeve Katriene\n  Lat de stinnen schienen,\n  Lat'n ragen overgahn,\n  Lat de stunnen wedder kam'n.\"\n  [\"Dear (St.) Catharine,\n  Let the sun shine,\n  Let the rain pass off,\n  Let the sun come again.\"]\n\n\nIn Eugen the glow-worm is associated with \"weather-making.\" The children\ntake the little creature up, put it on their hand and thus address it\n(466 a. 133):--\n\n\n \"Sunnskurnken fleeg weech,\n  Bring mi morgen good wader,\n  Lat 'en ragen overgahn,\n  Lat de sunnen wedder kam'n,\n  Bring mi morgen good wader.\"\n\n\nIf the insect flies away, the good weather will come; if not, there will\nbe rain.\n\nThe Altmark formula, as given by Danneil (_Worterb_., p. 81) is:--\n\n\"Herrgottsw\u00f6rmk'n, fl\u00eag nao'n Himmel, segg d\u00een Vaoder un Mutter, dat't\nmorgen un \u00e4\u00f6wermorg'n g\u00f4d W\u00e4d'r wart.\" [\"Little God's-worm, fly to\nheaven, tell your father and mother to make it fine weather to-morrow\nand the day after to-morrow.\"]\n\nAnother rain-rhyme from Altmark, sung by children in the streets when it\nrains, is harsh in tone, and somewhat derisive as well (p. 153):--\n\n\n  \"R\u00e4g'n blatt, maok mi nich natt,\n  Maok den olln Paop'n natt\n  De'n B\u00fcd'l vull Geld hat.\"\n  [\"Rain, don't make me wet,\n  Make the old priest wet,\n  Who has a purse full of money.\"]\n\n\nConcerning the Kansa Indians, Rev. J. Owen Dorsey informs us that the\nmembers of the Tcihacin or Kanze gens are looked upon as \"wind people,\"\nand when there is a blizzard the other Kansa appeal to them: \"O,\nGrandfather, I wish good weather! Please cause one of your children to\nbe decorated!\" The method of stopping the blizzard is as follows: \"Then\nthe youngest son of one of the Kanze men, say one over four feet high,\nis chosen for the purpose, and painted with red paint. The youth rolls\nover and over in the snow and reddens it for some distances all around\nhim. This is supposed to stop the storm\" (433. 410).\n\nWith the Kwakiutl Indians of Vancouver Island, as with the Shushwaps and\nNootka, twins are looked upon in the light of wonderful beings, having\npower over the weather. Of them it is said \"while children they are able\nto summon any wind by motions of their hands, and can make fair or bad\nweather. They have the power of curing diseases, and use for this\npurpose a rattle called K.'o\u00e3'qaten, which has the shape of a flat box\nabout three feet long by two feet wide.\" Here the \"weather-maker\" and\nthe \"doctor\" are combined in the same person. Among the Tsimshian\nIndians, of British Columbia, twins are believed to control the weather,\nand these aborigines \"pray to wind and rain: 'Calm down, breath of the\ntwins'\" (403. 51).\n\nIn the creation-legend of the Indians of Mt. Shasta (California), we are\ntold that once a terrific storm came up from the sea and shook to its\nbase the wigwam,--Mt. Shasta itself,--in which lived the \"Great Spirit\"\nand his family. Then \"The 'Great Spirit' commanded his daughter, little\nmore than an infant, to go up and bid the wind be still, cautioning her\nat the same time, in his fatherly way, not to put her head out into the\nblast, but only to thrust out her little red arm and make a sign before\nshe delivered her message.\" But the temptation to look out on the world\nwas too strong for her, and, as a result, she was caught up by the storm\nand blown down the mountain-side into the land of the grizzly-bear\npeople. From the union of the daughter and the grizzly-bear people\nsprang a new race of men. When the \"Great Spirit\" was told his daughter\nstill lived, he ran down the mountain for joy, but finding that his\ndaughter had become a mother, he was so angry that he cursed the\ngrizzly-people and turned them into the present race of bears of that\nspecies; them and the new race of men he drove out of their\nwigwam,--Little Mt. Shasta,--then \"shut to the door, and passed away to\nhis mountains, carrying his daughter; and her or him no eye has since\nseen.\" Hence it is that \"no Indian tracing his descent from the spirit\nmother and the grizzly, will kill a grizzly-bear; and if by an evil\nchance a grizzly kill a man in any place, that spot becomes memorable,\nand every one that passes casts a stone there till a great pile is\nthrown up\" (396. III. 91).\n\nHere the weather-maker touches upon deity and humanity at once.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXII.\n\n\nTHE CHILD AS HEALER AND PHYSICIAN.\n\nFingunt se medicos quivis idiota, sacerdos, Iud\u00e6us, monachus, histrio,\nrasor, anus. [Any unskilled person, priest, Jew, monk, actor, barber,\nold woman, turns himself into a physician.]--_Medical Proverb_.\n\n\n_The Child as Healer and Physician_.\n\nThough Dr. Max Bartels' (397) recent treatise--the best book that has\nyet appeared on the subject of primitive medicine--has no chapter\nconsecrated to the child as healer and physician, and Mr. Black's\n_Folk-Medicine_ (401) contains but a few items under the rubric of\npersonal cures, it is evident from data in these two works, and in many\nother scattered sources, that the child has played a not unimportant\nr\u00f4le in the history of folk-medicine. Among certain primitive peoples\nthe healing art descends by inheritance, and in various parts of the\nworld unbaptized children, illegitimate children, and children born out\nof due time and season, or deformed in some way, have been credited with\nspecial curative powers, or looked upon as \"doctors born.\"\n\nIn Spain, to kiss an unbaptized child before any one else has done so,\nis a panacea against toothache (258. 100). In north-eastern Scotland, \"a\nseventh son, without a daughter, if worms were put into his hand before\nbaptism, had the power of healing the disease (ring-worm) simply by\nrubbing the affected part with his hand. The common belief about such a\nson was that he was a doctor by nature\" (246. 47). In Ireland, the\nhealing powers are acquired \"if his hand has, before it has touched\nanything for himself, been touched with his future medium of cure. Thus,\nif silver is to be the charm, a sixpence, or a three-penny piece, is put\ninto his hand, or meal, salt, or his father's hair, 'whatever substance\na seventh son rubs with must be worn by his parents as long as he\nlives.'\" In some portions of Europe, the seventh son, if born on Easter\nEve, was able to cure tertian or quartan fevers. In Germany, \"if a woman\nhas had seven sons in succession, the seventh can heal all manner of\nhurt,\"--his touch is also said to cure wens at the throat (462. III.\n1152). In France, the _marcou_, or seventh son, has had a great\nreputation; his body is said to be marked with a _fleur-de-lis_,\nand the cure is effected by his simply breathing upon the diseased part,\nor by allowing the patient to touch a mark on his body. Bourke calls\nattention to the fact that among the Cherokee Indians of the\nsoutheastern United States is this same belief that the seventh son is\n\"a natural-born prophet with the gift of healing by touch\" (406. 457).\nIn France similar powers have also been attributed to the fifth son. The\nseventh son of a seventh son is still more famous, while to the\ntwenty-first son, born without the intervention of a daughter,\nprodigious cures are ascribed.\n\nNor is the other sex entirely neglected. In France a \"seventh daughter\"\nwas believed to be able to cure chilblains on the heels (462. III.\n1152), and in England, as recently as 1876, the seventh daughter of a\nseventh daughter claimed great skill as an herb-doctor.\n\nIn northeastern Scotland, \"a posthumous child was believed to possess\nthe gift of curing almost any disease by looking on the patient\" (246.\n37), and in Donegal, Ireland, the peasants \"wear a lock of hair from a\nposthumous child, to guard against whooping-cough,\" while in France,\nsuch a child was believed to possess the power of curing wens, and a\nchild that has never known its father was credited with ability to cure\nswellings and to drive away tumours (462. III. 1152).\n\nTwins, in many countries, have been regarded as prodigies, or as endowed\nwith unusual powers. In Essex, England, \"a 'left twin' (_i.e._ a\nchild who has survived its fellow-twin) is thought to have the power of\ncuring the thrush by blowing three times into the patient's mouth, if\nthe patient is of the opposite sex\" (469. 307). Among the Kwakiutl\nIndians of British Columbia, twins are said to be able to cure disease\nby swinging a rattle, and in Liberia (Africa) they are thought to\npossess great healing powers, for which reason most of them become\ndoctors (397. 75).\n\nIn Sweden, \"a first-born child that has come into the world with teeth\ncan cure a bad bite.\" In Scotland, \"those who were born with their feet\nfirst possessed great power to heal all kinds of sprains, lumbago, and\nrheumatism, either by rubbing the afflicted part, or by trampling on it.\nThe chief virtue lay in the feet\" (246. 45). In Cornwall, England, the\nmother of such a child also possessed the power to cure rheumatism by\ntrampling on the patients. The natives of the island of Mas, off the\nwestern coast of Sumatra, consider children born with their feet first\nspecially gifted for the treatment of dislocations (397. 75). Among the\nsuperstitions prevalent among the Mexicans of the Rio Grande region in\nTexas, Captain Bourke mentions the belief: \"To cure rheumatism, stroke\nthe head of a little girl three times--a golden-haired child preferred\"\n(407. 139). The Jews of Galicia seek to cure small-pox by rubbing the\npustules with the tresses of a girl, and think that the scrofula will\ndisappear \"if a _Bech\u00f4r_, or first-born son, touches it with his\nthumb and little finger\" (392 (1893). 142).\n\nThe power of curing scrofula--touching for the \"King's Evil\"--possessed\nby monarchs of other days, was thought to be hereditary, and seems to\nhave been practised by them at a tender age. In England this \"cure\" was\nin vogue from the time of Edward the Confessor until 1719, when,\naccording to Brewer, the \"office\" disappeared from the Prayer-book. The\nFrench custom dated back to Anne of Clovis (A.D. 481). In the year of\nhis coronation (1654 A.D.), when Louis XV. was but eleven years old, he\nis said to have touched over two thousand sufferers (191. 308).\n\n\n_Blood of Children_.\n\nIn the dark ages the blood of little children had a wide-spread\nreputation for its medicinal virtue. The idea that diseased and withered\nhumanity, having failed to discover the fountain of eternal youth, might\nfind a new well-spring of life in bathing in, or being sprinkled with,\nthe pure blood of a child or a virgin, had long a firm hold upon the\nminds of the people. Hartmann von Aue's story, _Der arme Heinrich_,\nand a score of similar tales testify of the folk-faith in the\nregeneration born of this horrible baptism--a survival or recrudescence\nof the crassest form of the doctrine that the life dwells in the blood.\nStrack, in his valuable treatise on \"Human Blood, in Superstition and\nCeremonial,\" devotes a brief section to the belief in the cure of\nleprosy by means of human blood (361. 20-24). The Targumic gloss on\nExodus ii. 23--the paraphrase known as the Pseudo-Jonathan--explains\n\"that the king of Egypt, suffering from leprosy, ordered the first-born\nof the children of Israel to be slain that he might bathe in their\nblood,\" and the Midrasch Schemoth Rabba accounts for the lamentation of\nthe people of Israel at this time, from the fact that the Egyptian\nmagicians had told the king that there was no cure for this loathsome\ndisease, unless every evening and every morning one hundred and fifty\nJewish children were slain and the monarch bathed twice daily in their\nblood. Pliny tells us that the Egyptians warmed with human blood the\nseats in their baths as a remedy against the dreaded leprosy.\n\nAccording to the early chroniclers, Constantine the Great, on account of\nhis persecution of the Christians, was afflicted with leprosy, which\nwould yield neither to the skill of native nor to that of foreign\nphysicians. Finally, the priests of Jupiter Capitolinus recommended a\nbath in the blood of children. The children were gathered together, but\n\"the lamentations of their mothers so affected the Emperor, that he\ndeclared his intention of suffering the foul disease, rather than be the\ncause of so much woe and misery.\" Afterwards he was directed in a dream\nto Pope Sylvester, was converted, baptized into the Church, and restored\nto health (361. 22).\n\nOther instances of this fearful custom are mentioned in the stories of\nPercival (in the history of the Holy Grail), of Giglan de Galles et\nGeoffrey de Mayence, and the wide-spread tale of Amicus and Amelius and\nits variants, Louis and Alexander, Engelhard and Engeltrut, Oliver and\nArthur, etc., in all of which one of the friends is afflicted with\nleprosy, but is cured through the devotion of the other, who sacrifices\nhis own children in order to obtain the blood by which alone his friend\ncan be restored to health. Usually, we are told, God rewards his\nfidelity and the children are restored to life.\n\nThe physicians of King Richard I. of England are said, in one of the\nfictions which grew up about his distinguished personality, to have\nutterly failed to give relief to the monarch, who was suffering from,\nleprosy. At last a celebrated Jew, after exhausting his skill without\ncuring the monarch, told him that his one chance of recovery lay in\nbathing in the fresh blood of a newborn child, and eating its heart just\nas it was taken out of the body. That the king adopted this horrible\nremedy we are left to doubt, but of Louis XI of France, several\nchroniclers affirm that he went even farther than the others, and, in\norder to become rejuvenated, drank large quantities of the blood of\nyoung children. In all these cases the character of the child as fetich\nseems to be present, and the virtues ascribed to the blood drawn from\nchildren (not always killed) belong not alone to medicine, but also to\nprimitive religion (361. 23).\n\nEven the dead body of a child or some one of its members plays a\n_role_ in folk-medicine in many parts of the globe. Grimm cites\nfrom a document of 1408 A.D., a passage recording the cure of a leper,\nwho had been stroked with the hand of a still-born (and, therefore,\nsinless) child, which had been rubbed with salve (361. 34). In\nSteiermark, so Dr. Strack informs us, \"a favourite cure for birth-marks\nis to touch them with the hand of a dead person, especially of a child\"\n(361. 35). Among the charges made by the Chinese against the foreigners,\nwho are so anxious to enter their dominions, is one of \"kidnapping and\nbuying children in order to make charms and medicines out of their eyes,\nhearts, and other portions of their bodies.\" This belief induced the\nriot of June, 1870, an account of which has been given by Baron Hubner,\nand similar incidents occurred in 1891 and 1892. Somewhat the same\ncharges have been made (in 1891, for example) by the natives of\nMadagascar against the French and other foreigners (361. 37).\n\n\n_Medicine-Men._\n\nAmong many primitive peoples, as is the case with the Zulus, Bechuana,\nJapanese (formerly), Nez Perces, Cayuse, Walla-Wallas, Wascos, etc., the\noffice of \"doctor\" is hereditary, and is often exercised at a\ncomparatively early age (397. 275). Dr. Pitre has recently discussed\nsome interesting cases in this connection in modern Italy (322).\n\nAmong certain Indian tribes of the Rocky Mountain region of the\nnorthwestern United States, although he cannot properly practise his art\nuntil he reaches manhood, the \"medicine-man\" (here, doctor) begins his\ncandidacy in his eighth or tenth year. Of the \"wizards,\" or \"doctors\" of\nthe Patagonians, Falkner says, that they \"are selected in youth for\nsupposed qualifications, especially if epileptic\" (406. 456). While\namong the Dieyerie of South Australia, the \"doctor\" is not allowed to\npractise before having been circumcised, or to enter upon the duties of\nhis office before completing his tenth year, those young people become\n\"doctors,\" who, as children, \"have seen the devil,\" i.e. have seen in a\ntroubled dream the demon _Kutchie_, or have had the nightmare. The\nbelief is, that in this way, the power to heal has been imparted to the\nchild (397. 75). Among the Yuki Indians of California, \"the\n'poison-doctor' is the most important member of the profession. The\noffice is hereditary; a little child is prepared for holding it by being\npoisoned and then cured, which, in their opinion, renders him\ninvulnerable ever afterward\" (519. 131). Among the Tunguses, of Siberian\nllussia, a child afflicted with cramps or with bleeding at the nose and\nmouth, is declared by an old shaman (\"medicine-man,\" or\n\"medicine-woman\") to be called to the profession, and is then termed\n_hudildon_. After the child has completed its second year, it is\ntaken care of by an old shaman, who consecrates it with various\nceremonies; from this time forth it is called _jukejeren_, and is\ninstructed by the old man in the mysteries of his art (482. III. 105).\nWith these people also the female shamans have the assistance of boys\nand girls to carry their implements and perform other like services\n(397. 66). An excellent account of shamanism in Siberia and European\nEussia has been given by Professor Mikhailovskii (504), of Moscow, who\ngives among other details a notice of the _kamlanie_, or\nspirit-ceremonial of a young shaman belonging to one of the Turkish\ntribes of the Altai Mountains (504. 71). Among the Samoyeds and Ostiaks\nof Siberia, \"the shamans succeed to the post by inheritance from father\nto son\" (504. 86). On the death of a shaman, \"his son, who desires to\nhave power over the spirits, makes of wood an image of the dead man's\nhand, and by means of this symbol succeeds to his father's power. Those\ndestined to be shamans spend their youth in practices which irritate the\nnervous system and excite the imagination.\"\n\nAmong the Buryats of southern Siberia, it is thought that \"the dead\nancestors who were shamans choose from their living kinsfolk a boy who\nis to inherit their power. This child is marked by signs; he is often\nthoughtful, fond of solitude, a seer of prophetic visions, subject,\noccasionally, to fits, during which he is unconscious. The Buryats\nbelieve that at such a time the boy's soul is with the spirits, who are\nteaching him; if he is to be a white shaman, with the western spirits;\nif he is to be a black shaman, among the eastern spirits.\" Usually, the\nyouth does not enter upon his duties until he has reached his twentieth\nyear (504.87).\n\nThe tribes of the Altai believe that \"the ability to shamanize is\ninborn; instruction only gives a knowledge of the chants, prayers, and\nexternal rites.\" There is in early life an innate tendency to sickness\nand frenzy, against which, we are told, the elect struggle in vain\n(504.90): \"Those who have the shamanist sickness endure physical\ntorments; they have cramps in the arms and legs, until they are sent to\na _kam_ [shaman] to be educated. The tendency is hereditary; a\n_kam_ often has children predisposed to attacks of illness. If, in\na family where there is no shaman, a boy or a girl is subject to fits,\nthe Altaians are persuaded that one of its ancestors was a shaman. A\n_kam_ told Potanin that the shamanist passion was hereditary, like\nnoble birth. If the _kam's_ own son does not feel any inclination,\nsome one of the nephews is sure to have the vocation. There are cases of\nmen becoming shamans at their own wish, but these _kams_ are much\nless powerful than those born to the profession.\" Thus the whole\ntraining of the _kam_ from childhood up to exercise of his official\nduties is such as \"to augment his innate tendencies, and make him an\nabnormal man, unlike his fellows.\" When fully qualified, he functions as\n\"priest, physician, wizard, diviner.\"\n\n\n_Moses_.\n\nOf the childhood of Moses Oriental legend has much to say. One story\ntells how the daughter of Pharaoh, a leper, was healed as she stretched\nout her hand to the infant whom she rescued from the waters of Nile.\nWell thus resumes the tale (547.122):--\n\n\"The eldest of the seven princesses first discovered the little ark and\ncarried it to the bank to open it. On her removing the lid, there beamed\na light upon her, which her eyes were not able to endure. She cast a\nveil over Moses, but at that instant her own face, which hitherto had\nbeen covered with scars and sores of all the most hideous colours\nimaginable, shone like the moon in its brightness and purity, and her\nsisters exclaimed in amazement, 'By what means hast thou been so\nsuddenly freed from leprosy?' 'By the miraculous power of this child,'\nreplied the eldest. The glance which beamed upon me when I beheld it\nunveiled, has chased away the impurity of my body, as the rising sun\nscatters the gloom of night.' The six sisters, one after the other, now\nlifted the veil from Moses' face, and they, too, became fair as if they\nhad been formed of the finest silver. The eldest then took the ark upon\nher head, and carried it to her mother, Asia, relating to her in how\nmiraculous a manner both she and her sisters had been healed.\"\n\nWe also learn that when Moses was six years old, being teased by Pharaoh\nuntil he was angry, he kicked the throne over so that the king fell and\ninjured himself so that he bled at the mouth and nose. The intercession\nof Asia and the seven princesses seemed vain, and the king was about to\nthrust Moses through with his sword, when \"there flew a white cock\ntoward the king, and cried: 'Pharaoh, if thou spill the blood of this\nchild, thy daughters shall be more leprous than before.' Pharaoh cast a\nglance upon the princesses; and, as if from dread and fright, their\nfaces were already suffused with a ghastly yellow, he desisted again\nfrom his bloody design\" (547. 127).\n\n\n_Child-Saints._\n\nTo other heroes, kings, saints, the power to heal which characterized\ntheir years of discretion is often ascribed to them in childhood,\nespecially where and when it happens that the same individual is\nprophet, priest, and king. In the unnumbered miracles of the Church\nchildren have often figured. Lupellus, in his life of St. Frodibert\n(seventh century A.D.), says: \"When Frodibert was a mere child he cured\nhis mother's blindness, as, in the fulness of love and pity, he kissed\nher darkened eyes, and signed them with the sign of the cross. Not only\nwas her sight restored, but it was keener than ever\" (191. 45). Of St.\nPatrick (373-464 A.D.) it is told: \"On the day of his baptism he gave\nsight to a man born blind; the blind man took hold of the babe's hand,\nand with it made on the ground a sign of the cross.\" Another account\nmakes the miracle a triple one: \"A blind man, taking hold of St.\nPatrick's right hand, guided it into making on the ground a cross, when\ninstantly three miracles ensued: (1) A spring of water bubbled from the\ndry ground; (2) the blind man, bathing his eyes with this water,\nreceived his sight; and (3) the man, who before could neither write nor\nread, was instantly inspired with both these gifts\" (191. 237).\n\nBrewer relates other instances of the miraculous power of the\nchild-saint from the lives of St. Genevieve (423-512, A.D.), St. Vitus,\nwho at the age of twelve caused the arms and legs of the Emperor\nAurelian to wither, but on the Emperor owning the greatness of God, the\n\"child-magician,\" as the monarch had termed him, made Aurelian whole\nagain; St. Sampson (565 A.D.), who cured a fellow schoolboy of a deadly\nserpent's bite; Marianne de Quito (1618-1645 A.D.), who cured herself of\na gangrened finger (191. 442).\n\nIn his interesting chapters on _Fairy Births and Human Midwives_,\nMr. Hartland informs us that young girls have sometimes been called upon\nto go to fairy-land and usher into the world of elves some little sprite\nabout to be born. Instances of this folk-belief are cited from\nPomerania, Swabia, Silesia. Rewards and presents are given the maiden on\nher return, and often her whole family is blest, if she has acted well\n(258. 37-92).\n\nClose, indeed, are often the ties between the saint and the physician;\nthe healer of the soul and the healer of the body are frequently the\nsame. Other links bind the doctor to the hero and to the god. Of\nAEsculapius, the great son of Apollo, exposed in childhood by his\nmother, but nurtured by the goat of the shepherd Aresthanas, and guarded\nby his dog, when he grew up to manhood, became so skilled in the uses of\nherbs and other medicines that he received divine honours after his\ndeath and came to be looked upon as the inventor of medicine as well as\ngod of the healing art.\n\n\n_Origin of the Healing Art_\n\nWith some primitive peoples even the child is their. AEsculapius, at\nonce human and divine, hero and god. An Iroquois legend recorded by Mrs.\nSmith attributes to a boy the discovery of witch-charms: \"A certain boy\nwhile out hunting came across a beautiful snake. Taking a great fancy to\nit, he caught it and cared for it, feeding it on birds, etc., and made a\nbark bowl in which he kept it. He put fibres, down, and small feathers\ninto the water with the snake, and soon found that these things had\nbecome living beings. From this fact he naturally conjectured that the\nsnake was endowed with supernatural powers.\" So he went on\nexperimenting, and discovered many of the virtues of the snake water:\nrubbing it on his eyes would make him see in the dark and see hidden\nthings; pointing his finger, after having dipped it in the bowl, at any\none would bewitch that person; by using it in certain other ways he\ncould become like a snake, travel very fast, even become invisible;\ndeadly indeed were arrows dipped in this liquid, and pointing a feather\nso dipped at any game-animal would cause it to start for the creature\nand kill it. In this fashion the boy learned the secret art of\nwitchcraft. Afterwards, by experimenting, he discovered, among the\nvarious roots and herbs, the proper antidotes and counteracting agents\n(534, 69, 70).\n\nIn his detailed account of the medicine-society of the Ojibwa, Dr.\nHoffman tells how the mysteries of the \"Grand Medicine\" were taught to\nthe Indians by the Sun-spirit, who at the request of the great Manido,\ncame down to earth and dwelt among men in the form of a little boy,\nraising to life again his dead play-mate, the child of the people who\nadopted him. After his mission was fulfilled, he \"returned to his\nkindred spirits, for the Indians would have no need to fear sickness, as\nthey now possessed the Grand Medicine which would enable them to live.\nHe also said that his spirit could bring a body to life but once, and he\nwould now return to the sun, from which they would feel his influence.\"\nSo the institution of \"medicine\" among the Ojibwa is called\n_Kw\u00ed-w\u00ed-sens' we-di'-shi-tshi ge-wi-nip_, \"Little-boy-his-work\"\n(473. 172,173).\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXIII.\n\n\nTHE CHILD AS SHAMAN AND PRIEST.\n\n  Nearer the gates of Paradise than we\n  Our children breathe its air, its angels see;\n  And when they pray, God hears their simple prayer,\n  Yea, even sheathes his sword, in judgment bare.\n\n  --_R. H. Stoddard._\n\n  The youth, who daily farther from the east\n  Must travel, still is nature's priest.--_Wordsworth_.\n\n\n_Priestly Training_.\n\nInstruction in the priestly art in Africa begins sometimes almost at\nbirth. Bastian informs us (529. 58):--\n\n\"Women who have been long barren, or who have lost their children, are\nwont to dedicate to the service of the fetich the unborn fruit of the\nwomb, and to present to the village priest the new-born babe. He\nexercises it, at an early age, in those wild dances with deafening\ndrum-accompaniment, by means of which he is accustomed to gain the\nrequisite degree of spiritual exaltation; and in later years he\ninstructs his pupil in the art of understanding, while his frame is\nwracked with convulsions, the inspirations of the demon and of giving\nfitting responses to questions proposed.\"\n\nOf the one sex we read (529. 56):--\n\n\"Every year the priests assemble the boys who are entering the state of\npuberty, and take them into the forest. There they settle and form an\nindependent commonwealth, under very strict regulations, however; and\nevery offence against the rules is sternly punished. The wound given in\ncircumcision commonly heals in one week, yet they remain in the woods\nfor a period of six months, cut off from all intercourse with the\noutside world, and in the meanwhile each receives separate instruction\nhow to prepare his medicine-bag. Forever after, each one is mystically\nunited with the fetich who presides over his life. Even their nearest\nrelatives are not allowed to visit the boys in this retreat; and women\nare threatened with the severest punishment if they be only found in the\nneighbourhood of a forest containing such a boy-colony. When the priest\ndeclares the season of probation at an end, the boys return home and are\nwelcomed back with great rejoicings.\"\n\nConcerning the other, Bosman, as reported by Schultze, says that among\nthe negroes of Whida, where snake-worship prevails (529. 80)--\n\n\"Every year the priestesses, armed with clubs, go about the country,\npicking out and carrying away girls of from eight to twelve years of\nage, for the service of the god. These children are kindly treated and\ninstructed in songs and dances _in majorem gloriam_ of his\nsnakeship. In due time they are consecrated by tattooing on their bodies\ncertain figures, especially those of serpents. The negroes suppose it is\nthe snake himself that marks his elect thus. Having received their\ntraining and consecration, which are paid for by the parents according\nto their means, the children return home; and when they attain their\nmajority are espoused to the Serpent.\"\n\nIn Ashanti, according to Ellis, the children of a priest or of a\npriestess \"are not ordinarily educated for the priestly profession, one\ngeneration being usually passed over [a curious primitive recognition of\nthe idea in our common saying, \"genius skips a generation\"], and the\ngrand-children selected\" (438. 121). At the village of Suru several\nchildren (male and female) and youths are handed over to the priests and\npriestesses to be instructed in the service of the gods, when the\ngoddess was thought to be offended, and in the ceremonials when the new\nmembers are tested, youths and children take part, smeared all over with\nwhite (438. 130).\n\nAmong the natives of the Andaman Islands, as Mr. Man informs us,\nsometimes even \"a young boy is looked upon as a coming\n_oko-paiad_.\" The word signifies literally \"dreamer,\" and such\nindividuals are \"credited with the possession of supernatural powers,\nsuch as second sight\" (498. 28).\n\nCaptain Bourke, in his detailed account of the \"medicine-men\" of the\nApaches, speaking of the Pueblos Indians, says: \"While I was at Tusayan,\nin 1881, I heard of a young boy, quite a child, who was looked up to by\nthe other Indians, and on special occasions made his appearance decked\nout in much native finery of beads and gewgaws, but the exact nature of\nhis duties and supposed responsibilities could not be ascertained.\" He\nseems to have been a young \"medicine-man\" (406. 456).\n\nInto the \"medicine-society\" of the Delaware Indians \"the boys were\nusually initiated at the age of twelve or fourteen years, with very\ntrying ceremonies, fasting, want of sleep, and other tests of their\nphysical and mental stamina.\" Of these same aborigines the missionary\nBrainerd states: \"Some of their diviners (or priests) are endowed with\nthe spirit in infancy; others in adult age. It seems not to depend upon\ntheir own will, nor to be acquired by any endeavours of the person who\nis the subject of it, although it is supposed to be given to children\nsometimes in consequence of some means which the parents use with them\nfor that purpose\" (516. 81).\n\nAmong the Chippeway (Ojibwa), also, children are permitted to belong to\nthe \"Mid\u00e9wewin or 'Grand Medicine Society,'\" of which Dr. W. J. Hoffman\nhas given so detailed a description--Sikassige, a Chippeway of Mille\nLacs, having taken his \"first degree\" at ten years of age (473.172).\n\n\n_The Angakok_.\n\nAmong the Eskimo the _angakok_, or shaman, trains his child from\ninfancy in the art of sorcery, taking him upon his knee during his\nincantations and conjurations. In one of the tales in the collection of\nRink we read (525. 276): \"A great _angakok_ at his conjurations\nalways used to talk of his having been to Akilinek [a fabulous land\nbeyond the ocean], and his auditors fully believed him. Once he forced\nhis little son to attend his conjurations, sitting upon his knee. The\nboy, who was horribly frightened, said: 'Lo! what is it I see? The stars\nare dropping down in the old grave on yonder hill.' The father said:\n'When the old grave is shining to thee, it will enlighten thy\nunderstanding.' When the boy had been lying in his lap for a while, he\nagain burst out: 'What is it I now see? The bones in the old grave are\nbeginning to join together.' The father only repeating his last words,\nthe son grew obstinate and wanted to run away, but the father still kept\nhold of him. Lastly, the ghost from the grave came out, and being called\nupon by the _angakok_, he entered the house to fetch the boy, who\nonly perceived a strong smell of maggots, and then fainted away. On\nrecovering his senses, he found himself in the grave quite naked, and\nwhen he arose and looked about, his nature was totally altered--he found\nhimself able at a sight to survey the whole country to the farthest\nnorth, and nothing was concealed from him. All the dwelling-places of\nman appeared to be close together, side by side; and on looking at the\nsea, he saw his father's tracks stretching across to Akilinek. When\ngoing down to the house, he observed his clothes flying through the air,\nand had only to put forth his hands and feet to make them cover his body\nagain. But on entering the house he looked exceedingly pale, because of\nthe great _angakok_ wisdom he had acquired down in the old grave.\nAfter he had become an _angakok_ himself, he once went on a flight\nto Akilinek.\"\n\nBesides this interesting account of an _angakok_ s\u00e9ance, the same\nauthority, in the story of the _angakok_ Tugtutsiak, records the\nfollowing (525. 324): \"Tugtutsiak and his sister were a couple of\norphans, and lived in a great house. It once happened that all the\ngrown-up people went away berry-gathering, leaving all children at home.\nTugtutsiak, who happened to be the eldest of them, said: 'Let us try to\nconjure up spirits'; and some of them proceeded to make up the necessary\npreparations, while he himself undressed, and covered the door with his\njacket, and closed the opening at the sleeves with a string. He now\ncommenced the invocation, while the other children got mortally\nfrightened, and were about to take flight. But the slabs of the floor\nwere lifted high in the air, and rushed after them. Tugtutsiak would\nhave followed them, but felt himself sticking fast to the floor, and\ncould not get loose until he had made the children come back, and\nordered them to uncover the door, and open the window, on which it again\nbecame light in the room, and he was enabled to get up.\"\n\nGirls, too, among the Eskimo, could become _angakoks_ or shamans.\nRink tells of one who visited the under-world, where she received\npresents, but these, while she was carrying them home, \"were wafted out\nof her hands, and flew back to their first owners.\"\n\nOf the Pawnee Indians, Mr. Grinnell informs us that the legend of their\nwanderings tells of a boy in whose possession was the sacred\n\"medicine-bundle\" of the tribe, and who was regarded as the\noracle-interpreter (480 (1893). 125).\n\n\n_Witches_.\n\nAs Dr. Mackay has remarked, in all the woeful annals of the\nwitch-persecutions, there is nothing so astounding and revolting as the\nburning and putting to death of mere children for practising the arts of\nthe devil. Against innocents of both sexes counting no more than ten or\ntwelve years, there appear on the records the simple but significant\nwords _convicta et combusta_--convicted and burned. Here the\ndegradation of intellect and morals reaches its lowest level; it was\nSatan and not Jesus who bade the children come unto him; their portion\nwas the kingdom of hell, not that of heaven. In W\u00fcrzburg, between 1627\nand 1629, no fewer than 157 persons suffered death for witchcraft\n(guilty and innocent), and among these were included \"the prettiest girl\nin the town\"; two mere boys; a wandering boy of twelve; a maiden of nine\nand her sister, younger in years; two boys of twelve; a girl of fifteen;\na boy of ten and a boy of twelve; three boys of from ten to fifteen\nyears of age. At Lille, in 1639, a whole school of girls--fifty in\nnumber--barely escaped burning as witches (496 a. II. 266-287).\nEverywhere the maddened, deluded people made sacrifice of their dearest\nand holiest, tainted, they thought, with the touch of the evil one (496\na. II. 285). It is a sad comment upon civilization that the last\nexecution for witchcraft in England, which took place in 1716, was that\nof \"Mrs. Hicks and her daughter, _a child nine years of age_, who\nwere hung at Huntingdon, for 'selling their souls to the devil; and\nraising a storm, by pulling off their stockings and making a lather of\nsoap'\" (191. 344).\n\nIn the _London Times_ for Dec. 8, 1845, appeared the following\nextract from the _Courier_, of Inverness, Scotland: \"Our Wick\ncontemporary gives the following recent instance of gross ignorance and\ncredulity: 'Not far from Louisburg there lives a girl who, until a few\ndays ago, was suspected of being a witch. In order to cure her of the\nwitchcraft, a neighbour actually put her into a creed half-filled with\nwood and shavings, and hung her above a fire, setting the shavings in a\nblaze. Fortunately for the child and himself, she was not injured, and\nit is said that the gift of sorcery has been taken away from her. At all\nevents, the intelligent neighbours aver that she is not half so\nwitch-like in appearance since she was singed\" (408. III. 14).\n\nConcerning the sect of the Nagualists or \"Magicians\" of Mexico and\nCentral America Dr. Brinton tells us much in his interesting little book\n(413). These sorcerers recruited their ranks from both sexes, and \"those\nwho are selected to become the masters of these arts are taught from,\nearly childhood how to draw and paint these characters and are obliged\nto learn by heart the formulas, and the names of the ancient Nagualists,\nand whatever else is included in these written documents\" (413. 17).\n\nWe learn that \"in the sacraments of Nagualism, woman was the primate and\nhierophant,\" the admission of the female sex to the most exalted\npositions and the most esoteric degrees being a remarkable feature of\nthis great secret society (413. 33). Indeed, Aztec tradition, like that\nof Honduras, speaks of an ancient sorceress, mother of the occult\nsciences, and some of the legends of the Nagualists trace much of their\nart to a mighty enchantress of old (413. 34).\n\nIn 1713, the Tzendals of Chiapas rose in insurrection under the American\nJoan of Arc, an Indian girl about twenty years of age, whose Spanish\nname was Maria Candelaria. She was evidently a leader of the Nagualists,\nand after the failure of the attempt at revolution disappeared in the\nforest and was no more heard of (413. 35). Dr. Brinton calls attention\nto the fact that Mr. E. G. Squier reports having heard, during his\ntravels in Central America, of a \"_sukia_ woman, as she was called\nby the coast Indians, one who lived alone amid the ruins of an old Maya\ntemple, a sorceress of twenty years, loved and feared, holding death and\nlife in her hands\" (413. 36). There are many other instances of a like\nnature showing the important position assigned to girls and young women\nin the esoteric rites, secret societies, magic, sorcery, and witch-\ncraft of primitive peoples.\n\n\n\"_Boy-Bishop_.\"\n\nA curious custom attached itself to the day of St. Nicholas, of Patara\nin Lycia (died 343 A.D.), the patron saint of boys, after whom the\nAmerican boys' magazine _St. Nicholas_ is aptly named. Brewer, in\nhis _Dictionary of Phrase and Fable_, has the following paragraph\nconcerning the \"Boy-Bishop,\" as he is termed: \"The custom of choosing a\nboy from the cathedral choir, etc., on St. Nicholas day (6th December),\nas a mock bishop is very ancient. The boy possessed episcopal honour for\nthree weeks, and the rest of the choir were his prebends. If he died\nduring the time of his prelacy, he was buried _in pontificalibus_.\nProbably the reference is to Jesus Christ sitting in the Temple among\nthe doctors while he was a boy. The custom was abolished in the reign of\nHenry Eighth\" (p. 110). Brand gives many details of the election and\nconduct of the \"Boy-Bishops,\" and the custom seems to have been in vogue\nin almost every parish and collegiate church (408. I. 415-431). Bishop\nHall thus expresses himself on the subject: \"What merry work it was here\nin the days of our holy fathers (and I know not whether, in some places\nit may not be so still), that upon St. Nicholas, St. Katherine, St.\nClement, and Holy Innocents' Day, children were wont to be arrayed in\nchimers, rochets, surplices, to counterfeit bishops and priests, and to\nbe led with songs and dances from house to house, blessing the people,\nwho stood grinning in the way to expect that ridiculous benediction.\nYea, that boys in that holy sport were wont to sing masses, and to climb\ninto the pulpit to preach (no doubt learnedly and edifyingly) to the\nsimple auditory. And this was so really done, that in the cathedral\nchurch of Salisbury (unless it be lately defaced) there is a perfect\nmonument of one of these Boy-Bishops (who died in the time of his young\npontificality), accoutred in his episcopal robes, still to be seen. A\nfashion that lasted until the later times of King Henry the Eighth, who,\nin 1541, by his solemn Proclamation, printed by Thomas Bertlet, the\nking's printer, _cum privilegio_, straitly forbad the practice.\"\n\nWhen King Edward First was on his way to Scotland, in 1299, we are told,\n\"he permitted one of these Boy-Bishops to say vespers before him in his\nChapel at Heton, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and made a considerable\npresent to the said bishop, and certain other boys that came and sang\nwith him on the occasion, on the 7th of December, the day after St.\nNicholas's Day\" (408. I. 422).\n\nThe records of the churches contain many particulars of the election,\nduties, and regalia of these boy-bishops, whence it would appear that\nexpense and ceremony were not spared on these occasions.\n\nAnother boy-bishop was paid \"thirteen shillings and sixpence for singing\nbefore King Edward the Third, in his chamber, on the day of the Holy\nInnocents\" (408. I. 428).\n\nThe Boy-Bishop of Salisbury, whose service set to music is printed in\nthe _Processionale et usum insignis et preclare Ecclesie Sarum,_\n1566, is actually said \"to have had the power of disposing of such\nprebends there as happened to fall vacant during the days of his\nepiscopacy\" (408. I. 424). With the return of Catholicism under Mary, as\nBrand remarks, the Boy-Bishop was revived, for we find an edict of the\nBishop of London, issued Nov. 13, 1554, to all the clergy of his\ndiocese, to the effect that \"they should have a Boy-Bishop in\nprocession,\" and Warton notes that \"one of the child-bishop's songs, as\nit was sung before the Queen's Majesty, in her privy chamber; at her\nmanor of St. James in the Field's on St. Nicholas's Day, and Innocents'\nDay, 1555, by the child-bishop of St. Paul's, with his company, was\nprinted that year in London, containing a fulsome panegyric on the\nqueen's devotions, comparing her to Judith, Esther, the Queen of Sheba,\nand the Virgin Mary\" (408. I. 429-430). The places at which the\nceremonies of the Boy-Bishop have been particularly noted are:\nCanterbury, Eton, St. Paul's, London, Colchester, Winchester, Salisbury,\nWestminster, Lambeth, York, Beverly, Rotherham, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,\netc. The Boy-Bishop was known also in Spain and in France; in the latter\ncountry he was called Pape-Colas. In Germany, at the Council of\nSalzburg, in 1274, on account of the scandals they gave rise to, the\n_ludi noxii quos vulgaris eloquentia_ Episcopatus Puerorum\n_appellat,_ were placed under the ban (408. I. 426).\n\nIt would appear from the mention of \"children strangely decked and\napparelled to counterfeit priests, bishops, and women,\" that on these\noccasions \"divine service was not only performed by boys, but by little\ngirls,\" and \"there is an injunction given to the Benedictine Nunnery of\nGodstowe in Oxfordshire, by Archbishop Peckham, in the year 1278, that\non Innocents' Day the public prayers should not any more be said in the\nchurch of that monastery _per parvulas, i.e._ little girls\" (408.\nI. 428).\n\nThough with the Protestantism of Elizabeth the Boy-Bishop and his revels\nwere put down by the authorities, they continued to survive, in some\nplaces at least, the end of her reign. Puttenham, in his _Art of\nPoesie_ (1589), observes: \"On St. Nicholas's night, commonly, the\nscholars of the country make them a bishop, who, like a foolish boy,\ngoeth about blessing and preaching with such childish terms as make the\npeople laugh at his foolish counterfeit speeches\" (408. 427). Brand\nrecognizes in the _iter ad montem_ of the scholars at Eton the\nremnants of the ceremonies of the Boy-Bishop and his associates (408.\n432); and indeed a passage which he cites from the _Status Schol\u00e6\nEtonensis_ (1560) shows that \"in the Papal times the Eton scholars\n(to avoid interfering, as it should seem, with the boy-bishop of the\ncollege there on St. Nicholas's Day) elected _their_ boy-bishop on\nSt. Hugh's Day, in the month of November.\" In the statutes (1518) of St.\nPaul's School, we meet with the following: \"All these children shall\nevery Childermas Day come to Pauli's Church, and hear the Child-bishop\nsermon; and after he be at the high mass, and each of them offer a\n1_d_. to the Child-bishop, and with them the masters and surveyors\nof the school.\" Brand quotes Strype, the author of the _Ecclesiastical\nMemorials_, as observing: \"I shall only remark, that there might be\nthis at least said in favour of this old custom, that it gave a spirit\nto the children; and the hopes that they might one time or other attain\nto the real mitre made them mind their books.\"\n\nIn his poem, _The Boy and the Angel_, Robert Browning tells how\nTheocrite, the boy-craftsman, sweetly praised God amid his weary toil.\nOn Easter Day he wished he might praise God as Pope, and the angel\nGabriel took the boy's place in the workshop, while the latter became\nPope in Rome. But the new. Pope sickened of the change, and God himself\nmissed the welcome praise of the happy boy. So back went the Pope to the\nworkshop and boyhood, and praise rose up to God as of old. Somewhat\ndifferent from the poet's story is the tale of the lama of Tibet, a real\nboy-pope. The Grand Lama, or Pope, is looked upon as an incarnation of\nBuddha and as immortal, never suffering death, but merely transmigration\n(100. 499).\n\nAmong various peoples, the child has occupied all sacerdotal positions\nfrom acolyte to pope--priest he has been, not in barbarism alone, but in\nthe midst of culture and civilization, where often the jest begun has\nended in sober earnest. In the ecclesiastical, as well as in the\nsecular, kingdom, the child has often come to his throne when \"young in\nyears, but in sage counsel old.\"\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXIV.\n\n\nTHE CHILD AS HERO, ADVENTURER, ETC.\n\n  O wonderful son, that can so astonish a mother!--_Shakespeare._\n\n  Who can foretell for what high cause\n  This Darling of the Gods was born?--_Marvell._\n\n  The haughty eye shall seek in vain\n  What innocence beholds;\n  No cunning finds the keys of heaven,\n  No strength its gate unfolds.\n\n  Alone to guilelessness and love\n  That gate shall open fall;\n  The mind of pride is nothingness,\n  The childlike heart is all.--_Whittier._\n\nCarlyle has said: \"The History of the World is the Biography of Great\nMen.\" He might have added, that in primitive times much of the History\nof the World is the Biography of Great Children. Andrew Lang, in his\nedition of _Perrault's Tales,_ speaking of _Le Petit Poucet_\n(Hop o' My Thumb), says: \"While these main incidents of Hop o' My Thumb\nare so widely current, the general idea of a small and tricksy being is\nfound frequently, from the Hermes of the Homeric Hymn to the Namaqua\nHeitsi Eibib, the other _Poucet_, or Tom Thumb, and the Zulu\nUhlakanyana. Extraordinary precocity, even from the day of birth,\ndistinguishes these beings (as Indra and Hermes) in _myth._ In\n_Marchen_, it is rather their smallness and astuteness than their\nyouth that commands admiration, though they are often very precocious.\nThe general sense of the humour of 'infant prodigies' is perhaps the\norigin of these romances\" (p. ex.).\n\nThis world-homage to childhood finds apt expression in the verses of\nMrs. Darmesteter:--\n\n\n  \"Laying at the children's feet\n   Each his kingly crown,\n  Each, the conquering power to greet,\n   Laying humbly down.\n  Sword and sceptre as is meet.\"\n\n\nAll over the globe we find wonder-tales of childhood, stories of the\ngreat deeds of children, whose venturesomeness has saved whole\ncommunities from destruction, whose heroism has rid the world of giants\nand monsters of every sort, whose daring travels and excursions into\nlands or skies unknown have resulted in the great increase of human\nknowledge and the advancement of culture and civilization. In almost all\ndepartments of life the child-hero has left his mark, and there is much\nto tell of his wonderful achievements.\n\n\n_Finnish Child-Heroes_.\n\nIn Finnish story we meet with _Pikku mies_, the dwarf-god, and in\nAltaic legend the child _Kan P\u00fcdai_, who was fed upon two hundred\nhares, who tames wild animals, makes himself a bow and bow-string, and\nbecomes a mighty hero. In Esthonian folk-lore we have the tale of the\nseven-year-old wise girl, the persecution to which she was subjected at\nthe hands of her stepmother, and the great deeds she accomplished (422.\nII. 144, 147, 154). But, outside of the wonderful infancy of\nW\u00e4in\u00e4m\u00f6inen, the culture-hero of the Finns, whom the _Kalevala_ has\nimmortalized, we find some striking tributes to the child-spirit. In the\nclosing canto of this great epic, which, according to Andrew Lang,\ntells, in savage fashion, the story of the introduction of Christianity,\nwe learn how the maiden Marjatta, \"as pure as the dew is, as holy as\nstars are that live without stain,\" was feeding her flocks and listening\nto the singing of the golden cuckoo, when a berry fell into her bosom,\nand she conceived and bore a son, whereupon the people despised and\nrejected her. Moreover, no one would baptize the infant: \"The god of the\nwilderness refused, and W\u00e4in\u00e4m\u00f6inen would have had the young child\nslain. Then the infant rebuked the ancient demi-god, who fled in anger\nto the sea.\" As W\u00e4in\u00e4m\u00f6inen was borne away in his magic barque by the\ntide, he lifted up his voice and sang how when men should have need of\nhim they would look for his return, \"bringing back sunlight and\nmoonshine, and the joy that is vanished from the world.\" Thus did the\nrebuke of the babe close the reign of the demi-gods of old (484.\n171-177).\n\n\n_Italian_.\n\nOn the other hand, it is owing to a child, says a sweet Italian legend,\nthat \"the gates of heaven are forever ajar.\" A little girl-angel, up in\nheaven, sat grief-stricken beside the gate, and begged the celestial\nwarder to set the gates ajar:--\n\n\n \"I can hear my mother weeping;\n  She is lonely; she cannot see\n  A glimmer of light in the darkness,\n  Where the gates shut after me.\n  Oh! turn the key, sweet angel,\n  The splendour will shine so far!\"\n\n\nBut the angel at the gate dared not, and the childish appeal seemed vain\nuntil the mother of Jesus touched his hand, when, lo! \"in the little\nchild-angel's fingers stood the beautiful gates ajar.\" And they have\nbeen so ever since, for Mary gave to Christ the keys, which he has kept\nsafe hidden in his bosom, that every sorrowing mother may catch a\nglimpse of the glory afar (379. 28-30).\n\n\n_Persian Deed-Maiden_.\n\n_I fatti sono maschi, le parole femmine_,--deeds are masculine,\nwords feminine,--says the Italian proverb. The same thought is found in\nseveral of our own writers. George Herbert said bluntly: \"Words are\nwomen, deeds are men\"; Dr. Madden: \"Words are men's daughters, but God's\nsons are things\"; Dr. Johnson, in the preface to his great dictionary,\nembodies the saying of the Hindus: \"Words are the daughters of earth,\nthings are the sons of heaven.\"\n\nIn compensation for so ungracious a distinction, perhaps, the religion\nof Zoroaster, the ancient faith of Persia, teaches that, on the other\nside of death, the soul is received by its good deeds in the form of a\nbeautiful maiden who conducts it through the three heavens to Ahura (the\ndeity of good), and it is refreshed with celestial food (470. II. 421).\nThat children should be brought into close relationship with the stars\nand other celestial bodies is to be expected from the _milieu_ of\nfolk-life, and the feeling of kinship with all the phenomena of nature.\n\n\n_Moon-Children_.\n\nIn his exhaustive essay on _Moon Lore_, Rev. Mr. Harley tells us\nthat in the Scandinavian mythology, M\u00e2ni, the moon, \"once took up two\nchildren from the earth, Bill and Hiuki, as they were going from the\nwell of Byrgir, bearing on their shoulders the bucket Soeg, and the pole\nSimul,\" and placed them in the moon, \"where they could be seen from the\nearth.\" The modern Swedish folk-lore represents the spots on the moon as\ntwo children carrying water in a bucket, and it is this version of the\nold legend which Miss Humphrey has translated (468. 24-26). Mr. Harley\ncites, with approval, Rev. S. Baring-Gould's identification of Hiuki and\nBill, the two moon-children, with the Jack and Jill of the familiar\nnursery rhyme:--\n\n\n  \"Jack and Jill went up the hill,\n    To fetch a pail of water;\n  Jack fell down and broke his crown,\n    And Jill came tumbling after.\"\n\n\nAccording to Mr. Duncan, the well-known missionary to certain of the\nnative tribes of British Columbia, these Indians of the far west have a\nversion of this legend: \"One night a child of the chief class awoke and\ncried for water. Its cries were very affecting--'Mother, give me to\ndrink!' but the mother heeded not. The moon was affected and came down,\nentered the house, and approached the child, saying, 'Here is water from\nheaven: drink.' The child anxiously laid hold of the pot and drank the\ndraught, and was enticed to go away with the moon, its benefactor. They\ntook an underground passage till they got quite clear of the village,\nand then ascended to heaven\" (468. 35, 36). The story goes on to say\nthat \"the figure we now see in the moon is that very child; and also the\nlittle round basket which it had in its hand when it went to sleep\nappears there.\"\n\nThe Rev. George Turner reports a Polynesian myth from the Samoan\nIslands, in which the moon is represented as coming down one evening and\npicking up a woman, and her child, who was beating out bark in order to\nmake some of the native cloth. There was a famine in the land; and \"the\nmoon was just rising, and it reminded her of a great bread-fruit.\nLooking up to it, she said, 'Why cannot you come down and let my child\nhave a bit of you?' The moon was indignant at the idea of being eaten,\ncame down forthwith, and took her up, child, board, mallet, and all.\" To\nthis day the Samoans, looking at the moon, exclaim: \"Yonder is Sina and\nher child, and her mallet and board.\" Related myths are found in the\nTonga Islands and the Hervey Archipelago (468. 59).\n\nThe Eskimo of Greenland believed that the sun and the moon were\noriginally human beings, brother and sister. The story is that \"they\nwere playing with others at children's games in the dark, when\n_Malina_, being teased in a shameful manner by her brother\n_Anninga_, smeared her hands with the soot of the lamp, and rubbed\nthem over the face and hands of her persecutor, that she might recognize\nhim by daylight. Hence arise the spots in the moon. _Malina_ rushed\nto save herself by flight, but her brother followed at her heels. At\nlength she flew upwards, and became the sun. _Anninga_, followed\nher, and became the moon; but being unable to mount so high he runs\ncontinually round the sun in hopes of some time surprising her\" (468.\n34).\n\nThere are many variants of this legend in North and in Central America.\n\nIn her little poem _The Children in the Moon_, Miss Humphrey has\nversified an old folk-belief that the \"tiny cloudlets flying across the\nmoon's shield of silver\" are a little lad and lass with a pole across\ntheir shoulders, at the end of which is swinging a water-bucket. These\nchildren, it is said, used to wander by moonlight to a well in the\nnorthward on summer nights to get a pail of water, until the moon\nsnatched them up and \"set them forever in the middle of his light,\" so\nthat--\n\n\n  \"Children, ay, and children's children,\n  Should behold my babes on high;\n  And my babes should smile forever,\n  Calling others to the sky!\"\n\n\nThus it is that--\n\n\n \"Never is the bucket empty,\n  Never are the children old,\n  Ever when the moon is shining\n  We the children may behold\" (224. 23-25).\n\n\nIn Whittier's _Child Life_, this poem is given as \"from the\nScandinavian,\" with the following additional stanzas:--\n\n\n \"Ever young and ever little,\n  Ever sweet and ever fair!\n  When thou art a man, my darling,\n  Still the children will be there.\n\n \"Ever young and ever little,\n  They will smile when thou art old;\n  When thy locks are thin and silver,\n  Theirs will still be shining gold.\n\n \"They will haunt thee from their heaven,\n  Softly beckoning down the gloom;\n  Smiling in eternal sweetness\n  On thy cradle, on thy tomb\" (379. 115-117).\n\n\nThe Andaman Islanders say that the sun is the wife of the moon, and the\nstars are their children--boys and girls--who go to sleep during the\nday, and are therefore not seen of men (498. 92). The sun is termed\nch\u00e4'n'a bo'do, \"Mother Sun\"; the moon, _mai'a 'o-gar_, \"Mr. Moon\"\n(498. 59). In many other mythologies the stars, either as a whole, or in\npart, figure as children. In the figurative language of ancient records\nthe patriarchs are promised descendants as numerous as the stars of\nheaven, and in the Tshi language of Western Africa, the stars are termed\n_woh-rabbah_, from _woh_, \"to breed, multiply, be fruitful,\"\nand _abbah_, \"children.\" The South Australian natives thought the\nstars were groups of children, and even in the classic legends of Greece\nand Rome more than one child left earth to shine in heaven as a star.\n\nIn the belief of the natives of the Hervey Islands, in the South\nPacific, the double star \u00b5\u00b9 and \u00b5\u00b2 _Scorpii_ is a brother and\nsister, twins, who, fleeing from a scolding mother, leapt up into the\nsky. The bright stars [Greek: _m_] and [Greek: _l_]\n_Scorpii_ are their angry parents who follow in pursuit, but never\nsucceed in overtaking their runaway children, who, clinging close\ntogether,--for they were very fond of each other,--flee on and on\nthrough the blue sky. The girl, who is the elder, is called\n_Inseparable_, and Mr. Gill tells us that a native preacher,\nalluding to this favourite story, declared, with a happy turn of speech,\nthat \"Christ and the Christian should be like these twin stars, ever\nlinked together, come life, come death.\" He could scarcely have chosen a\nmore appropriate figure. The older faith that was dying lent the moral\nof its story to point the eloquence of the new (458. 40-43).\n\n\n_Hindu Child-Heroes_.\n\nIn the Rig-Veda we have the story of the three brothers, the youngest of\nwhom, Tritas, is quite a child, but accomplishes wonderful things and\nevinces more than human knowledge; also the tale of Vikram\u00e2dityas, the\nwise child (422. II. 136).\n\nIn the interesting collection of Bengalese folk-tales by Rev. Lal Behari\nDay we find much that touches upon childhood: The story of the \"Boy whom\nSeven Mothers Suckled,\" and his wonderful deeds in the country of the\nRakshasis (cannibals)--how he obtained the bird with whose life was\nbound up that of the wicked queen, and so brought about her death; the\ntale of the \"Boy with the Moon on his Forehead\"--how he rescued the\nbeautiful Lady Pushpavati from the power of the Rakshasis over-sea! We\nhave also the wonder-tales of Buddha.\n\nIn a tale of the Panj\u00e2b, noted by Temple (542. II. xvi.), \"a couple of\ngods, as children, eat up at a sitting a meal meant for 250,000 people\";\nand in a Little Russian story \"a mother had a baby of extraordinary\nhabits. When alone, he jumped out of the cradle, no longer a baby, but a\nbearded old man, gobbled up the food out of the store, and then lay down\nagain a screeching babe.\" He was finally exorcised (258. 119). A huge\nappetite is a frequent characteristic of changelings in fairy-stories\n(258.108).\n\n\n_Japanese Child-Heroes_.\n\nThe hero of Japanese boys is Kintaro, the \"Wild Baby,\" the \"Golden\nDarling.\" Companionless he played with the animals, put his arm around\ntheir necks, and rode upon their backs. Of him we are told: \"He was\nprince of the forest; the rabbits, wild boars, squirrels and pheasants\nand hawks, were his servants and messengers.\" He is the apotheosis of\nthe child in Japan, \"the land of the holy gods,\" as its natives proudly\ntermed it (245.121).\n\nAnother boy-hero is Urashima, who visited Elysium in a fishing-boat. A\nthird phenomenal child of Japanese story is \"Peach Darling,\" who, while\nyet a baby, lifted the wash-tub and balanced the kettle on his head\n(245. 62). We must remember, however, that the Japanese call their\nbeautiful country \"the land of the holy gods,\" and the whole nation\nmakes claim to a divine ancestry. Visits to the other world, the\nelfin-land, etc., are found all over the world.\n\n\n_German._\n\nIn Germany and Austria we have the stories of (258. 140-160): The girl\nwho stole the serpent-king's crown; the Pomeranian farmer's boy who,\nafter quenching his thirst with the brown beer of the fairies, tried to\nrun off with the can of pure silver in which it was contained (in a\nCornish legend, however, the farmer's boy pockets one of the rich silver\ngoblets which stood on the tables in the palace of the king of the\npiskies, or fairies, and proves the truth of the story he has afterwards\nto tell by producing the goblet, \"which remained in the boy's family for\ngenerations, though unfortunately it is no longer forthcoming for the\nsatisfaction of those who may still be sceptical.\" A like origin has\nbeen suggested for the celebrated \"Luck of Edenhall,\" and the \"Horn of\nOldenburg,\" and other like relics); the Carinthian girl, who, climbing a\nmountain during the noon-hour, entered through a door in the rock, and\nremained away a whole year, though it seemed but a little while; the\nbaker's boy who visited the lost Emperor in the mountain--the\nBarbarossa-Otto legend; the baker's daughter of Ruffach, who made her\nfather rich by selling bread to the soldiers in a great subterranean\ncamp; the girl of Silesia, who is admitted into a cavern, where abides a\nburied army; and many more of a similar nature, to be read in Grimm and\nthe other chroniclers of fairy-land (258. 216. 217).\n\nAmong the Danish legends of kindred type we find the tales of: The boy\nwho ran off with the horn out of which an elf-maiden offered him a\ndrink, and would not return it until she had promised to bestow upon him\nthe strength of twelve men, with which, unluckily, went also the\nappetite of twelve men (258. 144).\n\n\n_Celtic_.\n\nAmong the Welsh tales of the child as hero and adventurer are: The visit\nof Elidorus (afterwards a priest), when twelve years old, to the\nunderground country, where he stole a golden ball, which, however, the\npigmies soon recovered; the youths who were drawn into the fairies' ring\nand kept dancing for a year and a day until reduced to a mere skeleton;\nthe little farmer's son, who was away among the fairies for two years,\nthough he thought he had been absent but a day; corresponding is the\nBreton tale of the girl who acts as godmother to a fairy child, and\nremains away for ten long years, though for only two days in her own\nmind (258. 135, 136, 168, 170).\n\nVery interesting is the Breton legend of the youth who undertook to take\na letter to God,--_Monsieur le Bon Dieu_,--in Paradise. When he\nreaches Paradise, he gives the letter to St. Peter, who proceeds to\ndeliver it. While he is away, the youth, noticing the spectacles on the\ntable, tries them on, and is astonished at the wonders he sees, and\nstill more at the information given him by St. Peter on his return, that\nhe has been gazing through them five hundred years. Another hundred\nyears he passes in looking at the seat kept for him in Paradise, and\nthen receives the answer to the letter, which he is to take to the\nparish priest. After distributing in alms the hundred crowns he is paid\nfor his services, he dies and goes to Paradise to occupy the seat he has\nseen. As Mr. Hartland remarks, \"the variants of this traditional\nPilgrim's Progress are known from Brittany to Transylvania, and from\nIceland to Sicily\" (258. 192).\n\n\n_Basque_.\n\nA remarkable child-hero tale is the Basque legend of the orphans, Izar\n(seven years old) and La\u00f1oa (nine years old), and their adventures with\nSatan and the witches,--how Izar cured the Princess and killed the great\ntoad which was the cause of her complaint, and how La\u00f1oa defied Satan to\nhis face, meeting death by his action, but gaining heaven (505. 19-41).\n\n\n_American Indian Child-Heroes_.\n\nIn a legend of the Tlingit Indians concerning the visit of Ky'itlac', a\nman who had killed himself, to the upper country ruled by Tahit, whither\ngo such as die a violent death, we read that--\n\n\"When he looked down upon the earth, he saw the tops of the trees\nlooking like so many pins. But he wished to return to the earth. He\npulled his blanket over his head and flung himself down. He arrived at\nthe earth unhurt, and found himself at the foot of some trees. Soon he\ndiscovered a small house, the door of which was covered with mats. He\npeeped into it, and heard a child crying that had just been born. He\nhimself was that child, and when he came to be grown up he told the\npeople of Tahit. They had heard about him before, but only then they\nlearnt everything about the upper world\" (403. 48, 49).\n\nIn a legend of the Kwakiutl Indians of Vancouver Island, a chief killed\nby a rival goes to the other world, but returns to earth in his\ngrandson: \"It was Ank-oa'lagyilis who was thus born again. The boy, when\na few years old, cried and wanted to have a small boat made, and, when\nhe had got it, asked for a bow and arrows. His father scolded him for\nhaving so many wishes. Then the boy said, 'I was at one time your\nfather, and have returned from heaven.' His father did not believe him,\nbut then the boy said, 'You know that Ank-oa'lagyilis had gone to bury\nhis property, and nobody knows where it is. I will show it to you.' He\ntook his father right to the place where it lay hidden, and bade him\ndistribute it. There were two canoe-loads of blankets. Now the people\nknew that Ank'oa'lagyilis had returned. He said, 'I was with _ata_\n[the deity], but he sent me back.' They asked him to tell about heaven,\nbut he refused to do so.\" The boy afterwards became a chief, and it is\nsaid he refused to take revenge upon his murderer (404. 59).\n\nIn the mythology of the Siouan tribes we meet with the \"Young Rabbit,\"\nborn of a piece of the clotted blood of the Buffalo killed by Grizzly\nBear, which the Rabbit had stolen. According to legend the Rabbit\n\"addressed the blood, calling it his son, and ordering it to become a\nlittle child, and when he had ordered it to advance from infancy,\nthrough boyhood to youth, and from youth to manhood, his commands were\nobeyed.\" The \"Young Rabbit\" kills the Grizzly and delivers his own father\n(480 (1892). 293-304).\n\nThe legend of the \"Blood-clot Boy\" is also recorded from the narration\nof the Blackfeet Indians by Bev. John MacLean and Mr. Grinnell. The tale\nof his origin is as follows: \"There lived, a long time ago, an old man\nand his wife, who had three daughters and one son-in-law. One day, as\nthe mother was cooking some meat, she threw a clot of blood into the pot\ncontaining the meat. The pot began to boil, and then there issued from\nit a peculiar hissing noise. The old woman looked into the pot, and was\nsurprised to see that the blood-clot had become transformed into a\nlittle boy. Quickly he grew, and, in a few moments, he sprang from the\npot, a full-grown young man.\" K\u00fbtoy\u00ees, as the youth was named, became an\nexpert hunter, and kept the family in food. He also killed his lazy and\nquarrelsome brother-in-law, and brought peace to the family. Of K\u00fbtoy\u00efs\nit is said he \"sought to drive out all the evil in the world, and to\nunite the people and make them happy\" (480(1893).167).\n\nConcerning the Micmac Indians of Nova Scotia, Mr. Band informs us\n(521.xlii.):--\n\n\"Children exposed or lost by their parents are miraculously preserved.\nThey grow up suddenly to manhood, and are endowed with superhuman\npowers; they become the avengers of the guilty and the protectors of the\ngood. They drive up the moose and the caribou to their camps, and\nslaughter them at their leisure. The elements are under their control;\nthey can raise the wind, conjure up storms or disperse them, make it hot\nor cold, wet or dry, as they please. They can multiply the smallest\namount of food indefinitely, evade the subtlety and rage of their\nenemies, kill them miraculously, and raise their slaughtered friends to\nlife.\"\n\nA characteristic legend of this nature is the story of\nNoojek\u00eas\u00eeg\u00fcnod\u00e2s\u00eet and the \"magic dancing-doll.\"\nNoojek\u00eas\u00eeg\u00fbnod\u00e2s\u00eet,--\"the sock wringer and dryer,\" so-called because,\nbeing the youngest of the seven sons of an Indian couple, he had to\nwring and dry the moccasin-rags of his elders,--was so persecuted by the\neldest of his brothers, that he determined to run away, and \"requests\nhis mother to make him a small bow and arrow and thirty pairs of\nmoccasins.\" He starts out and \"shoots the arrow ahead, and runs after\nit. In a short time he is able to outrun the arrow and reach the spot\nwhere it is to fall before it strikes the ground. He then takes it up\nand shoots again, and flies on swifter than the arrow. Thus he travels\nstraight ahead, and by night he has gone a long distance from home.\" His\nbrother starts in pursuit, but, after a hundred days, returns home\ndiscouraged. Meanwhile, the boy travels on and meets a very old man, who\ntells him that the place from whence he came is a long way off, for \"I\nwas a small boy when I started, and since that day I have never halted,\nand you see that now I am very old.\" The boy says, however, that he will\ntry to reach the place, and, after receiving from the old man a little\nbox in return for a pair of moccasins,--for those of the traveller were\nquite worn out,--he goes his way. By and by the boy's curiosity leads\nhim to open the box, and\n\n\"As soon as he has removed the cover, he starts with an exclamation of\nsurprise, for he sees a small image, in the form of a man, dancing away\nwith all his might, and reeking with perspiration from the\nlong-continued exertion. As soon as the light is let in upon him, he\nstops dancing, looks up suddenly, and exclaims, 'Well, what is it? What\nis wanted?' The truth now flashes over the boy. This is a supernatural\nagent, a _manitoo_, a god, from the spirit world, which can do\nanything that he is requested to do.\" The boy wished \"to be transported\nto the place from whence the old man came,\" and, closing the box,\n\"suddenly his head swims, the darkness comes over him, and he faints.\nWhen he recovers he finds himself near a large Indian village.\" By the\naid of his doll--_weedapcheejul_, \"little comrade,\" he calls it--he\nworks wonders, and obtains one of the daughters of the chief as his\nwife, and ultimately slays his father-in-law, who is a great\n\"medicine-man.\" This story, Mr. Rand says he \"wrote down from the mouth\nof a Micmac Indian in his own language\"; it will bear comparison with\nsome European folk-tales (521. 7-13).\n\nAnother story of boy wonder-working, with some European trappings,\nhowever, is that of \"The Boy who was transformed into a Horse.\" Of this\nwonderful infant it is related that \"at the age of eighteen months the\nchild was able to talk, and immediately made inquiries about his elder\nbrother [whom his father had 'sold to the devil'].\" The child then\ndeclares his intention of finding his lost brother, and, aided by an\n\"angel,\"--this tale is strangely hybrid,--discovers him in the form of a\nhorse, restores him to his natural shape, and brings him safely home;\nbut changes the wicked father into a horse, upon whose back an evil\nspirit leaps and runs off with him (521. 31).\n\nOther tales of boy adventure in Dr. Rand's collection are: \"The History\nof K\u00eftpoose\u00e2g\u00fbnow\" [i.e. \"taken from the side of his mother,\" as a calf\nof a moose or a caribou is after the mother has fallen] (521. 62-80);\n\"The Infant Magician\"; \"The Invisible Boy,\" who could change himself\ninto a moose, and also become invisible (521. 101-109); \"The Badger and\nhis Little Brother\" (521. 263-269), in which the latter helps the former\ndecoy the water-fowl to destruction, but, repenting at the wanton\nslaughter, gives the alarm, and many birds escape; \"The Little Boy who\ncaught a Whale\" (521. 280-281). The story of \"The Small Baby and the Big\nBird\" contains many na\u00efve touches of Indian life. The hero of the tale\nis a foundling, discovered in the forest by an old woman, \"so small that\nshe easily hides it in her mitten.\" Having no milk for the babe, which\nshe undertakes to care for, the woman \"makes a sort of gruel from the\nscrapings of the inside of raw-hide, and thus supports and nourishes it,\nso that it thrives and does well.\" By and by he becomes a mighty hunter,\nand finally kills the old culloo (giant bird) chief, tames the young\nculloo, and discovers his parents (521. 81-93).\n\nIn the mythologic tales of the Iroquois, the child appears frequently as\na hero and an adventurer. Mrs. Erminnie A. Smith, in treating of _The\nMyths of the Iroquois_ (534), relates the stories of the infant\nnursed by bears; the boy whom his grandmother told never to go west, but\nwho at last started off in that direction, and finally killed the great\nfrog (into which form the man who had been tormenting them turned\nhimself); the boy who, after interfering with his uncle's magic wand and\nkettle, and thereby depriving the people of corn, set out and managed to\nreturn home with plenty of corn, which he had pilfered from the witches\nwho guarded it,--all interesting child exploits.\n\nAmong the myths of the Cherokees,--a people related in speech to the\nIroquois,--as reported by Mr. James Mooney, we find a story somewhat\nsimilar to the last mentioned,--\"K\u00e2n\u00e1t\u00ee and S\u00e9lu: the Origin of Corn and\nGame\" (506. 98-105), the heroes of which are _Inage Utasuhi,_ \"He\nwho grew up Wild,\" a wonderful child, born of the blood of the game\nwashed in the river; and the little son of Kanati (\"the lucky hunter\")\nand Selu (\"Corn,\" his wife), his playmate, who captures him. The \"Wild\nBoy\" is endowed with magic powers, and leads his \"brother\" into all\nsorts of mischief. They set out to discover where the father gets all\nthe game he brings home, and, finding that he lifted a rock on the side\nof a mountain, allowing the animal he wished to come forth, they\nimitated him some days afterwards, and the result was that the deer\nescaped from the cave, and \"then followed droves of raccoons, rabbits,\nand all the other four-footed animals. Last came great flocks of\nturkeys, pigeons, and partridges.\" From their childish glee and\ntricksiness the animals appear to have suffered somewhat, for we are\ntold (506. 100): \"In those days all the deer had their tails hanging\ndown like other animals, but, as a buck was running past, the 'wild boy'\nstruck its tail with his arrow, so that it stood straight out behind.\nThis pleased the boys, and when the next one ran by, the other brother\nstruck his tail so that it pointed upward. The boys thought this was\ngood sport, and when the next one ran past, the 'wild boy' struck his\ntail so that it stood straight up, and his brother struck the next one\nso hard with his arrow that the deer's tail was curled over his back.\nThe boys thought this was very pretty, and ever since the deer has\ncarried his tail over his back.\" When Kanati discovered what had\noccurred (506. 100), was furious, but, without saying a word, he went\ndown into the cave and kicked the covers off four jars in one corner,\nwhen out swarmed bedbugs, fleas, lice, and gnats, and got all over the\nboys. \"After they had been tortured enough, Kanati sent them home,\ntelling them that, through their folly,\" whenever they wanted a deer to\neat they would have to hunt all over the woods for it, and then may be\nnot find one. \"When the boys got home, discovering that Selu was a\nwitch, they killed her and dragged her body about a large piece of\nground in front of the house, and wherever the blood fell Indian corn\nsprang up. Kanati then tried to get the wolves to kill the two boys, but\nthey trapped them in a huge pound, and burned almost all of them to\ndeath. Their father not returning from his visit to the wolves, the boys\nset out in search of him, and, after some days, found him. After killing\na fierce panther in a swamp, and exterminating a tribe of cannibals, who\nsought to boil the \"wild boy\" in a pot, they kept on and soon lost sight\nof their father.\" At \"the end of the world, where the sun comes out,\"\nthey waited \"until the sky went up again\" [in Cherokee cosmogony \"the\nearth is a flat surface, and the sky is an arch of solid rock suspended\nabove it. This arch rises and falls continually, so that the space at\nthe point of juncture is constantly opening and closing, like a pair of\nscissors\"], and then \"they went through and climbed up on the other\nside.\" Here they met Kanati and Selu, but, after staying with them seven\ndays, had to \"go toward the sunset land, where they are still living.\"\n\nDr. G. M. Dawson records, from the Shushwap Indians of British Columbia,\nthe story of an old woman,--husbandless, childless, companionless,--who,\n\"for the sake of companionship, procured some pitch and shaped from it\nthe figure of a girl, which became her daughter,\" whom many adventures\nbefell (425. 33).\n\nThere is a very interesting Tahitian myth telling of the descent of\nlittle Tavai to the invisible world. Tavai was his mother's pet, and one\nday, for some slight fault, was beaten by the relatives of his father.\nThis made Ouri, his mother, so angry, that Oema, her husband, out of\nshame, went down to Hawaii, the under-world, whither Tavai, accompanied\nby his elder brother, journeyed, and, after many adventures, succeeded\nin bringing to their mother the bones of Oema, who had long been dead\nwhen they found him (458. 250).\n\nLegion in number and world-wide in their affiliations are the stories of\nthe visits of children and youths, boys and girls, to heaven, to the\nnether-world, to the country of the fairies, and to other strange and\nfar-off lands, inhabited by elves, dwarfs, pigmies, giants, \"black\nspirits and white.\" Countless are the variants of the familiar tale of\n\"Jack and the Bean Stalk,\" \"Jack, the Giant-Killer,\" and many another\nfavourite of the nursery and the schoolroom. Tylor, Lang, Clouston, and\nHartland have collated and interpreted many of these, and the books of\nfairy-tales and kindred lore are now numbered by the hundred, as may be\nseen from the list given by Mr. Hartland in the appendix to his work on\nfairy-tales. Grimm, Andersen, and the _Arabian Nights_ have become\nhousehold names.\n\nFor children to speak before they are born is a phenomenon of frequent\noccurrence in the lives of saints and the myths of savage peoples,\nespecially when the child about to come into the world is an incarnation\nof some deity. Of Gluskap, the Micmac culture-hero, and Malumsis, the\nWolf, his bad brother, we read (488. 15,16):--\n\n\"Before they were born, the babes consulted to consider how they had\nbest enter the world. And Glooskap said: 'I will be born as others are.'\nBut the evil Malumsis thought himself too great to be brought forth in\nsuch a manner, and declared that he would burst through his mother's\nside. And, as they planned it, so it came to pass. Glooskap as first\ncame quietly to light, while Malumsis kept his word, killing his\nmother.\" Another version of the same story runs: \"In the old time, far\nbefore men knew themselves in the light before the sun, Glooskap and his\nbrother were as yet unborn. They waited for the day to appear. Then they\ntalked together, and the youngest said: 'Why should I wait? I will go\ninto the world and begin my life at once;' when the elder said: 'Not so,\nfor this were a great evil.' But the younger gave no heed to any wisdom;\nin his wickedness he broke through his mother's side, he rent the wall;\nhis beginning of life was his mother's death\" (488. 106). Very similar\nis the Iroquois myth of the \"Good Mind\" and the \"Bad Mind,\" and variants\nof this American hero-myth may be read in the exhaustive treatise of Dr.\nBrinton.\n\nVery interesting is the Maya story of the twins Hun-Ahpu and Xbalanque,\nsons of the virgin Xquiq, who, fleeing from her father, escaped to the\nupper world, where the birth took place. Of these children we are told\n\"they grew in strength, and performed various deeds of prowess, which\nare related at length in the Popul Vuh [the folk-chronicle of the\nQuiches of Guatemala], and were at last invited by the lords of the\nunderworld to visit them.\" The chiefs of the underworld intended to slay\nthe youths, as they had previously slain their father and uncle, but\nthrough their oracular and magic power the two brothers pretended to be\nburned, and, when their ashes were thrown into the river, they rose from\nits waters and slew the lords of the nether world. At this the\ninhabitants of Hades fled in terror and the twins \"released the\nprisoners and restored to life those who had been slain. The latter rose\nto the sky to become the countless stars, while Hunhun-Ahpu and\nVukub-Hun-Ahpu [father and uncle of the twins] ascended to dwell, the\none in the sun, the other in the moon\" (411. 124).\n\nBorn of a virgin mother were also Quetzalcoatl, the culture-hero of\nMexico, and other similar characters whose lives and deeds may be read\nin Dr. Brinton's _American Hero-Myths_.\n\nFrom the Indians of the Pueblo of Isleta, New Mexico, Dr. A. S. Gatschet\nhas obtained the story of the \"Antelope-Boy,\" who, as the champion of\nthe White Pueblo, defeated the Plawk, the champion of the Yellow Pueblo,\nin a race around the horizon. The \"Antelope-Boy\" was a babe who had been\nleft on the prairie by its uncle, and brought up by a female antelope\nwho discovered it. After some trouble, the people succeeded in catching\nhim and restoring him to his mother. Another version of the same tale\nhas it that \"the boy-child, left by his uncle and mother upon the\nprairie, was carried to the antelopes by a coyote, after which a\nmother-antelope, who had lost her fawn, adopted the tiny stranger as her\nown. By an ingenious act of the mother-antelope the boy was surrendered\nagain to his real human mother; for when the circle of the hunters grew\nsmaller around the herd, the antelope took the boy to the northeast,\nwhere his mother stood in a white robe. At last these two were the only\nones left within the circle, and when the antelope broke through the\nline on the northeast, the boy followed her and fell at the feet of his\nown human mother, who sprang forward and clasped him in her arms.\" The\nYellow Pueblo people were wizards, and so confident were they of success\nthat they proposed that the losing party, their villages, property,\netc., should be burnt. The White Pueblo people agreed, and, having won\nthe victory, proceeded to exterminate the conquered. One of the wizards,\nhowever, managed to hide away and escape being burned, and this is why\nthere are wizards living at this very day (239. 213, 217).\n\nIn the beginning, says the Zuni account of the coming of men upon earth,\nthey dwelt in the lowermost of four subterranean caverns, called the\n\"Four Wombs of the World,\" and as they began to increase in numbers they\nbecame very unhappy, and the children of the wise men among them\nbesought them to deliver them from such a life of misery. Then, it is\nsaid, \"The 'Holder of the Paths of Life,' the Sun-Father, created from\nhis own being two children, who fell to earth for the good of all\nbeings. The Sun-Father endowed these children with immortal youth, with\npower even as his own power, and created for them a bow (the Rainbow)\nand an arrow (the Lightning). For them he made also a shield like unto\nhis own, of magic power, and a knife of flint.... These children cut the\nface of the world with their magic knife, and were borne down upon their\nshield into the caverns in which all men dwelt. There, as the leaders of\nmen, they lived with their children, mankind.\" They afterwards led men\ninto the second cavern, then into the third, and finally into the\nfourth, whence they made their way, guided by the two children, to the\nworld of earth, which, having been covered with water, was damp and\nunstable and filled with huge monsters and beasts of prey. The two\nchildren continued to lead men \"Eastward, toward the Home of the\nSun-Father,\" and by their magic power, acting under the directions of\ntheir creator, the Sun-Father, they caused the surface of the earth to\nharden and petrified the fierce animals who sought to destroy the\nchildren of men (which accounts for the fossils of to-day and the\nanimal-like forms of rocks and boulders) (424. 13). Of this people it\ncould have been said most appropriately, \"a little child shall lead\nthem.\"\n\nMr. Lummis' volume of folk-tales of the Pueblos Indians of New Mexico\ncontains many stories of the boy as hero and adventurer. The\n\"Antelope-Boy\" who defeats the champion of the witches in a foot-race\n(302. 12-21); Nah-chu-ru-chu (the \"Bluish Light of the Dawn\"), the\nparentless hero, \"wise in medicine,\" who married the moon, lost her, but\nfound her again after great trouble (302. 53-70); the boy who cursed the\nlake (302. 108-121); the boy and the eagle, etc. (302. 122-126). But the\ngreat figures in story at the Pueblo of Queres are the \"hero-twins,\"\nMaw-Sahv and Oo-yah-wee, sons of the Sun, wonderful and astonishing\nchildren, of whom it is said that \"as soon as they were a minute old,\nthey were big and strong and began playing\" (302. 207). Their mother\ndied when they were born, but was restored to life by the Crow-Mother,\nand returned home with her two children, whose hero-deeds, \"at an age\nwhen other boys were toddling about the house,\" were the cause of\ninfinite wonder. They killed the Giant-Woman and the Giant-Baby, and\nperformed unnumbered other acts of heroism while yet in childhood and\nyouth. To the same cycle seems to belong also the story of \"The Magic\nHide-and-Seek\" (302.87-98).\n\nFrom the Pueblo of Sia, Mrs. Stevenson has recorded the story of the\ntwins Ma'asewe and U'yuuyewe, sons of the Sun-Father by the virgin\nKo'chinako; how they visited their father, and the adventures that\nbefell them on their long journey; how they killed the wolf of the lake,\nthe cougar, the bear, the bad eagles, burned the cruel witch, and other\ngreat enemies of the people, organized the cult societies, and then\n\"made their home in the Sandia Mountain, where they have since\nremained.\" At the entrance to the crater, we are told, \"the diminutive\nfootprints of these boys are yet to be seen by the good of heart\" (538.\n43-57). Among the American Indians it is difficult, if not impossible,\nto distinguish the child-hero from the divinity whom he so often closely\nresembles.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXV.\n\n\nTHE CHILD AS FETICH, DEITY, GOD.\n\n  Childhood shall be all divine.--_Proctor_.\n\n  A baby's feet, like sea-shells pink,\n    Might tempt, should Heaven see meet,\n  An angel's lips to kiss.--_Swinburne_.\n\n  Their glance might cast out pain and sin,\n    Their speech make dumb the wise,\n  By mute glad godhead felt within\n    A baby's eyes.--_Swinburne_.\n\n\n_The Child as Fetich._\n\nIt is easy to understand how, among barbarous or semi-civilized peoples,\nchildren born deformed or with any strange marking or defect should be\nlooked upon as objects of fear or reverence, fetiches in fact. Post\ninforms us regarding certain African tribes (127. I. 285, 286):--\n\n\"The Wanika, Wakikuyu, and Wazegua kill deformed children; throttle them\nin the woods and bury them. The belief is, that the evil spirit of a\ndead person has got into them, and such a child would be a great\ncriminal. The Somali let misformed children live, but regard them with\nsuperstitious fear. In Angola all children born deformed are considered\n'fetich.' In Loango dwarfs and albinos are regarded as the property of\nthe king, and are looked upon as sacred and inviolable.\"\n\nHere we see at least some of the reasons which have led up to the eulogy\nand laudation, as well as to the dread suspicion, of the dwarf and the\nhunchback, appearing in so many folk-tales. We might find also, perhaps,\nsome dim conception of the occasional simultaneity of genius with\nphysical defects or deformities, a fact of which a certain modern school\nof criminal sociologists has made so much.\n\nConcerning albinos Schultze says (529. 82):--\n\n\"In Borneo albinos are objects of fear, as beings gifted with\nsupernatural power; in Senegambia, if they are slaves, they are given\ntheir freedom, are exempted from all labour, and are cheerfully\nsupported at others' expense. In Congo the king keeps them in his palace\nas 'fetiches which give him influence over the Europeans.' They are held\nin such respect that they may take whatever they will; and he who is\ndeprived of his property by them, esteems himself honoured. In Loango\nthey are esteemed above the Gangas (priests), and their hair is sold at\na high price as a holy relic. Thus may a man become a fetich.\" At Moree,\nin West Africa, Ellis informs us, \"Albinos are sacred to Aynfwa, and, on\narriving at puberty, become her priests and priestesses. They are\nregarded by the people as the mouth-pieces of the goddess.\" At Coomassie\na boy-prisoner was painted white and consecrated as a slave to the\ntutelary deity of the market (438. 49, 88). Coeval with their revival of\nprimitive language-moulds in their slang, many of our college societies\nand sporting clubs and associations have revived the beliefs just\nmentioned in their mascots and luck-bringers--the other side of the\nshield showing the \"Jonahs\" and those fetiches of evil import. Even\ngreat actors, stock-brokers, and politicians have their mascots. We hear\nalso of mascots of regiments and of ships. A little hunchback, a dwarf,\na negro boy, an Italian singing-girl, a child dressed in a certain style\nor colour, all serve as mascots. Criminals and gamblers, those members\nof the community most nearly allied in thought and action with barbarous\nand primitive man, have their mascots, and it is from this source that\nwe derive the word, which Andran, in his opera _La Mascotte_, has\nlifted to a somewhat higher plane, and now each family may have a\nmascot, a fetich, to cause them to prosper and succeed in life (390\n(1888). 111, 112).\n\nOne of the derivations suggested for this word, viz. from _masque_\n= _coiffe_, in the expression _ne coiffe_, \"born with a caul,\"\nwould make the _mascot_ to have been originally a child born with\nthe caul on its head, a circumstance which, as the French phrase _etre\nne coiffe_, \"to be born lucky,\" indicates, betokened happiness and\ngood-fortune for the being thus coming into the world. In German the\ncaul is termed \"Gl\u00fcckshaube,\" \"lucky hood,\" and Ploss gives many\nillustrations of the widespread belief in the luck that falls to the\nshare of the child born with one. A very curious custom exists in\nOldenburg, where a boy, in order to be fortunate in love, carries his\ncaul about with him (326. I. 12-14). Other accidents or incidents of\nbirth have sufficed to make fetiches of children. Twins and triplets are\nregarded in many parts of the world as smacking of the supernatural and\nuncanny. The various views of the races of mankind upon this subject are\ngiven at length in Ploss (326. II. 267-275), and Post has much to say of\nthe treatment of twins in Africa. In Unyoro twins are looked upon as\n\"luck-bringers, not only for the family, but for the whole village as\nwell. Great feasts are held in their honour, and if they die, the house\nin which they were born is burned down.\" Among the Ishogo, from fear\nthat one of the pair may die, twins are practically isolated and\n_taboo_ until grown up (127. I. 282, 284).\n\nTo the Ovaherero, according to Ploss, \"the birth of twins is the\ngreatest piece of good-fortune that can fall to the lot of mortals,\" and\nsuch an event makes the parents \"holy.\" Among this Kaffir people,\nmoreover: \"Every father of twins has the right to act as substitute for\nthe village-chief in the exercise of his priestly functions. If the\nchief is not present, he can, for example, exorcise a sick person. Even\nthe twin-child himself has all priestly privileges. For a twin boy there\nis no forbidden flesh, no forbidden milk, and no one would ever venture\nto curse him. If any one should kill a twin-child, the murderer's whole\nvillage would be destroyed. As a twin-boy, he inherits the priestly\ndignity at the death of the chief, and even when an older brother\nsucceeds the father as possessor of the village, it is, however, named\nafter the younger twin-brother, who is clothed with the priestly\ndignity\" (326. II. 271-274).\n\nAmong the Songish Indians of Vancouver Island, it is believed that\n\"twins, immediately after their birth, possess supernatural powers. They\nare at once taken to the woods and washed in a pond in order to become\nordinary men.\" The Shushwap Indians believe that twins retain this\nsupernatural power throughout their lives (404. 22, 92).\n\nOf children whose upper teeth break out before the lower, some primitive\ntribes are in fear and dread, hastening to kill them, as do the Basutos,\nWakikuyu, Wanika, Wazegua, and Wasawahili. Among the Wazaramo, another\nAfrican people, such children \"are either put to death, given away, or\nsold to a slave-holder, for the belief is that through them sickness,\nmisfortune, and death would enter the house.\" The Arabs of Zanzibar,\n\"after reading from the Koran, administer to such a child an oath that\nit will do no harm, making it nod assent with its head\" (127. I. 287).\n\nFrom what has preceded, we can see how hard it is sometimes to draw the\nline between the man as fetich and the priest, between the divinity and\nthe medicine-man.\n\n\n_Fetiches of Criminals._\n\nIt is a curious fact that St. Nicholas is at once the patron saint of\nchildren and of thieves,--the latter even Shakespeare calls \"St.\nNicholas's clerks.\" And with robbers and the generality of evil-doers\nthe child, dead or alive, is much of a fetich. Anstey's _Burglar\nBill_ is humorously exaggerated, but there is a good deal of\nsuperstition about childhood lingering in the mind of the lawbreaker.\nStrack (361) has discussed at considerable length the child (dead) as\nfetich among the criminal classes, especially the use made of the blood,\nthe hand, the heart, etc. Among the thieving fraternity in Middle\nFranconia it is believed that \"blood taken up from the genitals of an\ninnocent boy on three pieces of wood, and carried about the person,\nrenders one invisible when stealing\" (361. 41). The same power was\nascribed to the eating of the hearts (raw) of unborn children cut out of\nthe womb of the mother. Male children only would serve, and from the\nconfession of the band of the robber-chief \"King Daniel,\" who so\nterrified all Ermeland in the middle of the seventeenth century, it\nwould appear that they had already killed for this purpose no fewer than\nfourteen women with child (361. 59). As late as 1815, at Heide in\nNorthditmarsch, one Claus Dau was executed for \"having killed three\nchildren and eaten their hearts with the belief of making himself\ninvisible\" (361. 61).\n\nThis eating of little children's hearts was thought not alone to confer\nthe gift of invisibility, but \"when portions of nine hearts had been\neaten by any one, he could not be seized, no matter what theft or crime\nhe committed, and, if by chance he should fall into the power of his\nenemies, he could make himself invisible and thus escape.\" The eating of\nthree hearts is credited with the same power in an account of a robber\nof the Lower Rhine, in 1645. In the middle of the last century, there\nwas executed at Bayreuth a man \"who had killed eight women with child,\ncut them open, and eaten the warm, palpitating hearts of the children,\nin the belief that he would be able to fly, if he ate the hearts of nine\nsuch children\" (361. 58).\n\nOnly a few years ago (April, 1888), at Oldenburg, a workman named\nBliefernicht was tried for having killed two girls, aged six and seven\nyears. The examination of the remains showed that \"one of the bodies not\nonly had the neck completely cut through, but the belly cut open, so\nthat the entrails, lungs, and liver were exposed. A large piece of flesh\nhad been cut out of the buttocks and was nowhere to be found, the man\nhaving eaten it. His belief was, that whoever ate of the flesh of\ninnocent girls, could do anything in the world without any one being\nable to make him answer for it\" (361. 62).\n\nStrack has much to say of the _main-de-gloire_ and the _chandelle\nmagique._ Widespread among thieves is the belief in the \"magic\ntaper.\" At Meesow, in the Regenwald district of Pomerania, these tapers\nare made of the entrails of unborn children, can only be extinguished\nwith milk, and, as long as they burn, no one in the house to be robbed\nis able to wake. It is of the hands, however, of unbaptized or unborn\nchildren that these tapers were most frequently made. At N\u00fcrnberg, in\n1577 and 1701, there were executed two monsters who killed many women in\ntheir pursuit for this fetich; at Vechta, in Oldenburg, the finger of an\nunborn child \"serves with thieves to keep asleep the people of the house\nthey have entered, if it is simply laid on the table\"; at Konow, the fat\nof a woman with child is used to make a similar taper. In the Ukrain\ndistrict of Poland, it is believed that the hand of the corpse of a\nfive-year-old child opens all locks (361. 42). This belief in the\n_hand-of-glory_ and the _magic candle_ may be due to the fact\nthat such children, being unbaptized and unborn, were presumed to be\nunder the influence of the Evil One himself. Of the wider belief in the\n_chandelle magique_ and _main-de-gloire_ (as obtained from\ncriminal adults) in Germany, France, Spain, etc., nothing need be said\nhere.\n\nAt Konow, in the Kammin district of Pomerania, \"if a thief takes an\nunborn child, dries it, puts it in a little wooden box, and carries it\non his person, he is rendered invisible to everybody, and can steal at\nwill\" (361. 41).\n\nThe history of the robbers of the Rhine and the Main, of Westphalia, the\nMark, and Silesia, with whom the child appears so often as a fetich,\nevince a bestiality and inhumanity almost beyond the power of belief.\n\n\n_Magic._\n\nBut it is not to the criminal classes alone that superstitions of this\nnature belong. Of the alchemy, magic, black art, sorcery, and\n\"philosophy\" of the Dark Ages of Europe, the practice of which lingered\nin some places well on into the seventeenth century, horrible stories\nare told, in which children, their bodies, their souls even, appear as\nfetishes. The baptism of blood is said still to be practised in parts of\nRussia by parents \"to preserve their child from the temptations of the\nprince of darkness,\" and in 1874, \"a country-school teacher of the\nStrassburg district, and his wife, upon the advice of a somnambulist,\nstruck their own aunt with the fire-tongs until the blood flowed, with\nwhich they sprinkled their child supposed to have been bewitched by her\"\n(361. 73). Here it is the blood of adults that is used, but the practice\ndemands the child's also. According to C. F. A. Hoffmann (1817), there\nlived in Naples \"an old doctor who had children by several women, which\nhe inhumanly killed, with peculiar ceremonies and rites, cutting the\nbreast open, tearing out the heart, and from its blood preparing\nprecious drops which were preservative against all sickness.\" Well known\nis the story of Elizabeth Bathori, a Hungarian woman of the early part\nof the seventeenth century, who, it is said, receiving on her face a\ndrop of blood which spurted from a waiting-girl whose ears she had\nseverely boxed, and noticing afterward, when she wiped it away, that her\nskin at that spot appeared to be more beautiful, whiter, and finer than\nbefore, resolved to bathe her face and her whole body in human blood, in\norder to increase her charms and her beauty. Before her monstrous\nactions were discovered, she is thought to have caused the death of some\n650 girls with the aid of accomplices (361. 46).\n\n\n_Fetiches of Religion._\n\nThe use of human blood in ritual has been treated of in detail by\nStrack, and in his pages many references to children will be found. He\nalso discusses in detail the charge of the Anti-Semitics that the Jews\nkill little children of their Christian neighbours for the purpose of\nusing their blood and certain parts of their bodies in religious rites\nand ceremonies, showing alike the antiquity of this libel as well as its\nbaselessness. Against the early Christians like charges appear to have\nbeen made by the heathen, and later on by the Saracens; and indeed, this\ncharge is one which is generally levelled at new-comers or innovators in\nthe early history of Christian religion and civilization. Strack points\nout also that, during the contest of the Dominicans and Franciscans in\nBern, in 1507 A.D., it was charged that the former used the blood of\nJewish children, the eyebrows and hair of children, etc., in their\nsecret rites (361. 68, 69).\n\nBrewer, who gives little credit to the stories, cites the account of\nnumerous crucifixions of children alleged to have been carried out by\nJews in various parts of Europe, for the purpose of using their flesh\nand blood in their rituals, or merely out of hatred to the Christian\nreligion. The principal cases are: Andrew of Innspruck; Albert of\nSwirnazen in Podolia, aged four (1598); St. Hugh of Lincoln, aged eleven\n(1255); St. Janot of Cologne (1475); St. Michael of Sappendelf in\nBavaria, aged four and one-half (1340); St. Richard of Pontoise, aged\ntwelve (1182); St. Simon of Trent, aged twenty-nine months and three\ndays (1475); St. William of Norwich, aged twelve (1137); St. Wernier\n(Garnier), aged thirteen (1227). The _Acta Sanctorum_ of the\nBollandists give a long list of nameless children, who are claimed to\nhave suffered a like fate in Spain, France, Hungary, Austria, Germany,\nItaly, etc. The later charges, such as those made in the celebrated case\nof the girl Esther Solymasi, whose death was alleged to have been\nbrought about by the Jews of Tisza-Eszlar in Hungary, in 1882, are\ninvestigated by Strack, and shown to be utterly without foundation of\nfact, merely the product of frenzied Anti-Semitism (191. 171-175).\n\nThe use of blood and the sacrifice of little children, as well as other\nfetichistic practices, have been charged against some of the secret\nreligious sects of modern Russia.\n\n\n_Dead Children._\n\nIn Annam the natives \"surround the beds of their children suffering from\nsmall-pox with nets, and never leave them alone, fearing lest a demon,\nin the form of a strange child, should sneak in and take possession of\nthem\" (397. 169, 242). This belief is akin with the widespread\nsuperstitions with respect to changelings and other metamorphoses of\nchildhood, to the discussion of which Ploss and Hartland have devoted\nmuch space and attention, the latter, indeed, setting apart some forty\npages of his book on fairy-tales to the subject.\n\nIn Devonshire, England, it was formerly believed lucky to put a\nstillborn child into an open grave, \"as it was considered a sure\npassport to heaven for the next person buried there.\" In the Border\ncountry, on the other hand, it is unlucky to tread on the graves of\nunbaptized children, and \"he who steps on the grave of a stillborn or\nunbaptized child, or of one who has been overlaid by its nurse, subjects\nhimself to the fatal disease of the grave-merels, or grave-scab.\" In\nconnection with this belief, Henderson cites the following popular\nverses, of considerable antiquity:--\n\n\n \"Woe to the babie that ne'er saw the sun,\n    All alane and alane, oh!\n  His bodie shall lie in the kirk 'neath the rain,\n    All alane and alane, oh!\n\n \"His grave must be dug at the foot o' the wall,\n    All alane and alane, oh!\n  And the foot that treadeth his body upon\n    Shall have scab that will eat to the bane, oh!\n\n \"And it ne'er will be cured by doctor on earth,\n    Tho' every one should tent him, oh!\n  He shall tremble and die like the elf-shot eye,\n    And return from whence he came, oh!\" (469. 13).\n\n\nAmong the natives of the Andaman Islands, after a dead child has been\nburied and the parents have mourned for about three months, the remains\nare exhumed, cleansed at the seashore by the father, and brought back to\nthe hut, where the bones are broken up to make necklaces, which are\ndistributed to friends and relatives as mementos. Moreover, \"the mother,\nafter painting the skull with _k\u00f2i-ob_--[a mixture of yellow ochre,\noil, etc.] and decorating it with small shells attached to pieces of\nstring, hangs it round her neck with a netted chain, called\n_r\u00e2b--._ After the first few days her husband often relieves her by\nwearing it himself\" (498. 74,75).\n\nAccording to Lumholtz, \"a kind of mummy, dried by the aid of fire and\nsmoke, is also found in Australia. Male children are most frequently\nprepared in this manner. The corpse is then packed into a bundle, which\nis carried for some time by the mother. She has it with her constantly,\nand at night sleeps with it at her side. After about six months, when\nnothing but the bones remain, she buries it in the earth. Full-grown men\nare sometimes treated in this manner, particularly the bodies of great\nheroes\" (495. 278).\n\nAmong the western Eskimo, \"the mother who loses her nursling places the\npoor 'papoose' in a beautifully ornamented box, which she fastens on her\nback and carries about her for a long while. Often she takes the\nmiserable mummy in her arms and makes it a kind of toilette,\ndisinfecting it, and removing the mouldiness\" (523. 102).\n\nAccording to the traveller Lander, a woman of Yoruba, in Africa,\n\"carries for some time a wooden figure of her lost child, and, when she\neats, puts part of her food to its lips\"; and Catlin writes of the\nMandan Indians: \"They place the skulls of their dead in a circle. Each\nwife knows the skull of her former husband or child, and there seldom\npasses a day that she does not visit it with a dish of the best cooked\nfood ... There is scarcely an hour in a pleasant day, but more or less\nof these women may be seen sitting or lying by the skull of their dead\nchild or husband, talking to it in the most pleasant and endearing\nlanguage they can use (as they were wont to do in former days), and\nseemingly getting an answer back\" (Spencer, _Princ. of Soc.,_ 1882,\nI. 332, 326).\n\nOf the Nishinam Indians of California, Mr. Powers tells us: \"When a\nNishinam wife is childless, her sympathizing female friends sometimes\nmake out of grass a rude image of a baby, and tie it in a miniature\nbaby-basket, according to the Indian custom. Some day, when the woman\nand her husband are not at home, they carry this grass baby and lay it\nin their wigwam. When she returns and finds it, she takes it up, holds\nit to her breast, pretends to nurse it, and sings it lullaby songs. All\nthis is done as a kind of conjuration, which they hope will have the\neffect of causing the barren woman to become fertile\" (519. 318).\n\nOf certain Indians of the northern United States we read, in the early\nyears of the present century: \"The traders on the river St. Peter's,\nMississippi, report that some of them have seen in the possession of the\nIndians a petrified child, which they have often wished to purchase; but\nthe savages regard it as a deity, and no inducement could bribe them to\npart with it\" (_Philos. Mag._ XXIX., p. 5).\n\n\n_Child-Worship._\n\nAs Count D'Alviella has pointed out, we have in the apocryphal book of\nthe _Wisdom of Solomon_ the following interesting passage: \"For a\nfather afflicted with untimely mourning, when he hath made an image of\nhis child soon taken away, now honoured him as a god, which was then a\ndead man; and delivered to those that were under him ceremonies and\nsacrifices.\"\n\nMrs. Stevenson, in a Zu\u00f1i tale of motherly affection, relates how, in\ncrossing a river in the olden time, the children clinging to their\nmothers were transformed into such ugly and mischievous shapes that the\nlatter let many of them fall into the river. Some held their children\nclose, and on the other side these were restored to their natural forms.\nThose who had lost their children grieved and would not be comforted; so\ntwo twin-brothers--sons of the sun, they are called--went beneath the\nwaters of a lake to the dwelling of the children, who asked them to tell\nhow it fared with their mothers. Their visitors told them of the grief\nand sorrow of the parents, whereupon the children said: \"Tell our\nmothers we are not dead, but live and sing in this beautiful place,\nwhich is the home for them when they sleep. They will wake here and be\nalways happy. And we are here to intercede with the sun, our father,\nthat he may give to our people rain and the fruits of the earth, and all\nthat is good for them.\" Since that time these children have been\n\"worshipped as ancestral gods, bearing the name of kok-ko\" (358. 541).\nThis reminds us strikingly of the great Redeemer, of whom it was said\nthat he is \"an Advocate for us with the Father,\" and who himself\ndeclared: \"In my Father's house are many mansions; if it were not so I\nwould have told you; for I go to prepare a place for you.\"\n\nIn not a few mythologies we meet with the infant god in the arms of its\nmother or of some other woman. Of the goddess of pity in the Celestial\nEmpire we read: \"The Chinese Lady of Mercy in her statues is invariably\ndepicted as young, symmetrical, and beautiful. Sometimes she stands or\nsits alone. Sometimes she holds an infant god in her lap. Sometimes she\nholds one, while a second plays about her knee. Another favourite\npicture and statue represents her standing on the head of a great\nserpent, with a halo about her face and brows, and spirits encircling\nher. In the sixth, she stands upon a crescent, awaiting a bird\napproaching her from the skies. In a seventh, she stands smiling at a\nbeautiful child on the back of a water-buffalo. In an eighth, she is\nweeping for the sins of either humanity or the female portion of it. She\nis the patron saint of all her sex, and intercedes for them at the great\nthrone of Heaven. She is a very old divinity. The Chinese themselves\nclaim that she was worshipped six thousand years ago, and that she was\nthe first deity made known to mankind. The brave Jesuit missionaries\nfound her there, and it matters not her age; she is a credit to herself\nand her sex, and aids in cheering the sorrowful and sombre lives of\nmillions in the far East.\" We also find \"the saintly infant Zen-zai, so\noften met with in the arms of female representations of the androgynous\nKwanon.\"\n\nMr. C. N. Scott, in his essay on the \"Child-God in Art\" (344), is\nhesitant to give to many mythologies any real child-worship or artistic\nconcept of the child as god. Not even Rama and Krishna, or the Greek\nEros, who had a sanctuary at Thespiae in Boeotia, are beautiful, sweet,\nnaive child-pictures; much less even is Hercules, the infant, strangling\nthe serpents, or Mercury running off with the oxen of Admetus, or\nbacchic Dionysus. In Egypt, in the eleventh, or twelfth dynasty, we do\nfind a family of gods, the triad, father (Amun), mother (Maut), child\n(Khuns). Mr. Scott follows Ruskin in declaring that classic Greek art\ngives no real child-concept; nor does Gothic art up to the thirteenth\ncentury, when the influence of Christianity made itself felt, that\ninfluence which made art lavish its genius upon the Madonna and the\nSanto Bambino--the Virgin and the Christ-Child.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXVI.\n\n\nTHE CHRIST-CHILD.\n\nThe holy thing that is to be born shall be called the Son of\nGod.--_Luke_ i. 35. There is born to you this day in the city of\nDavid a Saviour, which is anointed Lord.--_Luke_ ii. 11.\n\n\n  Great little One! whose all-embracing birth\n  Lifts Earth to Heaven, stoops Heaven to Earth.--_Richard Crashaw._\n\n  Our Babe, to show his Godhead true,\n  Can in his swaddling hands control the damn\u00e8d crew.--_Milton._\n\n  The heart of Nature feels the touch of Love;\n  And Angels sing:\n  \"The Child is King!\n  See in his heart the life we live above.\"--_E. P. Gould._\n\n\nDuring the nineteen centuries that have elapsed since Jesus of Nazareth\nwas born, art and music, eloquence and song, have expended their best\ntalents in preserving forever to us some memories of the life and deeds\nof Him whose religion of love is winning the world. The treasures of\nintellectual genius have been lavished in the interpretation and\npromulgation of the faith that bears his name. At his shrine have\nworshipped the great and good of every land, and his name has penetrated\nto the uttermost ends of the earth.\n\nBut in the brief record of his history that has come down to us, we\nread: \"The common people heard him gladly\"; and to these, his simple\nlife, with its noble consecration and unselfish aims, appealed\nimmeasurably more even than to the greatest and wisest of men. This is\nevident from a glance into the lore that has grown up among the folk\nregarding the birth, life, and death of the Christ. Those legends and\nbeliefs alone concern us here which cluster round his childhood,--the\ntribute of the lowly and the unlearned to the great world-child, who was\nto usher in the Age of Gold, to him whom they deemed Son of God and Son\nof Man, divinely human, humanly divine.\n\n\n_Nature and the Christ-Birth._\n\nThe old heathen mythologies and the lore of the ruder races of our own\nday abound in tales of the strange and wonderful events that happened\nduring the birth, passion, and death of their heroes and divinities.\nEurope, Africa, Asia, America, and the Isles of the Sea, bring us a vast\nstore of folk-thought telling of the sympathy of Mother Nature with her\nchildren; how she mourned when they were sad or afflicted, rejoiced when\nthey were fortunate and happy. And so has it been, in later ages and\namong more civilized peoples, with the great good who have made their\ninfluence felt in the world,--the poets, musicians, artists, seers,\ngeniuses of every kind, who learned to read some of the secrets of the\nuniverse and declared them unto men. They were a part of Nature herself,\nand she heralded their coming graciously and wept over them when they\ndied. This deep feeling of kinship with all Nature pervades the writings\nof many of our greatest poets, who \"live not in themselves,\" but are\nbecome \"a portion of that around them.\" In the beautiful words of\nScott:--\n\n\n \"Call it not vain; they do not err\n  Who say, that, when the poet dies,\n  Mute Nature mourns her worshipper,\n  And celebrates his obsequies;\n  Who say, tall cliff, and cavern lone,\n  For the departed bard make moan;\n  That mountains weep in crystal rill;\n  That flowers in tears of balm distil;\n  Through his loved groves the breezes sigh,\n  And oaks, in deeper groan, reply;\n  And rivers teach their rushing wave\n  To murmur dirges round his grave.\"\n\n\nAnd with a holier fervour, even, are all things animate and inanimate\nsaid to feel the birth of a great poet, a hero, a genius, a prophet; all\nNature thrills with joy at his advent and makes known her satisfaction\nwith the good that has fallen to the lot of earth. With such men, as\nGoethe said, Nature is in eternal league, watching, waiting for their\ncoming.\n\nHow Nature must have rejoiced on that auspicious day, nineteen centuries\nago, when the Messiah, long looked for, long expected, came! The sacred\nhistorians tell us that the carol of angels heralded his birth and the\nbright star in the East led the wise men to the modest manger where he\nlay. Never had there been such gladness abroad in the world since\n\n\n  \"The morning stars sang together,\n  And all the sons of God shouted for joy.\"\n\n\nShakespeare, in _Hamlet,_--a play in which so many items of\nfolk-lore are to be found,--makes Marcellus say:--\n\n\n \"It faded on the crowing of the cock.\n  Some say that ever 'gainst that season comes\n  Wherein our Saviour's birth is celebrated,\n  The bird of dawning singeth all night long:\n  And then, they say, no spirit dares stir abroad;\n  The nights are wholesome; then no planets strike,\n  No fairy takes, nor witch hath power to charm,\n  So hallow'd and so gracious is the time,\"\n\n\nto which Horatio replies:--\n\n\n  \"So have I heard, and do in part believe it.\"\n\n\nThis belief in the holy and gracious season of the birth of Christ,--a\nreturn to the old ideas of the Golden Age and the kinship of all\nNature,--finds briefest expression in the Montenegrin saying of\nChristmas Eve: \"To-night, Earth is blended with Paradise.\" According to\nBosnian legend, at the birth of Christ: \"The sun in the East bowed down,\nthe stars stood still, the mountains and the forests shook and touched\nthe earth with their summits, and the green pine tree bent; heaven and\nearth were bowed.\" And when Simeon took the Holy Child from the mother's\narms:--\n\n\"The sun leaped in the heavens and the stars around it danced. A peace\ncame over mountain and forest. Even the rotten stump stood straight and\nhealthy on the green mountain-side. The grass was beflowered with\nopening blossoms, and incense sweet as myrrh pervaded upland and forest,\nand birds sang on the mountain-top, and all gave thanks to the great\nGod\" (_Macmil-lan's Mag.,_ Vol. XLIII, p. 362).\n\nRelics of the same thoughts crop out from a thousand Christmas songs and\ncarols in every country of Europe, and in myriads of folk-songs and\nsayings in every language of the Continent.\n\nAnd in those southern lands, where, even more than with us, religion and\nlove are inseparable, the environment of the Christ-birth is transferred\nto the beloved of the human heart, and, as the Tuscans sing in their\n_stornelli_ (415. 104):--\n\n\n \"Quando nascesti tu, nacque un bel flore;\n  La luna si ferm\u00f2 di camminare,\n  Le stelle si cambiaron di colore,\"\n\n\nin Mrs. Busk's translation:--\n\n\n \"Thy birth, Love, was the birth of a fair flower;\n  The moon her course arrested at that hour,\n  The stars were then arrayed in a new colour,\"\n\n\nso, in other lands, has the similitude of the Golden Age of Love and the\nGolden Time of Christmas been elaborated and adorned by all the genius\nof the nameless folk-poets of centuries past.\n\n\n_Folk-Lore of Christmas Tide._\n\nScottish folk-lore has it that Christ was born \"at the hour of midnight\non Christmas Eve,\" and that the miracle of turning water into wine was\nperformed by Him at the same hour (246. 160). There is a belief current\nin some parts of Germany that \"between eleven and twelve the night\nbefore Christmas water turns to wine\"; in other districts, as at\nBielefeld, it is on Christmas night that this change is thought to take\nplace (462. IV. 1779).\n\nThis hour is also auspicious for many actions, and in some sections of\nGermany it was thought that if one would go to the cross-roads between\neleven and twelve on Christmas Day, and listen, he \"would hear what most\nconcerns him in the coming year.\" Another belief is that \"if one walks\ninto the winter-corn on Holy Christmas Eve, he will hear all that will\nhappen in the village that year.\"\n\nChristmas Eve or Christmas is the time when the oracles of the folk are\nin the best working-order, especially the many processes by which\nmaidens are wont to discover the colour of their lover's hair, the\nbeauty of his face and form, his trade and occupation,--whether they\nshall marry or not, and the like. The same season is most auspicious for\ncertain ceremonies and practices (transferred to it from the heathen\nantiquity) of the peasantry of Europe in relation to agriculture and\nallied industries. Among those noted by Grimm are the following:--\n\nOn Christmas Eve thrash the garden with a flail, with only your shirt\non, and the grass will grow well next year.\n\nTie wet strawbands around the orchard trees on Christmas Eve and it will\nmake them fruitful.\n\nOn Christmas Eve put a stone on every tree, and they will bear the more\n(462. IV. 1790-1825).\n\nBeat the trees on Christmas night, and they will bear more fruit (448.\n337).\n\nIn Herefordshire, Devonshire, and Cornwall, in England, the farmers and\npeasantry \"salute the apple-trees on Christmas Eve,\" and in Sussex they\nused to \"worsle,\" _i.e._ \"wassail,\" the apple-trees and chant\nverses to them in somewhat of the primitive fashion (448. 219).\n\nSome other curious items of Christmas folk-lore are the following,\ncurrent chiefly in Germany (462. IV. 1779-1824):--\n\nIf after a Christmas dinner you shake out the table-cloth over the bare\nground under the open sky, crumb-wort will grow on the spot.\n\nIf on Christmas Day, or Christmas Eve, you hang a wash-clout on a hedge,\nand then groom the horses with it, they will grow fat.\n\nAs often as the cock crows on Christmas Eve, the quarter of corn will be\nas dear.\n\nIf a dog howls the night before Christmas, it will go mad within the\nyear.\n\nIf the light is let go out on Christmas Eve, some one in the house will\ndie.\n\nWhen lights are brought in on Christmas Eve, if any one's shadow has no\nhead, he will die within a year; if half a head, in the second\nhalf-year.\n\nIf a hoop comes off a cask on Christmas Eve, some one in the house will\ndie that year.\n\nIf on Christmas Eve you make a little heap of salt on the table, and it\nmelts over night, you will die the next year; if, in the morning, it\nremain undiminished, you will live.\n\nIf you wear something sewed with thread spun on Christmas Eve, no vermin\nwill stick to you.\n\nIf a shirt be spun, woven, and sewed by a pure, chaste maiden on\nChristmas Day, it will be proof against lead or steel.\n\nIf you are born at sermon-time on Christmas morning, you can see\nspirits.\n\nIf you burn elder on Christmas Eve, you will have revealed to you all\nthe witches and sorcerers of the neighbourhood (448. 319).\n\nIf you steal hay the night before Christmas, and give the cattle some,\nthey thrive, and you are not caught in any future thefts.\n\nIf you steal anything at Christmas without being caught, you can steal\nsafely for a year.\n\nIf you eat no beans on Christmas Eve, you will become an ass.\n\nIf you eat a raw egg, fasting, on Christmas morning, you can carry heavy\nweights.\n\nThe crumbs saved up on three Christmas Eves are good to give as physic\nto one who is disappointed (462. IV. 1788-1801).\n\nIt is unlucky to carry anything forth from the house on Christmas\nmorning until something has been brought in.\n\nIt is unlucky to give a neighbour a live coal to kindle a fire with on\nChristmas morning.\n\nIf the fire burns brightly on Christmas morning, it betokens prosperity\nduring the year; if it smoulders, adversity (246. 160).\n\nThese, and many other practices, ceremonies, beliefs, and superstitions,\nwhich may be read in Grimm (462), Gregor (246), Henderson (469), De\nGubernatis (427, 428), Ortwein (3l5), Tilte (370), and others who have\nwritten of Christmas, show the importance attached in the folk-mind to\nthe time of the birth of Christ, and how around it as a centre have\nfixed themselves hundreds of the rites and solemnities of passing\nheathendom, with its recognition of the kinship of all nature, out of\nwhich grew astrology, magic, and other pseudo-sciences.\n\n\n_Flowers of the Christ-Child._\n\nMany flowers are believed to have first sprung into being or to have\nfirst burst into blossom at the moment when Christ was born, or very\nnear that auspicious hour.\n\nThe Sicilian children, so Folkard tells us, put pennyroyal in their cots\non Christmas Eve, \"under the belief that at the exact hour and minute\nwhen the infant Jesus was born this plant puts forth its blossom.\"\nAnother belief is that the blossoming occurs again on Midsummer Night\n(448. 492).\n\nIn the East the Rose of Jericho is looked upon with favour by women with\nchild, for \"there is a cherished legend that it first blossomed at our\nSaviour's birth, closed at the Crucifixion, and opened again at Easter,\nwhence its name of Resurrection Flower\" (448. 528).\n\nGerarde, the old herbalist, tells us that the black hellebore is called\n\"Christ's Herb,\" or \"Christmas Herb,\" because it \"flowreth about the\nbirth of our Lord Jesus Christ\" (448. 281).\n\nCertain varieties of the hawthorn also were thought to blossom on\nChristmas Day. The celebrated Abbey of Glastonbury in England possessed\nsuch a thorn-tree, said to have sprung from the staff of Joseph of\nArimathea, when he stuck it into the ground, in that part of England,\nwhich he is represented as having converted. The \"Glastonbury Thorn\" was\nlong believed to be a convincing witness to the truth of the Gospel by\nblossoming without fail every Christmas Day (448. 352, 353).\n\nMany plants, trees, and flowers owe their peculiarities to their\nconnection with the birth or the childhood of Christ. The\n_Ornithogalum umbellatum_ is called the \"Star of Bethlehem,\"\naccording to Folkard, because \"its white stellate flowers resemble the\npictures of the star that indicated the birth of the Saviour of mankind\"\n(448. 553). The _Galium verum,_ \"Our Lady's Bedstraw,\" receives its\nname from the belief that the manger in which the infant Jesus lay was\nfilled with this plant (448. 249).\n\nThe flight of the Holy Family into Egypt has attracted to it as a centre\na large group of legends belonging to this category, many of which are\nto be found in Folkard and Busk.\n\nOf a certain tree, with leaves like the sensitive plant, in Arabia, we\nread that this peculiarity arose from the fact that when near the city\nof Heliopolis \"Joseph led the dromedary that bore the blessed Mother and\nher Divine Son, under a neighbouring tree, and as he did so, the green\nbranches bent over the group, as if paying homage to their Master.\"\n\nNear Mataria there was said to be a sycamore-tree, called \"the Tree of\nJesus and Mary,\" which gave shelter at nightfall to the Holy Family, and\nto this fact the Mohammedans are reported to attribute the great\nlongevity and verdure of the sycamore (448. 558).\n\nA widespread tradition makes the \"Rose of Jericho,\" called also \"St.\nMary's Rose,\" spring up on every spot where the Holy Family rested on\ntheir way to Egypt. The juniper owes the extraordinary powers with which\nit is credited in the popular mind to the fact that it once saved the\nlife of the Virgin and the infant Christ. The same kind offices have\nbeen attributed to the hazel-tree, the fig, the rosemary, the date-palm,\netc. Among the many legends accounting for the peculiarity of the aspen\nthere is one, preserved in Germany, which attributes it to the action of\nthis tree when the Holy Family entered the dense forest in which it\nstood (448. 230):--\n\n\"As they entered this wilderness, all the trees bowed themselves down in\nreverence to the infant God; only the Aspen, in her exceeding pride and\narrogance, refused to acknowledge Him, and stood upright.\" In\nconsequence of this \"the Holy Child pronounced a curse against her; ...\nand, at the sound of His words, the Aspen began to tremble through all\nher leaves, and has not ceased to tremble to this day.\" According to a\nSicilian legend, \"the form of a hand is to be seen in the interior of\nthe fruit of the pine,\" representing \"the hand of Jesus blessing the\ntree which had saved Him during the flight into Egypt by screening Him\nand His mother from Herod's soldiers\" (448. 496).\n\nWe have from Rome the following tradition (415. 173):--\n\n\"One day the Madonna was carrying the Bambino through a lupine-field,\nand the stalks of the lupines rustled so, that she thought it was a\nrobber coming to kill the Santo Bambino. She turned, and sent a\nmalediction over the lupine-field, and immediately the lupines all\nwithered away, and fell flat and dry on the ground, so that she could\nsee there was no one hidden there. When she saw there was no one hidden\nthere, she sent a blessing over the lupine-field, and the lupines all\nstood straight up again, fair and flourishing, and with ten-fold greater\nproduce than they had at first.\" In a Bolognese legend the lupines are\ncursed by the Virgin, because, \"by the clatter and noise they made,\ncertain plants of this species drew the attentions of Herod's minions to\nthe spot where the tired and exhausted travellers had made a brief halt\"\n(448. 473). Another tradition, found over almost all Italy, says that\nwhen the Holy Family were fleeing from the soldiers of King Herod:--\n\n\"The brooms and the chick-peas began to rustle and crackle, and by this\nnoise betrayed the fugitives. The flax bristled up. Happily for her,\nMary was near a juniper; the hospitable tree opened its branches as arms\nand enclosed the Virgin and Child within their folds, affording them a\nsecure hiding-place. Then the Virgin uttered a malediction against the\nbrooms and the chick-peas, and ever since that day they have always\nrustled and crackled.\" The story goes on to tell us that the Virgin\n\"pardoned the flax its weakness, and gave the juniper her blessing,\"\nwhich accounts for the use of the latter for Christmas decorations,\n--like the holly in England and France (448. 395).\n\n\n_Birds of the Christ-Child._\n\nSeveral birds are associated with the infant Christ in the folk-lore of\nEurope and the East. In Normandy, the wren is called _Poulette de\nDieu, Oiseau de Dieu,_ \"God's Chicken,\" \"God's Bird,\"--corresponding\nto the old Scotch \"Our Lady's Hen,\"--because, according to legend, \"she\nwas present at the birth of the Infant Saviour, made her nest in his\ncradle, and brought moss and feathers to form a coverlet for the Holy\nChild\" (539. 35).\n\nA Tyrolian folk-tale informs us that in days of yore the ravens were\n\"beautiful birds with plumage white as snow, which they kept clean by\nconstant washing in a certain stream.\" It happened, once upon a time,\nthat \"the Holy Child, desiring to drink, came to this stream, but the\nravens prevented him by splashing about and befouling the water.\nWhereupon he said: 'Ungrateful birds! Proud you may be of your beauty,\nbut your feathers, now so snowy white, shall become black and remain so\ntill the judgment day!'\" In consequence of their uncharitable action\nhave the ravens continued black ever since (539. 92).\n\nIn his childhood Christ is often represented as playing with the other\nlittle Jewish children. One Sabbath day He and His playmates amused\nthemselves by making birds out of clay, and after the children had been\nplaying a while, a Sadducee chanced to pass that way. The story goes on\nto tell that \"He was very old and very zealous, and he rebuked the\nchildren for spending their Sabbath in so profane an employment. And he\nlet it not rest at chiding alone, but went to the clay birds and broke\nthem all, to the great grief of the children. Now, when Christ saw this,\nHe waved His hands over all the birds He had fashioned, and they became\nforthwith alive, and soared up into the heavens\" (539. 181). From\nSwainson we learn that in the Icelandic version of the legend the birds\nare thought to have been the golden plover \"whose note 'deerin' sounds\nlike to the Iceland word 'dyrdhin,' namely 'glory,' for these birds sing\npraise to their Lord, for in that He mercifully saved them from the\nmerciless hand of the Sadducee.\"\n\nA Danish legend, cited by Swainson, accounts for the peculiar cry of the\nlapwing, which sounds like \"Klyf ved! klyf ved!\" i.e. \"Cleave wood!\ncleave wood!\" as follows (539. 185):--\"When our Lord was a wee bairn,\nHe took a walk out One day, and came to an old crone who was busy\nbaking. She desired Him to go and split her a little wood for the oven,\nand she would give Him a new cake for His trouble. He did as He was bid,\nand the old woman went on with her occupation, sundering a very small\nportion of the dough for the promised recompense. But when the batch was\ndrawn, this cake was equally large with the rest. So she took a new\nmorsel of the dough still less than before, and made and baked another\ncake, but with the like result. Hereupon she broke out with 'That's a\nvast overmuckle cake for the likes o' you; thee's get thy cake anither\ntime.' When our Lord saw her evil disposition, His wrath was stirred,\nand He said to the woman: 'I split your wood as you asked me, and you\nwould not so much as give me the little cake you promised me. Now you\nshall go and cleave wood, and that, too, as long as the world endures!'\nWith that he changed her into a weep (_vipa_) [lapwing].\"\n\nAmong the many legends of Isa, as Jesus is called by the Moslems,\ncurrent among the Mohammedan peoples is a variant of the story of the\nclay-birds, as follows: \"When Isa was seven years old, he and his\ncompanions made images in clay of birds and beasts, and Isa, to show his\nsuperiority, caused his images to fly and walk at his command.\" Clouston\ninforms us that this story is also found in the Gospel of the\nPseudo-Matthew, and in that of the Infancy (422. II. 408).\n\nIn Champagne, France, legend makes the cuckoo to have issued from a\nChristmas log (462. I. 113), and in a Latin poem of the Middle Ages we\nare told that \"the crossbill hatches its eggs at Christmas and the young\nbirds fly in full plumage at Easter\" (539. 67).\n\n\n_Animals._\n\nAt Christmas certain animals become more human, or express their joy at\nthe birth of Christ in unmistakable fashion.\n\nThere was an old Scottish belief that \"at the exact hour of the\nSaviour's birth bees in their hive emitted a buzzing sound\" (246. 147).\nAccording to a Breton folk-tale the ox and the ass can converse for a\nsingle hour, \"between eleven and twelve on Christmas night.\" At the same\nhour, in German folk-lore, all cattle stand up; another version,\nhowever, makes them devoutly kneel (462. IV. 1481).\n\nAmong the animals which folk-thought has brought into connection with\nthe Christ-Child is the horse. A Russian legend tells us that the flesh\nof the horse is deemed unclean because \"when the infant Saviour was\nhidden in the manger, the horse kept eating the hay under which the babe\nwas concealed, whereas the ox not only would not touch it, but brought\nback hay on its horns to replace what the horse had eaten\" (520. 334).\nFrom a Spanish-American miracle-play, we learn that the oxen and asses\naround the manger kept the little babe warm with their breath. In\nIreland the following folk-beliefs obtain regarding the ass and the\ncow:--\n\n\"Joseph and Mary fled into Egypt with the infant Jesus, on an ass. Since\nthat date the ass has had a cross on its back. This same ass returned to\nNazareth seven years later with them on its back, travelling in the\nnight, since which time it has been the wisest of all animals; it was\nmade sure-footed for Christ to ride on his triumphal entry into\nJerusalem, and it remains the most sure-footed of all beasts. The ass\nand cow are looked upon as sacred, because these animals breathed upon\nthe infant Jesus in the manger and kept the child warm. Old women\nsprinkle holy water on these animals to drive away disease\" (480 (1893)\n264). In _I Henry IV._ (Act II. Sc. 4) Falstaff says: \"The lion\nwill not touch the true Prince,\" and the divinity which hedged about the\nprinces of human blood was ever present with the son of Joseph and Mary,\nwhose divinity sprang from a purer, nobler fount than that of weak\nhumanity.\n\n\n_The Holy Family._\n\nWe have several word-pictures of the Holy Family from the mouth of the\nfolk. Among the hymns sung by the Confraternities of the Virgin in\nSeville, is one in which occurs the following figure (_Catholic\nWorld,_ XXIV. 19):--\n\n\n \"Es Maria la nave de gracia,\n  San Jose la vela, el Nino el timon;\n  Y los remos son las buenas almas\n  Que van al Rosario con gran devocion.\"\n  _i.e._\n\n  [\"Mary is the ship of grace,\n  St. Joseph is the sail,\n  The Child (Jesus) is the helm,\n  And the oars are the pious souls who devoutly pray.\"]\n\n\nOne of the little Italian songs called _razzi neddu,_ recorded by\nMrs. Busk, is even briefer:--\n\n\n \"Maruzza lavava,\n  Giuseppe stinnia,\n  Gesu si stricava\n  Ca minna vulia.\"\n\n  [\"Sweet Mary was washing,\n  Joseph was hanging out the clothes to dry,\n  Jesus was stretching Himself on the ground,\n  For so His mother willed.\"]\n\n\nA popular Spanish lullaby recorded by De Gubernatis in his great study\nof birth customs and usages, runs as follows in translation (500. 310):--\n\n\n  \"The Baby Child of Mary,\n  Now cradle He has none;\n  His father is a carpenter,\n  And he shall make Him one.\n\n  \"The Lady, good St. Anna,\n  The Lord St. Joachim,\n  They rock the Baby's cradle,\n  That sleep may come to Him.\n\n  \"Then sleep, thou too, my baby,\n  My little heart so dear;\n  The Virgin is beside thee,\n  The Son of God is near.\"\n\n\nAmong the many versions and variants of the familiar child's prayer,\n\"Now I lay me down to sleep,\" cited by the Countess Martinengo-Cesaresco\n(500. 202-213), is to be included the following, found among the Greeks\nof the Terra d'Otranto, in Italy:--\n\n\"I lay me down to sleep in my little bed; I lay me down to sleep with my\nMamma Mary; the Mamma Mary goes hence and leaves me Christ to keep me\ncompany.\"\n\nSome of the most na\u00efve legends are those which deal with the Child and\nHis mother in the early years of life. \"Our Lady's Thistle\" (_Carduus\nMarianus_) receives its name \"because its green leaves have been\nspotted white ever since the milk of the Virgin fell upon it, when she\nwas nursing Jesus, and endowed it with miraculous virtues.\" A German\ntradition tells the same story of the _Polypodium vulgare_\n(Marienmilch), based upon an older legend of the goddess Freia, many of\nwhose attributes, with the lapse of heathendom, passed over to the\ncentral female figure of Christianity (448. 499). A similar origin of\nthe white lily from the milk of Juno is given in Greek mythology (462.\nIV. 1671).\n\nIn Devonshire, the custom of burning a faggot of ash at Christmas, is\ntraced back to the fact that \"the Divine Infant at Bethlehem was first\nwashed and dressed by a fire of ash-wood\" (448. 235).\n\nIn Spain the rosemary is believed to blossom on the day of Christ's\npassion, and the legend accounting for this tells us that \"the Virgin\nMary spread on a shrub of rosemary the underlinen and little frocks of\nthe infant Jesus.\" The peasantry believe that rosemary \"brings happiness\non those families who employ it in perfuming the house on Christmas\nnight\" (448. 526).\n\n\n_Joseph and Mary._\n\nThe suspicions entertained by Joseph (as indicated in the narrative of\nSt. Matthew i. 19), when the birth of the child of Mary was first\nannounced, have found deep expression in folk-thought. According to one\nOriental legend, the infant Christ himself spoke, declaring that \"God\nhad created Him by His word, and chosen Him to be His servant and\nprophet\" (547. 254).\n\nAnother tradition, cited by Folkard, states that (448. 279): \"Before the\nbirth of our Saviour, the Virgin Mary longed extremely to taste of some\ntempting cherries which hung upon a tree high above her head; so she\nrequested Joseph to pluck them. Joseph, however, not caring to take the\ntrouble, refused to gather the cherries, saying sullenly, 'Let the\nfather of thy child present thee with the cherries if he will!' No\nsooner had these words escaped his lips, than, as if in reproof, the\nbranch of the cherry-tree bowed spontaneously to the Virgin's hand, and\nshe gathered its fruit and ate it. Hence the cherry is dedicated to the\nVirgin Mary.\"\n\nIn Finland the white side of the flounder \"is said to have been caused\nby the Virgin Mary's laying her hand upon it,\" and an Eastern legend\nstates that \"the Angel Gabriel restored a sole to life, to assure the\nVirgin Mary of the truth of the miraculous conception.\" Ralston cites\nfrom the Kherson Government in Russia the following:--\n\n\"At the time of the Angelic Salutation, the Blessed Virgin told the\nArchangel Gabriel that she would give credit to his words, if a fish,\none side of which had already been eaten, were to come to life again.\nThat moment the fish came to life, and was put back into the water.\"\nThis legend, accounting for the shape of the sole, finds perhaps its\norigin in \"the old Lithuanian tradition that the Queen of the Baltic Sea\nonce ate half of it and threw the other half into the sea\nagain\"--another example of the transference of older stories to the\ncycle of the Virgin Mary (520. 334).\n\nDe Gubernatis records from Andalusia, in Spain, a legend which tells how\nthe Holy Family, journeying one day, came to an orange-tree guarded by\nan eagle. The Virgin \"begged of it one of the oranges for the Holy\nChild. The eagle miraculously fell asleep, and the Virgin thereupon\nplucked not one but three oranges, one of which she gave to the infant\nJesus, another to Joseph, and the third she kept for herself. Then, and\nnot till then, the eagle that guarded the orange-tree awoke\" (448. 478).\n\nA beautiful pendant to this Spanish tale is found in the Roumanian story\ncited by Folkard:--\n\n\"The infant Jesus, in the arms of the Blessed Virgin, becomes restless,\nwill not go to sleep, and begins to cry. The Virgin, to calm the Holy\nChild, gives Him two apples. The infant throws one upwards and it\nbecomes the Moon; He then throws the second, and it becomes the Sun.\nAfter this exploit, the Virgin Mary addresses Him and foretells that He\nwill become the Lord of Heaven\" (448.222).\n\nIn his recent book on _Childhood in Literature and Art,_ Mr.\nScudder treats of the Christ-Child and the Holy Family in mediaeval and\nearly Christian art and literature (350. 57-65, 83-99), calling special\nattention to a series of twelve prints executed in the Netherlands,\nknown as _The Infancy of our Lord God and Saviour, Jesus Christ,_\nin which we have \"a reproduction of the childhood of the Saviour in the\nterms of a homely Netherland family life, the naturalistic treatment\ndiversified by the use of angelic machinery\" (350.91).\n\n\n_Moslem Lore of the Christ._\n\nIn the _Toldoth Jes\u00fa,_ which Clouston terms \"a scurrilous Jewish\n'Life of Christ,'\"--the Hebrew text with a Latin translation and\nexplanatory notes, appeared at Leyden in 1705, under the title\n_Histori\u00e6 Jeschuce Nazareni,_--the many wonders admitted to have\nbeen performed by Christ are ascribed to his \"having abstracted from the\nTemple the Ineffable Name and concealed it in his thigh,\"--an idea\nthought to be of Indian origin. Clouston goes so far as to say: \"Legends\nof the miracles of Isa, son of Maryam, found in the works of Muslim\nwriters, seem to have been derived from the Kur\u00e1n, and also from early\nChristian, or rather _quasi_-Christian traditions, such as those in\nthe apocryphal gospels, which are now for the most part traceable to\nBuddhist sources.\" One belief of the Mohammedans was that \"the breath of\nthe Messiah had the virtue of restoring the dead to life\" (422. II. 395,\n408, 409).\n\nIn the first volume of the _Orientalist,_ Muhammed Casim Siddi\nLebbe gives an account of the views of Arabian writers regarding the\nVirgin Mary and Jesus. Weil has also devoted a section of his work on\nMussulman legends to \"John, Mary, and Christ.\" When the child Jesus was\nborn, we are told, the withered trunk of a date tree against which the\nVirgin leaned, \"blossomed, and its withered branches were covered with\nfresh dates,\" while \"a fountain of fresh water gushed forth from the\nearth at her feet\" (547. 249-264).\n\n\n_The Christ-Child To-day._\n\nFolk-stories and churchly legends tell us that the Christ-Child still\nwalks the earth, and appears unto the saints and sinners of this world.\n\nFolkard reports a tradition from the Havel country in North Germany:--\n\n\"One Christmas Eve a peasant felt a great desire to eat cabbage and,\nhaving none himself, he slipped into a neighbour's garden to cut some.\nJust as he had filled his basket, the Christ-Child rode past on his\nwhite horse, and said: 'Because thou hast stolen on the holy night, thou\nshalt immediately sit in the moon with thy basket of cabbage.'\" And so,\nwe are told, \"the culprit was immediately wafted up to the moon,\" and\nthere he can still be seen as \"the man in the moon\" (448. 265).\n\nBrewer gives many of the churchly legends in which the Christ-Child\nappears to men and women upon earth, either in the arms of the Virgin,\nas he came to St. Agnes of Monte Pulciano and to Jeanne Marie de Maille,\nor as a glorious child, in which form he appeared alone to St. Alexander\nand Quirinus the tribune, in the reign of Hadrian; to St. Andrew\nCorsini, to call him to the bishopric of Fiesole; to St. Anthony of\nPadua, many times; to St. Cuthbert, to rebuke him (a child of eight\nyears) for wasting his time in play; to St. Emiliana of Florence, with\nthe same purpose; to St. Oxanna, and to St. Veronica of Milan (191. 59,\n60). Among the rude peasantry of Catholic Europe belief in the\nvisitations of the Christ-Child lingers, especially at the season of His\nbirth. With them, as Milton thought,--\"Millions of spiritual creatures\nwalk the earth.\" Yet not unseen, but seen often of the good and wise,\nthe simple and innocent, and greatest of these visitants of earth is the\nChild Jesus, ever occupied about His Father's business.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXVII.\n\n\nPROVERBS, SAYINGS, ETC., ABOUT PARENTS, FATHER AND\nMOTHER.\n\n1. Be a father to virtue, but a father-in-law to vice.\n\n2. Bread is our father, but _kasha_ [porridge] is our mother.\n--_Russian_.\n\n3. Call not that man wretched, who, whatever ills he suffers, has a\nchild he loves.--_Southey_.\n\n4. Children suck the mother when they are young, and the father when\nthey are old.\n\n5. Children see in their parents the past, they again in their children\nthe future; and if we find more love in parents for their children than\nin children for their parents, this is sad and natural. Who does not\nfondle his hopes more than his recollections?--_E\u00f6tv\u00f6s_.\n\n6. Choose a good mother's daughter, though her father were the\ndevil.--_Gaelic_.\n\n7. Die Menschheit geben uns Vater und Mutter, die Menschlichkeit aber\ngibt uns nur die Erziehung. [Human nature we owe to father and mother,\nbut humanity to education alone.]--_Weber_.\n\n8. Die M\u00fctter geben uns von Geiste W\u00e4rme, und die V\u00e4ter Licht. [Our\nmothers give us warmth of spirit; our fathers, light.]--_Jean\nPaul_.\n\n9. Die Mutter sagt es, der Vater glaubt es, ein Narr zweifelt daran.\n[The mother says it, the father believes it, the fool doubts\nit.]--_Pistorius._\n\n10. Dos est magna parentum Virtus. [The virtue of parents is a great\ndowry.]--_Horace._\n\n11. En olle kan beter s\u00f6fen kinner erneren, as s\u00f6fen kinner \u00ean olle. [A\nparent can more easily maintain seven children than seven children one\nparent.]--_Low German._\n\n12. Fader og Moder ere gode, end er Gud bedre. [Father and mother are\nkind, but God is better.]--_Danish._\n\n13. He knows not what love is that hath no children.\n\n14. He that loveth father and mother more than me is not worthy of\nme.--_Jesus._\n\n15. If poverty is the mother of crimes, want of sense is the father of\nthem.--_La Bruyere._\n\n16. Keep thy father's commandment, and forsake not the law of thy\nmother.--_Bible._\n\n17. La buena vida padre y madre olvida. [Prosperity forgets father and\nmother.]--_Spanish._\n\n18. Laus magna natis obsequi parentibus. [Great praise comes to children\nfor having complied with the wishes of their parents.]\n--_Phoedrus._\n\n19. Look at home, father priest, mother priest; your church is a\nhundred-fold heavier responsibility than mine can be. Your priesthood is\nfrom God's own hands.--_Henry Ward Beecher._\n\n20. One mother is more venerable than a thousand fathers.\n--_Laws of Manu._\n\n21. Parents are the enemies of their children, if they refuse them\neducation.--_Eastern Proverb._\n\n22. Parents' blessings can neither be drowned in water, nor consumed in\nfire.\n\n23. Parents we can have but once.--_Dr. Johnson._\n\n24. Parents say: \"Our boy is growing up.\" They forget his life is\nshortening.--_Afghan._\n\n25. Respect for one's parents is the highest duty of civil life.\n--_Chinese._\n\n26. The bazaar knows neither father nor mother.--_Turkish._\n\n27. The crow says: \"O my son, whiter than muslin.\"--_Afghan._\n\n28. The eye that mocketh at his father, and despiseth to obey his\nmother, the ravens of the valley shall pick it out, and the young eagles\nshall eat it.--_Bible._\n\n29. The house of the childless is empty; and so is the heart of him that\nhath no wife.--_Hitopadesa._\n\n30. The joys of parents are secret, and so are their griefs and\nfears.--_Bacon._\n\n31. These are my jewels.--_Cornelia (mother of the Gracchi)._\n\n32. They who have lost an infant are never, as it were, without an\ninfant child.--_Leigh Hunt._\n\n33. To a father, when his child dies, the future dies; to a child, when\nhis parents die, the past dies.--_Auerbach._\n\n34. To make a boy despise his mother's care is the straightest way to\nmake him also despise his Redeemer's voice; and to make him scorn his\nfather and his father's house, the straightest way to make him deny his\nGod and his God's heaven.--_Ruskin._\n\n35. Unworthy offspring brag most of their worthy descent.\n--_Danish._\n\n36.\n\n  Vom Vater hab'ich die Statur,\n  Des Lebens ernstes Fuhren;\n  Von Mutterchen die Frohnatur\n  Und Lust zu fabulieren.\n  [My father's stature I possess\n  And life's more solemn glory;\n  My mother's fund of cheerfulness,\n  Her love for song and story.]--_Goethe._\n\n\n37. Was der Mutter an's Herz geht, das geht dem Vater nur an die Kniee.\n[What goes to the mother's heart goes only to the father's\nknees.]--_German._\n\n38. Wer nicht Kinder hat, der weiss nicht, warum er lebt. [Who has not\nchildren knows not why he lives.]--_German._\n\n39. Whoso curseth his father or his mother, his lamp shall be put out in\nobscure darkness.--_Bible._\n\n40. Whoso robbeth his father or his mother, and saith, It is no\ntransgression, the same is the companion of a destroyer.--_Bible._\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXVIII.\n\n\nPROVERBS, SAYINGS, ETC., ABOUT THE CHILD, MANKIND,\nGENIUS, ETC.\n\n1. Argument is like an arrow from a cross-bow, which has great force,\nthough shot by a child.--_Bacon_.\n\n2. Childhood often holds a truth in its feeble fingers, which the grasp\nof manhood cannot retain, and which it is the pride of utmost age to\nrecover.--_Ruskin_.\n\n3. Children always turn toward the light.--_Hare_.\n\n4. Der gr\u00f6sste Mensch bleibt stets ein Menschenkind. [The greatest man\nalways remains a son of man.]--_Goethe_.\n\n5. Dieu aide \u00e1 trois sortes de personnes,--aux fous, aux enfants, et aux\nivrognes. [God protects three sorts of people,--fools, children, and\ndrunkards.]--_French_.\n\n6. Enfants et fous sont devins. [Children and fools are\nsoothsayers.]--_French_.\n\n7. Every child is, to a certain extent, a genius, and every genius is,\nto a certain extent, a child.--_Schopenhauer_.\n\n8. Except ye be converted, and become as little children, ye cannot\nenter into the kingdom of heaven.--_Jesus_.\n\n9.\n  Fede ed innocenzia son reperte\n  Solo ne' pargoletti.\n  [Faith and innocence we find\n  Only in the children's mind.]\n  --_Dante_.\n\n\n10. Genius is the power of carrying the feelings of childhood into the\npowers of manhood.--_Coleridge_.\n\n11. Genius must be born, and never can be taught.--_Dryden_.\n\n12. Genius should be the child of genius, and every child should be\ninspired.--_Emerson_.\n\n13. God is kind to fou [_i.e._ drunken] folk and\nbairns.--_Scotch_.\n\n14. God watches over little children and drunkards.--_Russian_.\n\n15. Heaven lies about us in our infancy.--_Wordsworth_.\n\n16. I love God and little children.--_Jean Paul_.\n\n17. If children grew up according to early indications, we should have\nnothing but geniuses.--_Goethe_.\n\n18. Infancy presents body and spirit in unity; the body is all\nanimated.--_Coleridge_.\n\n19. Ingenio non \u00e6tate adipiscitur sapientia. [Wisdom comes by nature,\nnot by age.]--_Latin_.\n\n20. Kinder und Narren sprechen die Wahrheit. [Children and fools tell\nthe truth.]--_German_.\n\n21. Kloke kinner ward nit old. [Wise children don't live long.]\n--_Frisian_.\n\n22. L'homme est toujours l'enfant, et l'enfant toujours l'homme. [The\nman is always the child, and the child is always the man.]\n--_French_.\n\n23. Mankind at large always resembles frivolous children; they are\nimpatient of thought, and wish to be amused.--_Emerson_.\n\n24. Men are but children of a larger growth; Our appetites are apt to\nchange as theirs, And full as craving, too, and full as\nvain.--_Dryden_.\n\n25. Men are unwiser than children; they do not know the hand that feeds\nthem.--_Carlyle_.\n\n26. Men deal with life as children with their play, Who first misuse,\nthen cast their toys away.--_Cowper_.\n\n27. Men fear death as children to go into the dark.--_Bacon_.\n\n28. Nature is full of freaks, and now puts an old head on young\nshoulders, and then a young heart beating under fourscore\nwinters.--_Emerson_.\n\n29. Nothing is so intelligible to the child, nothing seems so natural to\nhim as the marvellous or the supernatural.--_Zacharia_.\n\n30. Odi puerulos pr\u00e6coci ingenio. [I hate boys of precocious\ngenius.]--_Cicero_.\n\n31. _on oi theoi philousin apothnaeskei neos_. [He whom the gods\nlove dies young.]--_Menander_.\n\n32. Poeta nascitur, non fit. [A poet is born, not made.]--_Latin_.\n\n33.\n  Prophete rechts, Prophete links,\n  Das Weltkind in der Mitten.\n  [Prophets to right of him, prophets to left of him,\n  The world-child in the middle.]--_Goethe_.\n\n34. So wise, so young, they say, do ne'er live long.\n--_Shakespeare_ (Rich. III. iii. 1).\n\n35. Suffer little children to come unto me, and forbid them not, for of\nsuch is the kingdom of heaven.--_Jesus_.\n\n36. The best architecture is the expression of the mind of man-hood by\nthe hands of childhood.--_Ruskin_.\n\n37. The birth of a child is the imprisonment of a soul.--_Simons_.\n\n38. The boy's story is the best that is ever told.--_Dickens_.\n\n39. The child is father of the man.--_Wordsworth_.\n\n40. The childhood shows the man As morning shows the\nday.--_Milton_.\n\n41. The wisest doctor is gravelled by the inquisitiveness of a\nchild.--_Emerson_.\n\n42. These moving things, ca'ed wife and weans, Wad move the very heart\no' stanes.--_Burns_.\n\n43. They who have lost an infant are never, as it were, without an\ninfant child.--_Leigh Hunt_.\n\n44. To be young is to be as one of the immortals.--_Hazlitt_.\n\n45. Wage du zu irren und zu traumen: Hoher Sinn liegt oft im kind'schen\nSpiel. [Dare thou to err and dream; Oft deep sense a child's play\nholds.]--_Schiller_.\n\n46. Wer darf das Kind beim rechten Namen nennen? [Who dare give the\nchild its right name?]--_Goethe_.\n\n47. Whilst we converse with what is above us, we do not grow old but\ngrow young.--_Emerson_.\n\n48. Whosoever shall not receive the kingdom of God as a little child, he\nshall not enter therein.--_Jesus_.\n\n49. Ye are but children.--_Egyptian Priest (to Solon)_.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXIX.\n\n\nPROVERBS, SAYINGS, ETC., ABOUT THE MOTHER AND\nCHILD.\n\n1. A child may have too much of its mother's blessing.\n\n2. A kiss from my mother made me a painter.--_Benj. West._\n\n3. Ama sinhesten, ezduenac, ain zuna. [Who does not follow his mother\nwill follow his stepmother, i.e. who will not hear must\nfeel.]--_Basque_.\n\n4. A mother curses not her son.--_Sanskrit_.\n\n5. An ounce o' mother-wit is worth a pound o' clergy.--_Scotch_.\n\n6. As if he had fallen out of his mother's mouth (i.e. so like his\nmother).--_Low German_.\n\n7. Barmherzige M\u00fctter ziehen grindige T\u00f6chter. [Compassionate mothers\nbring up scabby daughters.]--_German_.\n\n8. Choose cloth by its edge, a wife by her mother.--_Persian_.\n\n9. Das Kind, das seine Mutter verachtet, hat einen stinkenden Atem. [The\nchild that despises its mother has a fetid breath.]--_German_.\n\n10. Das Kind f\u00e4llt wieder in der Mutter Schooss. [The child falls back\ninto its mother's bosom.]--_German_.\n\n11. Das Kind folgt dem Busen. [The child follows the\nbosom.]--_German_.\n\n12. Die Mutter eine Hexe, die Tochter auch eine Hexe. [Mother a witch,\ndaughter also a witch.]--_German_.\n\n13. Die Tochter ist wie die Mutter. [Like mother, like\ndaughter.]--_German_.\n\n14. Es meinet jede Frau, ihr Kind sei ein Pfau. [Every woman thinks her\nchild a peacock.]--_German_.\n\n15. Es ist kein' so b\u00f6se Mutter, sie z\u00f6he gern ein frommes Kind. [There\nis no mother so bad but that she will bring up a good\nchild.]--_German_.\n\n16. Fleissige Mutter hat faule Tochter. [A diligent mother has a lazy\ndaughter.]--_German_.\n\n17. God pardons like a mother who kisses the offence into everlasting\nforgetfulness.--_Henry Ward Beecher_.\n\n18. Happy is the boy whose mother is tired of talking nonsense to him\nbefore he is old enough to know the sense of it.--_Hare_.\n\n19. He deceives thee, who tells thee that he loves thee more than thy\nmother does.--_Russian_.\n\n20. He has faut [i.e. need] o' a wife that marries mam's pet.\n--_Scotch_.\n\n21. He that is born of a hen must scrape for a living.\n\n22. I have always found that the road to a woman's heart lies through\nher child.--_Haliburton_.\n\n23. I would desire for a friend the son who never resisted the tears of\nhis mother.--_Lacretelle_.\n\n24. If the world were put into one scale and my mother into the other,\nthe world would kick the beam.--_Lord Langdale_.\n\n25. In a matter of life and death don't trust even your mother; she\nmight mistake a black bean [nay] for a white one\n[yea].--_Alcibiades_.\n\n26. lst eine Mutter noch so arm, so giebt sie ihrem Kinde warm. [However\npoor a mother is, she keeps her child warm.]--_German_.\n\n27. It is not as thy mother says, but as thy neighbours say.\n--_Hebrew_.\n\n28. Jedes Mutterkind ist schon. [Every mother's child is\nbeautiful.]--_German_.\n\n29. Keine Mutter tragt einen Bastart. [No mother bears a\nbastard.]--_German_.\n\n30. La madre pitiosa fa la figluola tignosa. [A merciful mother makes a\nscabby daughter.]--_Italian_.\n\n31. Like mother, like daughter.\n\n32. Mai agucosa, filha preguicosa. [Diligent mother, idle\ndaughter.]--_Portuguese_.\n\n33. Mere piteuse fait sa fille rogneuse. [A merciful mother makes her\ndaughter scabby.]-_French_.\n\n34. Milk with water is still milk [i.e. though, your mother is bad, she\nis nevertheless your mother].--_Badaga_.\n\n35. Mothers' darlings are but milksop heroes.\n\n36. Mothers' love is the cream of love.\n\n37. Muttertreu wird taglich neu. [Mother's truth keeps constant\nyouth.]--_German_.\n\n38.\n  Mysterious to all thought,\n  A mother's prime of bliss,\n  When to her eager lips is brought\n  Her infant's thrilling kiss.--_Keble_.\n\n39. Nature sent women into the world that they might be mothers and love\nchildren, to whom sacrifices must ever be offered, and from whom none\ncan be obtained.--_Jean Paul_.\n\n40. No bones are broken by a mother's fist.--_Russian_.\n\n41. No hay tal madre come la que pare. [There is no mother like her who\nbears.]--_Spanish_.\n\n42.\n  O l'amour d'une mere! amour quo nul n'oublie!\n  Pain merveilleux, que Dieu partage et multiplie!\n  Table toujours servie au paternel foyer!\n  Chacun en a sa part, et tous l'ont tout entier.\n  [O mother-love! love that none ever forgets!\n  Wonderful bread, that God divides and multiplies!\n  Table always spread beside the paternal hearth!\n  Each one has his part of it, and each has it all!]\n  --_Victor Hugo_.\n\n43. One good mother is worth a hundred schoolmasters.\n\n44. One scream of fear from a mother may resound through the whole life\nof her daughter.--_Jean Paul_.\n\n45.\n  Seem I not as tender to him\n  As any mother?\n  Ay, but such a one\n  As all day long hath rated at her child,\n  And vext his day, but blesses him asleep.\n  --_Tennyson_.\n\n46. Sind die Kinder klein, so treten sie der Mutter auf den Schooss;\nsind die Kinder gross, so treten sie der Mutter auf das Herz. [When the\nchildren are small they tread upon the mother's breast; when they are\nlarge they tread upon the mother's heart.]--_German._\n\n47. So moder, so dogter. [Like mother, like daughter.]--_Frisian_.\n\n48.\n  Stabat Mater dolorosa\n  Juxta crucem lacrymosa\n  Quo pendebat Filius.\n\n  [Sorrow-stricken stood the Mother\n  Weeping by the cross\n  On which hung her Son.]\n  --_Mediaeval Latin Hymn_.\n\n49. Tendresse maternelle toujours se renouvelle. [A mother's affection\nis forever new.]--_French_.\n\n50. The child is often kissed for the mother's (nurse's) sake.\n\n51. The elephant does not find his trunk heavy, nor the mother her\nbabe.--_Angolese_ (Africa).\n\n52. The future destiny of the child is always the work of the\nmother.--_Napoleon_.\n\n53. The good mother says not \"Will you?\" but gives.--_Italian_.\n\n54. The mother's heart is always with her children.\n\n55. The mother's breath is aye sweet.--_Scotch_.\n\n56. The mother knows best if the child be like the father.\n\n57. The mother makes the house or mars it.\n\n58. The nurse's bread is better than the mother's cake.\n--_Frisian_.\n\n59. The prayer of the mother fetches her child out of the bottom of the\nsea.--_Russian_.\n\n60. The watchful mother tarries nigh, Though sleep has closed her\ninfant's eye.--_Keble_.\n\n61. There is nothing more charming to see than a mother with her child\nin her arms, and there is nothing more venerable than a mother among a\nnumber of her children.--_Goethe_.\n\n62. Though a mother be a wolf, she does not eat her cub's\nflesh.--_Afghan_.\n\n63. Timidi mater non flet. [The coward's mother need not\nweep.]--_Latin_.\n\n64. To a child in confinement its mother's knee is a binding-post.\n--_Hitopadesa_.\n\n65. Unhappy is the man for whom his own mother has not made all mothers\nvenerable.--_Jean Paul_.\n\n66. Unless the child cries even the mother will not give it\nsuck.--_Telugu_.\n\n67. Wer ein saugendes Kind hat, der hat eine singende Frau. [Whoever has\na suckling child, has a singing wife.]--_German_.\n\n68. Wer dem Kinde die Nase wischt, kusst der Mutter den Backen. [Whoever\nwipes a child's nose kisses the mother's cheek.]--_German_.\n\n69. What a mother sees coils itself up, but does not come out [i.e. the\nfaults of her child].-_Angolese_ (Africa).\n\n70. You desire, O woman, to be loved ardently and forever until death;\nbe the mothers of your children.--_Jean Paul_.\n\n71. Zu solchen Kindern gehort eine solche Mutter. [To such children\nbelongs such a mother.]--_German_.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXX.\n\n\nPROVERBS, SAYINGS, ETC., ABOUT FATHER AND CHILD.\n\n1. An dem Kind kennt man den Vater wohl. [The father is known from the\nchild.]--_German_.\n\n2. Bone does not let go flesh, nor father son.--_Angolese_.\n\n3. Bose Kinder machen den Vater fromm. [Bad children make the father\ngood.]--_German_.\n\n4. Chi non ha figluoli non sa qualche cosa sia amore. [Who has not\nchildren knows not what love is.]--_Italian_.\n\n5. Child's pig, but father's bacon.\n\n6. Ein Vater ernahrt ehei zehn Kinder, denn zehn Kinder einen Vater.\n[One father can better nourish ten children, than ten children one\nfather.]--_German_.\n\n7. Fathers alone a father's heart can know.--_Young_.\n\n8.Fathers first enter bonds to Nature's ends,\n  And are her sureties ere they are a friend's.\n  --_George Herbert_.\n\n9.Fathers that wear rags\n  Do make their children blind;\n  But fathers that wear bags\n  Do make their children kind.\n  --_Shakespeare_ (King Lear, ii. 4).\n\n10.Fathers their children and themselves abuse, That wealth a husband\nfor their daughters choose. --_Shirley_.\n\n11. Happy is he that is happy in his children.\n\n12. Happy is the child whose father went to the devil.\n\n13. Haur nizar-galeac aitari bizzarra thira. [The child that will cry,\npulls at its father's beard.]--_Basque_.\n\n14. He has of [i.e. is like] his father.--_Russian_.\n\n15. He is a chip of the old block.\n\n16. He is cut out of his father's eyes [i.e. very like his\nfather].--_Frisian_.\n\n17. He is the son of his father.\n\n18. He is a wise child that knows his own father.\n\n19. He that can discriminate is the father of his father.--_Veda_.\n\n20. He that hath wife and children wants not business.\n\n21. He that marries a widow and three children marries four\nthieves.--_Spanish_.\n\n22. He that hath a wife and children hath given hostages to fortune; for\nthey are impediments to great enterprises, either of virtue or\nmischief.--_Bacon_.\n\n23. He was scant o' news that told that his father was hanged.\n--_Scotch_.\n\n24. He who hath but one hog makes him fat; he who hath but one son makes\nhim a fool.--_Italian_.\n\n25. It is a wise father that knows his own child.--_Shakespeare_\n(Merch. of Venice, ii. 2).\n\n26. Like father, like son.--_Arabic_.\n\n27. Man sieht dem Kind an, was er fur einen Vater hat. [By the child one\nsees what sort of man his father is.]--_German_.\n\n28. Many a father might say ... \"I put in gold into the furnace, and\nthere came out this calf.\"--_Spurgeon_.\n\n29. Many a good father has a bad son.\n\n30. On est toujours le fils de quelqu'un. Cela console. [One is always\nthe son of somebody. That is a consolation.]--_French_.\n\n31. Patris est filius. [He is the son of his father.]--_Latin_.\n\n32. Such a father, such a son.--_Spanish_.\n\n33. Tel pere, tel fils. [Like father, like son.]--_French_.\n\n34. The child is the father of the man.--_Wordsworth_.\n\n35. The child has a red tongue like its father.\n\n36. The Devil's child, the Devil's luck.\n\n37. The father can no more destroy his son than the cloud can extinguish\nby water the lightning which precedes from itself.--_Raghuvansa_.\n\n38. The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the children's teeth are set\non edge.--_Bible_.\n\n39. The glory of children are their fathers.--_Bible_.\n\n40. The gods do not avenge on the son the misdeeds of the father. Each,\ngood or bad, reaps the just reward of his own actions. The blessing of\nthe parents, not their curse, is inherited.--_Goethe_.\n\n41. The ungrateful son is a wart on his father's face; to leave it is a\nblemish, to cut it a pain.--_Afghan_.\n\n42. The words that a father speaks to his children in the privacy of\nhome are not heard by the world, but, as in whispering-galleries, they\nare clearly heard at the end and by posterity.--_Jean Paul_.\n\n43. To a father, who is growing old, there is nothing dearer than a\ndaughter.--_Euripides_.\n\n44. To a father, when his child dies, the future dies; to a child, when\nhis parents die, the past dies.--_Auerbach_.\n\n45. Vinegar the son of wine [_i.e._ an unpopular son of a popular\nfather].--_Talmud_.\n\n46. Whoso wishes to live without trouble, let him keep from\nstep-children and winter-hogs.--_Low German_.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXXI.\n\n\nPROVERBS, SAYINGS, ETC., ABOUT CHILDHOOD, YOUTH,\nAND AGE.\n\n1. A' are guid lasses, but where do a' the ill wives come frae?\n--_Scotch_.\n\n2. Age does not make us childish, as people say; it only finds\nus still true children.--_Goethe_.\n\n3. Aliud legunt pueri, aliud viri, aliud senes. [Children read\none way, men another, old men another.]--_Terence_.\n\n4. A man at five may be a fool at fifteen.\n\n5. A man at sixteen will prove a child at sixty.\n\n6. An old knave is no babe.\n\n7. A smiling boy seldom proves a good servant.\n\n8. Auld folk are twice bairns.--_Scotch_.\n\n9. Aus gescheidenen Kindern werden Gecken. [From clever\nchildren come fools.]--_German_.\n\n10. Aus Kindern werden Leute, aus Jungfern werden Br\u00e4ute.\n[From children come grown-up people, from maidens come brides.]\n--_German_.\n\n11. Better bairns greet [_i.e._ weep] than bearded men.\n--_Scotch_.\n\n12. Childhood and youth see all the world in persons.\n--_Emerson_.\n\n13. Childhood often holds a truth in its feeble fingers, which\nthe grasp of manhood cannot retain, and which it is the pride of\nutmost age to recover.--_Ruskin_.\n\n14. Childhood shows the man, as morning shows the day.--_Milton_.\n\n15. Der J\u00fcngling k\u00e4mpft, damit der Greis geniesse. [The youth fights, in\norder that the old man may enjoy.]--_Goethe_.\n\n16. Een diamant van een dochter wordt een glas van eene vrouw. [A\ndiamond of a daughter becomes a glass of a wife.]--_Dutch_.\n\n17. Eident [_i.e._ diligent] youth makes easy age.--_Scotch_.\n\n18.\n  Ewig jung zu bleiben\n  Ist, wie Diehter schreiben,\n  H\u00f6chstes Lebensgut;\n  Willst du es erwerben,\n  Musst du fr\u00fche sterben.\n  [To remain ever-young\n  Is, as poets write,\n  The highest good of life;\n  If thou wouldst acquire it,\n  Thou must die young.]--_R\u00fcckert_.\n\n19. Fanciulli piccioli, dolor di testa; fanciulli grandi dolor di cuore.\n[Little children bring head-ache, big children, heart-ache.]\n--_Italian_.\n\n20. Giovine santo, diavolo vecchio. [Young saint, old devil.]\n--_Italian_.\n\n21. Hang a thief when he's young, and he'll no steal when\nhe's auld.--_Scotch_.\n\n22. Happy child! the cradle is still to thee an infinite space; once\ngrown into a man, and the boundless world will be too small to\nthee.--_Schiller_.\n\n23. He cometh to you with a tale which holdeth children from play, and\nold men from the chimney-corner.--_Sir Philip Sidney_.\n\n24. He who mocks the infant's faith Shall be mocked in age and\ndeath.--_Blake_.\n\n25. How little is the promise of the child fulfilled in the man!\n--_Ovid_.\n\n26. If you lie upon roses when young, you will lie upon thorns when old.\n\n27.\n  Ihr Kinder, lernet jetzt genug,\n  Ihr lernt nichts mehr in alten Zeiten.\n  [Ye children, learn enough now;\n  When time has passed, you will learn nothing more.]--_Pfeffel_.\n\n28. In childhood a linen rag buys friendship.--_Angolese_.\n\n29. In childhood be modest, in youth temperate, in manhood just, and in\nold age prudent.--_Socrates_.\n\n30. In the opening bud you see the youthful thorns.--_Talmud_.\n\n31. In youth one has tears without grief; in age, grief without\ntears.--_Jean Paul._\n\n32. Invention is the talent of youth, and judgment of age.\n--_Swift._\n\n33. It's no child's play, when an old woman dances.--_Low German._\n\n34. Jong rijs is te buigen, maar geen oude boomen. [A young twig can be\nbent, but not old trees.]--_Dutch._\n\n35. Jonge lui, domme lui; oude lui, koude lui. [Young folk, silly folk;\nold folk, cold folk.]--_Dutch._\n\n36. Junge Faullenzer, alte Bettler. [Young idlers, old beggars.]\n--_German._\n\n37. Just at the age 'twixt boy and youth When thought is speech, and\nspeech is truth.--_Scott._\n\n38. La jeunesse devrait etre une caisse d'\u00e9pargne. [Youth ought to be a\nsavings-bank.]--_Mme. Svetchin._\n\n39. Learn young, learn fair; Learn auld, learn mair.--_Scotch._\n\n40. Let the young people mind what the old people say, And where there\nis danger, keep out of the way.\n\n41. Levity is artlessness in a child, a shameful fault in men, and a\nterrible folly in old age.--_La Rochefoucauld._\n\n42. Maids are May when they are maids, but the sky changes when they are\nwives.--_Shakespeare_ (As You Like It, iv. 1).\n\n43. Man schont die Alten, wie man die Kinder schont. [We spare old\npeople, as we spare children.]--_Goethe._\n\n44. Man mut de kinner bugen, so lange se junk sunt. [Children must be\nbent while they are young.]--_Frisian._\n\n45. Man's second childhood begins when a woman gets hold of\nhim.--_Barrie._\n\n46. My son's my son till he hath got him a wife, But my daughter's my\ndaughter all the days of her life.\n\n47. Nicht die Kinder bloss speist man mit M\u00e3rchen ab. [Not children\nalone are put off with tales.]--_Leasing._\n\n48. Old head and young hand.\n\n49. Old heads will not suit young shoulders.\n\n50. Old men are twice children.--_Greek_.\n\n51. Once a man and twice a child.\n\n52. Se il giovane sapesse, se il vecchio potesse, c' non c' \u00e8 cosa che\nnon si facesse. [If the youth but knew, if the old man but could, there\nis nothing which would not be done.]--_Italian_.\n\n53. Study is the bane of boyhood, the element of youth, the indulgence\nof manhood, and the restorative of age.--_Landor_.\n\n54. The household is the home of the man as well as of the\nchild.--_Emerson_.\n\n55. The man whom grown-up people love, children love still\nmore.--_Jean Paul_.\n\n56. There are in man, in the beginning, and at the end, two blank\nbook-binder's leaves,--childhood and age.--_Jean Paul_.\n\n57. We are children for the second time at twenty-one, and again when we\nare gray and put all our burden on the Lord.--_Barrie_.\n\n58. We bend the tree when it is young.--_Bulgarian_.\n\n59. When bairns are young they gar their parents' heads ache; when they\nare auld they make their hearts break.--_Scotch_.\n\n60. When children, we are sensualists, when in love, idealists.\n--_Goethe_.\n\n61. Wie die Alten sungen, so zwitschern auch die Jungen. [As the old\nbirds sing, the young ones twitter.]--_German_.\n\n62. Wir sind auch Kinder gewesen. [We too were once children.]\n--_German_.\n\n63. Young men think that old men are fools; but old men know young men\nare fools.--_Chapman_.\n\n64. Youth is a blunder; manhood, a struggle; old age, a regret.\n--_Disraeli_.\n\n65.\n  Youth is full of sport, age's breath is short;\n  Youth is nimble, age is lame;\n  Youth is hot and bold, age is weak and cold;\n  Youth is wild, and age is tame.--_Shakespeare_.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXXII.\n\n\nPBOVEKBS, SAYINGS, ETC., ABOUT THE CHILD AND\nCHILDHOOD.\n\n1. A beltless bairn cannot lie.--_Scotch._\n\n2. A burnt child dreads the fire.\n\n3. A child is a Cupid become visible.--_Novalis._\n\n4. A daft nurse makes a wise wean.--_Scotch._\n\n5. A growing youth has a wolf in his belly.\n\n6. A hungry belly has no ears.\n\n7. A lisping lass is good to kiss.\n\n8. All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.\n\n9  An infant crying in the night,\n   An infant crying for the light;\n   And with no language but a cry.--_Tennyson._\n\n10. A pet lamb makes a cross ram.\n\n11. A reasonable word should be received even from a child or a\nparrot.--_Sanskrit._\n\n12. A simple child\n    That lightly draws its breath,\n    And feels its life in every limb,\n    What should it know of death?--_Wordsworth._\n\n13. As sair greets [as much weeps] the bairn that's paid at e'en as he\nthat gets his whawks in the morning.--_Scotch._\n\n14. A tarrowing bairn was never fat.--_Scotch._\n\n15. Auld men are twice bairns.--_Scotch._\n\n16. Auld wives and bairns make fools of physicians.--_Scotch._\n\n17. Bairns are certain care, but nae sure joy.--_Scotch._\n\n18. Be born neither wise nor fair, but lucky.--_Russian._\n\n19. Behold the child, by Nature's kindly law,\n    Pleased with a rattle, tickled with a straw.--_Pope._\n\n20. Better be unborn than untaught.--_Gaelic_.\n\n21. Birth's good, but breeding's better.--_Scotch_.\n\n22. Bon sang ne peut mentir. Qui naquit chat court apr\u00e8s les souris.\n[Good blood cannot lie. The kitten will chase the\nmouse.]--_French_.\n\n23. Broken bread makes hale bairns.--_Scotch_.\n\n24. By sports like these are all their cares beguil'd, The sports of\nchildren satisfy the child.--_Goldsmith_.\n\n25. \u00c7e que l'enfant entend au foyer, est bient\u00f4t connu jusqu'au Moistre.\n[What children hear at the fireside is soon known as far as Moistre (a\ntown in Savoy).]--_French_.\n\n26. Che nasce bella nasce maritata. [A beautiful girl is born\nmarried.]--_Italian_.\n\n27. Childhood and youth see the world in persons.--_Emerson_.\n\n28. Childhood is the sleep of Reason.--_Rousseau_.\n\n29. Children and chickens are always a-picking.\n\n30. Children and drunken people tell the truth.\n\n31. Children and fools speak the truth.--_Greek_.\n\n32. Children and fools have many lives.\n\n33. Children are certain sorrows, but uncertain joys.--_Danish_.\n\n34. Children are the poor man's wealth.--_Danish_.\n\n35. Children are very nice observers, and they will often\nperceive your slightest defects.--_F\u00e9nelon_.\n\n36. Children cry for nuts and apples, and old men for gold and silver.\n\n37. Children have more need of models than of critics.--_Jouberi_.\n\n38. Children have wide ears and long tongues.\n\n38a. Children increase the cares of life, but they mitigate the\nremembrance of death.\n\n39. Children, like dogs, have so sharp and fine a scent, that they\ndetect and hunt out everything--the bad before all the\nrest.--_Goethe_.\n\n40. Children of wealth, or want, to each is given One spot of green, and\nall the blue of heaven.--_Holmes_.\n\n41. Children pick up words as chickens peas, And utter them again as God\nshall please.\n\n42. Children should have their times of being off duty, like\nsoldiers.--_Ruskin_.\n\n43. Children to bed, and the goose to the fire.\n\n44. Children should laugh, but not mock; and when they laugh, it should\nnot be at the weaknesses and faults of others.--_Buskin._\n\n45. Children sweeten labours, but they make misfortunes more\nbitter.--Bacon. 46. Children tell in the streets what they hear round\nthe hearth.--_Portuguese._\n\n47. Das kann ein Kind machen. [A child can do that--that\nis very easy.]--_German._\n\n48. Das Kind mit dem Bade verschutten. [To throw away the child with the\nbath--to reject the good along with the bad.]--_German._\n\n49. Dat is en kinnerspil. [That's child's play--very easy.]\n--_Frisian._\n\n50. Dat lutjeste un lefste. [The youngest and dearest.]\n--_Frisian._\n\n51. Dawted [i.e. petted] bairns dow bear little.--_Scotch._\n\n52. Dawted dochters mak' dawly [slovenly] wives.--_Scotch._\n\n53. Delightful task! to rear the tender thought, To teach the young idea\nhow to shoot.--_Thomson._\n\n54. De wesen wil bemint, de nem sin naver kind. [Who would be loved, let\nhim take his neighbour's child.]--Frisian.\n\n55. Die Kinder sind mein liebster Zeitvertreib. [Children are my dearest\npastime.]--_Chamisso._\n\n56. Dochders zijn broze waaren. [Daughters are brittle\nware.]--_Dutch._\n\n57. Do not meddle wi' the de'il and the laird's bairns.--_Scotch._\n\n58. Do not talk of a rape [rope] to a chiel whose father was\nhangit.--_Scotch._\n\n59. Do not train boys to learning by force or harshness; but direct them\nto it by what amuses their minds, so that you may be the better able to\ndiscover with accuracy the peculiar bent of the genius of\neach.--_Plato._\n\n60. Education begins its work with the first breath of life.\n--_Jean Paul._\n\n61. Education commences at the mother's knee, and every word spoken\nwithin the hearing of little children tends towards the formation of\ncharacter.--_Ballou._\n\n62. Eet maar Brod, dann wardst du gr\u00f4t. [Eat bread and you'll\ngrow.]--_Frisian_.\n\n63. Ein Kind, kein Kind, zwei Kind, Spielkind, drei Kind, viel Kind,\nvier Kind, ein ganzes Hausvoll Kinder. [One child, no child; two\nchildren, playing children; three children, many children; four\nchildren, a whole house full of children.]--_German_ (with numerous\nvariants).\n\n64. Ein Laster kostet mehr als zwei Kinder. [One crime costs more than\ntwo children.]--_German_.\n\n65. Es ist besser zehn Kinder gemacht, als ein einziges umgebracht. [It\nis better to have made ten children than to have destroyed\none.]--_German_.\n\n66. Fools and bairns shouldna see things half done.--_Scotch_.\n\n67. Fools with bookish learning are children with edged tools; they hurt\nthemselves, and put others in pain.--_Zimmermann_.\n\n68. Fremde Kinder, wir lieben sie nie so sehr als die eignen. [We never\nlove the children of others so well as our own.]--_Goethe_.\n\n69. Fremde Kinder werden wohl erzogen. [Other people's children are well\nbrought up.]--_German_.\n\n70. Gie a bairn his will,\n    And a whelp his fill,\n    Nane o' them will e'er do well.--_Scotch_.\n\n71. Give a child till he craves, and a dog while his tail doth wag, and\nyou'll have a fair dog, but a foul knave.\n\n72. Gie a dog an ill name and he'll soon be hanged.--_Scotch_.\n\n73. God is kind to fou [_i.e._ drunken] folk and\nbairns.--_Scotch_.\n\n74. God ne'er sent the mouth but He sent the meat wi't.--_Scotch_.\n\n75. God watches over little children and drunkards.--_Russian_.\n\n76. Gude bairns are eith [easy] to lear [teach].--_Scotch_.\n\n77. Happy is he that is happy in his children.\n\n78. He who sends mouths will send meat.\n\n79. Heimerzogen Kind ist bei den Leuten wie ein Rind. [A home-bred child\nacts like a cow.]--_German_.\n\n80. He that's born to be hanged will never be drowned.\n\n81. He that is born under a tippeny [two-penny] planet will ne'er be\nworth a groat.--_Scotch_.\n\n82. I cuori fanciulli non veston a bruno. [A child's heart puts on no\nmourning.]--_Zendrini._\n\n83. If our child squints, our neighbour's has a cast in both eyes.\n\n84. Ill bairns are best heard at hame.--_Scotch._\n\n85. It is the squalling child that gets the milk.--_Turkish._\n\n86. Je lieberes Kind, je scharfere Rute. [The dearer the child, the\nsharper the rod.]--_German._\n\n87. Kinder hat man, Kinder kriegt man. [Children bring\nchildren.]--_German._\n\n88. Kinder kommen von Herzen und gehen zu Herzen. [Children come from\nthe heart, and go to the heart.]--_German._\n\n89. Kinder und Bienstocke nehmen bald ab bald zu. [Children and\nbee-hives now decrease, now increase.]--_German._\n\n90. Kind's hand is ball fullt,\n    Kind's zurn is ball stillt.\n   [A child's hand is soon filled,\n    A child's anger is soon stilled.]--_Low German._\n\n91. Late children are early orphans.--_Spanish._\n\n92. Les enfants sont ce qu'on les fait. [Children are what we make\nthem.]--_French._\n\n93. Let thy child's first lesson be obedience, and the second will be\nwhat thou wilt.--_Franklin._\n\n94. Liebe Kinder haben viele Namen. [Dear children have many\nnames.]--_German._\n\n95. Lieber ungezogene, als verzogene Kinder. [Better unbred children\nthan ill-bred ones.]--_German._\n\n96. Like the wife wi' the mony daughters, the best comes\nhindmost.--_Scotch._\n\n97. Little pitchers have big ears.\n\n98. Little ones are taught to be proud of their clothes before they can\nput them on.--_LocJce._\n\n99. Lutze potten hebben ok oren [i.e. little children have\nears].--_Low German._\n\n100. Man is wholly man only when he plays.--_Schiller._\n\n101. Maxima debetur pueris reverentia. [The greatest respect is due to\nboys (youth).]--_Juvenal._\n\n102. Men are generally more careful of the breed of their horses and\ndogs than of their children.--_William Penn._\n\n103. Mony a ane kisses the bairn for love of the nurice.--_Scotch._\n\n104. More children, more luck.--_German._\n\n105. Nessuno nasce maestro. [No one is born master.]--_Italian._\n\n106. 'N g\u00f4d Kind, wen't sl\u00f6pt. [A good child, when it sleeps.]\n--_Frisian._\n\n107. O banish the tears of children! Continual rains upon the blossoms\nare hurtful.--_Jean Paul._\n\n108. O formose puer, nimium ne crede colori. [Oh, beauteous boy, trust\nnot too much to thy rosy cheeks.]--_Virgil._\n\n109. Of bairns' gifts ne'er be fain, Nae sooner they give but they seek\nthem again.--_Scotch._\n\n110. One chick keeps a hen busy.\n\n111. Our young men are terribly alike.--_Alex. Smith._\n\n112. Pars minima est ipsa puella sui. [The girl herself is the smallest\npart of herself.]--_Ovid._\n\n113. Parvum parva decent. [Small things become the small.]\n--_Horace._\n\n114. Play is the first poetry of the human being.--_Jean Paul._\n\n115. Qui aime bien, ch\u00e2tie bien. [Who loves well chastises\nwell.]--_French._\n\n116. Qui parcit virg\u00e6 odit filium. [Who spareth the rod\nhateth his child.]--_Latin._\n\n117. Reckless youth maks ruefu' eild [age].--_Scotch._\n\n118. Royet [wild] lads may make sober men.--_Scotch._\n\n119. Rule youth well, for eild will rule itself.--_Scotch._\n\n120. Salt and bread make the cheeks red.--_German._\n\n121. Seven nurses cost the child an eye.--_Russian._\n\n122. Small birds [_i.e._ children] must have meat.\n\n123. Sores are not to be shown to flies, and children are not to be\ntaught to lie.--_Malay._\n\n124. Spare the rod and spoil the child.\n\n125. Teach your children poetry; it opens the mind, lends grace to\nwisdom, and makes the heroic virtues hereditary.--_Mahomet._\n\n126. Tenez la bride haute \u00e0 votre fils. [Keep a tight rein over your\nson.]--_French._\n\n127. That's the piece a step-bairn never gat.--_Scotch._\n\n128. The bairn speaks in the field what he hears at the fireside.\n--_Scotch._\n\n129. The bearing and the training of a child is woman's wisdom.\n--_Tennyson._\n\n130. The best horse needs breeding and the aptest child needs\nteaching.--_Arabic._\n\n131. The boy's will is the wind's will.--_Lapp._\n\n132. The chief art is to make all that children have to do sport\nand play.--_Locke._\n\n133. The child says nothing but what he heard at the fireside.\n--_Spanish._\n\n134. The de'il's bairns hae the de'il's luck.--_Scotch._\n\n135. The heart is a child; it desires what it sees.--_Turkish._\n\n136. The heart of childhood is all mirth.--_Keble._\n\n137. The king is the strength of the weak; crying is the strength of\nchildren.--_Sanskrit._\n\n138. The right law of education is that you take the best pains with the\nbest material.--_Ruskin._\n\n139. The spring is the youth of trees, wealth is the youth of men,\nbeauty is the youth of women, intelligence is the youth of the\nyoung.--_Sanskrit._\n\n140. The plays of children are the germinal leaves of all later\nlife.--_Froebel._\n\n141. The time of breeding is the time of doing children good.\n--_George Herbert._\n\n142. They were scant o' bairns that brought you up.--_Scotch._\n\n143. The youth gets together his materials to build a bridge to the\nmoon, or perchance a palace on the earth; at length middle-aged, he\nconcludes to build a woodshed with them.--_Thoreau._\n\n144. They who educate children well are more to be honoured than they\nwho produce them; these gave them life only, those the art of\nwell-living.--_Aristotle._\n\n145. To a child all weather is cold.\n\n146. To endure is the first and most necessary lesson a child has to\nlearn.--_Rousseau._\n\n147. To write down to children's understandings is a mistake; set them\non the scent, and let them puzzle it out.--_Scott._\n\n148. Un enfant br\u00fbl\u00e9 craint le feu. [A burnt child dreads the\nfire.]--_French._\n\n149. Ungezogene Kinder gehen zu Werk wie Binder. [Unbred children go to\nwork like cattle.]--_German._\n\n150. Viel Kinder viel Vaterunser, viel Vaterunser viel Segen. [Many\nchildren, many Paternosters; many Paternosters, many\nblessings.]--_German_.\n\n151. We ought not to teach the children the sciences, but give them a\ntaste for them.--_Rousseau_.\n\n152. Wen de g\u00f4sen w\u00e2ter s\u00ean, dan willen se drinken. [When the geese\n(_i.e._ children) see water, they want to drink.]--_Frisian_.\n\n153. Wenn das Kind ertrunken ist, deckt man den Brunnen. [When the child\nis drowned, the well is covered.]--_German_.\n\n154. Wenn Kinder und Narren zu Markte gehen, l\u00f6sen die Kr\u00e4mer Geld.\n[When children and fools go to market, the dealers make\nmoney.]--_German_.\n\n155. Wenn Kinder wohl schreien, so lebeu sie lange. [When children cry\nwell, they live long.]--_German_.\n\n156. Wer wil diu kint vraget, der wil si liegen leren. [Who asks\nchildren many questions teaches them to lie.]--_Old High German_.\n\n157. What children hear at home soon flies abroad.\n\n158. When children remain quiet, they have done something wrong.\n\n159. Women and bairns lein [hide] what they ken not.--_Scotch_.\n\n160. Women and children should retire when the sun does.\n--_Portuguese_.\n\n161. You should lecture neither child nor woman.--_Russian_.\n\n_Index to Proverbs, etc._\n\nFollowing is an index of peoples and authors for the foregoing proverbs\nand sayings (the references are to pages):--\n\n\n_A, PEOPLES._\n\nAfghan, 377,379,385,389.\nAngolese, 385,386,387,391.\nArabic, 388,400.\nBadaga, 384.\nBasque, 382,387.\nBulgarian, 393.\nChinese, 377.\nDanish, 377,378,395.\nDutch, 391,392,396.\nEgyptian, 381.\nEnglish, 376,377,380,382,383,384,385,387,388,390,392,393,394,\n395,396,397,398,399,400,401.\nFrench, 379,380,383,385,388,395,398,399,400.\nFrisian, 380,385,392,396,397,399,401.\nGaelic, 376,395.\nGerman,378,380,382,383,384,385,387,388,390,392,393,396,397,398,\n399,400,401.\nGreek, 393,395.\nHebrew, 383.\nHindu, 377.\nItalian, 383,385,387,388,391,393,395,399.\nLapp, 400.\nLatin, 380, 385, 388, 399.\nLow German, 377, 382, 389, 392, 398.\nMalay, 399.\nOriental, 377.\nPersian, 382.\nPortuguese, 383,396, 401.\nRoman, 378.\nRussian, 376, 380, 383, 384, 385, 387, 394, 397, 399, 401.\nSanskrit, 377, 382, 394, 400.\nScotch, 380, 382, 383, 385, 388, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395,\n396, 397, 398, 399, 400, 401.\nSpanish, 377, 384, 388, 398.\nTelugu, 386.\nTurkish, 377, 398, 400.\n\n\nB, AUTHORS, ETC.\n\nAlcibiades, 383.\nAristotle, 400.\nAuerbach, 378, 389.\nBacon, 377, 379, 380, 388, 396.\nBallon, 396.\nBarrie, 392, 393.\nBeecher, 377, 383.\nBible, 377, 378, 388.\nBlake, 391.\nBurns, 381.\nCarlyle, 380.\nChamisso, 396.\nChapman, 393.\nCicero, 380.\nColeridge, 379, 380.\nCornelia, 378.\nCowper, 380.\nDante, 379.\nDickens, 381.\nDisraeli, 393.\nDryden, 379, 380.\nEmerson, 379, 380, 381, 390, 393, 395.\nE\u00f6tv\u00f6s, 376.\nEuripides, 389.\nF\u00e9nelon, 395.\nFranklin, 398.\nFroebel, 400.\nGoethe, 378, 379, 380, 381, 385, 389, 390, 392, 393, 395, 397.\nGoldsmith, 395.\nHaliburton, 383.\nHare, 379, 383.\nHazlitt, 381.\nHerbert, 387, 400.\nHitopadesa, 377, 385.\nHolmes, 395.\nHorace, 376, 399.\nHugo, 384.\nHunt, 378, 381.\nJean Paul, 376, 380, 384, 385, 386, 389, 392, 393, 396, 399.\nJesus, 377, 379, 381.\nJohnson, 377.\nJoubert, 395.\nJuvenal, 398.\nKeble, 384, 385, 400.\nLa Bruy\u00e8re, 377.\nLacretelle, 383.\nLandor, 393.\nLangdale, 383.\nLa Rochefoucauld, 392.\nLessing, 392.\nLocke, 398, 400.\nMahomet, 399.\nManu, 377.\nMenander, 380.\nMilton, 381, 390.\nNapoleon, 385.\nNovalis, 394.\nOvid, 391, 399.\nPenn, 398.\nPfeffel, 391.\nPh\u00e6drus, 377.\nPistorius, 376.\nPlato, 396.\nPope, 394.\nRaghuvansa, 388.\nRousseau, 395, 400, 401.\nR\u00fcckert, 391.\nRuskin, 378, 379, 381, 390, 395, 396, 400.\nSchiller, 381, 391, 398.\nSchopenhauer, 379.\nScott, 400.\nShakespeare, 381, 387, 388, 392, 393.\nShirley, 387.\nSidney, 391.\nSimons, 381.\nSmith, 399.\nSocrates, 392.\nSouthey, 376.\nSpurgeon, 388.\nSvetchin, 392.\nSwift, 392.\nTalmud, 389, 392.\nTennyson, 384, 394, 400.\nTerence, 390.\nThomson, 396.\nThoreau, 400.\nVeda, 388.\nVirgil, 399.\nWeber, 376.\nWest, 382.\nWordsworth, 380, 381, 388, 394.\nYoung, 387.\nZachari, 380.\nZendrini, 398.\nZimmermann, 397.\n\nFor the collection of proverbs and sayings here given, the writer\nacknowledges his indebtedness to the numerous dictionaries of quotations\nand proverbs, of which he has been able to avail himself.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXXIII.\n\n\nCONCLUSION.\n\nIn these pages the \"Child in Primitive Culture\" has been considered in\nmany lands and among many peoples, and the great extent of the\nactivities of childhood among even the lowest races of men fully\ndemonstrated. That the child is as important to the savage, to the\nbarbarous peoples, as to the civilized, is evident from the vast amount\nof lore and deed of which he is the centre both in fact and in fiction.\nThe broader view which anthropologists and psychologists are coming to\ntake of the primitive races of man must bring with it a larger view of\nthe primitive child. Still less than the earliest men, were their\nchildren, mere animals; indeed, possibly, nay even probably, the\nchildren of primitive man, while their childhood lasts, are the equals,\nif not the superiors, of those of our own race in general intellectual\ncapacity. With the savage as with the European of to-day, the \"child is\nfather of the man.\"\n\nThe primitive child, as language and folk-lore demonstrate, has been\nweighed, measured, and tested physically and mentally by his elders,\nmuch as we ourselves are doing now, but in ruder fashion--there are\nprimitive anthropometric and psychological laboratories as proverb and\nfolk-speech abundantly testify, and examinations as harassing and as\nsearching as any we know of to-day. Schools, nay primitive colleges,\neven, of the prophets, the shamans, and the _magi_, the race has\nhad in earlier days, and everywhere through the world the activities of\nchildhood have been appealed to, and the race has wonderfully profited\nby its wisdom, its _na\u00efvet\u00e9_, its ingenuity, and its touch of\ndivinity.\n\nUpon, language, religion, society, and the arts the child has had a\nlasting influence, both passive and active, unconscious, suggestive,\ncreative. History, the stage, music, and song have been its debtors in\nall ages and among all peoples.\n\nTo the child language owes many of its peculiarities, and the\nmultiplicity of languages perhaps their very existence. Religion has had\nthe child long as its servant, and from the faith and confidence of\nyouth and the undying mother-love have sprung the thought of immortality\nand the Messiah-hope that greets us all over the globe. Even among the\nmost primitive races, it is the children who are \"of the Kingdom of\nHeaven,\" and the \"Fall of Man\" is not from a fabled Garden of Eden, but\nfrom the glory of childhood into the stern realities of manhood. As a\nsocial factor the child has been of vast importance; children have sat\nupon thrones, have dictated the policies of Church and of State, and\nfrom them the wisest in the land have sought counsel and advice. As\noracles, priests, shamans, and _thaumaturgi_, children have had the\nrespect and veneration of whole peoples, and they have often been the\nvery mouth-piece of deity, standing within the very gates of heaven. As\nhero and adventurer, passing over into divinity, the child has explored\nearth, sea, and sky, descending into nethermost hell to rescue the bones\nof his father, and setting ajar the gates of Paradise, that the radiant\nglory may be seen of his mother on earth. Finally, as Christ sums up all\nthat is divine in men, so does the Christ-Child sum up all that is God-\nlike in the child. The Man-Jesus stands at the head of mankind, the\nChild-Jesus is the first of the children of men. All the activities and\ncallings of the child, the wisdom, the beauty, the innocence of\nchildhood find in folk-belief and folk-faith their highest, perfect\nexpression in the Babe of Bethlehem. True is it as ten thousand years\nago:--\n\n\n \"Before life's sweetest mystery still\n  The heart in reverence kneels;\n  The wonder of the primal birth\n  The latest mother feels.\"\n\n\nMotherhood and childhood have been the world's great teachers, and the\nprayer of all the race should be:--\n\n\n \"Let not (the) cultured years make less\n  The childhood charm of tenderness.\"\n\n\n\n\nBIBLIOGRAPHY.\n\nThe Bibliography here given is intended to serve the double purpose of\nenabling readers of this book to verify the statements made and the\ncitations from the numerous authorities referred to in the compilation\nof the work, with as little difficulty as possible, and of furnishing to\nsuch as may desire to carry on extended reading in any of the subjects\ntouched upon in the book a reasonable number of titles of the more\nrecent and valuable treatises dealing with such topics.\n\nAll references in the body of the book to works listed in the\nBibliography are by number and page. Thus: 6. 26 means that the\nquotation is from, or the opinion is derived from, _Bachofen, J.\nJ._, Das Mutterrecht, S. 26; 127.11. 180 means _Post, A. H._,\nAfrikanische Jurisprudenz, II. Th., S. 180; 300. 15 means _Lombroso,\nC._, The Man of Genius, p. 15; 480 (1893). 140 means _Journal of\nAmerican Folk-Lore_, 1893, p. 140.\n\n\nA. MOTHER, FATHER, FAMILY, SOCIETY.\n\n1. ACHELIS, T.: Die Entwickelung der Ehe. Berlin, 1893. 125 S. 8vo.\n\n2. Actes du congr\u00e8s international des \u009cuvres et institutions f\u00e9minines.\nParis, 1890. 539 pp. 8vo.\n\n3. ADAM, L.: Du genre dans les diverses langues. Paris, 1883. 36 pp. 8vo.\n\n4. ANDERSEN, HANS C.: La M\u00e8re. Conte de Hans Christian Andersen en 22\nLangues, St. P\u00e9tersbourg, 1894.\n\n5. AVERY, J.: Polyandry in India and Thibet. _Amer. Antiq. and Or.\nJourn._ Vol. IV., pp. 48-53.\n\n6. BACHOFEN, J. J.: Das Mutterrecht. Eine Untersuchung \u00fcber die\nGynokratie der alten Welt nach ihrer religi\u00f6sen und rechtlichen Natur.\nStuttgart, 1861. xl, 435 S. 4to.\n\n7. BACON, ALICE M.: Japanese Girls and Women. London, 1891. 330 pp. 8vo.\n\n8. BANDELIER, A. F.: On the Social Organization and Mode of Government\nof the Ancient Mexicans. _Rep. Peab. Mus._ II., pp. 557-699.\n\n9. BASTIAN, A.: Matriarchat und Patriarchal. _Ztschr. \u0083. Ethnol.\n(Berlin), Verhndl._, 1886, S. 331-341.\n\n10. BAWA,--: Marriage Customs of the Moors of Ceylon. _Journ. Ceylon\nBranch Roy. Asiatic Soc._ Vol. X. (1888), pp. 219-262.\n\n11. BELILOVSKI, K. A.: [Woman in Siberia (Medico-ethnographical\nSketch)]. _Sborn. rabot akush i zhensk. bolez ... Slavjanski_\n[etc.]. St. Petersburg, 1894. Vol. I., pp. 527-629.\n\n12. BERGEL, Jos.: Die Eheverhaltnisse der alten Juden. Leipzig, 1881.\n\n13. BERNHOFT, F.: Verwandschaftsnamen und Eheformen der\nnordamerikanischen Volksstamme. Rostock, 1888.\n\n14. 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(Berlin), Abh. a. d. J._ 1852. III. Th., S. 391-423.\nReprinted (separate) as: BUSCHMANN, J. C. E., Ueber den Naturlaut.\nBerlin, 1853. 34 S. 4to. Translation: On Natural Sounds, by Prof. J. C.\nE. Buschmann. Transl. by Campbell Clarke.... _Philol. Soc. (London)\nProc._ Vol. VI. (1855), pp. 188-206.\n\n20. CAMBOULIVES, M.: L'Homme et la Femme a tous les Ages de la Vie.\nEtude hygienique, medicale, physiologique, sociale et morale. Paris,\n1890. 388 pp. 8vo.\n\n21. CARR, L.: Social and Political Status of Woman among the Iroquois\nIndians. _Rep. Peab. Mus._ (Cambridge, Mass.). III., pp. 207-232.\n\n22. CHAMBERLAIN, A. F. Primitive Woman as Poet. _Proc. Am. Ass. Adv.\nSci._ XLII. (1893), Salem, 1894, p. 317.\n\n23. CHAUVIN, JEANNE: Etude historique sur les professions accessibles\naux Femmes. Paris, 1892. 296 pp. 8vo.\n\n24. CHILD, L. M.: History of the Condition of Women in Various Ages and\nNations. 2 vols. 1832.\n\n25. CODRINGTON, R. H.: Social Regulations in Melanesia. _Journ. 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B.: Marriage and Kinship among the Ancient Israelites.\n_Ibid_. Vol. XLII. (1892-3), pp. 325-337.\n\n42. ELLIS, HAVELOCK: Man and Woman: A Study of Human Secondary Sexual\nCharacters. London and New York, 1894. xiv, 409 pp. 8vo.\n\n43. ENGELMANN, G.: Labor [Parturition] amongst Primitive Peoples. St.\nLouis, 1883. 227 pp. 8vo. Also German Transl., Wien, 1884.\n\n44. ENGELS, F.: Der Ursprung der Familie, des Privateigenthums und des\nStaats. Hottingen-Z\u00fcrich, 1884.\n\n45. FAUST, J. H.: \"Das, was Wir lieben,\" im Rahmen des Sprichwortes.\nHumor, Witz und Satire \u00fcber die T\u00f6chter Eva's. 2te Aufl. Hamburg. 102 S.\n\n46. FAWCETT, F.: On basivis: Women, who, through dedication to a deity,\nassume masculine privileges. _Journ. Anthr. Soc._ (Bombay). Vol.\nII. (1891), pp. 322-354.\n\n47. FELICE, L. V. DE: II divorzio e la donna. Napoli, 1893. 63 pp. 16mo.\n\n48. FELKIN, R. 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W.: Kamilaroi and Kurnai. Group-Marriage\nand Relationship, and Marriage by Elopement, etc. Melbourne, 1880.\n\n56. FISON, L.: Australian Marriage Laws. _Journ. Anthr. Inst._\n(London). Vol. IX., pp. 354-358.\n\n57. FISON, L.: Group-Marriage and Relationship. _Rep. Austral. Ass.\nAdv. Sci._ (Vol. IV., 1892.) Hobart, 1893. pp. 688-697.\n\n58. FLOESSEL, E.: Die Schwiegermutter. Kulturgeschichtliche Beitr\u00e4ge.\nDresden, 1890.\n\n59. FOL, II.: La ressemblance entre \u00e9poux. _Rev. Scientif._\n(Paris). XLVII. (1891), pp. 47-49.\n\n60. GAMBLE, ELIZA B.: The Evolution of Woman. An Inquiry into the Dogma\nof her Inferiority to Man. New York, 1894. 356 pp. 8vo.\n\n61. GARNETT, Miss L. M. J.: The Women of Turkey and their Folk-Lore.\nWith Chapters on the Ethnography of Turkey, Folk-Conceptions of Nature,\nand the Origin of Matriarchy by J. S. Stuart Glennie. Christian, Jewish,\nand Moslem Women. London, 1890-1. 2 vols. 461, 632 pp. 8vo.\n\n62. GARNIER, A.: Anomalies Sexuelles. Paris, 1889. 544 pp. 8vo.\n\n63. GATSCHET, A. S.: Sex-Denoting Nouns in American Languages. _Trans.\nAmer. Philol. Assoc._ Vol. XX. (1891), pp. 159-171.\n\n64. GEDDES, P., and J. H. THOMPSON: The Evolution of Sex. London and New\nYork, 1890. xvi, 332 pp. 8vo.\n\n65. GESSMANN, G. W.: Die M\u00e4nnerhand und ihre Bedeutung f\u00fcr die\nErforschung des m\u00e4nnlichen Charakters. Eine physiognomische Studie.\nBerlin, 1894. 92 S. 8vo. 29 Abbild.\n\n66. GESSMANN, G. W.: Die Frauenhand und ihre Bedeutung f\u00fcr die\nErkenntniss des weiblichen Charakters. Eine physiognomisehe Studie.\nBerlin, 1894. 92 S. 8vo. 21 Abbild.\n\n67. GIRARD-TEULON, A.: La M\u00e9re chez certains peuples de l'Antiquit\u00e9.\nParis, 1867. 60 pp. 8vo.\n\n68. GIRARD-TEULON, A.: Les Origines du Mariage et de la Famille. Paris,\n1884. xxiii, 525 pp. 8vo.\n\n69. GONCOURT, EDMOND ET JULES DE: La Femme aux dix-huiti\u00e8me Si\u00e8cle.\nNouv. \u00e9d. Paris, 1877.\n\n70. GRINNELL, G. 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R. v.: Psychopathia Sexualis. Eine\nklinischforensische Studie. Stuttgart, 1886.\n\n87. KRAUSS, F. S.: Sitte und Brauch bei den S\u00fcdslaven. Wien, 1885.\n\n88. KRAUSS, F. S.: Das Mundschaftsrecht des Mannes \u00fcber die Ehefrau bei\nden S\u00fcdslaven. _Mitth. d. anthr. Gesellsch._ (Wien). XV. Bd.\n(1885).\n\n89. KUBARY, J. S.: Aus dem samoanischen Familienleben. _Globus._\nXLVII. Bd. (1885).\n\n90. KULISCHER, M.: Die geschlechtliche Zuchtwahl bei dem Menschen in der\nUrzeit. Ztschr f. Ethnol. (Berlin). VIII. Bd. (1876), S. 140-157.\n\n91. KULISCHER, M.: Intercommunale Ehe durch Raub und Kauf. Ibid. X. Bd.\n(1878), S. 193-225.\n\n92. KULISCHER, M.: Die communale \"Zeitehe\" und ihre Ueberreste. Arch.f.\nAnthrop. (Braunschweig). XI. Bd. (1879), S. 215-229.\n\n93. LACOMBE, P.: La Famille dans la societe Romaine, etude de Moralite\ncomparee. Paris, 1889.\n\n94. LEA, H. C.: An Historical Sketch of Sacerdotal Celibacy in the\nChristian Church. Boston, 1884.\n\n95. LE BON, G.: L'Homme et les Societes. Paris, 1881. 2 vols. 8vo. 96.\nLECKY, W. E. H.: History of European Morals from Augustus to\nCharlemagne. London, 1877. 2 vols.\n\n97. LEGOUVE, E.: Histoire morale des Femmes. Paris, 1882. vii, 432 pp.\n8vo.\n\n98. LEHMANN, K.: Verlobung und Hochzeit in den nordgermanischen Rechten\ndes fruhesten Mittelalters. Munchen, 1882.\n\n99. LETOURNEAU, CH.: The Evolution of Marriage and the Family. London,\n1891.\n\n100. LETOURNEAU, CH.: Sociology based upon Ethnography. Transl. H. M.\nTrollope. New ed. London, 1893. xv, 608 pp. 8vo.\n\n101. LETOURNEAU, CH.: L'Evolution Politique dans les diverses Races\nhumaines. Paris, 1890. xxiii, 561 pp. 8vo.\n\n102. LICHTSCHEIN, L.: Die Ehe nach mosaisch-talmudischer Auffassung.\nLeipzig, 1889.\n\n103. LIPPERT, G.: Die Geschichte der Familie. Stuttgart, 1884. 260 S.\n8vo.\n\n104. LOMBROSO, C., and G. FERRERO: The Female Offender. New York, 1895.\nxxvi, 313 pp. 8vo.\n\n105. LOTI, P.: Woman in Japan. Harper's Monthly (New Tork). Vol. LXXXII.\n(1890), pp. 119-131.\n\n105 a. LUBBEN, A.: \"Modersprak.\" Correspbl. f. niederd. Sprachfrschg.\nVI. Jahrg. (1881), S. 64-66; VII., S. 7, 63; VIII., S. 75; XII., S.\n55-56; XIII., S. 16.\n\n106. LUCKOCK, H. M.: The History of Marriage, Jewish and Christian, in\nRelation to Divorce and Certain Forbidden Degrees. London, 1894.\n\n107. LUMHOLTZ, C.: Tarahumari Life and Customs. Scribner's Mag. (New\nYork). Vol. XVI. (1894), pp. 296-311.\n\n108. MACFARLANE, A.: Analysis of Relationships of Consanguinity and\nAffinity. Journ. Anthr. Inst. (London). Vol. XII. (1882).\n\n109. MAINOV, W. N.: Wedding Customs and Legal Observances among the\nMordwins [in Finnish]. 2 pts. Helsingfors, 1883-1888.\n\n110. MANTEGAZZA, P.: Anthropologisch-culturhistorische Studien uber die\nGeschlechtsverhaltnisse des Menschen. Jena, 1886.\n\n111. MASON, O. T.: The Human Beast of Burden. _Smithson. Rep._,\n1886-1887. Pt. II., pp. 237-295.\n\n112. MASON, O. T.: Woman's Share in Primitive Culture. _Amer. Antiq.\nand Orient. Journ._ Vol. XI., pp. 1-13.\n\n113. MASON, O. T.: Woman's Share in Primitive Culture. New York, 1894.\nxiii, 295 pp. 8vo.\n\n114. McLENNAN, J. F.: The Patriarchal Theory. London, 1885. 115.\nMcLENNAN, J. F.: Studies in Ancient History, comprising a reprint of\nPrimitive Marriage. A new ed. London, 1886. xxxi, 387 pp. 8vo.\n\n116. MIKLUCHO-MACLAY, v.: Geschlechtlicher Umgang mit M\u00e4dchen vor der\nGeschlechtareife derselben. _Ztschr. f. Ethnol._ (Berlin), 1880. S.\n88.\n\n117. MORGAN, L. H.: Ancient Society. New York, 1878. xvi, 560 pp. 8vo.\n\n118. MORGAN, L. H.: Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human\nFamily. (_Smithson. Contrib. to Knowl._, Vol. XVII.) Washington,\n1871. xii, 590 pp. 4to.\n\n119. MORGAN, L. H.: Houses and House-Life of the American Aborigines.\n(_Contrib. to North Amer. Ethnol._, Vol. V.) Washington, 1881. xiv,\n281 pp. 4to.\n\n120. MORLEY, MARGARET W.: A Song of Life. Chicago, 1891. 156 pp. 8vo.\n\n121. MORTILLET, G. DE: Origines de la chasse, de la p\u00eache et de\nl'agriculture. I. Chasse, p\u00eache, domestication. Paris, 1890. xiii, 570\npp. 8vo.\n\n122. MORTON, F. W.: Woman in Epigram. Flashes of Wit, Wisdom and Satire\nfrom the World's Literature. Compiled by Frederick W. Morton. Chicago,\n1894.\n\n123. PARKER, E. H.: Comparative Chinese Family Law. _China Review_\n(Hong-Kong). Vol. VIII. (1879-1880).\n\n124. PISCHON, C. N.: Der Einfluss des Islam auf das hausliche, sociale\nund politische Leben seiner Bekenner. Leipzig, 1881.\n\n125. PLOSS, H.: Das Weib in der Natur- und V\u00f6lkerkunde. Anthropologische\nStudien von Dr. H. Ploss. Dritte umgearb. u. stark verm. Aufl. Nach d.\nTode des Verf. bearb. u. herausgeg. v. Dr. Max Bartels. Leipzig, 1891. 2\nBde., xxiii, 575; vii, 684 S. 8vo.\n\n126. PORTER, ROSE: About Women: What Men have Said. Chosen and arranged\nby Rose Porter. New York and London, 1894. 207 pp.\n\n127. POST, A. H.: Afrikanische Jurisprudenz. Ethnologisch-juristische\nBeitrage zur Kenntniss der einheimischen Rechte Afrikas. 2 Thlc. in\neinem Bd. Oldenburg u. Leipzig, 1887. xx, 480; xxx, 192 S. 8vo.\n\n128. POST, A. H.: Die Geschlechtsverh\u00e4ltnisse der Urzeit und die\nEntstehung der Ehe. Oldenburg, 1875.\n\n129. POST, A. H.: Studien zur Entwickelungsgeschichte des\nFamilienrechtes. Bin Beitrag zu einer allgemeinen vergleichenden\nRechtswissenschaft auf ethnologischer Basis. Oldenburg u. Leipzig, 1890.\n\n130. POST, A. H.: Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz. Oldenburg,\n1894-1895. 2 Bde. Gr. 8vo. I. Bd., 1894, xii, 473 S.; II. Bd., 1895, xv,\n744 S.\n\n130 a. RADEMACHER, C.: Ueber die Bedeutung des Herdes. _Am\nUr-Quell_, 1893. S. 57-60.\n\n131. RAPHAEL, A.: Die Sprache der Proverbia qui dicuntur super naturam\nfeminarum. Berlin, 1887. 8vo.\n\n132. REINSBERG-DURINGSFELD, O. FREIH. r.: Die Frau im Sprichwort.\nLeipzig, 1862.\n\n133. ROCCO, G.: La filosofia del matrimonio ed i mali individuali c\nsociali del divorzio. Napoli, 1892. 121 pp. 8vo.\n\n134. ROGER, C.: Social Life in Scotland from Early to Recent Times. 3\nVols. Edinburgh, 1884-1886.\n\n135. ROSENBAUM, J.: Geschichte der Lustseuche im Alterthume. 3 Abdr.\nHalle, 1882.\n\n136. SABELLJIN, J.: History of Russian Life from the Oldest Times. [In\nRussian.] Moscow, 1876-1879. 1167 pp.\n\n137. SAVAGE, M. J.: Man, Woman, and Child. Boston, 1884. 211 pp. 8vo.\n\n138. SAYCE, A. H.: Social Life among the Assyrians and Babylonians.\nLondon, 1893. 126 pp.\n\n139. SCHELLONG, O.: Ueber Familien-Leben und Gebrauche der Papuas der\nUmgebung von Finschhafen. _Ztschr. f. Ethnol._ (Berlin). XXL, Bd.\n(1889), S. 10-25.\n\n140. SCHERER, O.: Bilder aus dem serbischen Volks- und Familienleben.\nNeusatz, 1882.\n\n141. SCHEURL, O. v.: Das gemeine deutsche Eherecht. Erlangen, 1882.\n\n142. SCHLAGINTWEIT, E.: Die Hindu-Wittwe in Indien. _Globus_.\nXLIII. Bd. (1883).\n\n143. 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A.: Das Matriarchat bei den alten Arabern. (Germ.\nTrans.) Leipzig, 1884.\n\n169. WINTERNITZ, M.: On a Comparative Study of Indo-European Customs\nwith Special Reference to the Marriage Customs. _Trans. Intern.\nFolk-Lore, Congr._ London, 1891.\n\n170. WLISLOCKI, H. v.: Aus dem Volksleben der Magyaren. Ethnologische\nMittheilungen. M\u00fcnchen, 1893.\n\n171. WLISLOCKI, H. v.: Volksglaube und Volksbrauch der Siebenb\u00fcrger\nSachsen. Berlin, 1893.\n\n172. WLISLOCKI, H. v.: Die Stamm-und Familienverh\u00e4ltnisse der\ntranssilvanischen Zeltzigeuner. _Globus_. L. Bd. (1888), S. 183 fl.\n\n173. ZANETTI, Z.: La medicina delle nostre donne. Studio folklorico.\nCastello, 1892. xviii, 271 pp. 8vo.\n\n174. ZMIGRODZKI, M. v.: Die Mutter bei den V\u00f6lkern des arisehen Stammes.\nEine anthropologisch-historische Skizze als Beitrag zur L\u00f6sung der\nFrauenfrage. M\u00fcnchen, 1886. 444 S. 8vo.\n\n175. ZUCCARELLI, A.: Divorzio e scienza antropologica. Napoli, 1893. 46\npp.\n\n\nFollowing is a subject-index to the titles of Section A:--\n\nAbnormal and delinquent, 49, 86, 104, 110, 116, 185, 148, 144, 148, l57.\nAfrica, 14, 48.\nAmazons, 154.\nAmerican Indians, 13, 27, 51, 52, 63, 69, 72, 73.\nArabia, 80a, 151, 168.\nAssyria, 138.\nAustralia, 54, 55-57.\n\nBabylonia, 74, 138.\n\nCelibacy, 71, 94.\nCeylon, 10.\nChild-birth, l6a, 43, 48, 83.\nChina, 81, 123.\nChirography, 65, 66.\n\nDivorce, 15, 25a, 47, 106, 183, 175.\n\nEgypt, 19, 88.\nEpigram, 17, 45, 122, 126.\nEsthonian, 145.\nEvolution, 36, 37.\n\nFamily, 26, 32, 44, 68, 76, 89, 92, 99, 103, 119, 123, 128, 139, 140,\n151, 152, 163, 166, 169.\nFather, 114, 130a, 151.\nFather-right, 9, 82, 80, 114.\nFiji, l6a.\nFrance, 85, 160.\n\nGender, 3, 68.\nGermany, 29, 81, 54, 98, 141, 165.\nGirls, 7, 54, 116.\nGypsies, 172.\n\nIndia, 5, 16, 85.\nItaly, 33, 173.\n\nJapan, 7, 78, 105.\nJews, 12, 41, 102.\n\nLanguage, 19, 74, 158, 164.\nLiterature, 78, 126.\n\nMagyars, 170.\nMan, names for, 158.\nMarriage, 1, 10, 12, 13, 25a, 30, 31, 33, 41, 55-57, 68, 69, 72, 73, 88,\n91, 98, 99, 102, 106, 109, 115, 141, 145, 151, 161-163, 166, 169.\nMedicine, 173.\nMexico, 8.\nMorals, 96.\nMordwins, 109.\nMother, 4, 39, 67, 150, 156, 174.\nMatriarchate and mother-right, 6, 9, 31, 32, 80, 168.\nMother and child, 27.\nMother-in-law, 17, 58.\nMourning, 16.\nMummy, 19.\n\nNew Britain, 30.\n\nOld maids, 71.\nOriental, 159.\n\nPapua, 139.\nPoetry of motherhood, 39.\nPoets, 22, 149.\nPolyandry, 5, 40.\nProverbs, 45, 132, 133.\n\nRelationship, 13, 41, 108, 118, 147, 167.\nReligion, 73, 124.\nRome, 92, 159.\nRoyalty, 75.\nRussia, 84, 136.\n\nSamoa, 89.\nSatire, 17, 45.\nScotland, 134.\nServia, 140.\nSex-relations, 20, 28, 42, 46, 53, 54, 59, 60, 62, 64, 86, 90, 110, 120,\n125, 128, 135, 137, 143, 144, 157, 161.\nSiberia, 11.\nSlavonic, 87, 88.\nSociology, 8, 25, 85, 51, 52, 81, 82, 84, 95, 100, 101, 107, 117, 127,\n130, 184, 136, 138, 170, 172.\n\nTibet, 5.\nTransylvania, 171, 172.\nTurkey, 61, 80a.\n\nUkraine, 167.\nUnited States, 25a.\n\nWoman, names for, 164.\nWoman's position and labours, 2, 11, 21-24, 29, 34, 88, 46, 50, 61, 69,\n77, 78, 80a, 85, 97, 104, 105, 111-118, 121, 122, 125, 132, 146, 158,\n155, 160, 165.\n\n\n_B_. CHILDREN, CHILDHOOD, CHILD-LIFE, ETC.\n\n176. \"A.,\" and MENELLA SMEDLEY: Poems Written for a Child.\n\n177. \"A.,\" and MENELLA SMEDLEY: The Child's World.\n\n178. ADAMS, J. D.: Child-Life and Girlhood of Remarkable Women. New\nYork, 1894.\n\n179. AM\u00c9LINEAU, E.: La Morale \u00c9gyptienne quinze si\u00e8cles avant notre \u00e8re.\nParis, 1892. lxxxviii, 261 pp. 8vo.\n\n180. America's Shame: Symposium on the Age of Consent Laws in the United\nStates. _Arena_ (Boston). Vol. XI. (1895), pp. 192-215.\n\n180 a. AYRTON, M. C.: Child-Life in Japan. London, 1879. xx, 125 pp.\n\n181. BABCOCK, W. H.: Games of Washington Children. _Amer. Anthrop_.\n(Washington). Vol. I. (1888), pp. 243-284.\n\n182. BALDWIN, J. M.: Mental Development in the Child and the Race. Vol.\nI. Methods and Processes. New York, 1895. xvi, 496 pp. 8vo.\n\n183. BALL, V.: Wolf-Reared Children in India. _Journ. Anthr. Inst._\n(London). Vol. IX. (1879), pp. 465-474.\n\n184. BAMFORD, MARY E.: Child-Life among the California Foot-Hills.\n_Overl. Mo._ (San Francisco). 2d ser. Vol. II. (1883), pp. 56-59.\n\n184 a. BARNES, EARLE.: Theological Life of a California Child. _Pedag.\nSem._ (Worcester, Mass.). Vol. II., 442-448.\n\n185. B\u00c4RNSTEIN, A. P. v.: Beitr\u00e4ge zur Geschichte mid Literatur des\ndeutschen Studententhumes. W\u00fcrzburg, 1882. xiii, 156 S. 8vo.\n\n186. BOAS, F.: The Game of Cat's Cradle. _Intern. Arch. f.\nEthnogr._ I. Bd. (1888), S. 229.\n\n187. BOLTON, H. C.: The Counting-Out Rhymes of Children, their\nAntiquity, Origin, and Wide Distribution. A Study in Folk-Lore. New\nYork, 1888. ix, 123 pp. Gr. 8vo.\n\n188. BONFIGLI, C.: Dei fattori sociali della pazzia in rapporto con\nl'educazione infantile. Roma, 1894.\n\n189. BRAMHALL, MAE ST. JOHN: The Wee Ones of Japan. New York, 1894.\n137pp. 12mo.\n\n190. BRAMLEY, H. R., and JOHN STAINER: Christmas Carols New and Old.\nLondon, n.d. 94 pp.\n\n191. BREWER, E. C.: A Dictionary of Miracles. London, 1884. xliv, 582\npp. 8vo.\n\n192. BREWER, W. H.: The Instinctive Interest of Children in Bear and\nWolf Stories. _Proc. Amer. Ass. Adv. Sci._ Vol. XLII. (1893),\nSalem, 1894, pp. 309-311.\n\n193. BRINTON, D. G.: On the Physiological Correlations of Certain\nLinguistic Radicals. _Amer. Orient. Soc. Proc._, March, 1894, pp.\ncxxxiii-iv.\n\n194. BROWN, H. W.: Some Records of the Thoughts and Reasonings of\nChildren. From the Collection of Observations at the State Normal School\nat Worcester, Mass. _Pedag. Sem._ Vol. II. (1893), pp. 358-396.\n\n195. BULWER-LYTTON, E. R.: Fables in Song. London, 1874.\n\n196. BYJRNHAM, W. H.: The Study of Adolescence. _Pedag. Sem._ Vol.\nI. (1891), pp. 174-198.\n\n197. CAMPBELL HELEN: Child-Life in the Slums of New York. _Demorest's\nFam. Mag._ (New York), 1892.\n\n198. CARSTENS, H.: Die Schwalbe im Volksmunde und im Kinderlied. _Am.\nUrdhs-Brunnen._ II. Bd., S. 240-242.\n\n198 a. CARSTENS, H.: Der Storch als heiliger Vogel im Volksmund und im\nKinderlied. _Am Urdhs-Srunnen._ Heft 1, 1881, S. 12-14.\n\n199. CARSTENSEN, H. H.: A B C Spiel. _Am Ur-Quell._ IV. Bd. (1893),\nS. 55, 150, 260; V. Bd. (1894), S. 114, 192, 290; VI. Bd. (1895), 42-3.\n\n200. CHAMBERLAIN, A. F.: Notes on Indian Child-Language. _Amer.\nAnthr._ Vol. III. (1890), pp. 237-241.\n\n201. CHAMBERLAIN, A. F.: Further Notes on Indian Child-Language.\n_Ibid._ Vol. VI. (1893), pp. 321-322.\n\n202. CHAMBERLAIN, A. F.: The Use of Diminutives in -_ing_ by Some\nWriters in Low German Dialects. _Public. Mod. Lung. Asso. Amer._\nVol. VII. (1892), pp. 212-247.\n\n203. CHAMBERLAIN, A. F.: The Coyote and the Owl (Tales of the Kootenay\nIndians). _Mem. Intern. Congr. Anthr._ (1893), Chicago, 1894, pp.\n282-284.\n\n204. CHAMBERLAIN, A. F.: Human Physiognomy and Physical Characteristics\nin Folk-Lore and Folk-Speech. _Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore._ Vol. VI.\n(1893), pp. 13-24.\n\n205. CHERVIN, A.: Faut-il conper le frein de la Langue (Extr. de _La\nVoix Parl\u00e9e et Chant\u00e9e_, fr\u00e9vrier, 1894). Paris, 1894. 16 pp.\n\n206. CHRISMAN, O.: Secret Language of Children. _Science_ (New\nYork). Vol. XXII. (1893), pp. 303-305.\n\n207. Christmas with the Poets. London, n.d. x, 202 pp.\n\n208. CLEVELAND, DUCHESS OF: The True Story of Kaspar Hauser. From\nOfficial Documents. London and New York, 1893. 122pp. Sm. 8vo.\n\n209. COFFIGNON, A.: L'Enfant \u00e0 Paris. Paris, 1890. xxii, 440 pp.\n\n210. CORIVEAU, A.: La Sant\u00e9 de nos Enfants. Paris, 1890. 288 pp. 8vo.\n\n211. CUIR, A. F.: Les Petits \u00c9coliers. Lectures morales sur les D\u00e9fauts\net les Qualit\u00e9s des Enfants. Paris, 1893. 12mo.\n\n212. CULIN, S.: Street Games of Brooklyn. _Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore._\nVol. IV. (1891), pp. 221-236.\n\n213. CULIN, S.: Exhibit of Games in the Columbian Exposition.\n_Ibid._ Vol. VI. (1893), pp. 205-227.\n\n214. DANIELS, A. H.: The New Life: A Study of Regeneration (Repr. from\n_Amer. Journ. Psych._, Vol. VI., 1893, pp. 61-106). Worcester,\nMass., 1893. 48 pp. 8vo.\n\n215. DENEUS, CL\u00c9MENT.: De la R\u00e9serve h\u00e9r\u00e9ditaire des Enfants (Art. 913\ndu code civil). \u00c9tude historique, philosophique et \u00e9conomique. Gand,\nParis, 1894. xvii, 231 pp. 8vo.\n\n216. DONALDSON, H. H.: Education of the Nervous System. _Educ.\nRev_. (New York). Vol. IX. (1895), pp. 105-121.\n\n217. DORSET, J. O.: Games of the Teton-Dakota Children. _Amer.\nAnthr_. Vol. IV. (1891), pp. 329-345.\n\n218. DRAGOMANO, M.: Slavonic Folk-Tales about the Sacrifice of One's Own\nChildren. (Transl. O. Wardrop). _Journ. Anthr. Inst_. (London).\nVol. XXI. (1892), pp. 456-469.\n\n219. DREYLING, G.: Die Ausdrucksweise der \u00fcbertriebenen Verkleinerung im\naltfr\u00e4nz\u00f6sichen Karlepos. Marburg, 1888.\n\n220. D\u00dcRINGSFELD, J. V., und O. V. REINSBERG-D\u00dcRINGSFELD: Sprichw\u00f6rter\nsammlung. 6 Bde. (Das Sprichwort als Kosmopolit. 3 Bde. Intern.\nTitulaturen. 2 Bde. Das Kind im Sprichwort). Leipzig, 1863-1864. 8vo.\n\n221. EARLE, ALICE M.: Customs and Fashions in Old New England. [Chapter\nI., pp. 1-35, Child-Life.] New York, 1893. iii, 387 pp. 8vo.\n\n222. EASTMAN, C. A.: Recollections of Wild-Life. III. Games and Sports.\n_St. Nicholas_ (New York). Vol. XXI. (1893-4), pp. 306-308.\n\n223. EELLS, M.: Twins among Indians of Puget Sound. _Science_ (New\nYork). Vol. XX. (1892), p. 192.\n\n224. ELIOT, S.: Poetry for Children. Boston, [1879]. xii, 327 pp. Sm.\n8vo.\n\n225. ENFANT (L') chez les sauvages et chezles civilis\u00e9s. _Revue\nBritannique_, Nov., 1880.\n\n226. FEWKES, J. W.: Dolls of the Tusayan Indians (Repr. fr. _Intern.\nArch. f. Ethnogr_., VII. Bd., 1894, pp. 45-73). Leiden, 1894. 30 pp.\n4to. Five coloured plates.\n\n226 a. FIELD, EUGENE: Love Songs of Childhood. Chicago, 1895.\n\n227. FLETCHER, ALICE C.: Glimpses of Child-Life among the Omaha Indians.\n_Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore_. Vol. I. (1888), pp. 115-123.\n\n228. FLOWER, B. O.: Lust Fostered by Legislation. _Arena_ (Boston).\nVol. XI. (1895), pp. 167-175.\n\n229. FLOWER, W. H.: Fashion in Deformity. London, 1881. 85 pp. 8vo.\n\n230. FORD, R.: Ballads of Bairnhood. Selected and edited with notes by\nRobert Ford. Paisley, 1894. xix, 348 pp. 8vo.\n\n231. FOSTER, MARY J. C.: The Kindergarten of the Church. New York, 1894.\n227 pp. 8vo.\n\n232. FRACASETTI, L.: I giovani nella vita pubblica. Conferenza. Udine,\n1893.\n\n233. FROEBEL, F.: Mother's Songs, Games, and Stories. Froebel. Mutter-\nund Kose-Lieder rendered in English by Frances and Emily Lord. New and\nrevised edition. London, 1890. xxxvi, 212 + 75 (music) pp. 8vo.\n\n234. FURNIVALL, F. J.: Child-Marriages, Divorces, Ratifications, etc. In\nthe Diocese of Chester, A.D. 1561-6. Depositions in Trials in the\nBishop's Court, Chester, concerning: 1. Child-Marriages, Divorces, and\nRatifications. 2. Trothplights. 3. Adulteries. 4. Affiliations. 5.\nLibels. 6. Wills. 7. Miscellaneous Matters. 8. Clandestine Marriages.\nAlso Entries from the Mayors' Books, Chester, A.D. 1558-1600. Edited\nfrom the MS. written in court while the witnesses made their\ndepositions, and from the Mayors' Books. London, 1897 [1894]. lxxxviii,\n256 pp. 8vo.\n\n235. GAIDOZ, H.: Un vieux rite m\u00e9dical. Paris, 1892. ii, 85 pp. Sm. 8vo.\n\n236. GAIDOZ, H.: Ransom by Weight. _Am Ur-Quell_. II. Bd. (1891),\nS. 39-42, 59-61, 74-75.\n\n237. GAIDOZ, H., et M. PEKDRIZET: La Mesure du Cou. _M\u00e9lusine_\n(Paris). Tome VI. (1893), No. 10. See also _Amer. Anthr_., VI.\n(1893), p. 408.\n\n238. GARBINI, A.: Evoluzione della Voce nella Infanzia. Verona, 1892. 53\npp. 8vo.\n\n239. GATSCHET, A. S.: A Mythic Tale of the Isleta Indians: The Race of\nthe Antelope and the Hawk around the Horizon. _Proc. Amer. Philos.\nSoc._ (Philadelphia). Vol. XXIX., pp. 208-218.\n\n240. GESSMANN, G. W.: Die Kinderhand und ihre Bedeutung f\u00fcr Erziehung\nund Berufswahl. Eine physioguomische Studie. Berlin, 1894. 88 S. 8vo. 31\nAbbild.\n\n241. GILL, V. W.: Child-Birth Customs of the Loyalty Islands. _Journ.\nAnthr. Inst._ (London). Vol. XIX. (1890), pp. 503-505.\n\n242. GOMME, ALICE B.: Children's Singing Games with the Tunes to which\nthey are sung. Collected and edited by Alice B. Gomme. London and New\nTork, 1894.\n\n243. GOMME, ALICE B.: The International Games of England, Scotland, and\nIreland, with Tunes, Singing Rhymes, and Method of Playing according to\nthe variants extant and recorded in different parts of the Kingdom. Vol.\nI. According ... Nuts in May. London, 1894. xix, 453 pp. 8vo.\n\n244. GORE, J. H.: The Go-Backs. _Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore._ Vol. V.\n(1892), pp. 107-109.\n\n245. GRIFFIS, W. E.: Japanese Fairy World. Schenectady, N.Y., 1880. vii,\n304 pp. 12mo.\n\n246. GREGOR, W.: Notes on the Folk-Lore of the North-East of Scotland.\nLondon, 1881. xii, 238 pp. 8vo. [Chap. I., pp. 4-6, Birth; II., 7-10,\nThe Child; III., 11-13, Baptism; IV., 14-20, Nursery; V., 21-24, \"Boy\nCode of Honour.\"]\n\n247. G\u00dcLL, F.: Kinderheimat in Liedern. Volksausgabe. G\u00fctersloh, 1875.\n225 S. 8vo.\n\n247 a. HAAS,--A.: Das Kind im Glauben und Branch der Pommern. _Am\nUr-Quell._ V. Bd. (1894), 179-180, 252-255, 278-279; VI., 22-24.\n\n248. HABERLANDT, M.: Ueber tul\u00e2purusha der Inder. _Mitt. d. anthr.\nGesellsch._ (Wien), n. F. IX. Bd. (1889), S. 160-164.\n\n249. HALE, HORATIO: The Origin of Languages and the Antiquity of\nSpeaking Man. Cambridge, 1886 (Repr. fr. _Proc. Am. Ass. Adv.\nSci._). 47 pp. 8vo.\n\n250. HALE, HORATIO: The Development of Language. _Proc. Canad.\nInst._ (Toronto), 3 s. Vol. VI. (1888), pp. 92-134.\n\n251. HALE, HORATIO: Language as a Test of Mental Capacity. _Trans.\nRoy. Soc. Canada._ Vol. IX. (1891), Sect. II., pp. 77-112.\n\n252. HALL, G. S.: The Contents of Children's Minds on Entering School.\n_Pedag. Sem._ Vol. I. (1891), pp. 139-172.\n\n252 a. HALL, G. S.: Children's Lies. _Ibid_., pp. 211-218.\n\n253. HALL, G. S.: The Moral and Religious Training of Children and\nAdolescents. _Ibid_., pp. 196-210.\n\n254. HALL, G. S.: Child-Study: The Basis of Exact Education.\n_Forum_ (New York). Vol. XVI. (1893-4), pp. 429-441.\n\n255. HALL, G. S.: The Story of a Sand-Pile. _Scribner's Mag._ (New\nYork). Vol. III. (1888), pp. 690-695.\n\n256. HARQUEVAUX, E., et L. PELLETIER: 200 jeux d'enfants en plein air et\n\u00e0 la maison. Paris, 1893.\n\n257. HARRIS, W. T.: Eighth Annual Report of the Commissioner of\nEducation, 1892. Industrial Education. Washington, 1892. 707 pp. 8vo.\n\n257 a. HARRISON, ELIZABETH: A Study of Child-Nature from the\nKindergarten Standpoint. 3d. edition. Chicago, 1891. 207 pp. 8vo.\n\n258. HARTLAND, E. S.: The Science of Fairy Tales. An Inquiry into Fairy\nMythology. London, 1891. viii, 372 pp. 8vo.\n\n259. HARTMANN, B.: Die Analyse des kindlichen Gedankenkreises als die\nnaturgem\u00e4ssige Grundlage des ersten Schulunterrichts. Zweite verm. Aufl.\nAnnaberg i. Erzgeb., 1890. 116 S.\n\n260. HASKELL, ELLEN M.: Imitation in Children. _Pedag. Sem._ Vol.\nIII. (1894-5), pp. 30-47.\n\n261. HERVEY, T. K.: The Book of Christmas. Boston, 1888. vi, 356 pp.\n\n262. HIGGINSON, T. W.: Concerning All of Us. New York, 1893. vi, 210 pp.\n12mo. [Pp. 103-109, \"A Home Made Dialect.\"]\n\n263. H\u00d6FLER, M.: Die L\u00f6sung des Zungenb\u00e4ndchens. _Am Ur-Quell._ V.\nBd. (1894), S. 191, 281.\n\n264. HOYT, W. A.: The Love of Nature as the Root of Teaching and\nLearning the Sciences. _Pedag. Sem._ Vol. III. (1894-5), pp. 61-86.\n\n265. HUGHES, J. L.: The Educational Value of Play, and the Recent Play-\nMovement in Germany. _Edue. Rev._ (New York). Vol. VIII., pp.\n327-336.\n\n266. HURLL, ESTELLE M.: Child-Life in Art. New York, 1894.\n\n267. IM THURN, E. F.: Games of Guiana Indians. _Timehri_\n(Georgetown). Vol. III. (1889), pp. 270-307.\n\n268. JOCELYN, E.: The Mother's Legacy to her Unborn Child. New York,\n1894.\n\n269. JOHNSON, G. E.: Education by Plays and Games. _Pedag. Sem._\nVol. III., pp. 97-133.\n\n270. JOHNSON, J. H.: Rudimentary Society amongst Boys. _Overl.\nMo.,_ 1883\n\n271. JOHNSON, J. H.: Judicial Procedure amongst Boys. _Ibid_.,\n1884.\n\n272. JOHNSON, J. H.: Rudimentary Society among Boys (J. H. Univ. Studies\n... No. XI., 2d ser.). Baltimore, 1884. 56pp. 8vo.\n\n273. JOHNSON, J., Jr.: The Savagery of Boyhood. _Pop. Sci. Mo._\n(New York). Vol. XXXI (1881), pp. 796-800.\n\n274. KALMANT, L.: Kinderschrecker und Kinderr\u00e4uber im magyarischen\nVolksglauben. _Ethnol. Mitt. aus Ungarn_ (Buda-Pest). III. Bd.\n(1893), S. 188-193.\n\n275. KEBER, A.: Zur Philosophie der Kindersprache. Gereimtes und\nUn-gereimtes. Zweite verm. Aufl. Leipzig, 1890. 96 S. 8vo.\n\n276. KIPLING, E.: The Jungle Book. New York, 1894. xvii, 303 pp. 8vo.\n\n277. KISS, A.: Magyar gyermekj\u00e1tek gy\u00fctem\u00e9ny [Collection of Hungarian\nChildren's Games, etc.]. Buda-Pest, 1891. viii, 518 pp. 8vo.\n\n278. KLEINPAUL, R.: Menschenopfer und Ritualmorde. Leipzig, 1892. 80 S.\n8vo.\n\n279. KRAUSS, F. S.: Serbischer Zauber und Brauch Kinder halber. _Am\nUr-Quell_. III. Bd. (1892). S. 160-161, 276-279.\n\n280. KRAUSS, F. S.: Haarschurgodschaft bei den S\u00fcdslaven (Sep. Abdr.\naus: _Intern. Arch. f. Ethnog._ VII. bd. S. 161-198). Leiden, 1894.\n38 S. 48to.\n\n281. KRAUSS, F. S.: Geheime Sprachweisen _Am Ur-Quell_. II. Bd.\n(1891). S. 21-23, 48-49, 65, 79-80; 98-99, 111-112, 127-128; 143-144,\n187-189; III. Bd. (1892), 43-44, 106-107, 135-136, 167, 225-226, 328;\nIV. Bd. (1893), S. 76-78, 147; V. Bd. (1894), 74-78; VI. Bd. (1895),\n37-40.\n\n282. KEUSCHE, G.: Litteratur der weiblichen Eiziehung und Bildung in\nDeutschland von 1700 bis 1886. Langensalza, 1887. 43 S. 8vo.\n\n283. KULISCHER, M.: Die Behandlung der Kinder und der Jugend auf den\nprimitiven Kulturstufen. _Ztschr. f. Ethnol_. (Berlin), 1883. S.\n191-203.\n\n283 a. KULISCHER, M.: Eine Geschichte des Umgangs mit Kindern\n[in Russian]. Sslowo, 1878, H. 11.\n\n284. K\u00dcSTER, E.: Abergl\u00e4ubisches aus Schlesien [Superstitions about\nChildhood, Birth, Death]. _Am Urdhs-Brunnen_. IV. Bd. (1886). S.\n190-191.\n\n285. LAIBLE, H.: Jesus Christus im Thalmud. Berlin, 1891. 122 S. 8vo.\n\n286. LAILLEMAND, L.: Histoire des Enfants abandonn\u00e9s et d\u00e9laiss\u00e9s.\n\u00c9tudes sur la protection de l'enfance aux diverses \u00e9poques de la\ncivilisation. Paris, 1885. vii, 791 pp. 8vo.\n\n287. LALLEMAND, L.: La question des Enfants abandonn\u00e9s et delaiss\u00e9s au\nXIXi\u00e8me Si\u00e8cle. Paris, 1885. vi, 238 pp.\n\n288. LANGE, HELENE: Higher Education of Women in Europe. New York, 1890.\n186 pp. 8vo.\n\n289. LAURIE, S. S.: Lectures on the Rise and Early Constitution of\nUniversities, with a Survey of Medi\u00e6val Education, A.D. 200-300. London,\n1886. 293 pp. 8vo.\n\n290-296. LAURIE, S. S.: The History of Early Education. [Several\nArticles in the _School Review_ (Ithaca, N. Y.), Vol. I. and II.,\n1893-1894, dealing with Egyptian, Semitic, Assyro-Babylonian,\nIndo-Aryan. (Hindu, Persian, Medo-Persian), Hellenic and Roman\nEducation].\n\n297. LAURIE, S. S.: Historical Survey of Pre-Christian Education. New\nYork, 1895.\n\n298. LEIPZIGER, H. M.: The Education of the Jews (Educ. Monogr. Publ. by\nthe N. Y. Coll. for the Training of Teachers. Vol. III., No. 6. Nov.,\n1890). New York, 1890. 39pp. 8vo.\n\n299. LETOURNEAU, M.: Les Mensurations du Cou en Bretagne et en Kabylie.\n_Bull. Soc. d'Anthr_. (Paris). III^e s\u00e9rie. Tome XI. (1888), pp.\n458-461, 472-473.\n\n300. LOMBROSO, C.: The Man of Genius. London and New York, 1895. xvi,\n370 pp.\n\n301. LOMBROSO, PAOLA: Saggi di Psicologia del Bambino. Torino-Roma,\n1894. xii, 284 pp. 12mo.\n\n302. LUMMIS, C. F.: The Man who Married the Moon, and other Pueblo\nIndian Folk-Stories. New York, 1894. x, 239 pp. 8vo.\n\n303. MACDONALD, A.: Abnormal Man, being Essays on Education and Crime,\nand Related Subjects, with Digests of Literature and a Bibliography\n(Bureau of Education, Circ. of Inform., No. 4, 1893). Washington, 1893.\n445 pp. 8vo.\n\n304. MAGNUS, LADY: The Boys of the Bible. London, 1894.\n\n305. MARENHOLZ-B\u00dcLOW, BARONESS: The Child and Child-Nature. 5th ed.\nLondon, 1890. x, 186 pp. 8vo.\n\n306. MASON, O. T.: Cradles of the American Aborigines. _Rep. U. S.\nNat. Mus_., 1886-87, pp. 161-212.\n\n307. MAUPAT\u00c9, L.: Recherches d'anthropologie criminelle chez l'enfant;\ncriminalit\u00e9 et d\u00e9g\u00e9n\u00e9rescence. Lyon, 1893. 228 pp. 8vo.\n\n308. McLEAN, J. E.: Psychic View of Infant Prodigies. _Metaphys.\nRev_. (New York). Vol. I. (1895), pp. 156-164.\n\n309. MEHNERT, A.: Bin indischer Kaspar Hauser. Eine Erz\u00e4hlung aus dem\nanglo-indischen Volksleben. Dresden-Leipzig, 1893. 108 S. Kl. 8vo.\n\n310. MILES, CAROLINE: A Study of Individual Psychology. _Amer. Journ.\nPsych_. Vol. VI. (1895), pp. 534-558.\n\n311. MORENO, H. DE: La festa del natale in Sicilia. Palermo, 1893.\n\n312. MOUTIER, A.: Contribution \u00e0 l'\u00e9tude de la protection de l'enfanee \u00e0\nRome. Paris, 1884.\n\n313. NEWELL, W. W.: Games and Songs of American Children. New York,\n1884. xii, 242 pp. Sm. 4to.\n\n314. NICOLAY, F.: Les enfants mal \u00e9lev\u00e9s. Paris, 1890.\n\n315. ORTWEIN, F.: Deutsche Weihnachten. Der Weihnachtsfestkreis nach\nseiner Entstehung, seinen Sitten und Br\u00e4uchen deutscher V\u00f6lker. Gotha,\n1892. 133 S. 8vo.\n\n316. OWENS, J. G.: Natal Ceremonies of the Hopi Indians. Journ. Amer.\nEthn. and Arch. Vol. II. (1892), pp. 161-175.\n\n317. Papers Relating to Infant Marriage and Enforced Widowhood in India.\nCalcutta, 1886.\n\n318. Pedagogical Seminary (The). An International Record of Educational\nInstitutions, Literature and Progress. Edited by G. Stanley Hall.\nWorcester, Mass. Vols. I.-III. (1891-1895).\n\n319. PEREZ, B.: Le Caract\u00e8re de l'Enfant \u00e0 l'Homme. Paris, 1892.\n\n320. PEREZ, B.: L'Art et la Po\u00e9sie chez l'Enfant. Paris, 1888. 308 pp.\n\n321. PITR\u00c9, G.: Usi e Credenze dei Fanciulli in Sicilia. Palermo, 1889.\n16 pp. Sm. 8vo.\n\n322. PITR\u00c9, G.: Mirabile facolta di alcune famiglie di guarire certe\nmalattie. Palermo, 1889. 13 pp. Gr. 8vo.\n\n323. PITR\u00c9, G.: Folk-lore giuridico dei Fanciulli in Sicilia. Palermo,\n1890. 6 pp.\n\n324. PITR\u00c9, G.: Il pesce d'Aprile. V. Ed. con moltiss. giunte. Palermo,\n1891. 25 pp. Gr. 8vo.\n\n325. PLOSS, H.: Das kleine Kind vom Tragbett bis zum ersten Schritt.\nUeber das Legen, Tragen und Wiegen, Gehen, Stehen und Sitzen der kleinen\nKinder bei verschiedenen V\u00f6lkern der Erde. Leipzig, 1881. xii, 121 S.\n8vo.\n\n326. PLOSS, H.: Das Kind in Brauch und Sitte der V\u00f6lker.\nAnthropologische Studien von Dr. H. Ploss. Zweite, neu durchges. u.\nstark vermehrte Aufl. Neue Ausgabe. Leipzig, 1884. 2 Bd. x, 394; iv, 478\nS. 8vo.\n\n327. POKROVSKI, E. A.: Fizicheskoe vospitanie detei u. raznich narodov\npreimutshestvenno Rossii; materiali dlja medico-antropologiche-skago\nizsledovanija [Physical Education of Children in Different Nations,\nespecially in Russia; materials for medico-anthropological Research].\nMoskva, 1884. iv, 379 pp. Fol.\n\n328. POKROVSKI, E. A.: Pervonachalnoe fizicheskoe vospitanie dietei\n(po-puljarnoe nukovodsto dlja materei). [The Early Physical Education of\nChildren (popular manual for mothers)]. Moskva, 1888. 261 pp. 8vo.\n\n329. POKROVSKI, E. A.: Ob ucho die za malymi dietmi [on the care of\nlittle children]. Moskva, 1889. viii, 100 pp. 16mo.\n\n330. POKROVSKI, E. A.: Detskija igry preimushestvenno russkija (V.\nsvjazi s istorei, etnografei, pedagogiei, i gigienoi) [Children's Games,\nespecially Russian] (from an historical, pedagogical, and hygienic point\nof view). Moskva, 1887. vi, 368 pp. 8vo.\n\n331. PORTER, J. H.: Notes on the Artificial Deformation of Children\namong Savage and Civilized Peoples. Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1886-87, pp.\n213-235.\n\n332. POST, A. H.: Mittheilungen aus dem bremischen Volkleben\n[Zungen\u00fcbungen]. Am Ur-Quell. V. Bd. (1894). S. 176-179.\n\n332a. PODLSSON, E.: Finger-Plays for Nursery and Kindergarten. Boston,\n1893.\n\n333. RAND, K. E.: The Childhood of an Affinity. New York, 1893. vi, 304\npp. 8vo.\n\n334. RASSIER, M: Valeur du t\u00e9moignage des enfants en justice. Lyons,\n1893. 88 pp.\n\n335. RAUBER, A.: Homo Sapiens Ferus oder die Zust\u00e4nde der Verwilderten\nin ihrer Bedeutung f\u00fcr Wissenschaft, Politik und Schule. Biolo-gische\nUntersuchung. Zweite Aufl. Leipzig, 1888. 134 S. 8vo.\n\n336. RICCARDI, A.: Antropologia e Pedagogia. Introduzione ad una Scienza\ndella Educazione (Osservazioni psioologiche; ricerche statistiche;\nmisure antropologiche, ecc.). Parte Prima. Osservazioni psicologiche;\nricerche statistiche e sociologiche. Modena, 1892. 172 pp. 4to.\n\n336a. RILEY, J. W.: Rhymes of Childhood. Indianapolis, 1894. 186 pp.\n8vo.\n\n337. ROBERTSON, E. S.: The Children of the Poets. An Anthology from\nEnglish and American Writers of Three Centuries. Edited with\nIntroduction by Eric S. Eobertson. London and Neweastle-on-Tyne, 1886.\nxxxviii, 273 pp. 12mo.\n\n337 a. ROBINSON, L.: The Primitive Child. _N. Amer. Rev._ (N. Y.),\n1895. 338. ROMANES, G. J.: Mental Evolution in Man. New York, 1883. 338\na. ROY, RAJ COOMAR: Child Marriage in India. _N. Amer. Rev.,_\nOct., 1888, pp. 415-423.\n\n339. [RUNKLE, K. B.]: A Collection for Christmas. The New Year. Easter.\nBoston, 1884. xii, 388 pp.\n\n340. SAUBERT, DR.: Maik\u00e4fer, Frau Holle's Bote. _Am Urdhs-Brunnen._\nVI. Bd. (1888-1889). S. 22-24.\n\n341. SCHALLENBERGER, MARGARET E.: A Study of Children's Rights as seen\nby themselves. _Pedag. Sem._ Vol. III. (1894-1895), pp. 87-96. 342.\nSCHECHTER, S.: The Child in Jewish Literature. _Jewish Quarterly_\n(London). Vol. II. (1889).\n\n343. SCHELL, O.: Woher kommen die Kinder? _Am Ur-Quell._ IV. Bd.\n(1893), S. 224-226; V. Bd. (1894), S. 80-81, 162, 254, 255, 287.\n\n344. SCOTT, C. N.: The Child-God in Art. _Contemp. Bev._ (London).\nVol. L. (1886), pp. 97-111.\n\n345. SCRIPTURE, E. W.: Arithmetical Prodigies. _Amer. Journ.\nPsychol._ Vol. IV., pp. 1-59.\n\n346. SCUDDER, H. M.: Childhood in Greek and Roman Literature.\n_Atlantic Mo._ (Boston). Vol. LV., pp. 13-23.\n\n347. SCUDDER, H. M.: Childhood in Early Christianity. _Ibid._, pp.\n617-625.\n\n348. SCUDDER, H. M.: Childhood in Medieval Art. _Ibid._, LVI.\n(1885), pp. 24-31.\n\n349. SCUDDER, H. M.: Childhood in English Literature and Art. Ibid., pp.\n369-380, 471-484.\n\n349 a. SCUDDER, H. M.: Childhood in Modern Literature and Art.\n_Ibid._, pp. 751-767.\n\n350. SCUDDER, H. M.: Childhood in Literature and Art, with Some\nObservations on Literature for Children, Boston, 1894. Cr. 8vo.\n\n351. SESSIONS, F.: The Younger Son (Folk-Lore Topics, No. 5). Eepr. from\nGloucester Journal, March 3d, 1894. Gloucester (Engld.), 1894. 8 pp.\n\n352. SESSIONS, F.: Beating the Bounds (Folk-Lore Topics, No. 4). Eepr.\nfrom G-loucester Journ., Feb. 17, 1894.\n\n353. SHINN, MILLICENT W.: Some Comments on Babies [of Various Eaces].\nOvert. Mo. (San Francisco). Vol. XXIII (1894), pp. 2-19.\n\n354. SOHNKEY, H.: Geburt und Taufe in der Gegend des Sollinger Waldes.\nAm Ur-Quell. II. Bd. (1894), S. 197-202.\n\n355. STARR, F.: A Page of Child-Lore. Journ, Amer. Folk-Lore. Vol. IV.\n(1891), pp. 55-56.\n\n356. STEEL, F. A., and E. C. TEMPLE: Wide Awake Stories. A Collection of\nTales told by Little Children between Sunset and Sunrise, in the Panjab\nand Kashmir. Bombay, 1884.\n\n357. STEINMETZ, S. E.: De \"Fosterage\" of Opvoeding in Vreemde Families\n[Eepr. from Tijdschr. v. Ji. Jconinkl. Nederl. Aardrijksk. Genootsch.].\nLeiden, 1893. 92 pp. 8vo.\n\n358. STEVENSON, Mrs. T. E.: The Religious Life of a ZnEi Child. Fifth\nAnn. Sep. Bur. of Ethnol. (Washington), pp. 533-555.\n\n359. STEVENSON, E. L.: A Child's Garden of Verse, 1885.\n\n360. STORK, T.: The Children of the New Testament. Philadelphia, 1856.\nxi, 185 pp. 8vo.\n\n361. STRACK, H. C.: Der Blutaberglaube in der Menschheit, Blutmorde und\nBlutritus. Vierte neu bearb. Aufl. Mlinchen, 1892. xii, 156 S. 8vo.\n\n361a. STRASZBURGER, B.: Geschichte der Erziehung und des Unterrichts bei\ndea Israeliten. Von der vortalmudischen Zeit his auf die Gegenwart. Mit\neinem Anhang.: Bibliographie der judischen Padagogie. Stuttgart, 1885.\nxv, 210 S.\n\n362. STRETTELL, ALMA: Lullabies of Many Lands. New York, 1894.\n\n363. STRONG, G. D.: Child-Life in Many Lands. Boston, 1870. iv, 210 pp.\n8vo.\n\n364. Studentensprache und Studentenlied in Halle von 100 Jahren.\nNeudruck des Idiotikon der Burschensprache von 1795 und der\nStudentenlieder von 1781. Halle, 189-. xliii, 118 S.; viii, 127 S.\n\n365. SULLY, J.: Studies of Childhood. [Numerous articles in Pop. Sei.\nMo. (New York). Vols. XLVI. and XLVII.].\n\n366. SUNDERMANN, F.: Woher kommen die Kinder? Eine Beantwortung dieser\nFrage aus Ostfriesland. Am Urdhs-Brunnen. I. Bd. (1881), Heft II., S.\n14-18; Heft V., S. 14.\n\n367. \"SYLVANUS URBAN\": Infant-Marriages. Gentlm. Mag. (Load.) Vol. 277\n(1894), pp. 322-324, 427-428.\n\n368. The Feeble-Minded Child and Adult. A Report on an Investigation of\nthe Physical and Mental Condition of 50,000 School Children, with\nSuggestions for the Better Education and Care of Feeble-Minded Children\nand Adults. (Charity Organization). London, 1893. xii, 159 pp. 8vo.\n\n369. The Epileptic and Crippled Child and Adult. London, 1893. xxi, 132\npp. 8vo.\n\n370. TILTE, M.: Die Geschichte der deutschen Weihnacht. Leipzig, 1894.\n\n371. TRACY, F.: The Psychology of Childhood. Sec. Ed. Boston, 1894.\nxiii, 107 pp. 8vo.\n\n372. TREICHEL, A.: Provinzielle Sprache zu und von Thieren und ihre\nNamen. _Alt-Preuss. Monatsschr_. XXIX. Bd., Hefte I., II.\n\n373. TREICHEL, A.: Zungen\u00fcbungen aus Preussen. _Am Ur-Quell_. V.\nBd. (1894), S. 122-126, 144-148, 180-182, 222-224.\n\n374. TUCKER, ELIZABETH S.: Children of Colonial Days. New York, 1894.\n\n375. TUCKWELL, Mrs. G. M.: The State and its Children. London, 1894.\n\n376. TYLOR E. B.: Wild Men and Beast Children. _Anthrop. Rev_.\n(London). Vol. I. (1863), pp. 21-32.\n\n377. TYLOR, E. B.: Remarks on the Geographical Distribution of Games.\n_Journ. Anthr. Inst._ (London). Vol. IX. (1879), pp. 23-30.\n\n378. VOSTROVSKY, CLARA: A Study of Children's Imaginary Companions.\n_Education_ (Boston). Vol. XV. (1895), pp. 393-398.\n\n379. WHITTIER, J. G.: Child-Life. A Collection of Poems. Edited by J. G.\nWhittier. Boston, n.d. xii, 263 pp. Gr. 8vo.\n\n380. WHITTIER, J. G.: Child-Life in Prose. Boston, n.d.\n\n381. WIEDEMANN, A.: Kinderehe bei den alten AEgyptern. _Am\nUr-Quell_. VI. Bd. (1895), S. 3-4.\n\n382. WIGGIN, KATE D.: Children's Eights. A Book of Nursery Logic. Boston\nand New York, 1893. 235 pp. 16mo.\n\n383. Wild Babies. _Harper's Monthly_ (New York). Vol. LVII. (1878),\npp. 829-838.\n\n384. WILTSE, SARAH E.: The Place of the Story in Early Education, and\nOther Essays. Boston, 1892. vi, 137 pp. 8vo.\n\n385. WINTERNITZ, M.: Das Kind bei den Juden. _Am Ur-Quell_. II. Bd.\n(1891), S. 5-7, 34-36.\n\n386. WOSSIDLO, R.: Volksth\u00fcmliches aus Mecklenburg. De Jung [Pro-\nverbial Sayings of Children]. _Plattd. S\u00fcnndagsbl_. (Bielefeld).\nIII. Bd. (1890), S. 75-77.\n\n387. YODER, A. H.: The Study of the Boyhood of Great Men. _Pedag.\nSem._ Vol. III. (1894-5), pp. 134-156.\n\n\nFollowing is a subject-index of titles under Section B:--\n\nAbandoned children, 28.\nAbnormal man, 188, 197, 303.\nAdolescence, 196.\nAdoption, 280.\nAge of consent, 180.\nAmerican Indians, 211, 222, 223, 226, 227, 239, 267, 302, 306, 816, 358,\n383.\nAnimals, 276, 372.\nAnimal-reared children, 183, 376.\n\"April fool,\" 324.\nArabia, 289.\nArt and poetry, 320.\nAssyria, 290.\n\nBabylonia, 290.\nBirth-customs, etc., 241, 311, 316, 354.\nBirth-myths, 343, 366.\nBogies, 203, 275.\nBoys of Bible, 304.\nBoyhood of genius, 387.\nBrittany, 299.\nBrooklyn, 212.\n\nCalifornia, 184.\nCeremonial, 235, 279, 361.\nCharacter, 216, 319.\nChild and race, 182.\nChild-god, 344.\nChild and state, 312, 375.\nChild as--witness, 334.\nChildhood in literature, 346-350.\nChild-criminal, 307.\nChild-life, 178, 180 a, 184, 189, 197, 209, 221, 225, 227, 246, 266,\n283, 283 a, 325, 326, 329, 333, 342, 353, 363, 374, 383, 385.\nChild-marriages, 234, 317, 338 a, 367, 381.\nChild-psychology, 252, 259, 301, 305, 310, 336, 365, 371.\nChildren of New Testament, 360.\nChild-study, 254, 378.\nChirography, 240.\nChrist, 285.\nChristmas, 190, 207, 261, 315, 339, 370.\nCradles, 306.\n\nDefectives and delinquents, 197, 314, 368, 369.\nDeformations, 229, 331.\nDiminutives, 202, 219.\nDolls, 226.\n\nEducation, 257, 288-298.\nEgypt, 179, 288, 381.\nEngland, 243, 349.\n\nFairy-tales, stories, 192, 245, 258, 302, 356, 384.\nFolk-lore, 246, 284, 321, 355.\nFosterage, 357.\nFrance, 219.\n\nGames and songs, 181, 186, 187, 198, 199, 212, 213, 217, 222, 233, 242,\n243, 260, 265, 267, 269, 277, 313, 330, 332 a, 377.\nGenius, 178, 300, 387.\nGermany, 315, 354, 366, 370, 386.\nGirlhood, 178, 228, 282.\nGreece, 296-7, 346.\n\nHair-cutting, 280.\nHygiene, 210, 330.\nHungary, 277.\n\nImitation, 260.\nIndia, 183, 248, 290, 309.\nInfanticide, 218.\nInfant-prodigies, 304, 345.\nInsects, 340.\nIreland, 243.\n\nJapan, 180 a, 189, 245.\nJews, 298, 342, 361 a, 385.\nJustice, 271, 323, 341.\n\nKabylia, 299.\nKaspar Hauser, 208, 309.\n\nLanguage, 193, 200, 201, 205, 206, 249, 250, 257, 262, 263, 275, 281,\n332, 372, 373.\nLies, 253.\nLoyalty Is., 241.\nLullabies, 362.\n\nMeasurements, 237, 244, 299.\nMedicine, 322.\nMental evolution, 182, 194, 211, 338.\nMiracles, 179.\nMorals, 179.\nMother and child, 268.\n\nNature, 264.\nNew England, 221.\nNew York, 197.\n\nParis, 209.\nPersia, 291.\nPhoenicians, 290.\nPhysical education, 327, 328.\nPhysiognomy, 204.\nPoetry for and about children, 176, 177, 195, 224, 226 a, 230, 247, 336a,\n337, 359, 379.\nProverbs, 220, 386.\nPublic life, 232.\nPuberty, 214.\n\nRegeneration, 214.\nReligion, 184 a, 231, 253, 358.\nRights, 215, 382.\nRome, 297, 312, 346.\nRussia, 327, 328, 330.\nSacrifice, 218, 228, 278,\nSavagery, 273.\nScotland, 243.\nServia, 279.\nSecret languages, 206, 281.\nSicily, 321, 322, 323.\nSilesia, 284.\nSlavonic, 218, 280.\nSociology, 270, 272, 255, 378.\nStork, 198 a.\nStudentdom, 185, 364.\nSwallow, 198.\n\nTwins, 223.\n\nUnited States, 180.\n\nVoice, 238.\n\nWashington, D.C., 181.\nWeighing, 236, 238.\nWild children, 335.\n\nYounger son, 351.\n\n\nC. GENERAL.\n\n388. D'ALVIELLA, COUNT GOBLET: Lectures on the Origin and Growth of the\nConception of God as illustrated by Anthropology and History. (Hibbert\nLectures, 1891.) London, 1892. xvi, 296 pp. 8vo.\n\n389. American Anthropologist (Washington): Vols. I.-VIII. (1888-1895).\n\n390. American Notes and Queries (Phila.) Vols. I.-VI. (1888-1891).\n\n391. Am Urdhs-Brunnen (Dahrenwurth bei Lunden, Holstein). I.-VII. Bde.\n(1881-1890).\n\n392. Am Ur-Quell (Lunden). I.-VI. Bde. (1890-1895). Continuation of No.\n391.\n\n393. ANDERSEN, HANS C.: Fairy Tales and Stories. (Transl. Dr. H. W.\nDulcken). N.Y., n.d. iv, 377 pp. 8vo.\n\n394. ASTON, W. G.: Japanese Onomatopes and the Origin of Language.\n_Jour. Anthr. Inst._ (London). Vol. XXIII. (1894), pp. 332-362.\n\n395. BAGEHOT, W.: Physics and Politics. New York, 1887.\n\n396. BANCROFT, H. H.: The Native Races of the Pacific Coast. 5 vols. New\nYork, 1874-1876. 8vo.\n\n397. BARTELS, M.: Die Medicin der Naturvolker: Ethnologische Beitrage\nzur Urgeschichte der Medicin. Leipzig, 1893. 361 S. 8vo.\n\n398. BASTIAN, A.: Zur naturwissenschaftlichen Behandlungsweise der\nPsychologie durch und filr die Volkerkunde. Berlin, 1883. xxxviii, 230\nS. 8vo.\n\n399. BASTIAN, A.: Die Seele indischer und hellenischer Philosophie in\nden Gespenstern moderner Geisterscherei. Berlin, 1886. xlviii, 223 S.\n8vo.\n\n400. BEKGEN, FANNY D.: Popular American Plant-Names. _Jour. Amer.\nFolk-Lore._ Vol. V. (1872), pp. 88-106; VI. (1893), pp. 135-142; VII.\n(1894), pp. 89-104.\n\n401. BLACK, W. G.: Folk-Medicine: A Chapter in the History of Culture.\nLondon, 1883. iii, 228 pp. 8vo.\n\n402. BOAS, F.: The Central Eskimo. _Sixth Ann. Hep. Bur. Ethnol._\n(Washington), pp. 399-669.\n\n403. BOAS, F.: British Association for the Advancement of Science.\nNeweastle-upon-Tyne Meeting, 1889. Fifth Report of the Committee\nappointed for the purpose of investigating and publishing Reports on the\nPhysical Characters, Languages, and Industrial and Social Condition of\nthe North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada. First General Report\non the Indians of British Columbia. By Dr. Franz Boas. London, 1889. 104\npp. 8vo.\n\n404. BOAS, F.: Sixth Report, etc. Second General Report on the Indians\nof British Columbia. By Dr. Franz Boas. London, 1890. 163 pp. 8vo.\n\n405. BOAS, F.: Seventh Report, etc. London, 1891. 43 pp. 8vo.\n\n405 a. BOLTON, T. L.: Rhythm. _Amer. Jour. Psychol._ Vol. VI., pp.\n145-238.\n\n406. BOURKE, J. G.: The Medicine-Men of the Apaches. _Ninth, Ann. Rep.\nBur. of Ethnol._ (1887-88). Washington, 1892 [1893]. pp. 443-603.\n\n407. BOURKE, J. G.: Popular Medicine, Customs and Superstitions of the\nRio Grande. _Jour. Amer. Folk-Lore_. Vol. VII. (1894), pp. 119-146.\n\n408. BRAND, J.: Observations on the Popular Antiquities of Great\nBritain. Ed. Sir H. Ellis. 3 vols. London, 1882-1888.\n\n409. BRINTON, D. G.: The Myths of the New World. A Treatise on the\nSymbolism and Mythology of the Red Race of America. 2d ed. New York,\n1876. 331 pp. 8vo.\n\n410. BRINTON, D. G.: American Hero-Myths. A Study in the Native\nReligions of the Western Continent. Philadelphia, 1882. 261 pp. 8vo.\n\n411. BRINTON, D. G.: Essays of an Americanist. Philadelphia, 1890. 489\npp. 8vo.\n\n412. BRINTON, D. G.: The American Race. A Linguistic Classification and\nDescription of the Native Tribes of North and South America. New York,\n1891. 392 pp. 8vo.\n\n413. BRINTON, D. G.: Nagualism. A Study in Native American Folk-Lore and\nHistory. Philadelphia, 1894. 65 pp. 8vo.\n\n414. BKINTON, D. G.: Ancient Nahuatl Poetry. Philadelphia, 1887. viii,\n9-177 pp. 8vo.\n\n415. BUSK, R. H.: The Folk-Lore of Rome. London, 1874.\n\n416. BUSK, R. H.: The Valleys of Tirol, Their Traditions, etc. London,\n1869.\n\n417. CALLAWAY, Rev. Canon: Religious System of the Amazulu. London,\n1870. viii, 448 pp. 8vo.\n\n418. CHAMBERLAIN, A. F.: The Prehistoric Naturalist. _University\nQuarterly Rev._ (Toronto). Vol. I. (1890), pp. 179-197.\n\n419. CHAMBERLAIN, A. F.: Nanibozhu among the Otchipwe, Mississagas, and\nother Algonkian Tribes. _Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore._ Vol. IV. (1891),\npp. 193-213.\n\n420. CLARK, W. P.: The Indian Sign-Language, etc. Philadelphia, 1885.\n443 pp. 8vo.\n\n421. CLODD, E.: The Childhood of Religions. New York, 1883. 5lpp. 8vo.\n\n422. CLOUSTON, W. A.: Popular Tales and Fictions; Their Migrations and\nTransformations. 2 vols. London, 1887. xvii, 485; vii, 515 pp. 8vo.\n\n423. CRAWFORD, J. M.: The Kalevala. New York, 1888. 2 vols. 8vo.\n\n423 a. CULIN, S.: Notes of Palmistry in China and Japan. _Overl.\nMo._, 1894. pp. 476-480.\n\n424. CUSHING, F. H.: Zuni Fetiches. _Sec. Ann. Rep. Bur. of\nEthnol_. (1880-81), Washington, 1883, pp. 3-45.\n\n425. DAWSON, G. M.: Notes on the Shushwap People of British Columbia.\n_Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada_, 1891, Sect. II., pp. 3-44.\n\n426. DAY, LAL BEHARI: Folk-Tales of Bengal. London, 1889. VII., 284 pp.\n8vo.\n\n427. DE GUBERNATIS, A.: Zoological Mythology, or the Legends of Animals.\n2 vols. London, 1872. xxvii, 432; viii, 442 pp. 8vo.\n\n428. DE GUBERNATIS, A.: La Mythologie des Plantes, ou Legendes du Regne\nVegetal. Paris. Tome I., 1878; Tome II., 1882.\n\n429. DAVIDS, W. R.: Buddhist Birth-Stories (Ed. Fausboll). London, 18--.\n\n430. Dialect Notes (Amer. Dialect Soc.). Cambridge, Mass., 1890-1894.\nParts I.-VII., pp. 1-355.\n\n431. DIRKSEN, C.: Ostfriesische Sprichworter und sprichwortliche\nRedensarten mit historischen und sprachlichen Amnerkungen. I. Heft\n(Zweite Aufl). Ruhrort, 1889. 109 S. 8vo.; II. Heft. Ruhrort, 1891. 95\nS. 8vo.\n\n432. DODGE, R. I.: Our Wild Indians. Hartford, Conn., 1890. xxxix, 653\npp. 8vo.\n\n433. DORSET, J. O.: A Study of Siouan Cults. _Eleventh Ann. Rep. Bur.\nof Ethnol._ (1889-90). Washington, 1894. pp. 351-544.\n\n434. DOUGLAS, R. K.: Confucianism and Taouism. London (S. P. C. K.),\nn.d. 287 pp. 12mo.\n\n435. DYER, T. F. T.: The Folk-Lore of Plants. New York, 1889. 328 pp.\n8vo.\n\n436. DYER, T. F. T.: Church-Lore Gleanings. London, 1891. vi, 352pp.\n8vo.\n\n437. EELLS, REV. M.: The Twana Indians of the Skokomish Reservation in\nWashington Territory. _Bull. U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv, of\nTerrit._ III. (1877), pp. 57-114.\n\n438. ELLIS, A. B.: The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast of West\nAfrica. Their Religion, Manners, Customs, Laws, Language, etc. London,\n1887. vii, 343 pp. 8vo.\n\n439. ELLIS, HAVELOCK: The Criminal. London, 1890. viii, 337 pp. 8vo.\n\n440. EMERSON, ELLEN R.: Indian Myths, or Legends, Traditions, and\nSymbols of the Aborigines of America, compared with those of other\nCountries. Boston, 1884. xviii, 667 pp. 8vo.\n\n441. ERMAN, A.: Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum. 2 Bde.\nT\u00fcbingen, 1885. xvi, 350 S.; viii, 351-742 S. Kl. 4to.\n\n442. FARRAR, F. W.: The Life of Christ as Represented in Art. New York,\n1894.\n\n443. FEWKES, J. W.: A Summer Ceremonial at the Tusayan Pueblos.\n_Journ. Amer. Arch, and Ethnol._ I. (1891), pp. 1-62; II. (1892),\npp. 1-160.\n\n444. FEWKES, J. W.: The Na-\u00e1c-nai-ya: A Tusayan Initiation Ceremony.\n_Journ. Amer. folk-Lore._ Vol. V. (1892), pp. 189-221.\n\n445. FLETCHEE, ALICE C.: Indian Songs. Personal Studies of Indian Life.\n_Century_ (New York). Vol. XLVII. (1893-4), pp. 421-431.\n\n446. FLETCHER, ALICE C.: A Study of Omaha Music, etc. _Archoeol. and\nEthnol. Papers of Peab. Mus._ (Cambridge, Mass.). Vol. L, No. 5,\n1893, pp. vi, 152. 8vo.\n\n447. FLETCHEE, R.: Myths of the Robin Redbreast in Early English Poetry.\n_Amer. Anthrop._ Vol. II. (1889), pp. 97-118.\n\n448. FOLKARD, RICHARD, JR.: Plant Lore, Legends, and Lyrics, embracing\nthe Myths, Traditions, Superstitions, and Folk-Lore of the Plantkingdom.\nLondon, 1884. xxiv, 610 pp. 8vo.\n\n449. Folk-Lore Journal (London). Vol. VII. (1889).\n\n450. FRAZER, J. G.: The Golden Bough. A Study in Comparative Religion. 2\nvols. London and New York, 1890.\n\n451. FRAZER, J. G.: Totemism. Edinburgh, 1887. viii, 96 pp.\n\n451 a. FRAZER, J. G.: Primitive Theories of the Soul. _Journ. Anthr.\nInst._ (London). Vol. XV. pp. 64-104.\n\n452. FREYTAG, L.: Pflanzen-Aberglauben in den Alpen. _Am Urdhs-\nBrunnen_, 1888-9. S. 33-41, 49-52.\n\n453. FRIEND, H.: Flowers and Flower-Lore. 2 vols. London, 1884. xvi,\n352, 353-704 pp. 8vo.\n\n454. FRISCHBIER, H.: Volksglauben aus Preussen. I. Kindheit. _Am\nUrquell._ I. Bd. (1890), S. 132-134, 151-152, 164-165.\n\n455. GATSCHET, A. S.: The Klamath Indians of South-Western Oregon (Dept.\nof Int. U. S. Geogr. and Geol. Surv., etc.). (_Contrib. to North Amer.\nEthnol._ Vol. II., Washington, 1890.) Pt. I., cvi, 711 pp.; Pt. II.,\n711 pp. 4to.\n\n456. GATSCHET, A. S.: The Karankawa Indians. (_Arch, and Ethnol.\nPapers, Peab. Mus._, Vol. I., No. 2). Cambridge, Mass., 1891. viii,\n9-103 pp. 8vo.\n\n456 a. GERBER, A.: Great Russian Animal Tales. _Public Mod. Lang.\nAssoc. Amer._ Vol. VI. (1891), No. 2.\n\n457. GIBBS, G.: Tribes of Western Washington and Northwestern Oregon.\n_Contrib. to North Amer. Ethnol._ (U. S. Geogr. and Geol. Surv.,\netc.). Vol. I. (1877), pp. 157-361.\n\n458. GILL, W. W.: Myths and Songs of the South Pacific. London, 1876.\nxxiv, 328 pp. 8vo.\n\n459. GILL, W. W.: The South Pacific and New Guinea, Past and Present.\nSydney (N. S. W. Govt.), 1892. 38 pp. 8vo.\n\n460. GOMME, G. L.: Ethnology in Folk-Lore. New York, 1892. vii, 203 pp.\n\n461. GOMME, G. L.: The Village Community. London, 1890. xi, 299 pp.\n\n462. GRIMM, J.: Teutonic Mythology. Transl. J. S. Stallybrass. 4 vols.\nLondon, 1880-1888.\n\n463. GRIMM, GEBR.: Kinder- und Haus-M\u00e4rchen gesammelt durch die Gebr.\nGrimm, Stuttgart-Wien. 189-. v, 466. S. 4to.\n\n464. GRINNELL, G. B.: Blackfoot Lodge Tales. The Story of a Prairie\nPeople. New York, 1892. xv, 310 pp. 8vo.\n\n465. GRINNELL, G. B.: Pawnee Hero-Stories and Folk-Tales, with Notes on\nthe Origin, Customs, and Character of the Pawnee People. New York, 1889.\nCr. 8vo.\n\n466. GUPPY, H. B.: The Solomon Islands and their Natives. London, 1887.\nxvi, 384 pp. 8vo.\n\n466 a. HAAS, A.: R\u00fcgensche Sagen und M\u00e4rchen. Greifswald, 1891.\n\n467. HALE, HORATIO: The Aryans in Science and History. _Pop. Sci.\nMo._ (New York), March, 1889, pp. 677-686.\n\n468. HARLEY, T.: Moon-Lore. London, 1885. xvi, 296 pp. 8vo.\n\n469. HENDERSON, W.: Notes on the Folk-Lore of the Northern Counties of\nEngland and the Borders. New ed. London, 1879. xviii, 391 pp. 8vo.\n\n470. HENNE AM RHYN, O.: Die Kultur der Vergangenheit, Gegenwart und\nZukunft in vergleichender Darstellung. 2 Bde. Danzig-Leipzig-Wien, 1890.\n\n471. HITCHCOCK, E.: The Ainos of Yesso, Japan. _Rep. U. S. Nat.\nMus._ (Washington), 1890. pp. 429-502.\n\n472. HOFLEH, M.: Wald--und Baumkultus in Beziehung zur Volksmedizin.\nMunohen, 1892. viii, 170 S. 8vo.\n\n473. HOFFMAN, W. J.: The Mide'wiwin, or \"Grand Medicine Society\" of the\nOjibwa. _Seventh Ann. Rep. Bur. of Ethnol._ (1885-86), Washington,\n1891, pp. 143-300.\n\n474. HOPF, L.: Thierorakel und Orakelthiere in alter und neuer Zeit.\nEine ethnol.-zool. Studie. Stuttgart, 1888. xi, 271 S. 8vo.\n\n475. HOSE, C. A.: Journey up the Baranu River to Mount Dulit and the\nHighlands of Borneo. _Geogr. Journ._ (London), Vol. I. (1893), pp.\n193-208.\n\n476. IHERING, J. VON: Die kunstliche Deformirung der Zahne. _Ztschr.\nf. Ethnol._ XIV. Bd. (1882), S. 213-262.\n\n477. IM THURN, E. F.: Among the Indians of Guiana. London, 1883. xvi,\n445 pp. 8vo.\n\n478. IRVING, J. T.: Indian Sketches. New York and London, 1888.\n\n479. JOEST, W.: Tatowiren, Narbenzeichnen und Korperbemalung. Ein\nBeitrag zur vergleichenden Ethnologic. Berlin, 1890. x, 112 S.\n\n480. Journal of American Folk-Lore (Cambridge, Mass.). Vols. I.-VIII.\n(1888-1895).\n\n481. Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and\nIreland (London). Vols. I.-XXIV. (1872-1895).\n\n482. KLEMM, G.: Allgemeine Culturgeschichte der Menschheit. 10 Bde.\nLeipzig, 1843-52.\n\n483. KOHLER, C. S.: Das Thierleben im Sprichwort der Griechen und Romer.\nNach Quellen und Stellen in Parallele mit den deutschen Sprichwortern.\nLeipzig, 1881.\n\n484. LANG, A.: Custom and Myth. 2d ed. London, 1885. 312 pp. 8vo.\n\n485. LANG, A.: Myth, Ritual, and Religion. 2 vols. London, 1887. xvi,\n340; vii, 370 pp. 8vo.\n\n486. LEFEVRE, A.: Mythologie du monde mineral; lecon professee a I'ecole\nd'anthropologie. _Rev. de Trad. Pop._ Nov. 1889.\n\n487. LEGGE, J.: The Life and Works of Mencius. Philadelphia, 1875. vii,\n402 pp. 8vo.\n\n488. LELAND, C. G.: The Algonquin Legends of New England. 2d ed. Boston,\n1885. xviii, 379 pp. 8vo.\n\n489. LETOURNEAU, CH.: The Origin of Literary Form. _Pop. Sci. Mo._\n(New York). Vol. XLIII. (1893), pp. 673-682.\n\n490. LETOURNEAU, CH.: L'Evolution Litteraire dans les diverses Races\nhumaines. Paris, 1894. 582 pp. 8vo.\n\n491. LETOURNEAU, CH.: L'Evolution Religieuse dans les diverses Races\nhumaines. Paris, 1892.\n\n492. LIPPERT, J.: Die Religionen der europaischen Kulturvolker, der\nLitauer, Slaven, Germanen, Griechen und Romer, in ihrem geschichtlichen\nUrsprunge. Berlin, 1881. xvi, 496 S. 8vo.\n\n493. LIPPERT, J.: Allgemeine Geschichte des Priestertums. 2 Bde. Berlin,\n1884\n\n494. LUBBOCK, J.: The Pleasures of Life. Philadelphia, 1894. xiv, 332\npp. 12mo.\n\n495. LUMHOLTZ, C.: Among Cannibals. London, 1889. 395 pp. 8vo.\n\n496. MACCAULEY, C.: The Seminole Indians of Florida. _Fifth Ann. Rep.\nBur. of Ethnol_. (Washington), pp. 469-535.\n\n496 a. MACKAY, CHARLES: Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delusions. 3\nvols. London, 1841.\n\n497. MACKENZIE, A.: Descriptive Notes on Certain Implements, Weapons,\netc., from Graham Island, Queen Charlotte Islands, B.C. _Trans. Hoy.\nSoo. Canada_, 1891, Sect. II., pp. 45-59.\n\n497a. MALLERY, G.: Sign-Language among North American Indians compared\nwith that among other Peoples and Deaf Mutes. _First Ann. Sep. Bur.\nEthnol_. (1879-80). Washington, 1881. pp. 263-552.\n\n498. MANN, H.: On the Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands.\nLondon, 1884. xxviii, 224, and 73 pp. 8vo.\n\n499. MANTEGAZZA, P.: Physiognomy and Expression. London, 1890. x, 327\npp. 8vo.\n\n500. MARTINENGO-CESARESCO, COUNTESS E.: Essays in the Study of\nFolk-Song. London, 1886. 8vo.\n\n501. MATTHEWS, W.: The Human Bones of the Hemenway Collection in the U.\nS. Army Medical Museum at Washington. _Nat. Acad. of Sci._, Vol.\nVI., Seventh Memoir, pp. 139-286.\n\n502-503. McGEE, W. J.: The Earth the Home of Man (Anthrop. Soc. of\nWashington, Special Papers, No. 2). Washington, 1894. 28pp. 8vo.\n\n504. MIKHAILOVSKII, V. M.: Shamanism in Siberia and European Russia.\n_Journ. Anthr. Inst_. (London). Vol. XXIV. (1894-5), pp. 62-110.\n\n505. MONTEIRO MARIANA: Legends and Popular Tales of the Basque People.\nNew York, 1887. vii, 274 pp. 8vo.\n\n506. MOONEY, J.: Myths of the Cherokees. _Jour. Amer. Folk-Lore_.\nVol. I. (1888), pp. 97-108.\n\n507. MOONEY, J.: Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees. _Seventh Ann. Sep.\nBur. of Ethnol_. (Washington, 1891.) pp. 306-395.\n\n508. M\u00dcLLENHOFF, K.: Sagen, M\u00e4rchen und Lieder der Herzogth\u00fcmer\nSchleswig-Holstein und Lauenburg. Kiel, 1845. 8vo.\n\n509. M\u00dcLLER, J. G.: Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen. Basel,\n1867. viii, 706 S. 8vo.\n\n510. M\u00dcLLER, F. MAX: Natural Religion (Gifford Lectures, 1888). London,\n1889. six, 608 pp. 8vo.\n\n511. M\u00dcLLER, F. MAX: Anthropological Religion. London, 1892. 486 pp.\n8vo.\n\n512. M\u00dcLLER, F. MAX: Physical Religion. London, 1891.\n\n513. M\u00dcLLER, F. MAX: Theosophical Religion. London, 1892.\n\n514-515. MURDOCH, J.: Ethnological Results of the Point Barrow\nExpedition. _Ninth Ann. Sep. Bur. Ethnol_., pp. 3-441.\n\n516. NELSON, W.: The Indians of New Jersey. Paterson, N.J., 1894 168 pp.\n8vo.\n\n517. POLLE, F.: Wie denkt das Volk fiber die Sprache? Leipzig, 1889.\n\n518. Popular Science Monthly (The). New York. Vols. I.-XLVI. (1871-\n1895).\n\n519. POWERS, S.: Tribes of California (_Contrib. to North Amer.\nEthnol.,_ Vol. III.). Washington, 1877. 635 pp. 4to.\n\n520. RALSTON, W. R.: Russian Folk-Tales. New York, 1873. 388 pp. 8vo.\n\n521. RAND, S. T.: Legends of the Micmaos. New York and London, 1894.\nxlvi, 452 pp. 8vo.\n\n522. RAU, C.: Von Martius on Some Points of South American Ethnology.\n_Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ (New York). Vol. I. (1871-72), pp. 43-46.\n\n523. RECLUS, E.: Primitive Folk. Studies in Comparative Ethnology.\nLondon, 1890. xiv, 339 pp. 8vo.\n\n524. RIGGS, S. R.: Dakota Grammar, Texts, and Ethnography (Contrib. to\nNorth Amer. Ethnol., Vol. IX.). Washington, 1893. 239pp. 4to.\n\n525. RINK, H.: Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo. London, 1874. xiii,\n472 pp. 8vo.\n\n526. ROLLAND, E.: Faune Populaire de la France. 6 vols. Paris, 1877-\n1883.\n\n527. ROSKOFF, G.: Das Religionswesen der rohesten Naturvolker. Leipzig,\n1880. xiv, 179 S. 8vo.\n\n528. SARTORI, P.: Sondersprachen. _Am Ur-Quell._ V. Bd. (1894), S.\n72-78, 99-100.\n\n529. SCHULTZE, F.: Fetichism. A Contribution to Anthropology and the\nHistory of Religion. Trans. J. Fitzgerald. New York, 1885. 112 pp. 8vo.\n\n530. SCHURTZ, H.: Grundzuge einer Philosophic der Tracht. Stuttgart,\n1891, 148 S. 8vo.\n\n531. SESSIONS, F.: Three Epics of Heroes (Folk-Lore Topics, No. 1).\nRepr. from _Gloucester_ (England) _Journal_, Jan. 6, 1894. 8\npp.\n\n532. SIMROOK, K.: Deutsche Mythologie. Sechste durchgeseh. Aufl. Bonn,\n1887. xii, 643 S. 8vo.\n\n533. SIMSON, A..Notes on the Jivaros and Canelos Indians. _Journ.\nAnthr. Inst._ (London), 1879, pp. 385-394.\n\n534. SMITH, MRS. E. A.: Myths of the Iroquois. _Sec. Ann. Rep. Bur. of\nEthn._ (1880-81), Washington, 1883, pp. 47-116.\n\n535. SMITH, W. R.: Lectures on the Religion of the Semites. First\nSeries. Fundamental Institutions. New York, 1889. xii, 488 pp. 8vo.\n\n536. STEINEN, K. v. DEN: Unter den Naturvolkern Zentral-Brasiliens.\nBerlin, 1894.\n\n537. STEINMETZ, S. R.: Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwickelung der\nStrafe, nebst einer psychologischen Abhandlung uber Grausamkeit und\nRachsucht. 2 Bde. Leiden, 1894. xiv, 486; vii, 425 S. Gr. 8vo.\n\n538. STEVENSON, MATILDA C.: The Sia. _Eleventh Ann. Rep. Bur. of\nEthnol._, pp. 3-157.\n\n539. SWAINSON, C.: The Folk-Lore and Provincial Names of British Birds.\nLondon, 1886. viii, 243 pp. 8vo.\n\n540. SYMONDS, J. A.: Popular Songs of Tuscany. _Fortn. Rev._\n(London). Vol. XX. (1873), pp. 596-613.\n\n541. TARDE, G.: Les lois de l'Imitation. \u00c9tude Sociologique. Paris,\n1890. viii, 431 pp. 8vo.\n\n542. TEMPLE, R. C.: The Legends of the Panj\u00e2b. 2 vols. London, n.d.\nxxvii, 546; xxii, 580 pp. 8vo.\n\n543. THEAL, G. McC.: Kaffir Folk-Tales. London, 1886. xii, 226 pp. 8vo.\n\n544. TURNER, L. M. Ethnology of the Ungava District, Hudson Bay\nTerritory. _Eleventh Ann. Rep. Bur. of Ethnol._ (Washington), pp.\n159-350.\n\n545. TYLOR, E. B.: Primitive Culture. Researches into the Development of\nMythology, Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art, and Custom. Third Amer.\ned., 2 vols. New York, 1878.\n\n545 a. VANCE, L. J.: The Meaning of Folk-Dance. _Open Court_\n(Chicago). Vol. VIII. (1894), pp. 4069-4070.\n\n546. WALLASCHEK, R.: Primitive Music. London, 1893. xi, 326 + 8 pp. 8vo.\n\n547. WEIL, G.: The Bible, the Koran, and the Talmud; or Biblical Legends\nof the Mussulmans. New York, 1846. xvi, 264 pp. 8vo.\n\n548. YARROW, H. C.: Introduction to the Study of Mortuary Customs among\nthe North American Indians. Washington, 1880. ix, 114 pp. 4to.\n\n549. YARROW, H. C.: A Further Contribution to the Study of the Mortuary\nCustoms of the North American Indians. _First Ann. Rep. Bur. of\nEthnol._ (1879-1880), Washington, 1881, pp. 87-203.\n\n\n\n\nINDEX I.\n\n\nAUTHORITIES AND WRITERS CITED OR REFERRED TO.\n\nAber.\nAdams.\nAddy.\nAeschylus.\nAlcibiades.\nD'Alviella.\nAmelineau.\n_American Anthropologist_.\n_American Notes and Queries_.\n_Am Urdhs-Srunnen_.\n_Am Ur-Quell_.\nAndersen.\nAndran.\nAngas.\nAnstey.\n_Apocrypha_.\nApuleius.\n_Arabian Nights_.\n_Arena_.\nAristotle.\nArnim (v.).\nAston.\nAuerbach.\nD'Aunoy.\n\nBachofen.\nBacon.\nBaegert.\nBagehot.\nBall.\nBallou.\nBancroft.\nBarbosa.\nBaring-Gould.\nBarrie.\nBarrington.\nBartels.\nBastian.\nBaumbach.\nBeauchamp.\nBeckler.\nBeecher.\nBeethoven.\nBergen.\nBerendt.\n_Bible_.\nBlack.\nBlake.\nBoas.\nBodin.\nBoceder.\nBoileau.\nBolton (H. C.).\nBolton (T. L.).\nBosman.\nBourke.\nBrainerd.\nBramhall.\nBrand.\nBrewer (J. C.).\nBrewer (W. H.).\nBridges.\nBridgman.\nBrinton.\nBrown.\nBrowning (E. B.).\nBrowning (R.).\nBuddha.\nBurchard.\nBurns.\nBurton.\nBuschmann.\nBusk.\nByron.\n\nCalderon.\nCallaway.\nCarlyle.\nCarov\u00e9.\nCarstens.\nCarstensen.\nCastren.\n_Catholic World_.\nCatlin.\nCato.\nCatullus.\nG. F. P.\nCelsus.\n_Century Dictionary_.\n_Century Magazine_.\nChamplain.\nChamberlain (A. F.).\nChamberlain (B. H.).\nChamisso.\nChantimpre (de).\nChapman.\nChatelain.\nChaucer.\nCherubina.\nCherubini.\nChervin.\nChrisman.\nCicero.\nClark.\nClemens.\nCleveland.\nClodd.\nClot-Bey.\nClouston.\nCodriugton.\nColeridge (H.).\nColeridge (S. T.).\nCollins.\nConfucius.\nConnor.\nConstantine.\nCornelia.\nCowper.\nCrashaw.\nCrawford.\nCulin.\nCuoq.\n_Current Literature_.\nCushing.\nCzaky.\n\nDaniels.\nDanneil.\nDante.\nDargun.\nDarmesteter (Mrs.).\nDarwin (C.).\nDarwin (E.).\nDavid.\nDawson.\nDay.\nDe Gubernatis.\nDe Meung.\nDeneus.\nDe Quincey.\nDesaivre.\nDe Vere.\n_Dialect Notes_.\nDickens.\nDio Cassius.\nDiocletian.\nDirksen.\nDisraeli.\nDoddridge.\nDodge.\nDonaldson.\nDorsey.\nDouglas.\nDreyling.\nDrummoud.\nDryden.\nDuncan.\nDu Vair.\nDyer.\n\nEarle.\nEarwaker.\nEastman.\nEbers.\nEells.\nEibler.\nEichhorn.\nEllis (A. B.).\nEllis (H.).\nEllis (W.).\nEmerson (Mrs. E. E.).\nEmerson (R. W.).\nEngelhus.\nEngels.\nEotvos.\nEpictetus.\nErman.\nEstienne.\nEuripides.\nEyre.\n\nFalkner.\nFarrar.\nFay.\nFeilberg.\nFenelon.\nFerguson.\nFeuerbach.\nFewkes.\nFischer, 20.\nFletcher (Miss A. C.).\nFleteher (R.).\n_Folk-Lore Journal_.\nFolkard.\nFord.\nFranck.\nFrankel.\nFranklin.\nFraser.\nFrazer.\nFriend.\nFroebel.\nFruit.\nFuller.\nFurnivall.\n\nGaidoz.\nGarbe.\nGarnett.\nGatsehet.\nGerarde.\nGibbs.\nGill.\nGirard-Teulon.\nGladstone.\nGoethe.\nGoltz.\nGoldsmith.\nGomme (Miss A.).\nGomme (L.).\nGore.\nGould.\nGray.\nGregoire.\nGregor.\nGriffis.\nGrimm (J.).\nGrinnell.\nGroth.\nGu\u00e9rin.\nGuppy.\n\nHaas.\nHaberlandt.\nHale.\nHaliburton.\nHall (Bishop).\nHall (G. S.).\nHalleck.\nHandel.\nHanoteau.\nHan W\u00e2n-Rung.\nHare.\nHarley.\nHarrison.\nHartland.\nHartmann von Aue.\nHaskell.\nHawthorne.\nHazlitt.\nHeld (v.).\nHenderson.\nHenne am Rhyn.\nHeraclitus.\nHerbert.\nHerder.\nHerodotus.\nHerrick.\nHesso.\nHeywood.\nHiawatha.\nHigginson.\n_Hitopadesa_.\nH\u00f6fler.\nHoffman.\nHolmes.\nH\u00f6lty.\nHomer.\nHopf.\nHorace.\nHose.\nHowitt.\nH\u00fcbner.\nHughes.\nHugo.\nHumphrey.\nHun.\nHunt.\n\nImmermann.\nIm Thurn.\nIrving.\nIsaiah.\n\nJean Paul (Richter).\nJesus.\nJob.\nJoel.\nJohnson (G. E.).\nJohnson (J. H.).\nJohnson (S.).\n_Journal of American_.\n_Folk-Lore_.\n_Journ. of Anthrop. Inst._\nJoubert.\nJustinian.\nJuvenal.\n\nKane.\nKant.\nKeble.\nKlemm.\nKluge.\nKnortz.\n_Koran_.\nKrauss.\nKulischer.\nLa Bruy\u00e8re.\nLacretelle.\nLaflteau.\nLallemand.\nLander.\nLandor.\nLang.\nLangdale.\nLa Rochefoucauld.\nLebbe.\nLegge.\nLeland.\nLe Play.\nLescarbot.\nLessing.\nLetourneau.\nLippert.\nLivy.\nLocke.\nLombroso (C.).\nLombroso (P.).\nLongstaff.\nLongfellow.\nLope de Vega.\nLoubens.\nLowell.\nL\u00fcbben.\nLubbock.\nLuke, (St.).\nLumholtz.\nLummis.\nLuther.\nLycurgus.\nLytton.\n\nMaaler.\nMacaulay.\nMacCauley.\nMacdonald.\nMacKay.\nMackenzie.\nMaclean.\n_Macmillan's Magazine_.\nMadden.\nMahomet.\nMahoudeau.\nMaikhallovskii.\nMaine.\nMallery.\nMan.\nManouvrier.\nMantegazza.\nManu.\nMarco Polo.\nMartinengo-Cesaresco.\nMartins (v.).\nMarvell.\nMason.\nMatthew (St.).\nMatthews.\nMaundeville.\nMaximus.\nMcGee.\nMcLennan.\nMenander.\nMercer.\nMetastasio.\nMeung (de).\nMeyer.\nMichelet.\nMiklucho-Maclay.\nMiles.\nMiller (J.).\nMiller (W.).\nMilman.\nMilton.\nMirabeau.\nMoisset.\nMommsen.\nMone.\nMontaigne.\nMonteiro.\nMontesinos.\nMooney.\nMorgan.\nMorley.\nMozart.\nM\u00fcllenhoff.\nM\u00fcller (F. Max).\nM\u00fcller (J. G.).\nMurdoch.\n\nNapoleon.\nNelson.\nNewell.\nNiebuhr.\nNorton.\nNovalis.\n\nOpitz.\nOrientalist.\nOrtwein.\nOssian.\nOvid.\n\nPaul (St.).\nPechuel-Loesche.\nPeckham.\nPenn.\nPercival.\nPerdrizet.\nPerrault.\nPeschel.\nPetronius Arbiter.\nPfeffel.\nPhaedrus.\nPhilo.\n_Philosophical Magazine_.\nPindar.\nPistorius.\nPitr\u00e9'.\nPlato.\nPliny (Elder).\nPliny (Younger).\nPloss.\nPlutarch.\nPokrovski.\nPolle.\nPolydore Virgil.\nPope.\nPopular Science Monthly.\nPorter.\nPost.\nPott.\nPowell.\nPowers.\nPraed.\nPreyer.\nProcopius.\nProctor.\n_Psychological Review_.\n_Public Opinion_.\nPuttenham.\nPythagoras.\n\n_Quarterly Review_.\n\nRabelais.\nRademacher.\n_Raghuvansa_.\nRalston.\nRameses.\nRand.\nRau.\nRauber.\nReclus.\nRiccardi.\nRicnter (see Jean Paul).\nRiggs.\nRink.\nRobinson.\nRockhill.\nRomanes.\nRoscommon.\nRousseau.\nR\u00fcckert.\nRuskin.\nRussell.\n\nSangermano.\nSartori.\nScaliger.\nSchallenberger.\nSchambaeh.\nSchell.\nSchiller.\nSchlagintweit.\nSchlegel.\nSchomburgk.\nSchopenhauer.\nSchottel.\nSchultze.\nSchurtz.\nScott (C. N.).\nScott (W.).\nScudder.\nS\u00e9billot.\nSembrzycki.\nSessions.\nShakespeare.\nShelley.\nShenstone.\nShirley.\nSibree.\nSidney.\nSimons.\nSimrock.\nSimson.\nSkeat.\nSleeman.\nSmith (E.).\nSmith (J.).\nSmith (R.).\nSmith (S. F.).\nSocrates.\nSoest (v.).\nSolomon.\nSolon.\nSophocles.\nSouthey.\nSpencer.\nSpenser.\nSpurgeon.\nSquier.\nStanton.\nStarr.\nStead.\nSteel.\nSteineu (v. den).\nStevenson.\nSt. Francis.\nStoddard.\nSt. Pierre.\nStrack.\nStrype.\nSully.\nSundermann.\nSvetchin.\nSwainson.\nSweeny.\nSwinburne (A. C.).\nSwinburne (Judge).\n\"Sylvanus Urban.\"\nSymonds.\n\nTacitus.\n_Talmud_.\nTarde.\nTasso.\nTemple.\nTennyson.\nTerence.\nThales.\nTheal.\nTheocritus.\nThiele.\nThom.\nThomson.\nThoreau.\nTillaux.\nTilte.\nTigri.\nTobler.\n_Toldoth Jesu_.\n_Tora_.\nTracy.\nTreichel.\nTrumbull (H. C.).\nTurner.\nTurner (G.).\nTurner (L. N.).\nTylor.\n\nUhland.\nValentinian.\nValerius.\nVamb\u00e9ry.\nVance.\nVaughan.\n_Vedas_.\nVere (de).\nVerney.\nVirgil.\nVogelweide.\nVolliner.\nVossius.\n\nWallace.\nWallaschek.\nWarton.\nWarren.\nWatson.\nWeber.\nWebster.\nWedgwood.\nWeigand.\nWeil.\nWest.\nWestermarck.\nWhittier.\nWiedemann.\nWieland.\nWiltse.\nWinternitz.\n_World Almanac_.\nWordsworth.\nWulfila.\n\nXenophon.\nXenophanes.\n\nYarrow.\nYoung.\n\nZachari\u00e4.\nZanetti.\nZendrini.\nZiller.\nZimmermann.\nZmigrodzki.\nZoroaster.\n\n\n\n\nINDEX II.\n\n\nPLACES, PEOPLES, TRIBES, LANGUAGES, ETC.\n\nAbipones.\nAbu-Zabel.\nAccadians.\nAchom\u00e2wi.\nAfghan.\nAfrica.\nAinu (Ainos).\nAlabama.\nAlarsk.\nAlaska.\nAlbania.\nAlbany.\nAlemanian.\nAlfurus.\nAlgeria.\nAlgonkian (Algonquin).\nAlleghanies.\nAlsace.\nAltai.\nAltmark.\nAmazulu.\nAmbamba.\nAmboina.\nAmerica.\nAnahuac.\nAndalusia.\nAndaman Islands.\nAngola.\nAngoy.\nAnjou.\nAnnam (Annamites).\nApaches.\nArabia (Arabs).\nAram\u00e6an.\nArapahos.\nArarat, Mt.\nAraucanians.\nArawak.\nArcadia.\nArdennes.\nArekuna.\nArgentine.\nArizona.\nArmenia (Armenian).\nAryan.\nAshanti.\nAsia.\nAsia Minor.\nAssyria.\nAston.\nAthens.\nAurora.\nAustralia (Australians).\nAustria.\nAveyron.\nAztecs (see Nahuatl, Mexico).\n\nBadagas.\nBaden.\nBaffin Land.\nBajansi.\nBaka\u00efri.\nBakulai.\nBalanta.\nB\u00e2le.\nBamberg.\nBambuk.\nBampton.\nBanians.\nBanks Islands.\nBasques.\nBasutos.\nBattas.\nBavaria.\nBayreuth.\nBechuanas.\nBedouins.\nBeit-Bidel.\nBelford.\nBelgium.\nBengal (Bengalese).\nBerg.\nBern.\nBerwickshire.\nBeverly.\nBielefeld.\nBilqula (Bella Coola).\nBlackfoot (Blackfeet).\nBoeotia.\nBohemia.\nBologna.\nBomba.\nBomma.\nBonyhad.\nBorneo.\nBornoo (Bornu).\nBosnia.\nBoston.\nBoxley.\nBrabant.\nBrahmans.\nBrazil.\nBremen.\nBrerton.\nBreslau.\nBritish Columbia.\nBrittany (Breton).\nBrooklyn.\nBuckinghamshire.\nBuddhists.\nBulgaria.\nBurgundians.\nBurma (Burmese).\nBuru.\nBuryats (Buriats).\nByzantium.\n\nCaddos.\nCakchiquels.\nCalabar.\nCalabria.\nCalifornia.\nCambridge.\nCanada.\nCanary Islands.\nCanterbury.\nCape Breton.\nCape York.\nCaribs.\nCarinthia.\nCamatic.\nCarthage.\nCastilian.\n\u00c7atloltq.\nCuyuse.\nCelebes.\nCelts (Celtic).\nCentral America.\nCeylon.\nChalons.\nChampagne.\nCbarlbury.\nCherokees.\nChester.\nChetimachus.\nChiapas.\nChibchas.\nChickasaws.\nChilli.\nChina (Chinese).\nChinantec.\nChinchas.\nChinook.\nChippeway (Ojibwa).\nChiquito.\nChoctaw.\nCholona.\nClonmel.\nCo\u00e7onino.\nColchester.\nColhuacan.\nComanches.\nColne.\nCologne.\nCongo.\nConnecticut.\nCoomassie.\nCoptic.\nCornwall (Cornish).\nCossacks.\nCotas.\nCracow.\nCree.\nCreeks.\nCrete.\nCronstadt.\nCumberland.\nCzechs.\nCzernowitz.\n\nDakotas.\nDamaras.\nDamascus.\nDardistan.\nDarfur.\nDarien.\nDeeping.\nDelaware.\nDelawares.\nDenmark (Danish).\nDevonshire.\nDieyerie.\nDitmarsh.\nDnieper.\nDodona.\nDonegal.\nDoracho.\nDravidian.\nDutch.\nDvina.\nDyaks.\n\nEast Indies.\nEgypt (Egyptian).\nElberfeld.\nElbing.\nEngland (English).\nErmeland.\nErzgebirge.\nEskimo (Esquimaux).\nEssenes.\nEssex.\nEsthonia (Esthonian).\nEton.\nEtruscan.\nEuphrates.\nEurope.\nEwe.\nEynsham.\n\nFeddringen.\nFernando Po.\nFiji.\nFinland (Finns).\nFlat Heads.\nFlorence.\nFlorida.\nF\u00f6hr.\nFrance (French).\nFranconia.\nFranks.\nFriburg.\nFrisian.\nFuegians.\nFulas.\n\nGaelic.\nGalibi.\nGalicia.\nGanges.\nGauls.\nGeneva.\nGenoa.\nGeorgia.\nGerbst\u00e4dt.\nGermany (German).\nGilolo.\nGlastonhnry.\nGloucester.\nGodstowe.\nGothic (Goths).\nG\u00f6ttingen.\nGreece (Greek).\nGreenland.\nGrodno.\nGualalas.\nGuarani.\nGuarayo.\nGuatemala.\nGuiana.\nGuinea.\nGujurat.\nGypsies.\n\nHackney.\nHaddenham.\nHaidas.\nHameln.\nHanafi.\nHanover.\nHare Indians.\nHarz.\nHavel.\nHawaii (Hawaiian).\nHebrews (Jews).\nHeide.\nHeliopolis.\nHellene.\nHerefordshire.\nHervey Islands.\nHesse.\nHeston.\nHeton.\nHichitis.\nHidatsa.\nHigh-Coquetdale.\nHimalayas.\nHindus (Hindoos).\nHolland.\nHonduras.\nHopi.\nHottentots.\nHoughton.\nHovas.\nHungary (Hungarian).\nHuns.\nHuntingdonshire.\nHupas.\nHurous.\n\nIceland (Icelandic).\nIndia.\nIndians, American (see also various tribal names).\nIndo-Iranian.\nInnspruck.\nIowa.\nIpurucoto.\nIreland (Irish).\nIroquois.\nIshogo.\nIsleta.\nIslington.\nItaly (Italian).\n\nJamaica.\nJapan (Japanese).\nJasmund.\nJava.\nJericho.\nJews (see Hebrews).\nJivaro.\n\nKabinapek.\nKabylia (Kabyles).\nKaffirs (Kafirs).\nKalispelm.\nKallundborg.\nKalmucks.\nKammin.\nKamtschatka.\nKansa.\nKansas.\nKara\u00efbi.\nKarankawa.\nKarok.\nK\u00e1to Pomo.\nKei Islands.\nKent.\nKentucky.\nKherson.\nKhonds.\nKhyens.\nKich\u00e9 (Quich\u00e9).\nKilkenny.\nKingsmill Islands.\nKingston.\nKlamath.\nKnutsford.\nKolosh.\nKols (Kolhs).\nK\u00f6nigsberg.\nKonow.\nKootenays.\nKorosi.\nKwakiutl.\n\nLabrador.\nLambeth.\nLaon.\nLapps.\nLatin (Roman).\nLatuka.\nLeipzig.\nLewis.\nLiberia.\nLibya.\nLiege.\nLille.\nLincolnshire.\nLithuania.\nLoango.\nLoire.\nLondon.\nLouisiana.\nLourdes.\nLow German.\nLowland Scotch.\nL\u00fcneburg.\nLusatia.\nLycia.\n\nMadagascar.\nMagyars.\nMaine.\nMakusi (Macusi).\nMalabar.\nMalay.\nMalaysia.\nMandans.\nMandingos.\nMangaia.\nMansfeld.\nMaoris.\nMark.\nMarquesas Islands.\nMarutse.\nMaryland.\nMassachusetts.\nMataria.\nMatchlapi.\nMaya.\nMazatec.\nMecklenburg.\nMeesow.\nMeiderich.\nMelanesia.\nMenomoni.\nMesopotamia.\nMessenia.\nMexico (Mexican).\nMiao-tse.\nMicmacs.\nMicronesia.\nMilan.\nMinahassers.\nMincopies.\nMingrelia.\nMississagas.\nMississippi.\nMiwok.\nMoabites.\nModocs (Modok).\nMohaves.\nMohammedans (Moslems).\nMoki (Moqui).\nMoluccas.\nMonbuttu (Monboddo).\nMongols.\nMontenegro.\nMonte Pulciano.\nMoors.\nMoravians.\nMoree.\nMoslems (Muslim, Mussulmans).\nMosquito.\nMota.\nMpongwe.\nMull.\nMunda Kols.\nMundombe.\nMurs.\nMuskogees.\nMussulmans.\nMuzo.\nNah'ane.\nNahuatl (Aztec).\nNairs.\nNamaqua.\nNaples.\nNavajos (Navahos).\nNegritos.\nNeo-Latin (Romance).\nNetherlands.\nNeuch\u00e2tel.\nNeu-Stettin.\nNewcastle-on-Tyne.\nNew England.\nNew Guinea.\nNew Hampshire.\nNew Hebrides.\nNew Jersey.\nNew Mexico.\nNew York.\nNew Zealand.\nNias.\nNicaragua.\nNile.\nNilgiris (Neilgherries).\nNipissings.\nNishinam.\nNiskwalli.\nNootkas.\nNormandy.\nNorth Carolina.\nNorthumberland.\nNorway (Norwegian).\nNorwich.\nNova Scotia.\nNtlakyapamuq.\nNubia.\nN\u00fcrnberg.\n\nOjibwa (see Chippeway).\nOkanak-en.\nOldenburg.\nOmagua.\nOmahas.\nOraibi.\nOranienburg.\nOregon.\nOriental.\nOssetic.\nOstiaks.\nOtranto.\nOude.\nOvaherero.\nOxfordshire.\n\nP\u00e1dam.\nPadua.\nPalestine.\nPali.\nPampas.\nPanj\u00e2b (Punjab).\nPapuans.\nParaguay.\nParsees.\nPatwin.\nPawnees.\nPeake River.\nPelew Islands.\nPennsylvania.\nPenobscots.\nPentlate.\nPersia (Persian).\nPeru (Peruvian).\nPhiladelphia.\nPhilippine Islands.\nPhoenicia.\nPhrygia.\nPiutes.\nPlattdeutsch.\nPodolia.\nPoitou.\nPoland.\nPolynesia.\nPomerania.\nPorno.\nPonkas.\nPontmain.\nPontoise.\nPortugal (Portuguese).\nPrussia.\nPt. Barrow.\nPudu-vayal.\nPueblos Indians.\nPuharies.\nPyrenees.\n\nQuedlmburg.\nQueen Charlotte Islands.\nQueensland.\nQueres.\nQuich\u00e9s (Kich\u00e9s).\n\nRackow.\nRapstede.\nRarotonga.\nReddies.\nRees.\nRegenwald.\nRhode Island.\nRio Grande.\nRio Nunez.\nRipon.\nRome (Roman).\nRotherham.\nRoumania.\nR\u00fcgen.\nRussia (Russian).\n\nSahaptin.\nSahara.\nSakalavas.\nSalisbury.\nSalish.\nSalzburg.\nSamoa.\nSamoyeds.\nSandeh.\nSanskrit.\nSantals.\nSappendelf.\nSaracens.\nSarcees.\nSaxony.\nScandinavian.\nSehaffhausen.\nSchleswig-Holstein.\nScotland (Scotch).\nSeminoles.\nSemites (Semitic).\nSemnoues.\nSenegambia.\nServia (Servian).\nSeville.\nShasta.\nShawnees.\nShekiani.\nShropshire.\nShushwaps.\nSia.\nSiam.\nSiberia.\nSicily (Sicilian).\nSierra Leone.\nSilesia.\nSilt.\nSiouan (Sioux).\nSlavonian (Slavonic).\nSnanaimuq.\nSociety Islands.\nSoissons.\nSoleure.\nSollinger Wald.\nSolomon Islands.\nSomali.\nSongi.\nSongish.\nSoudan.\nSouth America.\nSouth Carolina.\nSpain (Spanish).\nSpanish-American.\nSparta.\nStapelholm.\nSteiermark.\nSt. Ives.\nSt. Petersburg.\nStrassburg.\nSuevi.\nSunderland.\nSuru.\nSusu.\nSumatra.\nSwabia.\nSweden (Swedish).\nSwitzerland (Swiss).\nSyriac.\n\nTacana.\nTafllet.\nTagals.\nTahiti.\nTamil.\nTamanako.\nTarahumari.\nTartars.\nTasmanians.\nTed\u00e2.\nTehua.\nTelugu.\nTeton.\nTeutonic.\nTexas.\nThames.\nThuringia.\nTiber.\nTibet.\nTierra del Fuego.\nTigris.\nTimbuktu (Timbuctoo).\nTinn\u00e9.\nTiszla-Eszlar.\nTlingit.\nTodas.\nTondern.\nTonga.\nTongatabu.\nTonkawe'.\nTonningstedt.\nTonquin.\nTransylvania.\nTrent.\nTreves.\nTshi (see Ashanti).\nTsimshian.\nTuareg.\nTunguses.\nTupende.\nTupi.\nTurko-Tartars.\nTurks.\nTusayan.\nTuscany.\nTwana.\nTyre.\nTyrol.\nTzendals.\n\nUkrain.\nUliase Islands.\nUngava.\nUnited States.\nUnyoro.\nUtes.\n\nVancouver Island.\nVaud.\nVenezuela.\nVermont.\nVirginia.\nVisigoths.\nVitilevu.\nVolga.\n\nWailakki.\nWakikuyu.\nWales (Welsh).\nWallachia.\nWalla-Walla.\nWalpi.\nWanika.\nWasco.\nWashington.\nWazaramo.\nWazegua.\nWends.\nWestminster.\nWestphalia.\nWhida.\nWinchester.\nWingrove.\nWinnebagos.\nWintun.\nWisconsin.\nWiyots.\nWrek.\nWurtemburg.\nW\u00fcrzburg.\nWyoming.\n\nYahgans.\nYao.\nYaqui.\nYeddavanad.\nYezo (Yesso).\nYokaia.\nYork.\nYorkshire.\nYoruba.\nYucatan.\nYuchi.\nYuke.\nYuki.\nYukon.\nYurok.\n\nZanzibar.\nZend.\nZulus.\nZu\u00f1i.\nZ\u00fcrich.\n\n\n\n\nINDEX III\n\n\nSUBJECTS\n\nAbandonment.\n_Abba._\n_Abbas._\n_Abbot._\nAbbreviations.\nABC.\n--rhymes.\n_Abeona._\nAbortion.\nAbraham.\nAbyss-mother.\n_Accouchement._\nAcolytes.\nActions, goddess of.\nActivities of childhood.\nActing (actor).\n_Adam._\nAdam.\n_Adebar._\n[Greek: _adelphos_].\n_Adeona.\nAdolescence._\nAdoption.\n_Adult._\nAdventures.\nAEsculapius.\nAffection.\nAge of consent.\n  of marriage.\n_Agenona._\nAgni.\nAgriculture.\nAkka.\nAlbinos.\nAlcohol.\nAll-father.\n\"All-fathers.\"\n\"All Fools'Day.\"\nAlliteration.\nAll-mother.\n_Alma mater._\nAlphahet.\n--rhymes.\n_Alumna, alumnus._\nAmicus and Amelias.\nAmun (Amon).\nAmusements.\nAnahita.\nAncestor-worship.\nAngakok (child).\nAngels.\nAnimal-food.\n--gods.\n--language.\n--nurses.\n--oracles.\n--tamer.\nAnimals.\n  and Christ.\n_Ankle-deep._\n\"Annexes.\"\nAnswers (parents').\nAntelope-boy.\n_Antennaria._\nAnthropometry.\n[Greek: _anthropos_].\nAnti-Semitism.\nAphrodite.\nApple-pips.\n--temptation.\nApples.\nArarat, Mt.\n_Arm's length._\nArt.\nArtemis.\n_Artemisia._\nAsh.\nAshes.\nAshtaroth.\nAspen.\nAss.\nAstarte.\n_Aster.\nAtta.\nAttila._\nAtys.\nAwakening of soul.\n\nB. A.\n_Babe._\nBabel.\n\"Babes in wood.\"\nBabies.\n\"Babies in eyes.\"\n\"Babies' breath.\"\n\"Babies' feet.\"\nBabies' food.\n\"Babies' slippers.\"\nBabies' souls.\n\"Babies' toes.\"\n_Baby_.\n--signs for.\n--words for.\n--basket.\n\"Baby blue-eyes.\"\n\"Baby-bunting.\"\nBaby-carrier.\n\"Baby-talk.\"\nBacchus.\nBachelors.\n_Bairn_.\nBalams.\nBallads.\nBambino, Santo.\nBand of Hope.\nBands of Mercy.\n_Bandchen._\nBaptism.\n--(blood).\n--(fire).\n\"Bar.\"\n\"Barbara Allen.\"\nBarbarossa.\nBasil.\nBastard.\nBathing.\n_Batyushka._\nBaucis.\nBayaderes.\nBay-tree.\nB. D.\nBeans.\n_Bear_ (to).\nBear-boy.\n--girl.\n--lick.\n--stories.\nBears.\nBeast-children.\n--oracles.\nBeating.\n\"Beating the Bounds.\"\nBeauty.\n--bath.\nBed.\nBees.\nBegetting.\nBel.\nBelit.\nBell.\n\"Bellypaaro.\"\nBerselia.\n_Berusjos._\nBhavani.\nBible-verses.\nBibliography.\nBidhata-Purusha.\n\"Billing and cooing.\"\n\"Binder.\"\nBird-language.\n--messenger.\n--oracle.\n--soul.\nBirds.\n--of Christ.\nBirth, birth-myths.\n--days.\n--marks.\n--of Christ.\nBitch-nurse.\nBiting.\n\"Black art.\"\nBlackness of raven.\n_Blason populaire._\nBlessing.\n\"Blind-man's buff.\"\nBlindness.\nBlizzard.\nBlood.\n\"Blood-clot Boy.\"\nBlood-covenant.\n\"Bloody Tom.\"\n_Blossoming._\n_Blow_ (to).\n\"Bluebirds.\"\n\"Blue-eyed babies.\"\nBlue-ribbon Clubs.\nBody.\nBogies.\n_Bojiwassis._\n_Bona dea._\n--_mater._\nBonaparte.\nBones.\n\"Boo.\"\n\"Boo Man.\"\nBorn (to be).\n\"Borough-English.\"\nBounds.\nBow-and-arrows.\n_Boy_.\nBoy-bards.\n--bishop.\n--code.\n--colonies.\n--cornstealer.\n--gangs.\n--heroes.\n--husband.\n--martyrs.\n--\"medicine man.\"\n--moots.\n--oracle.\n--pope.\n--priest.\n--shaman.\n--societies.\n--travellers.\n--weather-maker.\n--whale-catcher.\n--wonder-worker.\nBoyish excesses.\nBoys.\n\"Boys and Girls.\"\nBoys' Clubs.\n\"Boys' love.\"\nBread.\n\"Bread and butter.\"\nBreath.\n\"Bremen geese.\"\n\"Brew and Bake.\"\nBridal of earth and sky.\nBride.\nBridegroom.\nBridle (tongue).\nBrightness of sun.\nBright side of child-life.\nBroom.\nBrother (bone).\n  (younger).\nBrotherhoods.\nBrother-stars.\nBruises.\n\"_Bub_.\"\n_Bube_.\n_Bud_.\nBuddha.\nBulbulhezar.\n\"Bull-roarer.\"\nBuried armies.\nBuschgroszmutter.\nButter.\nButterfly.\nButz.\n\nCabbages.\nCackling.\n_Calandrina_.\n_Calf_.\nCalling.\n_Camoaena_.\nCandy.\nCannibals.\nCanoes.\nCaprimulgus.\n_Carduus marianus_.\n_Carna_.\nCarving.\nCaste.\nCasting dice.\n  lots.\n\"Cat-language.\"\nCato.\n\"Cat's cradle.\"\nCattle.\n\"Caught.\"\nCaul.\nCaves.\nCedar.\n_Cereal_.\n_Ceres_.\nChalchihuitlicue.\nChallenges.\n_Chamaigenes_.\n\"Chandelle magique.\"\nChangelings.\nChanges at school.\nChant.\nCheers.\nChemical terms.\nCherry-tree.\nChick-peas.\nChief.\nChilblains.\n_Child_.\nChild-actor.\n--adventurer.\n--birth.\n--bringer.\n--carrier.\n--conjurer.\n--crucifixion.\n--dancer.\n--deity.\n--dice-thrower.\n--discoverer.\n--fetich.\n\"Child-finger.\"\n\"Child-fount.\"\nChild-god.\n--healer.\n--heroes.\n--historian.\n--inventor.\n--judge.\n\"Child-lake.\"\nChild-language.\n--leader.\n--linguist.\nChild lot-caster.\n--marriage.\n--mascot.\n--musician.\n--names.\n--nurses.\n--oracle.\n--physician.\n--poet.\n--priest.\n--prophet.\n--sacrifice.\n--saint.\n--shaman.\n--singer.\n--societies.\n--sociology.\n--soul.\n--spirit.\n--stealers.\n\"Child-stone.\"\nChild-study.\n--teacher.\n--thaumaturgist.\n\"Child-tree.\"\n\"Child-trough.\"\nChild-verdicts.\n--vision-seer.\n--weather-maker.\n--wiseacre.\n--witch.\n--words.\n--worship.\n  and father.\n  and fire.\n  and mother.\n  and music.\n  and nature.\n  and race.\n  and rhythm.\nChild and spirit-world.\n  and woman.\n  in art.\n  in ceremonial.\n  in language.\n  in moon.\n  in _proverbs_.\n  in religion.\n  in school.\nChildhood and age.\n  in art and literature.\nChildhood's golden age.\nChildlessness.\nChildren and fools.\n  as stars.\n\"Children of God.\"\n\"Children of hand.\"\n\"Children of Light.\"\n\"Children of Paul's.\"\n\"Children of sun.\"\nChildren's animals and birds.\n  blood.\n  clothing.\n  courts.\n  ditties.\n  flowers and plants.\n  food.\n  games.\n  holidays.\n  justice.\n  lies.\n  minds.\n  names.\n  parties.\n  paradise.\n  questions.\n  reasonings.\n  rights.\nChildren's souls.\n  thoughts.\n  tree.\nChild's kiss.\nChin.\n\"Chip of old block.\"\nChipmunk.\n\"Choose.\"\nChrist.\nChrist-child.\nChristening letter.\nChristianity.\nChristmas.\n--herb.\n--oracle.\nChrysostom, St.\nChurch and children.\nCinderella.\nCinteotl.\nCircumcision.\nClay-birds.\nClocks (flower).\nClothing.\nClytie.\nCock.\n\"Cock-a-doodle-doo.\"\nCock-robin.\nCode of honour.\n_Coiffe._\nCold.\nCold water.\nCollecting.\nCollege-fetiches.\n--societies.\n--yells.\nColleges, primitive.\nColonies (boy).\n_Colt._\nComparisons with animals.\n  with plants.\nConfusion of tongues.\nConglomerate.\nConsent, age of.\nConstantine.\nConstructing.\nC-o-n-t-e-n-t-s.\nContents of mind.\nCorn.\n\"Corn-field.\"\nCornflower.\nCorn-goddess.\n--mother.\n\"Corn-stalk fiddle.\"\nCorn-tobacco.\nCorn-woman.\nCounsel, god of.\nCounting, goddess of.\nCounting-out rhymes.\nCourtship-games.\n\"Couvade.\"\nCows.\nCrab-hunting.\n--mother.\nCrabs.\nCradle-goddess.\nCradles.\nCramps.\nCrawfish.\nCreation.\n_Creator._\n_Crepundia._\nCries of animals.\n  of birds.\nCriminal-fetiches.\n--societies.\nCrocus.\nCrossbill.\nCrowing of babies.\n  of cock.\nCrumbs.\nCrying.\n\"Crying for Moon.\"\nCrying, god of.\nCub.\n_Cuba._\n_Cubit._\nCucalkin.\nCuchavira.\nCuckoo.\nCulture-hero.\n--school.\n_Cunina._\nCupid.\nCurses.\nCybele.\nCyrus.\n\n_Dad._\n_Dada._\n\"Daddy darkness.\"\n\"Daddy-nuts.\"\nDaisy.\n_Dam._\n_Dame._\nDancing.\nDandelion.\nDaphne.\nDate-palm.\n_Daughter._.\n\"Davie daylicht.\"\nDawn-maidens.\n--mother.\nDay-father.\nDays of week.\nDead child.\n  hand.\n  mother.\n_Dea mens._\n_Statin_\nDeath.\n\"Death-baby.\"\n\"Death-eome-quickly.\"\nDeath-reaper.\nDeborah.\nDeceits.\nDecoctions.\nDedication,\nDeed-angel.\nDeformation.\nDeformed children.\n_Degenerate._\nDelirium.\nDemeter.\nDeudanthropology.\n_Der arme Heinrich._\nDeucalion.\n_Deus._\n_catus pater._\n_conus._\nDevastation.\n\"Devil-dances.\"\nDevils.\nDevil's grandmother.\n  mother.\nDew-drops.\nDialects.\nDialect-Society.\nDiaua.\n_Dicentra._\nDictionaries.\n_Diespiter._\nDiminutives.\nDionysus.\nDisappearances.\nDiscovery of medicine.\nDisease-curers.\nDisinheritance.\nDislocation.\n_Diva edusa._.\n_Diva potina._.\nDivination.\nDivinity of childhood.\n\"Doctor born.\"\nDoctors.\nDodola.\nDogs.\nDoll-clothing.\n--congress.\n--houses.\n--language.\n--parties.\n--shows.\n--spirits.\nDolls.\nDonkey.\n\"Dove dung.\"\nDoves.\nDramatics.\nDrawing lots.\nDreams.\nDress.\nDrink, goddess of.\nDrink of immortality.\n\"Drunkards.\"\n\"Ducks.\"\n\"Ducks and Drakes.\"\n\"Ducks Fly.\"\n\"Duke-a-roving.\"\nDulness cured.\nDumbness.\nDwarfs.\n_Dyaus-Pitar._\n\"Dying.\"\n\nEagle.\nEars of hare.\nEarth-father.\n--flower.\n--god.\n--goddesses.\n--mother.\n--wife.\nEaster.\n\"Easter-hare.\"\nEating.\n\"Eating the roll.\"\nEden.\nEducation, primitive.\nEel-mother.\nEffigies.\nEfflux of sun.\nEgg, cosmic.\nEggs.\n\"Eggs of earth.\"\nEileithyia.\nElder.\nElder brother.\nElder-mother.\n_Eldermen._\nEldest son.\nElidorus.\nElixirs of life.\nElizabeth Bathori.\nElysium.\n_Embryo._\nEmbryology of society.\nEmperor-father.\n_Enfanter._\nEngelhart.\n_EntMndung._\nEos.\nEpilepsy.\nEpworth League.\nEquivoques.\n_Erd._\nErdenmutter.\nEros.\nEtelmutter.\nEternal youth.\nEthics.\nEthnic origins.\nEthnology.\nEve.\nEvil.\n  and good.\n\"Everywhere.\"\nEvolution.\n\"Ewig-weibliche (das).\"\nExcesses.\n\"Excrement of gods.\"\nExecution.\n_Ex pede Herculem._\nEyes.\n\"Eyes, babies in.\"\n\nFables.\n_Fabulinus._\nFaculty of speech.\nFagging.\nFairies.\nFairy-beer.\n--tales.\nFamily.\n\"Farming.\"\nFasting.\nFates.\n_Father._\nFather Amun.\nFather animal-god.\n--balam.\n--earth.\n--fire.\n--frost.\n--giants.\n--god.\n--gods.\n--heart.\n--heaven.\n--king.\nFatherhood, lore of.\n_Fatherland._\nFatherless.\nFather-light.\n--moon.\n--priest.\n--right.\n--river.\n--sea.\n--sky.\n--strong-bird.\n--sun.\nThames.\n--thumb.\n--thunder.\nTiber.\n--wind.\n--worship.\n  and child.\n  as _masseur._\n  in Heaven.\n  in Proverbs.\n  of country.\n  of history.\n  of inventions.\n  of medicine.\n  of people.\nFather (to).\n\"Fathers.\"\n\"Fathers, Pilgrim.\"\n\"Fathers of the Church.\"\n\"Fathers (Our).\"\nFather's dieting.\n  taboos.\n_Fathom._\nFaust, Dr.\nFeast of dead.\nFeature-plays.\n\"Feeding the dead.\"\nFeet.\n_Female._\nFemale animals.\n  colleges.\n  element.\n  societies.\n_Femina._\nFetiches.\nFever.\nFifth son.\nFig-tree.\n_Filet._\n_Filia._\n_Filius._\n_Filly._\n\"Finger-biter.\"\nFinger-games.\n--names.\n--plays.\n--rhymes.\n_Finger's breadth._\nFingers.\nF-i-n-i-s.\nFire.\nFire-father.\n--grandfather.\n--mother.\n--place.\nand marriage.\nFirst-born.\nFirst-food.\nFirst-kiss.\nFishes.\nFishing.\nFits.\nFlax.\nFlesh, goddess of.\nFlight into Egypt.\nFlogging.\nFloral Trinity.\nFlorigeny.\nFlounder.\n_Flourish._\nFlower-child.\n--grandfather.\n--grandmother.\n--language.\n--names.\n--oracles.\n--stars.\nFlowers.\n_Foal._\n_Foetus._\nFolk-lore of Christmas.\n--medicine.\n--thought.\nFood.\n  goddess of.\n  of gods.\n--taboos.\n_Foot._\n\"Footing.\"\nFoot-races.\nForehead.\nForeign words.\n\"Foresters, Junior.\"\nForget-me-not.\nFormul\u00e6.\n_Fortune._\nFortune-telling.\nFoster-animals.\n--children.\n--mother.\nFountains.\nFountain of youth.\nFran Beretha.\n  Holle.\n  Wachholder.\nFreia.\n_Frein._\n_Frenulum._\n_Frenum._\n_Fresh._\nFrenzy.\nFriday-Mother.\n\"Friday-Night Clubs.\"\nFriendships.\n\"Frog-plant.\"\n\"Frog Pond.\"\nFrost.\nFrost-father.\n--mother.\nFruit.\nFuneral-plays.\n--rites.\n\n_Gabaurths._\n\"Gabble retchet.\"\nGabriel.\nG\u00e6a.\n_Galium._\nGambling.\nGame-formul\u00e6.\n--oracles.\n--songs.\nGames.\nGangs.\nGarden of souls.\nGates of heaven.\n_Gaultheria._\nGavelkind.\nGe.\n_Genesis._\n_Genius._\n_Gens._\n_Genteel._\n_Gentile._\n_Gentle._\n_Genuine._\n_Genus._\nGeoffrey de Mayence.\nGeography.\nGeographical rhymes.\n_Geranium._\n_Germ._\n_Germander._\nGhost-hunts.\nGiants.\nGiants' playthings.\nGiglan de Galles.\n_Girl._\nGirl-angakoks.\nGirl-carriers.\n--dancer.\n--education.\n--figure.\n--inventor.\n--linguist.\n--poet.\n--priest.\n--rain-maker.\n--sorcerer, witch.\n--vision-seer.\n\"Girls and Boys.\"\nGirls' Friendly Society.\nGirls, wild.\nGlastonbury Thorn.\nGlow-worm.\nGl\u00fcskap (Glooskap).\n_Glyceria._\nGoats.\n\"Go backs.\"\nGoblins.\nGod, idea of.\n  as begetter.\n  as creator.\n  as father.\n  as mother.\n  as potter.\n\"God's bird.\"\nGods and goddesses of childhood.\nGods, playthings of.\nGoing out.\nGold.\nGolden Age.\n  of childhood.\n  of love.\n\"Golden Darling.\"\nGolden House.\nGold-seers.\nGood and evil.\nGoose.\nG\u00f6tterburg.\nGraces.\nGrammar.\n--school.\n\"Grandfather.\"\nGrandfather-fire.\n--Pleiades.\n--sky, 65.\n\"Grandmother.\"\nGrandmother-fire.\n  of devil.\n  of men.\nGrass.\n--image.\nGrateful beasts.\n_Gravid._\nGreat children.\n  eaters.\n\"Great Father.\"\nGreat-grandmother.\n\"Great Hare.\"\n\"Great Mother.\"\n\"Green Gravel.\"\nGrizzly bear.\n_Grow._\nGuardian angels, and\n  deities.\nGude.\nGuessing-games.\nGuillemots.\nGypsy-singers.\n\n_Haberfeldtreiben._\nHades.\nHair.\n--cutting.\n--sacrifice.\n\"Halcyon days.\"\n\"Half.\"\n\"Hallow E'en.\"\nHand.\nHare.\n\"Hare-bread.\"\nHare-child.\n\"Hare-eggs.\"\nHare-god.\n--lip.\n--town.\nHarke.\nHarvest-home.\nHaulemutter.\nHawthorne.\nHazel.\n\"Head, good.\"\nHeart.\n\"Heart of Hills.\"\nHearth.\nHeat.\nHeathen.\nHeaven.\nHeaven-father.\n  visited.\n_Heil._\nHell.\nHellebore.\nHera.\nHerb-robert.\nHercules.\nHeredity.\nHermes.\nHermits.\nHero (child).\n--myths.\n--twins.\n\"Heroic treatment.\"\nHertha.\nHestia.\nHiawatha.\n\"Hide and Seek.\"\n\"High Father.\"\n\"High Mother.\"\nHigh Schools.\nHistorian (child).\nHistorical bogies.\n  games.\nHistory.\n\"Hog Latin.\"\nHoldings, small.\nHole.\nHolidays.\nHolle.\nHolly.\nHoly Family.\n\"Home-made dialect.\"\n_Homo._\n  _alalus._\n  _sapiens._\nHoney.\n\"Honey-moon.\"\nHoopoo.\nHope, goddess of.\nHop-o'-my-thumb.\nHorn of Oldenburg.\nHorns.\nHorse.\nHorse-boy.\nHousehold arts.\n_Houstonia._\nHunchback.\nHunger.\nHunting.\nHurt.\nHyacinthus.\nHydrolatry.\n\nIdols and dolls.\nIllegitimate children.\nImages.\nImitation.\n  of animals.\nImitative games.\nImmortality.\nImprovvisatrici.\n\"In.\"\nIncarnation.\nInfancy.\n  deities of.\n_Infant._\nInfant-magician.\n--marriage.\n--prodigy.\n--spirit.\n_Infanta._\nInfanticide.\n_Infantry._\n_Ingenious._\n_Ingenuous._\nInheritance.\nInitials.\nInsult.\nIntoxication.\nInventiveness of children.\nInvisibility.\nI. O. G. T.\n_Ipukarea._\nIsis.\nIsles of West.\nIstar.\n\"It.\"\n\"Iter ad montem.\"\nItzcuinam.\n\n\"Jack and Jill.\"\n\"Jack and Bean Stalk.\"\n\"JacktheGiant-Killer.\"\n\"Jack Stay-at-Home.\"\nJackal.\nJacob's ladder.\n_Janitar._\nJanus.\nJargons.\nJehovah.\n\"Jennia Jones.\"\n\"Jenny Lang Pock.\"\n\"Jenny Iron-Teeth.\"\nJesus (see Christ).\nJewels.\nJin.\n\"Jonah.\"\nJoseph.\n  of Arimathea.\nJudge (child).\n\"Judge and Jury.\"\nJudicial folk-lore.\n  games.\nJurisprudence of child's play.\nJumping.\nJuniper.\nJuno.\n\nKalevala.\nKaspar Hauser.\nKata.\nKatzeuveit.\n_Keekel-reem._\n\"Kernaby.\"\nKey.\nKhuns.\n_Kid._\nKidnapping.\n_Kin._\n_Kind._\n\"Kinderbaum.\"\n\"Kinderbrunnen.\"\nKindergarten.\n\"Kindersee.\"\n\"Kindertruog.\"\nKing.\nKing-father.\nKingdom of heaven.\n\"King's Evil.\"\nKinship of Nature.\nKintaro.\nKissing.\n_Ki-yah!_\nKlagemiitter.\n_Klein._\n_Kndbe._\n_Knave._\n_Knecht._\n_Knee-high._\nKnickerbockers.\nKnife-point.\n_Knight._\n\"Knights of Spain.\"\nKnowledge-tree.\nKoko.\nKok-ko.\nKoran.\nKrishna.\n_Krono._\n\"Kiikkendell fair.\"\nKwanon.\n\n\"Labour.\"\n_Lad._\n\"Lady Summer.\"\nLake.\nLama.\nLamb.\n_Landesleute._\n_Landesvater._\n\"Land of milk and honey.\"\nLanguage.\n  (bird).\n  (flower).\n--study.\n_Langue maternelle-._\nLapwing.\n_Lass._\n_Latin._\nLaughter-roses.\nLaume.\nLeap-frog.\nLeaves.\n\"Left twin.\"\nLeprosy.\nLeucothea.\n_Levana._\nLibussa.\nLicking.\nLies (children's).\n(parents').\nLife-tree.\nLifting.\nLight.\nLight-children.\n--father.\n--god.\nLightning-mother.\nLilies.\nLilith.\nLilliputian farms.\nLime.\n_Lingua materna._\nLinguist (child).\nLinguistic exercises.\nfaculty.\ninventiveness.\nLinguistics.\nLitholatry.\n_Little._\n\"Little boy's breeches.\"\n\"Little Boy's Work.\"\nLittle children.\n\"Little man.\"\n\"Little mothers.\"\n\"Little seal of God.\"\n\"Little woman.\"\n_Livid._\nLizard.\nLL.D.\n_Lonicera._\nLoon.\n\"Lose measure (to).\"\nLotis.\nLots (casting).\nLouis and Alexander.\nLouis XI.\nLouis XV.\nLove.\nand language.\nand song.\nLove-games.\n--oracles.\nLower world visited.\nLucina.\n_Lucina sine concubitu._\n\"Luck-bringer.\"\n\"Luck of Edenhall.\"\nLullabies.\nLumbago.\nLupine.\n_Lychnis._\nLyre.\n\n_Ma._\nM. A.\nMadonna.\nMafia.\nMagic.\nMagic doll.\ntaper.\n_Magnificat._\n_Maia._\n_Maid._\nMaids, old.\n_Main-de-gloire._\nMalumsis.\n_Mama._\n_Mama Allpa._\n_Cocha._\n_Cora._\n_Mamma._\n_Mammalia._\nManabozho (Manabush, Naniboju).\nManhood.\nMan-in-moon.\nManners.\nManslaughter.\nMan-tree.\nMaple.\n_Marchen._\nMarch-mother.\n_Marcou._\nMarguerite.\nMaria Candelaria.\nMarianne de Quito.\n_Marienmilch_.\nMarks of shaman.\n_Marriage._\n_Marriage_ (before birth).\n(spirit).\n--age.\n--games.\n--oracles.\nMarriages (child).\nMars Pater.\nMary (Virgin).\nMary's, three.\n_Mascot._\nMasculine element.\nMassage.\n_Matar._\n_Mater._\n_alma._\n_Flora._\n_Mater Lua._\n_Maia._\n_Matuta._\n_Turrita._\nMatriarchate.\nMatricide.\n_Matron._\n_Matronalia._\nMatthias Corvinus.\nMatutinus Pater.\nMaut.\n_May._\nMay-day.\n--festivities.\n--Queen.\nMcDonogh School.\nMead.\nMeasuring.\nMeat.\nMedicine (folk).\nMelted butter.\nMember of society (child).\nMemnon.\nMemory.\n\"Men-women.\"\nMercury.\n_Mere-patrie (la)._\n\"Merry Month\" (May).\nMessages.\nMessenger-bird.\n_Messerin._\nMetamorphoses.\nMetempsychosis.\n[Greek: _Maetris_].\n_Metropolis._\nMidas.\nMidnight.\nMidsummer.\nMilk.\n\"Milk and Honey.\"\nMilk-tree.\nMilky Way.\nMimicry.\nMind-goddess.\nMinds (children's).\n  (parents').\nMinerva.\nMiniatures.\n\"Ministering Children's League.\"\nMiracles.\nMishosha.\nMississippi.\nMistress.\nMock pig-hunting.\n  tobacco.\n  turtle-catching.\nModelling.\n_Moderson.\nModersprak.\nMoedertaal.\nMoimenspraken._\n[Greek: _Mo\u00eerai._]\nMoloch.\n\"Molly Maguires.\"\nMoney.\nMonkeys.\nMontezuma.\nMonth-mother.\nMonth.\nMoon.\nMoon-children.\n--father.\n--god.\n--goddess.\n--maiden.\n--mother.\n--plaything.\n--spots.\nMorals.\nMoses.\n_Mother._\nMother (dead).\nMother-abyss.\n--animals.\n--antelope.\n--basil.\n--corn.\nMother-crab.\n--crow.\n--dawn.\n\"Mother-die.\"\nMother-Dnieper.\n--Dvina.\n--earth.\n--elder.\n--eel.\n--feeling.\n--fire.\n--flower.\n--forest.\n--Friday.\n--frost.\n--Ganges.\n--God.\n--influence.\n--inventor.\n--land.\n--lode.\n--March.\n--matter.\n--moon.\n--mountain.\n--mud.\n--names.\n--nature.\n--night.\n--ocean.\n--plants.\n--poet.\n--priest.\n--queen.\n--right.\n--river.\n--sea.\n--shrimp.\n--soul.\n--spirit.\n--sun.\n--Sunday.\n--teacher.\n--thumb.\n--tongue.\n--Volga.\n--water.\n--Wednesday.\n--wit.\n--worship.\nMother and child.\nMotherhood.\nMother in proverbs.\nMother of cows.\n  of devil.\n  of fingers.\n  of hand.\n  of heaven.\n  of Lares.\n  of light.\n  of lightning.\n  of men.\n  of rivers.\n  of stones.\n  of sun.\n\"Mother of thousands.\"\n\"Mother's beauties.\"\nMother's curse.\n  kiss.\n  land.\n  night.\n\"Mother's son.\"\nMother's soul.\n  spirit.\n  tears.\n\"Mothers.\"\n\"Mothers, little.\"\nMother-in-law.\nMountain-mother.\nMourning.\nMouse.\nMouth.\nMud-mother.\nMud-pies.\n\"Mulberry Bush.\"\nMumbo-jumbo.\nMummies.\n_Mundfaul.\nMuscari._\nMuse-mother.\nMusic.\nMusician (child).\nMustard.\nMut (Maut).\nMutilations.\n_Mutterbiene.\nMutterbirke.\nMutterblume.\nMutterboden.\nMutteresel.\nMuttergefilde.\nMuttergrund.\nMutterhase.\nMutterhaus.\nMutterhimmel._\nMutter Holle.\n_Mutterholz.\nMutterkind.\nMutterland.\nMutterlamm.\nMutterluft.\nMuttermensch.\nMutternelke.\nMutterpferd.\nMutterschaf.\nMutterschwein.\nMutterseele.\nMutterseelenallein.\nMuttersohn.\nMuttersprache.\nMutterstadt.\n\"Mutterstein.\"\nMuttertiere,\nMutterzunge._\n\"My Household.\"\nMysteries.\nMyth-tellers.\nMyths of birth.\n\nNagualism.\nNames (child).\nNames (father).\nNames (mother).\nNames (plant).\nN\u00e4niboj\u00fc (Manabozho, Manabush).\nNarcissus.\nNarses.\nNatal ceremonies.\n\"Natal soil.\"\n_Nation._\n\"Native country.\"\n\"Natural son.\"\nNature.\nNature-mother.\nNautch-girls.\nNeck-measurement.\n\"Needle.\"\n_Nemophila._\nNeptune.\nNew-birth.\nNew-born.\nNew Life.\nNew Year.\n\"Nice (to make look).\"\nNight.\nNight-father.\n--mare.\n--mother.\nNightingale.\nNjembe.\nNoon-lady.\nNorus.\nNose.\nNose-bleed.\n_Nowidu._\nNox.\n_Numeria.\nNunu_.\nNurse.\n\"Nuts of May.\"\n\nOath.\n\"Oats, Pease\" etc.\nOcean-mother.\nOceanus.\nOdin.\nOgres.\nOld men reciters.\n\"Old Mountain Woman.\"\nOliver and Arthur.\nOnomatology.\nOnomatopoeia.\nOpis.\nOps.\nOracle-keeper (child).\nOracles.\nOranges.\nOratory.\nOrchis.\nOrnament.\n_Ornithogalum_.\nOrphans.\nOsiris.\n_Ossipaga_.\nOther-world visited.\n\"Our Father in Heaven.\"\n\"Our Fathers.\"\n\"Our Lady's Bed-Straw.\"\n\"Our Lady's Thistle.\"\n\"Out.\"\nOwl.\nOwl-women.\nOx-boy.\nOxen.\n\nPa.\nPachamama.\nPain.\n\"Painted devils.\"\n  [Greek: _Pais._]\nPaleness of moon.\nPallas Athene.\nPalm-tree.\nPansy.\nPantomime.\n_Papa_.\nPapa (Earth).\n  (priest).\n  Luga.\n\"Paper of Pins.\"\n_Para_.\nParadise.\n  Lost.\n  visited.\n_Parca.\nParent_.\nParent-finger.\nParental affection.\nParentalia.\nParents' answers.\n  lies.\n  minds.\nParsley.\nParties.\nPartition of land.\nPartula.\nParvus.\nPater.\n  cense.\n  familias.\n  patratus.\n  patriae.\nPatres.\nPatria.\nPatria potestas.\nPatriarch.\nPatrician.\nPatrimony.\nPatriotism.\n[Greek: _patris_].\nPatrius sermo.\nPatron.\nPeacock.\n\"Pearl grass.\"\nPearls.\nPebbles.\nPedagogy (Primitive).\n  of play.\nPeevish.\nPelican.\nPennalism.\nPeunou.\nPennyroyal.\nPeragenor.\nPerambulation.\nPercival.\nPersonal names.\nPet, pettish.\nPhallus.\nPharaoh.\nPhatite.\nPhilemon.\nPhilology (see Linguistics).\nPhilosophy.\n[Greek: _phusi_].\nPhyllis.\nPhysical efficiency.\nPhysiognomy.\n\"Physonyms.\"\nPigs.\nPine.\nPinks.\nPippadolify.\n\"Pity my Case.\"\n\"Place, my.\"\nPlant-food.\n--mother,\n--names.\n--oracles.\nPlanting trees.\nPlants.\nPlay.\nPlay-courts.\n--railroad.\n--spirit.\n--theory.\n--things.\n--verses.\n--work.\n\"Playing at work.\"\nPleiades.\nPlover.\nPoet (child).\nPoet (mother).\nPoeta nascitur.\n\"Poison-doctor.\"\nPoison-food.\nPolednice.\nPolitics.\nPolygala.\nPolyglots.\nPolypodium.\nPonds.\n\"Poodle's Wedding.\"\nPopanz.\nPope.\nPopelmann.\nPosthumous child.\nPost-mortem marriages.\nPottery.\nPramantha.\nPrayer.\nPrecocity.\nPredestination.\nPre-existence.\nP-r-e-f-a-c-e.\nPregnant.\nPre-natal marriages.\nPresents.\nPriest (child).\n  (father).\n  (mother).\nPriest and food.\nPrimogeniture.\nPrithivi-matar.\n\"Prophets.\"\nProverbs (age).\n  (child).\n  (father).\n  (genius).\n  (mother).\n  (parents).\n  (youth).\nProverbs of birds.\nPsammetichus.\nPsyche.\nPsychology.\nPuberty.\nPudelmutter.\nPuella.\nPuer.\nPullet.\nPunchkin.\nPupil.\nPuppies.\nPurgatory.\n[Greek: _Purperouna_].\n\nQuarrels.\nQueen.\n\"Queen of Heaven.\"\nQueen-mother.\nQuestions (children's).\nQuetzalcoatl.\n\nRabbit.\nRaccoon.\nRace.\nRaces.\n'Rah! 'rah! 'rah!\nRain.\nRain-bow.\nRainbow-goddess.\nRain-drops.\nRain-makers (children).\n--oracles.\n--rhymes.\n--stillers.\nRaising to life.\nRama.\nRangi.\n\"Rappaccini's Daughter.\"\nRaven.\nReaper (Death).\nReasonings (children's).\nRe-birth.\nReciters.\nRegeneration.\n_Regina coeli_.\nRelatives.\nReligion.\nRenascence of myths.\nReserve (children's).\nResurrection-flower.\nReturn of dead mother.\nRhea.\nRhymes (alphabet).\n  (counting out).\nRhyming.\nRhythm.\nRice.\nRichard Coeur de Lion.\nRight (father).\nRight (mother).\nRights (children's).\nRiver-father.\nRiver-mother.\nRivers.\nRoaming.\nRobberies.\nRobin.\nRocks.\n\"Rogation.\"\nR\u00f6ggenmuhme.\nRoggenmutter.\nRoll-eating.\n[Greek: _Rombo_].\n\"Rome (to show).\"\nRomulus and Remus.\nRosemary.\nRose of Jericho.\nRoses.\n\"Rovers.\"\nR. S. V. P.\nRules of same.\n_Rumina_.\nR\u00fbripsken.\n\"Rye-aunt.\"\n\nSacred trees.\nSacrifice to lust.\nSacrifice of children.\nSand-hills.\n\"Sand-man.\"\nSand-pile, history of.\nSap.\nSatan.\nSatavahana.\nSchool.\nSchool-jargons.\n--language.\n--organism.\n--revels.\n--rights.\n--society.\nSchool in heaven.\nScrofula.\nSea.\nSea-father.\nSea-mother.\nSeals.\nSeclusion.\nSecret languages.\nSecret societies.\nSeed.\nSelection of doctors.\nSelection of priests.\nSemo.\nSentences (test).\nSermons (primitive).\nSerpents.\nSeventh daughter.\n  son.\nSewing.\nSex and clothing.\n\"Sex, the speechless.\"\nShaman (child).\nSham-fights.\nShe-bear.\n--goat.\n--wolf.\nShepherds.\n\"Shoemaker.\"\n\"Shoe-string bow.\"\nShooting.\n\"Show (to), Rome.\"\n\"Show (to), Bremen Geese.\"\nShrimp-mother.\nSickness.\n_Siderum regina.\nSierra Madre_.\nSign-language.\nSigns for child.\n  for father.\n  for mother.\nSigns of shaman.\nSilk (corn).\n_Similia similibus_.\nSindungo.\nSingers (children).\nSinging, goddess of.\n_Sire_.\nSister-dawns.\nSitting-down.\nSiwa.\nSky-father.\n--god.\nSky-grandfather.\n--land.\nSleep.\nSleep, goddess of.\n_Small_.\nSmall holdings.\nSmall-pox.\nSmell.\n_Smilax_.\nSmile-roses.\n\"Smoking.\"\nSmoking (tobacco).\nSnail-water.\nSnakes.\nSnow.\nSnow-balling.\nSocial embryology.\nSocial factor, child as.\nSocial instinct.\nSocieties.\n  (secret).\n\"Sock-wringer.\"\nSole.\nSolomon.\nSolomon's judgment.\n  wisdom.\nS\u00f4ma.\nSomatology.\n_Son_.\nSon, eldest.\n  youngest.\nSong.\n\"Sons of God.\"\n\"Sons of trees.\"\nSorcerers.\nSore.\nSoul.\n  (child's).\n  (father's).\n  (mother's).\nSoul-bird.\n--butterfly.\n--leaf.\n--star.\n--tree.\n_Span_.\nSpear-throwing.\nSpeech.\n--band.\n--exercises.\n--god.\nSpelling-yells.\nSpices.\nSpinning.\nSpirit-feeding.\n--land.\n--marriage.\nSpirits.\nSpots (moon).\nSprains.\nSprinkling.\n_Spygri_.\nSqualling.\nSquirrel.\nSrahmanadzi.\n\"Staccato cheer.\"\nStanding, deities of.\nStar-child.\n--flower.\n--soul.\n  of Bethlehem.\nStars.\n_Statina (Dea)_.\nSt. Augustine.\n  Austrebertha.\n  Briocus.\n  Catherine.\nStealing.\nSt. Francis.\n  Frodibert.\n  G\u00e9nevi\u00e8ve.\nStick.\nStill-born children.\nStilling the wind.\nSt. Nicholas.\nStomach.\nStones.\nStone-mother.\nStork.\nStork-flower.\n--land.\nStork-men.\n--names.\n--stones.\nStorm-laying.\n--making.\nStory-telling.\n_Stowish_.\nSt. Patrick.\nStrigalai.\nString-puzzles.\nStroking.\nSt. Sampson.\nStuttering.\nSt. Vincent.\n  Vitus.\nSubdivisions of land.\nSuckling.\n\"Suck-soul.\"\nSudi\u00eacky.\nSugar.\nSukia-woman.\nSun.\n--children.\n--father.\n--god.\n--goddess.\n--mother.\nSunday-mother.\nSunset-land.\nSurnames.\nSurvivals.\nSwallows.\n\"Swan-child.\"\n\"Swan-stones.\"\nSwans.\nSwimming.\nSwinging.\nSword.\nSycamore.\nSylvester (Pope).\nSympathy of nature.\nSyrdak.\nSyrinx.\n\nTaboos.\nTales.\nTalking birds.\nTamerlane.\nTamo\u00ef\nTaper (magic).\n_Tata_.\nTattooing.\n\"Taw.\"\nTeacher (child).\n  (mother).\nTeachers (primitive).\nTears.\n_Teat_.\nTechnology.\n\"Teethed babes.\"\n\"Teetotum.\"\n_T\u00e9kvov_.\nTellus.\nTemperance societies.\nTerra.\nTest-sentences.\nTests (physical).\nTezistecatl.\nTheft.\nTheocrite.\nThieves.\nThieves' fetiches.\n  saint.\nThoughts (children's).\n  (parents').\n\"Thread Needle.\"\nThree Brothers.\n\"Three Dukes.\"\n\"Three Kings.\"\n\"Three Mary's.\"\nThrowing.\n\"Thrush.\"\nThumb.\n--lather.\n--mother.\nThunder.\n--birds.\n--lather.\n\"Thunner spell.\"\nTihus (dolls).\n_Tilia_.\n_Tiny_.\nTitistein.\nTobacco.\nToci.\nTongue.\n\"Tongue-cut.\"\n\"Tongue-tied.\"\nTooth-ache.\nTopography.\nTotemism.\nTouching.\nToys.\n_Tradescantia_.\nTraining of priests and shamans.\nTransfer of character.\n  of soul.\nTransfusion.\nTransmigration.\n\"Tread the Green Grass.\"\nTree of Knowledge.\n  of Life.\n  of milk.\n  of souls.\nTrees.\nTremsemutter.\nTrinity.\nTriplets.\nTulas\u00ee.\nTule-ema.\n_Tupi_.\n\"Turkey-hunting.\"\n\"Turks.\"\nTurtle.\nTurtle-dove.\nTut-language.\nTwenty-first son.\nTwin-healers.\n--heroes.\n  luck-bringers.\n\"Twin-sisters.\"\nTwin weather-makers.\nTwins.\nTwins' breath.\n\nU. A. w. g.\nUkko.\nUnbaptized children.\nUnborn children.\n\"Unbridled tongue.\"\n\"Uncle John.\"\nUndeformed.\nUnder-world visited.\nUpper jaw.\nUpper-world visited.\nUranus.\nUrashima.\nUt.\nUt's\u00e8t.\n\nVampires.\n\"Van Moor.\"\nVaruna.\nVatea.\n_Vaterland.\nVaterschacht.\nVaterstadt.\nVaticanus_.\n\"Velvets.\"\n_Venilia_.\nVenus.\nVermin.\n_Veronica_.\nVestice.\n_Vera madre_.\nViolet.\nViracocha.\n\"Virginia Reel.\"\nVirginity.\nVirgin Mary.\nVirgin-Mother.\nVirgins.\nVishnu.\nVision-seers (children).\n_Voleta.\nVolumnus_.\nVomiting.\nVulcan.\n\nWa\u00efnamo\u00efnen.\nWalrus-fat.\nWar.\n\"Wassail.\"\nWater.\n--carrier.\n--father.\n--lilies.\n\"Water-man.\"\n\"Water-mother.\"\n\"Water-woman.\"\nWeak children.\n_Wean_.\nWeasel.\nWeather-makers (children).\nWeddings.\nWednesday-mother.\n_Wee_.\nWeighing.\nWens.\nWerwolves.\nWhey.\nWhipping.\nWhiskey.\nWhispering.\n\"White as Milk.\"\n\"White Caps.\"\n\"White Ladies.\"\n\"White lies.\"\nWhiteness of hare.\nWhitsuntide.\nWhooping-cough.\n\"Widow and Daughters.\"\nWidows.\n\"Wild baby.\"\n\"Wild boy.\"\nWild children.\n  girls.\n  huntsman.\n  woman.\n\"Will.\"\nWill-deities.\nWill-o'-the-wisp.\nWills.\nWind-children.\n--father.\n--people.\n--raiser.\n--stiller.\nWisdom of childhood.\nWiseacre (child).\n\"Wise Child.\"\nWish-deities.\nWitchcraft.\nWitches (children).\nWithering of trees.\nWit.\nWits, god of.\nWizards.\nWjeschtitza.\nWolf-children.\n--stories.\nWolves.\nWoman, as linguist.\n  as poet.\n  as teacher.\n  position and place of.\nWomanly, the eternal.\nWoman's arts.\nWoman's dress.\n  share in primitive culture.\nWooden figure.\nWood-pigeons.\nWord-interpretation.\nWords descriptive of child.\n_World_.\nWorms.\nXmucane.\nXpiyacoc.\nYang.\n\"Yells\" (college).\n\"Yeth hounds.\"\nY. M. C. A.\nYohmalteitl.\n_Young_.\nYoung couples.\n\"Young Peoples' Societies.\"\n\"Young Templars.\"\nYounger brother.\nYoungest son.\nYouth, eternal.\nY. P. S. C. E.\nYu.\n_Yum_.\nY. W. C. A.\nZenza\u00ef.\nZeus.\nZinog.\nZiwa.\nZlata-Baba.\n\n\n\n\nMENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN\nTHE CHILD AND THE RACE.\n\nMETHODS AND PROCESSES.\n\nBY\nJAMES MARK BALDWIN, M.A., Ph.D.\n\n_Stuart Professor of Psychology in Princeton University; Author of\n\"Handbook of Psychology,\" \"Elements of Psychology\"; Co-Editor of \"The\nPsychological Review.\"_\n\nWITH SEVENTEEN FIGURES AND TEN TABLES.\n\nSECOND EDITION, CORRECTED.\n\nPrice $2.60, net.\n\nNOTICES.\n\n\"The great problem of the evolution of mind has received many notable\ncontributions towards its solution of late years. We question, however,\nif there are any which, in time to come, will occupy a higher place than\nthe work now before us. This it owes partly to its subject, partly to\nits treatment. Mr. Baldwin with rare skill has traced the thread of\ndevelopment from individuals to races, and has shown how the element of\nheredity plays a much larger part than is supposed in the economy of\nmental evolution.... The book is evidently the result of years of close\nobservation and study. Its method is admirable, the induction is broad\nand reliable, while the conclusions drawn in most cases are both\nrigorously logical and avoid even the suspicion of exaggeration. We\npredict a high place in the annals of biological science will yet be\nassigned to this admirable work.\"--_The Liberal_.\n\n\"It is a most valuable contribution to biological psychology, which is a\nfield of modern naturalism in which few have labored.\"--_The\nCritic_.\n\n\"'Mental Development' must be regarded as an epoch-making book: it\nsuggests a new field for experiments and observations, and throws down\nthe gauntlet to existing theories of mental growth.\"--_The\nChurchman_.\n\n\"It is of the greatest value and importance.\"--_The Outlook_.\n\n\"The author emphasizes the motor elements in mental evolution, and thus\nintroduces into psychogenesis a point of view which is eminently\ncharacteristic of modern psychology.... This summary sketch can give no\nidea of the variety of topics which Professor Baldwin handles or of the\noriginality with which the central thesis is worked out. No psychologist\ncan afford to neglect the book, and its second part will be eagerly\nexpected.\"--PROF. TITCHENER, _Cornell University_.\n\n\nTHE INSTITUTES OF EDUCATION:\nCOMPRISING A RATIONAL INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY.\n\nBY\nS. S. LAURIE, LL.D., F.R.S.E.\n\n_Professor of the Institutes and History of Education, University of\nEdinburgh; Author of \"Metaphysica\" and \"Ethica\" etc._\n\n16mo. Price $1.00, net.\n\nNOTICE.\n\n\"That book is strongest which makes the reader think the most keenly,\nvigorously, and wisely, and, judged by this standard, this seems to be\nthe most useful book of the season. We would put it in the hands of a\nworking teacher more quickly than any other book that has come to our\ndesk for many a month.\"--_Journal of Education._\n\n\nA COURSE OF LECTURES ON THE\nGROWTH AND MEANS OF TRAINING\nTHE MENTAL FACULTY.\n\nDELIVERED IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE\n\nBY\nFRANCIS WARNER, M.D. (Lond.),\nF.R.C.P., F.R.C.S. (Eng.).\n\n_Physician to the London Hospital; Lecturer on Therapeutics and on\nBotany at the London Hospital College; Formerly Hunterian Professor of\nAnatomy and Physiology in the Royal College of Surgeons of England._\n\n12mo. Cloth. Price 90 cents, net.\n\nNOTICES.\n\n\"It is original, thorough, systematic, and wonderfully suggestive. Every\nsuperintendent should study this book. Few works have appeared lately\nwhich treat the subject under consideration with such originality,\nvigor, or good sense.\"--_Education._\n\n\"A valuable little treatise on the physiological signs of mental life in\nchildren, and on the right way to observe these signs and classify\npupils accordingly ... The book has great originality and it should be\nvery helpful to the teacher on a side of his work much neglected by the\nordinary treatises on pedagogy.\"--_Literary World._\n\n\"The eminence and experience of the author, and the years of careful\nstudy he has devoted to this and kindred subjects, are a sufficient\nguarantee for the value of the book; but those who are fortunate enough\nto examine it will find their expectations more than fulfilled ... A\ngreat deal may be learned from these lectures, and we strongly commend\nthem to our readers.\"--_Canada Educational Journal._\n\nMACMILLAN & CO.\n\n66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK.","title":"The Child and Childhood in Folk-Thought: Studies of the Activities and Influences of the Child Among Primitive Peoples, Their Analogues and Survivals in the Civilization of To-Day","tradition":"folklore-oral-tradition","translated_text":null,"word_count":159101}